Thesis Plan

From Lake to Airport Corridor Spatial planning strategies to restructure

Haarlemmermeer‘s living environmentEmilia Machedon 4119738

Thesis PlanARU012 Thesis Plan 2011-2012 Q1

MSc3 Graduation Track UrbanismTU Delft Faculty of Architecture

URBANISM

Thesis PlanARU012 Thesis Plan 2011-2012 Q1MSc3 Graduation Track Urbanism

TU Delft Faculty of ArchitectureChair Spatial Planning and StrategyComplex Cities Graduation Studio

From Lake to Airport CorridorSpatial planning strategies to restructure Haarlemmermeer’s living environment

Mentors:Roberto RoccoDaan Zandbelt

Emilia Machedon 4119738Msc Urbanism candidate [email protected]

Cover picture:©Theo Kelderman, 2009

January 2012

URBANISM

From Lake to Airport Corridor Spatial planning strategies to restructure

Haarlemmermeer‘s living environment

Emilia Machedon

Thesis Plan

PrefaceThis Thesis Plan accompanies the second presentation along the graduation process. Its aim is to create a foundation on which to build the Graduation Thesis Report during MSc4. Therefore special attention is given to the project methodology.

The thesis deals with the spatial planning challenges of living in an airport’s proximity, more precisely the case of Haarlemmermeer and Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. The ambition is to propose a spatial strategy which will alleviate existing problems and provide benefits for both the city and the airport.

Key words: Haarlemmermeer, Amsterdam Schiphol Airport, residential area, airport corridor, spatial planning

Figure sources:

Figure 1: ©Theo Kelderman. 2010. 8Figure 2: authors’own after CBS (2011) 10Figure 3: authors’ own after Rijksoverheid (2011) 11Figure 4: authors’ own after Bolstra, M. Kaartje van het Haarlemmermeer. Engraved map. 13Figure 5: author’s own 15Figure 6: CBS (2011) 17Figure 7: author’s own photomontage with picture sources included 19Figure 8: author’s own 21Figure 9: Freestone & Baker, 2011: p.267 23Figure 10: Freestone & Baker, 2011: p.274 24Figure 11: Donnet & Keast, 2009: p.6 25Figure 12: Donnet & Keast, 2009: p.20 25Figure 13: © Nationaal Archief / Spaarnestad Photo 27Figure 14: author’s own 29Figure 15: author’s own 30Figure 16: Reh et al., 2007. 30Figure 17: author’s own 31Figure 18: Schlaak, 2010: p.115 31Figure 19: author’s own 32Figure 20: Rocco, 2007: p.141 32Figure 21: author’s own 33Figure 22: author’s own 33Figure 23: author’s own 35Figure 24: author’s own 36Figure 25: author’s own 37Figure 26: author’s own 38Figure 27: ©JustJan. 2008. 41

Contents

1. Problem Statement 101.1. Spatial Context 121.2. Demographic Context 161.3. Economic Context 181.4. Conflicting Situations 201.5. Theoretical Framework 221.6. Main Challenges

2. Thesis Structure 282.1. Project Aim 282.2. Main Research Questions 282.3. Sub Research Questions 282.3. Methodology 342.4. Planning 38

3. Relevance 423.1. Societal Relevance 423.2. Scientific Relevance 423.3. Ethical Dimension 433.4. Personal Motivation 43

4. Bibliography 44

5. Appendix 45

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Figure 1: Polderbaan Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. 2010.This picture shows a consequence of building the new polder runway:

planes and buildings are situated within close space range.

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problem statement

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1. Problem Statement

Haarlemmermeer is a municipality in the Netherlands North Holland province with a population of 143,141 people in 2011. It is situated on the southern border of the province and it covers 18,500 ha (see figure 3). With a population of 70,030 people Hoofddorp is the main town of the twenty-two settlements which constitute the municipality (see figure 2). The administrative border of Haarlemmermeer coincides with a landscape border. The Ring Canal (Ringvaart) defines both the Haarlemmermeer lake bed reclamation polder contour and the municipality limits (gemeente [municipality] Haarlemmermeer, 2011). Haarlemmermeer has been and will continue to be one of the fastest growing municipalities in the Netherlands in terms of population. Its attractiveness as a suburb of Amsterdam is generated by its bigger supply of new housing units and the availability of more room for bringing up children (CBS, 2011). High infrastructural accessibility by rail, highway and air is reinforced by the presence of the Amsterdam Schiphol Airport within the Haarlemmermeer territory. The airport is also an important regional employment generator.

Although living in Haarlemmermeer has multiple advantages, such as landscape distinctive qualities, accessibility or employment opportunities, there are also multiple spatial qualitative challenges. These can be traced back to the airport’s influence. Living in the proximity of an airport is a classic NIMBY (Not In My Back Yard) planning situation. There are clear noise contour areas within which no housing can be built. Moreover space demanding distribution centres and business parks compete for the highest accessibility places. The activities related to the airport and the airport itself have already claimed their territory and they continue to grow. In addition to this by increasing urbanization the openness of the landscape is disappearing. CBS (2011) estimates that the population of Haarlemmermeer will grow by 25,000 new inhabitants between 2011 and 2025. In the future both living and airport-related activities will have to expand in a limited space range in a man-made landscape system.

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1215

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1 Aalsmeerderbrug2 Abbenes3 Badhoevedorp4 Beinsdorp5 Boesingheliede6 Buitenkaag7 Burgerveen8 Cruquius9 Hoofddorp10 Leimuiderbrug11 Lijnden

12 Lisserbroek13 Nieuw-Vennep14 Oude Meer15 Rijsenhout16 Rozenburg17 Schiphol18 Schiphol-Rijk19 Vijfhuizen20 Weteringbrug21 Zwaanshoek22 Zwanenburg

HaarlemmermeerResidential Areas

Population (people in 2011)

143,141 total 71,332 men 72,078 women

Housing (accession type in 2006)

65% sale35% rent

Employment (jobs in 2006)

116,000 Haarlemmermeer 61,700 Schiphol

Schiphol Airport (2010 statistics)

45,211,749 passenger movements 1,512,256 tons of cargo 5th passenger European airport 3rd cargo European airport 2,787 ha surface

Figure 2: Haarlemmermeer administrative residential areas

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Haarlemmermeer

N

0 5 10 15 km

N

0 20 40 60 km

BelgiumLimburg

North-Brabant

SouthHolland

NorthHolland

Flevoland

Utrecht Gelderland

Overijssel

Drenthe

Friesland

Groningen

GermanyZeeland

Figure 3: Administrative borders: The Netherlands: provinces; North Holland province: municipalities.

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1.1. Spatial Context 1.1.1 Man-Made Landscape

Haarlemmermeer means Haarlem’s Lake and it refers to the body of water which existed between the cities of Amsterdam, Haarlem and Leiden up to the XIXth century. In the XIIth century three lakes, the Leidse Meer, the Oude Haarlemmermeer and the Spieringermeer occupied this territory. Due to peat digging and bank erosion the three lakes grew in surface over the centuries (see figure 4). Although the lake provided commercial benefits it also proved to be a serious threat (Reh et al., 2007).

During severe storms in 1836 the lake reached the gates of Haarlem and Amsterdam and soon the decision to reclaim the land was taken. New technologies available at that time made it possible to pump 800 million tons of water over a period of 4 years (figure 4). The reclaimed land lies on average at 4 metres below sea level. The name Schiphol means ship hole and it originates in the fact that Schiphol was built on the lake bed’s highest area. Sail ships could easily hit the lake bottom and be damaged there (Reh et al., 2007).

The Haarlemmermeer polder is therefore a man-made piece of land drained in 1852. The first settlements Hoofddorp and Nieuw Vennep were agricultural villages. Due to drainage problems of such a large polder few people wanted to live here in the beginning. It was only after improvements on the water system that the area became attractive. The polder system is continuously modified through urbanization and airport expansion (Reh et al., 2007).

Urbanising the former lake bed has several consequences on the polder water system. Creating large paved surfaces through urban development hinders water drainage therefore increasing the need for sufficient water storage facilities. Also the drained lake bed is on a long term undergoing a process of salinisation through underground seepage. Moreover the flooding standards established by the Civil Code create the need for a water peak storage area in the south-western tip of the polder which will only be used in case of very high water levels in the region (Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland [Rijnmond Waterboard], 2010).

The main goals established by the Rijnmond Waterboard regarding future development in Haarlemmermeer are set for a long term. They concern the need to have sufficient power to face the 2100 climate scenarios for 2100, therefore calling for flexible water levels and good design which will contribute to the improvement of water quality. The fixed water level, appropriate for agricultural areas, will no longer be required if the use of the polder switches to predominantly urban. The salinisation process is regarded as a phenomena which needs to be accepted (Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland, 2010).

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the HaarlemmermeerInner Sea

the HaarlemmermeerPolder

Figure 4: Haarlemmermeer in the XIIth, XVIth and XIXth century. Schematic representation of the area’s evolution in time from a natural system of lakes, to an inner sea and finally to a reclaimed land.

XIIth century

Haarlem

Heemstede

Bennebroek

Hillegon

Lisse

Leinmiden

Kaag

Aalsmeer

Amstelveen

Sloten

Rijk

Meuwerkerk

Vijfhuizen

Amsterdam

Haarlem

Heemstede

Bennebroek

Hillegon

Lisse

Leinmiden

Kaag

Aalsmeer

Amstelveen

Sloten

Amsterdam

Osdorp

Kudelstaart

Oude Wetering Oude Wetering

Haarlem

Heemstede

Bennebroek

Hillegon

Lisse

Leinmiden

Kaag

Aalsmeer

Amstelveen

Sloten

Amsterdam

Osdorp

Kudelstaart

Kruisdorp

Nieuw Vennip

the Leidse Meerthe Oude Haarlemmermeer

the Spieringermeer Lakes

the Waterwolf Land Reclamation

XVIth century XIXth century

the Waterwolf = the process through which lakes situated in low lying peaty areas enlarge through bank erosion under the influence of severe storms or peat digging (Jeurgens, 1990);

Land Reclamation = the process through which new land is created in the place of sea or riverbeds (Reh et al., 2007).

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1.1.2 The Network City

Haarlemmermeer is geographically located between three important Dutch cities: Haarlem, Amsterdam and Leiden. During medieval times these cities were specialised in water trading activities and Haarlemmermeer was used as water access area and source of income through fishing and peat digging. In time the cities changed roles: Amsterdam became more economically powerful, Haarlem more residential oriented and Leiden became a knowledge centre. Haarlemmermeer’s role is still under the direct influence of its neighbours. It is now valued for its open landscape and residential location potential.

In the bigger context Haarlemmermeer is situated in the Northern Wing of the Randstad. The Randstad is a policentric metropolitan area which consists of urban and nature areas connected via a network of highways and public transport (see figure 5). Two major infrastructure elements, the Rotterdam harbour and the Amsterdam Schiphol airport, provide excellent connection nodes between Europe and the rest of the world. Randstad is situated in the lowest lying area of the Netherlands, below sea level. However the dike ring defence system guarantees that flooding risk is kept at 1/10,000 per year (Burdett et al., 2011; VROM, 2011).

Haarlemmermeer has a strategic position in this network because it hosts the Amsterdam Schiphol airport in its perimeter. It also has an excellent rail and highway infrastructure which connects the northern and southern wings of the Randstad. Through these connections

Amsterdam Schiphol Airport grew into a regional multimodal transportation node. The Ringvart Canal which defines the municipality boundaries is also a navigable canal used for commercial and recreational purposes. Haarlemmermeer therefore has great accessibility and infrastructure on the international, national as well as the regional scale (gemeente Haarlemmermeer, 2011).

Figure 5: The Randstad metropolitan area.The map illustrates the main urban areas in the Randstad as well

as the national transportation infrastructure connecting them.

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1.2. Demographic Context

The population of the Netherlands is expected to grow between 2010 and 2040 especially in the Randstad. One of the causes is foreign immigration which is mainly focused in the Randstad thanks to better job opportunities and the presence of other compatriots. Between 2010 and 2025 there will be 300 thousand extra foreign immigrants in the Randstad (see figure 6). The number of households will also increase significantly almost everywhere in the Netherlands. The household amount increases at a faster rate than the population. This puts extra pressure on the housing market demand (CBS, 2011).

The large towns are growing fast and so are their suburbs namely: Haarlemmermeer, Westland, Haarlem, Delft, Zaanstad, Lansingerland, Zuidplas, Pijnacker-Nootdorp, Katwijk, Lelystad en Amstelveen. They are growing because young people want to settle in newly built residential areas where children can have more space. All these large town suburbs will increase their population by 10 to 20 thousand new inhabitants with the exception of Haarlemmermeer which will grow by over 25 thousand new inhabitants. The prognosis is for the years between 2010 and 2025 (CBS, 2011).

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© 2011, CBS/PBL 7

Kaart 2: Bevolkingsontwikkeling per gemeente

4. Regionaal bijna alom een aanhoudend sterke toename van het aantal huishoudens

Voor de woningbouw is het belangrijk hoe de ontwikkeling van het aantal huishoudens verloopt. Tussen 1995 en 2010 is het aantal huishoudens in Nederland sterk gestegen, met bijna 1 miljoen extra huishoudens, wat een sterke druk legde op de woningbouw. Vergeleken met de bevolkingsgroei ligt het groeitempo van het aantal huishoudens twee keer zo hoog (met respectievelijk gemiddeld 0,5 procent en 1 procent per jaar). Volgens de nationale huishoudensprognose 2011�2060 van het CBS (Van Duin & Stoeldraijer 2011) komen er de komende vijftien jaar nog rond de 800 duizend huishoudens bij (grafiek 2). Blijven doorgaan met bouwen lijkt dus noodzakelijk, ook in deze tijden van economische crisis.

sharp decrease -10% or less

decrease -10% to -2,5%

stable -2,5% to 2,5%

increase 2,5% to 10%

sharp increase 10% or more

Figure 6: Netherlands population dynamics: 2010-2025.The map shows that the most significant population dynamics are taking place in the Randstad in the next 15 years. This is mainly due to better job opportunities for both Dutch and internationals.

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1.3. Economic Context

The economy of this municipality is greatly influenced by the Amsterdam Schiphol Airport, Schiphol Group being one of the most important employers in the country. 59,808 people were working for the airport in 2010. Schiphol is an aviation transfer hub for European passengers. It aims at strengthening this role by the marketing strategy of the Airport City. This means that the banks, shops, restaurants, conference centres, children’s playing facilities, hotels, casino and museum contribute to a short and enjoyable stay of its passengers. Several Best European Airport prizes validate the success of this strategy (Schiphol Group, 2010).

The airport is important not only for passenger transportation but also for freight. This spring the airport opened its nineth freight route to Chongqing in China, a big name in electronics and consumer of goods. The plans are to extend the network to China Eastern Airline as well and this will strengthen Schiphol’s position in the freight logistics sector with Asia (AirCargo World, 2011). There is also an important concentration of European Distribution Centres around the airport and that is not only because they having air access at their disposal but also because they can benefit from the economics of agglomeration. These EDCs are space demanding facilities and together with other airport related firms they use a significant amount of space around the airport. (Warffemius et al., 2008)

On the Randstad scale there are two important economic axis that intersect at Schiphol. The North-South axis extends from Schiphol to the

Amsterdam Zuidas business district and is focused on tertiary economy (see figure 7). It attracts hotels, offices, conferences centres, all linked thanks to the rail network and the highway system which intersects Amsterdam’s Ring Road. Schiphol’s planners have developed the concept of the airport corridor through which they want to concentrate airport related business activities between Schiphol and Amsterdam (Schaafsma et al., 2008).

The East-West axis concentrates the flower bulb and fresh flower trade facilities between the Netherlands and the world (see figure 7). The Bollenstrek holds the production grounds, Aalsmeer the international auction house and Schiphol the gate to the world producers and consumers of flowers. One quarter of the world’s cut flowers pass through the Aalsmeer auction house building. This is one of the top industries which position the Netherlands in the world economy. Together with Los Angeles and soon, Quito, Schiphol is one of the worlds flower airports (Kasarda & Lindsay, 2011).

Figure 7: The economic role of Schiphol.The picture montage illustrates the different economic roles played

by Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. On one hand it is an important cargo transportation node serving special freight such as the

flowers auctioned at Aalsmeer. On the other hand it is growing as an important destination for international business travellers thanks

to the services and facilities found in Amsterdam.

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multifunctionalarena

internationalbusiness

businesstravel

production auction house shipping

© author’s own © http://cheeseweb.eu/2011/02/ © David James Clelfold, www.airplane-pictures.net

© xavibarca, 2010. Flickr account. © Tim de Groot, 2008. Flickr account.© http://www.amsterdamarena.nl/

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1.4. Conflicting situations

In order to manage the most important information which was presented in the problem statement the following table was built (see figure 8). Haarlemmermeer has different scales of importance ranging from the local: the municipality itself, to the national: the Netherlands, and to the international: the European scale. Therefore the choice to organise the results according to this criteria was taken. The lines contain the scales for which the information is relevant and the columns contain the layers of analysis.

The problem statement becomes more clear while comparing the cells in the table and discovering the conflicting situations and implications. In this project the author will focus on the conflicts which appear between the Haarlemmermeer municipality development priorities and the Amsterdam Airport Schiphol corridor development. The landscape and demography layers are relevant because they have implications for both urban development projects.

One main goal of the research and design phase will be to clarify the conflicts in this table from a spatial point of view. Moreover the role of the urban planner in this type of situation needs to be clarified.

Haarlemmermeer

The Netherlands

Europe

Figure 8: Problem statement scales and layers of analysis.The table organises the main material resulted from the preliminary analysis according to the different scales and layers of information.

The project will further on focus on the conflicts between local urbanisation and the economic layer, mainly airport-related.

scales

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Haarlemmermeer polder

• salinisation• keep dry feet• water quality

North-West Delta

• keep dry feet• water quality

urbanisation economy demography

The Low Countries

• keep dry feet• water quality

Haarlemmermeer municipality

• residential suburb• agricultural area• regional

transportation hub

Randstad NW Wing

• Amsterdam metropolitan area

• international transportation hub

Randstad

• policentric metropolitan area

Schiphol corridor

• Logistics hub• Business hub• Economies of

agglomeration

Schiphol corridor

• Logistics hub• Business hub• Economies of

agglomeration

AMS Airport Schiphol

• Main European transit airport

Haarlemmermeer municipality

• growing population: families

Randstad

• growing population: immigrants and young people

Netherlands

• growing population

landscape

laye

rs

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1.5. Theoretical Framework

The first context analysis conclusions indicate the relevance of the networks in which the area is included, be they economic, social or physical. It becomes therefore appropriate to look at existing theories on possible relations between spatial planning and network approaches. According to Dupuy (2008) the network approach in urbanism breaks off with orthodox planning concepts of zoning. Although historical figures such as I. Cerdà or F.L. Wright had included network concepts in their work these were generally neglected. Dupuy’s interpretation of the network concept in earlier authors (Dupuy, 2008) validates the idea and endorses a modern urban network approach.

Not only Dupuy but other contemporary authors such as Castells have approached the topic of the network society and of the spatial transformations that accompany it. Even though both authors recognise the impact of new communication technologies on urban space organisation they conceptualise these processes in different ways. Dupuy writes from the perspective of a scholar of the French school of urban planning. He distinguishes different network levels and their interaction and looks at the role of the urban planner (Dupuy, 2008). Castells is a sociologist active both in the European and American academic environments. He relates key spatial processes to changes in the network society and reflects on the role of the city (Castells, 2002).

According to Castells the transformation of cities happens following function, meaning and form

axes. ‘Functionally speaking, the network society is organised around the opposition between the global and the local’ (Castells, 2002) The global networks include the dominant processes ‘in the economy, in technology, the media and authority’ (Castells, 2002). Airport-driven urban development can be considered a relevant case of an urban area competing in a global network. In order to better understand this process an extensive literature review on the airport-driven urban development concept was done.

However ‘day-to-day work, private life, cultural identity, and political participation are essentially local and territorial’ (Castells, 2002). The local identity of a place plays an important role as well in the functioning of the network society. Hooimeijer defines the Urban Fine Dutch Tradition as the ‘dynamic tradition of making urban plans using the parameters of the natural system’ (Hooimeijer, 2011). Her work can therefore help understand the specific meaning of local identity in the case of the study area.

The views of these two authors, Dupuy and Castells, will be further reviewed in the appendix. Based on their theories, and within the framework of the network urbanism concept, a better understanding of the problem definition and problem solving can be achieved. The main conclusions of the airport-driven urban development literature review are included in this section.

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1.5.1 Airport-Driven Urban DevelopmentFrom a spatial planning perspective airport-driven urban development is a notion raising many debates. The spatial planning model review showed that diverse people deal with the subject: a sociologist with a business and economics background: Kasarda; planning professionals: Schaafsma and Güller; and an academic: Schlaak. The models developed by them are also either normative, the aerotropolis and the airport corridor, or analytical, the airea. Their position on airport-driven urban development ranges from full support and promotion (Kasarda, 2000; Kasarda & Lindsay, 2011), to acknowledgement and support (Schaafsma, 2010, Schaafsma et al., 2008) to objective evaluation (Schlaak, 2010).

However there is only one model which goes into more depth in dealing with airport-driven urban development spatial characteristics, the aerotropolis. The model provides a schematic representation of the infrastructural links and distribution of functions around the airport. According to the model the close vicinity of the terminal area has an airport city character but the influence spreads on a larger range through industrial and business districts, research centres or residential areas. Both the airport corridor model and the airea focus more on the relation between airport-driven urban development and the metropolitan context. The models depict mainly the regional scale although they also reflect on the more specific urban forms within this context. All definitions of models of airport area development vary widely (see figure 10).

Figure 9: Models of airport-driven development.

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The critiques review pointed out the wide range of spatial planning issues in relation to airport-driven urban development (see figure 10). Governance appears to be one of the most challenging tasks for both planners and airport authorities (Donnet & Keast, 2010) (see figure 11) especially with regard to the scale of cooperation, the regional setting (Freestone & Baker, 2011). Environmental and economic sustainability are the main dimensions for which airport-driven urban development is contested (Charles et al., 2007; Freestone & Baker, 2011). Socio-spatial fragmentation is also identified as a worldwide issue for this type of development (Freestone & Baker, 2011). A main recommendation concerns the need for better network collaboration between the different actors involved in the airport region

development (see figure 12) (Donnet & Keast, 2010; Freestone & Baker, 2011).

Although all authors debate the nature of airport-driven urban development with very different approaches their remarks remain on a general level. Also there is no consensus on an urban form model. The way the airport gave birth to the airport city concept which later on evolved into the airport corridor model proves that concepts remain dynamic and a critical view is needed whenever dealing with any of them. Nevertheless the authors provide useful insights into the nature of airport-driven urban development. The increasing interest in the subject indicates that the body of knowledge in spatial planning will continue to grow on these foundations.

Figure 10: Comparison of airport area models on sustainability dimensions: economic, environmental, social and governance. The table summarises the main spatial planning issues of airport-driven urban development models from a sustainability point of view.

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Cities in the airports’ shadow: Underlying interests and discretionary power in airport-region development

DONNET, Timothy; KEAST, Robyn

12th WCTR, July 11-15, 2010 – Lisbon, Portugal

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meet the demands of the region (or for opportunistic growth). Each actor has its own strategic interests, decision making structures and boundaries of authority, and each actor has a vested interest in decision outcomes for what to build, where, when and how. The strategic interests of each actor are not necessarily compatible with one another, and development within an airport-region provides a context where each actors‟ set of interests overlap and compete for defining what is acceptable for the outcome of a development. The following subsections provide background information and generalised perspectives that Australian airports, cities and developers appear to adhere to in debates surrounding developments in airport-regions.

Figure 1. Overlapping interests and arrangements for airport-region development.

The airport perspective

Australia‟s major airports are built on Federal land and leased to private operators on long term lease agreements. These semi-privatised airports are not required to adhere to local planning laws as Master Plans and Major Development Plans (MDPs) are subject to Federal approval processes as per the Australian Airports Act 1996. The separation of planning and approval from local agencies allows Australia‟s major airports to focus on their primary role as gateways to regions. In doing so they provide regions with access to aviation based passenger and cargo transportation services in alignment with national interests focused towards economic development and regional growth (NAPWP 2009, 218). Decisions for airport planning and development centre on the requirements needed to meet regional and airline demands for aviation capacity, embedded in forecasts and strategies. From an airport‟s perspective, planning decisions classically focus on what an airport needs to do to meet future (forecasted) demand (de Neufville and Odoni 2003) with processes aligned towards airport and aviation needs, or airport-centric decision making (as per Alexander 1998, and Goetz and Szyliowicz 1997). The airport-centric focus to planning is reinforced in Australian airport decision making frameworks as the requirements of airports to

Airport interests, authority and

decision making protocols

Developer interests, authority

and decision making protocols

City interests, authority and

decision making protocols

Cities in the airports’ shadow: Underlying interests and discretionary power in airport-region development

DONNET, Timothy; KEAST, Robyn

12th WCTR, July 11-15, 2010 – Lisbon, Portugal

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for each actor to be strategic in their interactions in the space of overlapping interests, particularly where existing arrangements do not clearly describe how developments should proceed to appreciate the needs of each actor. Essentially, each actors‟ domain has its own interests in what happens in the „eclipsed‟ space, but there are no clear procedures or methods in place to ensure each domains‟ interests are identified, articulated, and considered by all relevant decision makers in that space.

Figure 2. Mandated areas of influence and areas of discretionary influence The high levels of ambiguity created by insufficient formal governance mechanisms in this space, challenges the ability of horizontal (network) structures to cope with „filling the information gap‟ to produce outcomes that sufficiently address the needs of both city and airport. We theorise that the crowding of decision making domains, each staking their own claims on the same „shadowed‟ decision making space has equal potential to provide productive, innovative outcomes as it does less productive, hostile outcomes between decision makers. For example, positive outcomes from overlapping airport, city and developer interests can be seen from deliberation within the AirportLink project resulting in an additional upgrade to the roundabout at the airport entrance. This outcome is expected (still under construction) to deliver improved airport accessibility and reduced traffic congestion in the neighbouring urban environment, and improve the attractiveness of the AirportLink project to consumers. The pilot case clearly demonstrates that the airport, city and developer cast intersecting shadows from their institutional frameworks. However, discretion at the periphery of decision making structures allows for actors to choose whether their overlapping interests compete, integrate or appreciate one another. When formal protocols appear unable to articulate and/or consider identified interests, respondents point towards horizontal, network arrangements to foster more integrative and appreciative stances between actors. However if network mechanisms should fail to deliver outcomes that appreciate the fundamental, core

Figure 12: Mandated areas of influence and areas of discretionary influence. White: Core area where interests and protocols must be adhered to. Grey: peripheral area where enforcement/protection of interests is discretionary. ‘Eclipsed space’: where all interests meet but where it is not possible to ensure all needs are taken into account.

Figure 11: Overlapping interests and arrangements for airport-region development. The scheme illustrates the relation between decision making actors in airport regions.

1.6. Main ChallengesFollowing the theory review recommendations the main project challenges are:

• to identify spatial conflicts issuing from different airport, city and developer development interests in Haarlemmermeer considering:

• Castells: global versus local spatial transformations;

• Dupuy: interaction of living, infrastructure and activity network levels,

• Rocco: network levels plus governance and first nature;

• Airport-driven urban development literature: spatial planning models; economic, environmental, social and governance dimensions;

• Dutch polder cities: spatial character.

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Figure 13: World destinations signpost. Schiphol ~1937 This picture illustrates the fact that Amsterdam Airport Schiphol

has been an important international gateway for the Netherlands since its foundation by providing worldwide destinations.

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thesis structure

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2. Thesis Structure

The following chapter presents the thesis structure namely: the project aim, the research questions and the expected methodology. The thesis structure was built according to the defined problem statement and the preliminary analysis information. As explained below the framework can slightly change along the process.

2.1. Project Aim

The aim of this project is to create a spatial planning strategy to restructure Haarlemmermeer’s living environment while keeping a balance between local urbanisation and airport-driven urban development. In order to support the pertinence of the strategy on municipality level the project also aims to develop a local spatial intervention.

Considering the need to better grasp the complex interaction between the Haarlemmermeer municipality and Schiphol Airport the project aims to gain and build knowledge on airport-driven urban development. The ambition is to deal with both spatial and governmental issues from an urban planning perspective. Therefore the project will have to develop a planning theoretic framework on the topic.

The unique landscape character of the Haarlemmermeer municipality is an incentive to pay special attention to the spatial characteristics of urban projects in this location, the Dutch polder city. Therefore the project also aims to develop a spatial strategy in line with the local polder context.

2.2. Main Research Questions

The main research questions are formulated with the scope of first identifying the problems, both spatially and based on a theoretic background, and second of unveiling the role that urban planning can play in this context. In this sense the main research questions are formulated as such:

1. Which are the conflicting situations between local urbanisation trends and airport-driven urban development in Haarlemmermeer?

2. How can these conflicting situations be solved through spatial planning?

2.3. Sub Research Questions

The sub-research questions aim to clarify each of the main research questions contents: local urbanisation, airport-driven urban development, conflicting interactions, spatial planning role and potential (see figure 14). Both spatial and theory based answers are expected from the first three sub research questions.

1. Which are the local urbanisation trends in Haarlemmermeer?

2. Which are the effects of airport-driven urban development in Haarlemmermeer?

3. Which are the conflicting interactions between these trends in Haarlemmermeer?

4. What is the role of spatial planning in these conflicting situations?

5. What are good examples of living in the airport’s region?

29

Figure 14: Main and Sub Research Questions Scheme This scheme illustrates the relationship between the thesis

research questions: the sub research questions aim to clarify the significance of each of the main research questions notions.

???

?? ?airport-driven

urban development

in HaarlemmermeerWhich are the conflicting situations?

Local urbanisation and airport-driven urban development

in Haarlemmermeer.

How can they be solved through spatial planning?

local urbanisation

in Haarlemmermeer

conflicting situations

in Haarlemmermeer

good examples of living in the

airports’ region

spatial planning role in dealing

with these conflicts

30

Figure 16: Confrontation with the network city The drawing highlights the juxtaposition between the polder landscape elements and the urban areas in Haarlemmermeer.

1. Which are the local urbanisation trends in Haarlemmermeer? (see figure 15)

Possible methods:

1.1. Interviews: - Haarlemmermeer Spatial Planning Dept; - Rijnmond Waterboard process leader; - TU Delft BK Chair of Environmental Design expert in Dutch polder cities.

1.2. Mapping: - existing: built areas, infrastructure, leisure, services, water system, green spaces; - local development projects. - ....

1.3. Statistics: - CBS demography statistics. - ...

1.4. Literature review: - Urbanisation Report, 1976; - Atlas of Dutch Water Cities (Hooimeijer et al., 2009) - Sea of Land. The Polder as an Experimental Atlas of Dutch Landscape Architecture (Reh et al., 2007) (see figure 16) - The Tradition of Making: Polder Cities (Hooimeijer, 2011).

1.5. Photography: - site photography.

Results:Answering this question will result in a spatial analysis and a theoretic framework on the character of local urbanisation as well as an overview of the actors position.

?good examples of living in the

airports’ region

?spatial planning role in dealing


?conflicting situations

in Haarlemmermeer

?airport-driven urban

developmentin Haarlemmermeer

?local urbanisation

in Haarlemmermeer

actor position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

actorposition

spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility

actor position

comparison

spatial conflicts

global vs

localtheory

network urbanism

theory

planning conflictstheory

tools

strategies

actors

empirical framework

local urbanisation

stakeholder position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

airport-drivenurban

development


spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility

conflicting interactions


comparison

spatial conflicts

growth limits

network urbanism

global - local

planning conflicts

spatial planning

tools

strategies

goodexamples

good exampes

case studies

Figure 15: Sub research question 1 scheme.The scheme illustrates the expected sub research question results: site analysis, theoretic framework and actors position.

31

2. Which are airport-driven urban development trends in Haarlemmermeer?(see figure 17)

Possible methods:

2.1. Interviews: - Schiphol Group The Grounds project managing director; - Haarlemmermeer Spatial Planning Dept.; - Rijnmond Waterboard process leader; - TU Delft BK Real Estate Chair expert in office real estate.

2.2. Mapping: - existing airport-driven development: hotels, conference centres, business; - airport related development projects: business parks; - ...

2.3. Literature review: - Spatial Planning Concepts of Airport-Driven Urban Development. Theory review (see figure 18); - The Dynamic Spatial Impact of Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (Warffemius et al., 2008); - From Airport to Airport City (Güller and Güller, 2003).

2.5. Photography: - site photography.

Results:Answering this question will result in a spatial analysis and a theoretic framework on the character of airport-driven urban development as well as an overview of the actors position.

Defining the Airea

115 115

Obviously the unorganised, extensive growth around airports should rather be

described as Airport Suburbia than as Airport City Development. Lacking important

city characteristics such as density, heterogeneity, mixed-use, public amenities,

design quality and permanence instead of transit character the Airport City label

remains a marketing tool for real estate interests in the airport vicinity.

3 Concepts and models of airport area development

In the ongoing discourse on the worldwide emerging phenomenon of airport related

growth one can mainly distinguish four models or concepts. Given below is a short

overview of these four probably well known concepts including the Airport City, the

Aerotropolis, the Airport Corridor and the Airport Region.

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of the different airport area development concepts.

The first approach is focusing on the Airport City, the area immediately surrounding

the airport, which is predominantly marketed by the airport authorities themselves

and characterised by an economically integrated development of airport and real

estate. This like Güller and Güller formulated “more or less dense cluster of

operational, airport-related as well as other commercial and business activities”

mostly includes the typical components such as hotels, conference centres, offices,

shopping and entertainment facilities as well as cargo, logistics and distribution

(Güller/Güller 2003). This form and pattern of Airport City development can be

observed around almost every hub airport in the world.

Inevitably the question arises as to whether a homogeneous, commercial, low-

density cluster, consisting of the aforementioned transit-oriented components can

really be called an Airport City? Or perhaps airport authorities and stakeholders in

the airport region in reality simply use this label as an instrument to market their

properties.

The second concept is focusing on the wider airport area, the so-called

Aerotropolis and is mainly influenced by the work of the US-American professor

John Kasarda. According to Kasarda’s approach, the Aerotropolis extends over an

area of 25 kilometres around the central airport and is characterised by a system of

radial transportation links. Along these corridors he advocates the development of

business and residential clusters with intermediate green spaces. He assumes the

Defining the Airea

117 117

upgrade the appeal of office and business parks around airports for marketing

reasons. The Aerotropolis model inappropriately combines the notions of ‘Aero’ and

‘Metropolis’ and hence creates a hypocritical image of the airport as generator for a

whole new airport metropolis. Also, terms like Gateway or Airport Region imply a

rather complex scale, an inherent regularity and homogeneity which in reality is

often non-existent and refer implicitly to the airport rather as an independent

central node for regional development. Certainly the Airport Corridor can be

observed in reality but limits itself to an actual spatial form, which in some airport

cases might be true but can not deliver a functional category which is flexible enough

to facilitate analyses of various forms and patterns of development around airports.

4 Defining the Airea

In the research discourse the analysis of the interrelation and the interaction of

airports and metropolitan regions is underrepresented and mostly focuses on the

airport perspective rather than on the perspective of metropolitan region and city

centre. Thus my focus is on the function and the spatial configuration of the direct

airport area and the urban output in the greater airport region with regard to

different forms of interaction and potentials for sustainable integration within the

metropolitan region.

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram of the Airea.

In order to complement and partly integrate the different concepts discussed before

and also in order to go beyond the limitations of these concepts and the debates

associated with them, I introduce the Airea.

The concept of the Airea delivers an approach, a toolkit and a new spatial and

functional category to analyse and describe processes of airport related development

within the metropolitan region. The Airea is, unlike the other concepts, a rather

objective term which refers to the various fragmented islands of development within

a certain space of opportunity in relation to the airport. Which means it refers to

Defining the Airea

115 115

























properties.







Defining the Airea

115 115

























properties.







Defining the Airea

115 115

























properties.







Figure 17: Sub research question 2 scheme. The scheme illustrates the expected sub research question results: site analysis, theoretic framework and actors position.

Figure 18: Schematic diagram of different airport area development concepts.The schemes illustrates the various ways through which spatial planning models explain the airports’ urban influence in their regional context.


airports’ region




in Haarlemmermeer



?local urbanisation

in Haarlemmermeer

actor position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

actorposition

spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility

actor position

comparison

spatial conflicts

global vs

localtheory

network urbanism

theory


tools

strategies

actors

empirical framework

local urbanisation


spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

airport-drivenurban

development


spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility



comparison

spatial conflicts

growth limits

network urbanism

global - local

planning conflicts

spatial planning

tools

strategies

goodexamples

good exampes

case studies

32140

An Urban Geography of Globalisation

Section 3: Methods

Fig. 4.12: The levels of spatial analyses based on the Levels of Network Operation (Dupuy, 1998) with two supplementary levels: The First Nature and Governance. R. Rocco, 2007

LEVEL 0“The First

Nature”

The Interface

GOVERNANCE

‘The POWERPlay’

1st LEVELTechnical

Networks

Se

con

d N

atu

re

2nd LEVELProduction

Consumption

3rd LEVELHouseholds

3. Which are the conflicting interactions between these trends in Haarlemmermeer? (see figure 19)

Possible methods:

3.1. Interview evaluation: - comparison between the different actors position;

3.2. Mapping: - noise footprint areas; - nature development restrictions; - airport reserve areas. - ...

3.3. Map overlapping: - overlap of previously drawn maps.

3.4. Literature review: - Global and Local: Cities in the Network Society (Castells, 2002); - Urban Networks - Network Urbanism (Dupuy, 2008; - An Urban Geography of Globalization (Rocco, 2007) (see figure 20); - Waterstructuurvisie Haarlemmermeer (Biesma et al., 2010)

3.5. Theoretic framework definition - literature review conclusions.

Results:Answering this question will result in a spatial diagnosis, a theoretic framework for understanding the interaction between different networks and scales as well as an overview of the actors position.Figure 20: The levels of spatial analysis based on the Levels of

Network Operation (Dupuy, 1998) with two supplementary levels: The First Nature and Governance.


airports’ region




in Haarlemmermeer



?local urbanisation

in Haarlemmermeer

actor position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

actorposition

spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility

actor position

comparison

spatial conflicts

global vs

localtheory

network urbanism

theory


tools

strategies

actors

empirical framework

local urbanisation


spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

airport-drivenurban

development


spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility



comparison

spatial conflicts

growth limits

network urbanism

global - local

planning conflicts

spatial planning

tools

strategies

goodexamples

good exampes

case studies

Figure 19: Sub research question 3 scheme. The scheme illustrates the expected sub research question results: analysis conclusions and theoretic framework.

33

4. What is the role of spatial planning in these conflicting situations? (see figure 21)

Possible methods:

4.1. Interviews: - TU Delft BK Chair Spatial Planning and Strategy expert; - Netherlands Airport Consultants, resident representative.

2. Literature review: - Dutch Spatial Planning legislation.

Results:Answering this question will result in an understanding of the available spatial planing tools to handle the conflicts.

5. What are good examples of living in the airports’ region? (see figure 22)

Methods:

5.1. Case studies: - Seoul Incheon Airport; - Hong Kong Airport; - Kunming Airport;

5.2. Literature review: - Aerotropolis. The Way We’ll Live Next. Chapter: Welcome Home to the Airport (Kasarda and Lindsay, 2011);

Results:Answering this question will result in an overview of real life situations where the same problems have been alleviated.


airports’ region




in Haarlemmermeer



?local urbanisation

in Haarlemmermeer

actor position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

actorposition

spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility

actor position

comparison

spatial conflicts

global vs

localtheory

network urbanism

theory


tools

strategies

actors

empirical framework

local urbanisation


spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

airport-drivenurban

development


spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility



comparison

spatial conflicts

growth limits

network urbanism

global - local

planning conflicts

spatial planning

tools

strategies

goodexamples

good exampes

case studies


airports’ region




in Haarlemmermeer



?local urbanisation

in Haarlemmermeer

actor position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

actorposition

spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility

actor position

comparison

spatial conflicts

global vs

localtheory

network urbanism

theory


tools

strategies

actors

empirical framework

local urbanisation


spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

airport-drivenurban

development


spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility



comparison

spatial conflicts

growth limits

network urbanism

global - local

planning conflicts

spatial planning

tools

strategies

goodexamples

good exampes

case studies

Figure 21: Sub research question 4 scheme. The scheme illustrates the expected sub research question results: legislation framework.

Figure 22: Sub research question 5 scheme.The scheme illustrates the expected sub research question results: empirical framework.

34

2.3. Methodology

There are five main stages in the process of developing the graduation project:

I. the problem statement and project aim definition; II. the main research questions definition;

III. the sub research questions and methods definition;

IV. the research and design process (R&D);

V. the project proposal and final evaluation.

The diagram on the opposite page illustrates the relationships between the five stages (see figure 23). The connections between the project aim and the main and sub research questions have been explained in the sections 2.1., 2.2. and 2.3. of the current chapter. Building the project proposal following the research and design step is done by merging the spatial diagnosis with the recommendations in a spatial strategy and spatial intervention.

Although the project content is organised in a chronological order, starting from the problem statement and ending with the project proposal, in reality this is not a linear process. More precisely it is possible to go back and reconsider previous steps throughout the process. For example if sub research question answers prove

to be irrelevant for the main research questions it is possible to change previous steps. The feedback loops exist between all five steps. A final evaluation is needed after step five in order to compare the achieved results to the project aims set in the beginning (see figure 23).

Figure 23: Methodology SchemeThe scheme illustrates the relationships between the five

graduation project stages. Although the stages are organised in a chronological order, feedback is always possible during the

process. A final evaluation serves to test the project proposal with the initially set project aims.

35

??

??

?

?

??

??

?

?

!

!!

!

!

? ?

???

?? ?

?

? ?

???

e

valu

atio

n

feedback

inpu

t

feedback feedback

feedback

inpu

t in

put

inpu

tM

ain

R

esearch Questio

ns

P

roject Aim

Su

b R

esearch Questio

ns

R&D Process

P

ro

ject Proposal

1. Project Aim:The aim of this project is to create a spatial planning strategy to restructure Haarlemmermeer’s living environment while keeping a balance between local urbanisation and airport-driven urban development.

2. Main Research Questions:1. Which are the conflicting situations between local urbanisation trends and airport-driven urban development in Haarlemmermeer?

2. How can these conflicting situations be solved through spatial planning?

3. Sub Research Questions:1. Which are the local urbanisation trends in Haarlemmermeer?

2. Which are the effects of airport-driven urban development in Haarlemmermeer?

3. Which are the conflicting interactions between these trends in Haarlemmermeer?

4. What is the role of spatial planning in these conflicting situations?

5. What are good examples of living in the airport’s region?

4. Research and Design Process:1. Spatial Analysis, Theoretical Framework.2. Spatial Analysis. Normative Dimension.3. Diagnosis. Theoretical Framework.4. Definition of Instruments.5. Empirical Framework.

5. Project Proposal and Evaluation.

36

In terms of methodology a crucial step in the overall process is the definition of the research and design methods. The previous section presented each sub research question and the possible associated methods. The figure on the opposite page summarises the overall desired results after using all these methods (see figure 25). The purpose of gathering all this information is to gain sufficient information which will help to propose a pertinent spatial intervention in the final stage.

There are three main categories of R&D methods and results: the theoretical framework, Haarlemmermeer’s analysis and the empirical framework (see figure 24).

theoretical framework

Haarlemmermeeranalysis

empirical framework

airport-driven urban development:

literature review

global and local: cities in the network

society

network urbanism

polder cities

case studies

case study comparison

spatial analysis

urban space

landscape

infrastructure

demography

economy

Figure 24: R&D CategoriesThe scheme illustrates three main R&D categories enclosed in the methodology: the theoretical framework, the Haarlemmermeer analysis and the empirical framework.

37


airports’ region

empirical framework



tools

strategies

actors


in Haarlemmermeer

actor position

comparison

spatial conflicts

global vs

localtheory

network urbanism

theory




actorposition

spatial character

growth forecast

spatial concepts

theory

project feasibility?local

urbanisationin Haarlemmermeer

actor position

spatial character

population trends

polder citytheory

locallegislation

?Which are the

conflicting situations?

Local urbanisation and airport-driven urban development

in Haarlemmermeer.

How can they be solved through spatial planning?

Figure 25: R&D Results SchemeThe scheme illustrates the desired results of the R&D methods associated with each of the previously defined sub research questions.

38

sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun

stage 1

stage 2

stage 3

stage 4

stage 5

problem definition

project aim

main research question

sub research questions

project aim

R&D process

theoretic frameworkHaarlemmermeer analysis

interviews

empirical framework

project proposal

spatial strategy

spatial intervention

evaluation

preliminary thesis planliterature review abstractP1

thesis planliterature review paperP2

P3 P4 thesis reportP5

2.4. Planning

In order to test the feasibility of the methodology a provisional timeline and deliverable schedule is needed (see figure 26). This thesis plan accompanies the P2 presentation moment in January. Graduation is expected to last for ten months and the final project presentation and delivery to take place in June 2012.

The four presentation moments will use the evaluators’ critique in order to clarify previous steps.

Figure 26: Graduation timelineThe diagram illustrates the expected duration of the five project stages.

39

40

Figure 27: The Cittern Bridge in Hoofddorp. The Cittern Bridge is one of the three bridges built by the Spanish

architect Calatrava for the Haarlemmermeer polder main canal. The picture illustrates an international brand associated with the polder.

41

relevance

42

3. Relevance

3.1. Societal RelevanceOn one hand the Randstad is a very attractive location for living and working not only for Dutch naturals but also for foreign immigrants. The fast population growth in this metropolitan area will create a high demand for housing in the coming years (CBS, 2011). Therefore exploring different potentials to build housing in this context is a relevant issue for present and future inhabitants.

On the other hand airport regions are characterised by higher investments than the rest of the metropolitan region (Schlaak, 2010). They are also locations with great socio-spatial fragmentation such as the separation between high-end business travellers and the suburban community (Graham & Marvin, 2001 in Freestone & Baker, 2011). Within these parameters the airport area sometimes combines ‘the strongest economic growth with the strongest social inequalities‘ (Schaafsma et al., 2008: p.125 in Freestone & Baker, 2011: p.274). It is therefore important to look at the larger picture of social groups which use airport regions whenever proposing development strategies.

3.2. Scientific RelevanceAirport-led urban development is an area of spatial planning that has been insufficiently studied in scientific literature (Freestone & Baker, 2011). Although several authors debate the nature of airport-driven urban development with very different approaches their remarks remain on a general level. Also there is no consensus on

an urban form model. The way the airport gave birth to the airport city concept which later on evolved into the airport corridor model proves that concepts remain dynamic and a critical view is needed whenever dealing with any of them. Nevertheless the authors provide useful insights into the nature of airport-driven urban development. The increasing interest in the subject indicates that the body of knowledge in spatial planning will continue to grow on these foundations.

Most airport area development promoters adopt a position of perpetual growth and matters such as peak oil or aviation carbon dioxide emissions are not taken into account. However this is a dangerous position considering several dimensions such as economy, environment or society as pointed out by Freestone and Baker in their review of airport area planning models.

For example from an environmental point of view the future of aviation depends on sufficient fuel supplies and complete reliance on this mode of transport is not a feasible long term strategy. Moreover green house gas emissions are dangerous not only because of large quantities but also because they are produced in higher atmosphere layers where effects are even more damaging.

According to the authors urban planning can play an important role in guiding the impacts of airport related development trends because good outcomes will not happen spontaneously. Within this perspective governance can support the decision making process by linking the different scales (local and regional) and by

43

promoting network collaboration between actors (Freestone & Baker, 2011; Charles et al., 2007).

Considering the implications of this phenomenon as well as the current level of knowledge on the subject the main research questions proposed by this thesis become relevant. The outcome will hopefully support the existing planning body of knowledge.

3.3. Ethical DimensionLiving in the proximity of an airport leads to important decision taking tasks. On one hand the overall interest of national economy and of the airport users is balanced with the well being of local inhabitants. What value has the individual opinion in this process? Can a single person object to the airport extension because it damages his living conditions or threatens his right to live on his property? How does the planning process operate in this situation? Is participatory planning a solution? Or should decisions be taken solely from the top level?

The various implications of airport related planning increase the ‘wickedness’ of the planning challenges. In this sense:

‘The central task frequently remains the delicate balancing of local livability and sustainability, national economic interests, and international dynamics’ (Healey, 2010 in Freestone & Baker, 2011: p.274).

3.4. Personal MotivationI chose to study this area thanks to my personal fascination for airports. They represent the gates

that put distant countries within hours of reach. The Airport City brand has been spreading around the world as a marketing strategy which was first used by Amsterdam Airport Schiphol in the late 80s. In their latest promotional material Schiphol Group writes: “Amsterdam Airport Schiphol is a city where everyone is welcome but where no-one lives.” (Schiphol Group 2010) I believe this is an important statement considering the number of people who use this facility: around 45 million a year. Also the number of workers on the airport grounds is almost the same as the number of daily passengers. Where do these people come from? Who and why would someone want to live in the airport’s proximity? What about the airport workers and their residential areas?

The Complex Cities graduation studio, provided by the Spatial Planning and Strategy Chair, provides topics highly related to this thesis’ proposal such as network cities, governance or spatial planning. The expertise of other TU Delft Faculty of Architecture Chairs such as the Landscape Chair can be relevant in different stages of the thesis development.

44

4. BibliographyBurdett, R., Ovink, H., & Hajer, M. (Eds.) (2011). The Tale of Two Regions. Great Britain, Route.

Castells, M. (2002). Global and Local: Cities in the Network Society. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie, 93(5), 548-558.

CBS. Jong, A., & Duin C. (2011). Regionale bevolkings- en huishoudensprognose 2011–2040: sterke regionale contrasten. Retrieved October 23, 2011 from www.cbs.nl.

Charles, M.B., Barnes, P., Ryan, N., & Clayton, J. (2007). Airport Futures. Towards a Critique of the Aerotropolis Model. Futures, 39, 28.

Donnet, T., & Keast, R. (2010). Cities in the Airports’ Shadow. Underlying Interests and Discretionary Power in Airport Region Development. In The Proceedings of World Conference on Transport Research 2010, Instituto Superior Técnico, Lisbon.

Dupuy, G. (2008). Urban Networks - Network Urbanism, Amsterdam, Techne Press.

Freestone, R., & Baker, D. (2011). Spatial Planning Models of Airport-Driven Urban Development. Journal of Planning Literature, 26, 16.

Forsyte, K. (2011). Amsterdam Airport welcomes Chongqing freight route, AirCargo World. Retrieved November 15, 2011 from http://www.aircargoworld.com/Air-Cargo-News/2011/10/amsterdam-airport-welcomes-chongqing-

freight-route/032411.

Gemeente Haarlemmermeer. (n.d.). Living and working. Retrieved November 1, 2011 from: www.haarlemmermeer.nl

Güller, M., & Güller, M. (2003). From Airport to Airport City. Barcelona, Gustavo Gili.

Hoogheemraadschap van Rijnland. Biesma, J., Van Toom, R. & Kwadijk, F. (2010) Waterstructuurvisie Haarlemmermeer.

Hooimeijer, F. (2011). The Tradition of Making Polder Cities. Ph.D. Delft University of Technology.

Hooimeijer, F., Meyer, H., & Nienhuis, A. (2005). Atlas of Dutch Water Cities. Amstedam, Sun.

Jeurgens, C. (1990). De Waterwolf bedwongen in Historisch geografisch tijdschrift, 8(3), 80-89.

Kasarda, J.D. (2000). Aerotropolis. Airport-Driven Urban Development. ULI on the Future: Cities in the 21st century, 9.

Kasarda, J.D., & Lindsay, G. (2011). Aerotropolis The Way We’ll Live Next, Great Britain, Allen Lane.

Reh, W., Steenbergen, C., & Diederik, A. (2007). Sea of Land The Polder as an Experimental Atlas of Dutch Landscape Architecture, Aleph.

Rijksoverheid (n.d) (2011). Retrieved November 10, 2011 from http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/.

Rocco de Campos Pereira, R.C, (2007). An

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Urban Geography of Globalisation. Ph.D. Delft University of Technology.

Schaafsma, M., Amkreutz, J., & Güller, M. (2008). Airport and City. Airport Corridors: Drivers of Economic Development. Amsterdam, Schiphol Real Estate.

Schaafsma, M. (2010). From Airport City to Airport Corridor. Airport and city, sustainability and economy. In Ute Knippenberger, A. W. (Eds.) Airports in Cities and Regions. Research and Practise. (2009). Karlsruhe: KIT Scientific Publishing, 192.

Schiphol Group. (2010). Facts & Figures 2010. Retrieved on September 15, 2011 from www.schiphol.com.

Schlaak, J. (2010). Defining the Airea. Evaluating urban output and forms of interaction between airport and region. In Ute Knippenberger, A. W. (Eds.) Airports in Cities and Regions. Research and Practise. (2009). Karlsruhe: KIT Scientific Publishing, 192.

Warffemius, P., Van der Hoorn, T. & Klaassen, H. (2008). The Dynamic Spatial Impact of Amsterdam Airport Schiphol. Aerlines magazine [Online], 42. Retrieved on October 24, 2011 from www.aerlines.nl.

5. Appendix

Theory Review

5.1. Dupuy, Urban Network - Network Urbanism

5.2 Castells, Cities in the Network Society

46

5.1. Dupuy, Urban Network - Network Urbanism (2008)

Dupuy (2008) establishes his theories based on the modern notion of the network. After he defines the main criteria characterising networks Dupuy shows that these notions have already been a part of tra-ditional urbanism doctrines. According to this defi-nition he then explains its implications for contem-porary urbanism by giving examples and creating a model of city network levels relevant for urban plan-ners. Dupuy’s initial model has further been refined. By reviewing his rationale his models can be under-stood more thoroughly.

According to Dupuy the network is characterised by three criteria: the topological, the kinetic and the adaptive criteria.

The topological criterion refers to the possible rela-tionships between the network points. More specifi-cally in the case of the urban network it reflects in the accessibility of urban space and the possibility of decentralisation. Arturo Soria y Mata’s principle of maximum connections in the linear city is a relevant example (Dupuy, 2008).

The kinetic criterion refers to the movement aspect such as in circulation or communication. The notion of time becomes important when there are specific needs of flows without time losses or interruptions for instance. Joseph Paxton’s plans through which any points should be reachable within 15 minutes in a perimeter defined by the rail track ring clearly illustrates this criterion (Dupuy, 2008).

The adaptive criterion refers to the multiplicity of choices in both space and time with regard to con-

nections. “The ideal modern network is capable of adapting itself in time evolving by enabling the new connections required by its users, generated by the transformations of the environment of the urban system. For example Arturo Soria y Mata’s possible ramifications of the system permit an infinite devel-opment of the linear city while also preserving its ad-vantages (Dupuy, 2008)

Dupuy also states that unless it reflects upon these realities urbanism cannot fundament its doctrines. When he talks about contemporary urbanism he dis-tinguishes the virtual network from the real network. The delegation of power is what influences territori-ality during the transition from the virtual to the real network. In order to define the network functioning Dupuy founds his theory on other author’s concepts of points, Raffestin (1981) and project transactions Claval (1981).

The points are described as “territorial nodalities or points of reference or power” which have both a social and a geographical substance (Raffestin, 1980 in Dupuy, 2008). The potential link or relation-ship which can be formed between the points un-der the initiative of an individual or collective desire is named a project transaction, PT (Claval, 1981 in Dupuy, 2008). According to Dupuy (2008) both the points and projects evolve over time.

The project transaction network, PTN, is shaped in the imagination realm. It brings together the differ-ent transactional projects which gather the various link requests under collective delegations of author-ity (Dupuy 2008). However due to the “various tech-nical, economic and political restraints involved” a balance has to be made by the operator between “the imagined, maximal, virtual network, the avail-able means and real life conditions in general” (Raff-

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estin, 1980 in Dupuy, 2008).

Fig. 5.1.1 Definition of an evolving network (Dupuy, 2008: p.46). This scheme synthesises the relationships between the elements which create the virtual and real networks.

When it comes to specific actors such as individuals, family or industrial establishments, Dupuy (2008) ex-plains that there are clear distinctions between the networks they specialise in. Based on Raffestin’s work (1990) he presents a theoretical model of the three levels in which urban networks are organised.

“[Level 1] Technical networks (mostly related to ur-ban infrastructure). Technical networks are operated both by the public and the private sectors, but most-ly regulated by the former.

[Level 2] Production and consumption networks (mostly operated by the private sector in the form of firms).

[Level 3] Household networks (the ensemble of re-lationships between a household and the virtual and real networks of the two other levels)” (Dupuy, 1998 in Rocco, 2008).

According to this framework Dupuy (2008) argues that urban planning is perfectly legitimate in a net-work theory model. In his opinion previous urbanis-tic models do not question territoriality and they are based exclusively on juridical, historical and cultural boundaries. The network model has a more broad

view. Also in the network model data that is relevant for one level is also relevant for the other levels.

But the role of the urban planner still needs to be clarified. In Dupuy’s interpretation of Bernis there can be critical situations for users in terms of urban public services. Therefore from a systemic point of view (evolution and adaptation) there could be a need for a higher level of coordination in the network hierarchy. This is where urban planning interventions can become relevant if the urban planner is seen as an operator who can act upon the conception and evolution of the network. Although the urban plan-ner’s role is yet to be defined what emerges from this framework is that the urban planner can inter-vene on the nodes, the relations, the connexions and the regulation processes according to criteria of topology, kinetics and adaptability (Dupuy, 2008).

Fig. 5.1.2 The three levels of network operators (re)organ-ising urban space. (Dupuy, 2008: p.49).

POINTS

TRANSACTIONS

OPERATOR NETWORKVIRTUAL

REAL

Level-three operatorNetwork/territory of the urban household

Level-two operatorProduction networkConsumption networkDomestic network

Level-one operatorRoad networksPublic transport networksCommunication networks(telephone, etc)

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5.2. Castells, Local and Global: Cities in the Network Society (2002)

In his paper on Cities in the Network Society Castells synthesizes his research work on urban transforma-tions in the network society. After he explains the key spatial and social processes and more closely looks at the effects on public space Castells (2002) proposes an analytical framework through which this transformation in cities can be organised. The main issue highlighted in the paper is the crisis of cities and of the city as a socio-spatial system of cultural communication. In his concluding remarks Castells (2002) explains the challenges of urban life reconstruction and introduces the role of the urban planner in this context.

According to Castells (2002) the three features which interact to constitute the network society are: “the revolution in information technology, the process of globalization and the emergence of networking as the predominant social form.” Spatial transforma-tion is only one dimension in this framework and from Castell’s point of view we need a “new theory of spatial form and processes, which can be adapt-ed to the new social, technological and spatial con-text in which we live”.

The key spatial processes Castells (2002) identi-fies emerge from a world wide urbanisation trend through which more than half of the world’s popu-lation lives in cities, predominately concentrated in metropolitan areas. He characterises ones if these areas as the “metropolitan region” which is “a mix of cities, countryside, centre, and periphery”. The drivers of these simultaneous spatial concentrations in huge areas, and thus of centralisation, are the ad-

vanced telecommunications, the internet and fast computerised transportation systems. This new ur-ban geography of networks extends throughout the world, countries, between and within metropolitan areas (Castells, 2002).

There are several social processes which have both spatial and virtual dimensions in Castells’ (2002) opinion. For example social relationships in the network society are characterised by individuation: physical proximity and online connectivity, and com-munalism: physical and virtual communities. Also the crisis of the patriarchal family shifts ‘sociability from family units [...] to networks of individualised units’. The spatial consequences of these process-es are therefore important.

Urban centres and public space become places of reaction and interaction with these social process-es. Although the vitality of public space has been recognised around the world as being important, current projects are focused on public space com-mercialisation. On the other hand there is an individ-ualisation of experiences such as residence, work or city consumption. An overall consequence is the distinction between ‘inclusion in trans-territorial networks and exclusion by the spatial separation of places’ (Castells, 2002). Splintering urbanism, the fragmentation of spaces, is more deeply investigat-ed in the works of Graham and McMahon.

In the analytical framework he proposes, Castells (2002) organises the spatial transformation of cities along three axes: the function, the meaning and the form.

The functional dimension contains the opposition between the global and the local. In this sense the global networks are created around ‘dominant pro-

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cesses in economy, technology, the media and au-thority’. The local networks are shaped by ‘private life, cultural identity and political participation’. The role of the city as a communication system nowa-days is to link these two conflicting logics (Castells, 2002).

The meaning encloses the projects, interests and representations of the individual. In communalism meaning is based on ‘a system of values and beliefs to which all other sources of identity are subordinat-ed’ (Castells, 2002). According to Castells the rise of the network society generates a strain between ‘personality and culture, between individuals and communes’. This strain also creates a contradictory situation for the city as a communication system.

The functional dimension is characterised by the opposition between the space of flows and the space of places. The space of flows consists of the spaces that are linked through virtual networks of people and activities. These territories are usually geographically distant. The space of places ‘organ-ises experience around locality’ which contradicts the logic of the space of flows which are organised around virtual networks. The challenge for cities in the network society is to restore communication by creating common languages between these contra-dicting logics according to Castells (2002).

There are three types of protocol which aim at solv-ing the communication contradictions described earlier. The physical protocol acts by introducing symbolic nodalities that identify places in the end-less sprawl. The social protocol involves the public spaces in which sharing communication and city life can be restored. The communication protocol has two dimensions, the virtual and the face-to-face. Understanding the relationship between these two

dimensions is a critical task (Castells, 2002).In his concluding remarks Castells (2002) identifies key actors involved in the reconstruction of urban life such as politicians, planners and citizen groups. He focuses on the nature of spatial interventions created by urban planners. However he acknowl-edges the fact that planning initiatives can be suc-cessful only if they are backed up by governmental decisions.

“Restoring functional communication through metro-politan planning, providing spatial meaning through a new symbolic nodality created by innovative spa-tial projects, and reinstating the city in its urban form through the practice of urban design, focused on the preservation, restoration and construction of public space - these are the critical issues in the new type of urbanism” (Castells, 2002: p.557).

Documents

Thesis Plan