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ISTITUTO AGRONOMICO
PER L'OLTREMARE
UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI FIRENZE
FIRST LEVEL MASTER DEGREE IN
IRRIGATION PROBLEMS
IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
THESIS ON
Utilization Information Technology Applied to Design
a Drip Irrigation System for Maize production in Iraq -
al kut.
Supervisor Student Name
Dott. AGR. IVAN SOLINAS HASANEN SAEED HAMEED
A.A. 2012/2013
ii
DEDICATION
To the teachers who teach me so well learning…..
My teachers in my life march
To my mother dear…..
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my gratitude to all those who in one way or another made
possible this master program:
- The IAO and through it, IRAQ - Italy cooperation and consequently their
respective Ministry of Foreign Affairs, for the initiative and the hospitality
provided to us.
- My supervisor, Dott. Agr. Ivan Solinas, for his technical support and his lofty
sense of sharing.
- The staff of IAO:
Dr. Giovanni Totino the Director of Instituto Agronomico per l’Oltremare,
Prof. Ing. Elena Bresci, Mr. Paolo Enrico Sertoli,
Mr.Tiberio Chiari, Mr. Andrea Merli,
Miss. Elisa Masi etc.
- All the teachers who contributed and participated in this program for their
precious time and knowledge they shared with us.
Here I sincerely would like to express my keen appreciation to my lecturers
Prof. Mario Falciai, Dr. Benedetto Rocchi,
Prof. Federico Preti, Dr. Lorenzo Minatti ,
Prof. Mohamed Hussein, Dr. Ing. Fabio Bonacci
Prof. Ing. Elena Bresci, And Dr. Graziano Ghinassi,
Prof. Francesca Todosco,
for their devoted time to teach me and I appreciate the materials are valuable and
they made to me to be different.
Finally I thank all friends, colleagues and workmates for the family spirit
maintained during the training.
Thank you……………
iv
ABSTRACT
Corn production in Iraq saw a sharp declined between the years of 2006 and 2011
due to an erratic supply of irrigation water. The lack of adequate water supply
discouraged farmers to adopt “thirsty” summer crops such as corn.
This study was conducted in order to come up with the system of drip irrigation
design which can use little amount of water by reducing losses and achieving high
production.
In order the goal to be accomplished the information technology was utilized with
the procedures:
First the Google earth was used to locate the intended area and be able to measure
its size, geographic coordinates, the slopes and altitude.
Then CLIWAT 2.0 was used to generate the climatic data of the study area and
two files of ETo and Rainfall were obtained.
Next the characteristics of soil from the study area were measured by the Soil
Water Characteristics program (Hydraulic Properties Calculator)
Next the Ve.Pro.LG.s software was used to determine the type of drip line which
saves water and energy.
After that the maximum crop water requirement of maize, annual total gross
irrigation and irrigation scheduling were generated by CROPWAT 8.0 by inserting
the climate/ ETo, rainfall, crop and soil data.
Finally the EPANET 2.0 was used to model the pipe network and select the
reasonable pipe size of the system
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Table of Contents
DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ iv
LISTS OF TABLES............................................................................................................ vii
LISTS OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... viii
1.0. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background Information .......................................................................................... 1
1.2. Problem statement and justification ....................................................................... 22
1.3. Objective of the study ............................................................................................ 22
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 23
2.1. Iraq the prevailing situation ................................................................................... 23
1.2.2. Water Resources ................................................................................................ 23
2.1.2. Human Resources .............................................................................................. 23
2.1.3. Wasit governorate and the prevailing climate: .................................................. 24
2.2. DRIP IRRIGATION .............................................................................................. 25
2.2.1. Advantages of Drip irrigation ............................................................................ 26
1.1.1. Disadvantages of Drip irrigation ........................................................................ 27
2.2.3. Benefits of drip on maize ................................................................................... 28
2.2.4. Emitter selection ................................................................................................ 33
2.3. Maize Farming in Iraq ........................................................................................... 36
2.3.1. Crop selection .................................................................................................... 36
2.3.2. Preparing the field .............................................................................................. 37
2.3.3. Irrigation ............................................................................................................ 39
2.3.5. PLANTING ....................................................................................................... 43
3.0. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................ 57
3.1. Google earth and the site dimensions determination ............................................. 58
3.2. Collection of agro-climatic data............................................................................. 60
3.3. Soil data determination .......................................................................................... 62
vi
3.4. VeProLGs (1.6.0) and design parameter determination ........................................ 63
3.5. CROPWAT 8.0 and Crop Water Requirements and irrigation scheduling ........... 68
3.6. Determination of crop irrigation schedule ............................................................. 70
3.7. EPANET 2.0 and design of the irrigation scheme ................................................. 71
4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................ 74
4.1. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT ........................................................................ 74
4.2. DRIP LINE DESIGN ............................................................................................. 76
4.2.1. Drip line available in the study area and used in the Design ............................. 76
4.2.2. Ranking of drip lines according to uniformity ................................................... 77
Discussion .......................................................................................................................... 80
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 82
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 83
APPENDECIES ................................................................................................................. 86
(a). Charts of climatic data from KUT-NAL – HAI station- Iraq ..................................... 86
(b). Crop Water Requirements Graphs .............................................................................. 96
(c). Irrigation Scheduling graph ......................................................................................... 99
(d). Agro – Climatic Data ................................................................................................ 100
(e). Pipe network .............................................................................................................. 108
(f). Performance pump curve ........................................................................................... 109
(g). Scheme Supply .......................................................................................................... 111
vii
LISTS OF TABLES
Table 1: Values of Kr suggested by different authors (Source: FAO, 1984) ..................... 29
Table 2: The corn planting dates in Iraq ............................................................................ 38
Table 3: Maximum furrow lengths in meters .................................................................... 40
Table 4 : Corn irrigation requirements in the USAID-Inma demonstration areas ............. 41
Table 5: Corn Yield Decrease at ECe (soil salinity) Values .............................................. 42
Table 6: study area information ........................................................................................ 58
Table 7: Climate/ ETo ........................................................................................................ 61
Table 8: Rainfall data ......................................................................................................... 61
Table 9: Data of the study soil ........................................................................................... 63
Table 10: VeProLGs data .................................................................................................. 66
Table 11: Data of Crop irrigation schedule ........................................................................ 70
Table 12: Maize water requirements.................................................................................. 74
Table 13: Drip lines available in the study area ................................................................. 76
viii
LISTS OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Iraq map ............................................................................................................................... 4
Figure 2: Drip irrigation ................................................................................................................... 26
Figure 3: Different types of Emitters ................................................................................................ 34
Figure 4: Typical Drip System Layout .............................................................................................. 35
Figure 5: Maize Harvesting ............................................................................................................... 53
Figure 6: Corn Combine Diagram ..................................................................................................... 54
Figure 7: Location of the study area .................................................................................................. 59
Figure 8: Shows the location of KUT – NAL – HAI station and other stations from the field. ...... 60
Figure 9: Presentation of characteristics of the soil .......................................................................... 62
Figure 10: Uniformity of irrigation determination ............................................................................ 67
Figure 11 : Production cycle water requirements ............................................................................. 75
Figure 12: Ranking of Drip line according to uniformity ................................................................. 77
Figure 13: Operating under P1d.16q1.4s.0.2..................................................................................... 78
Figure 14: Area checking under P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) .................................................................. 79
1
1.0. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Background Information
Geography
Iraq, with a total area of 438 320 km2, is bordered by Turkey to the north, the
Islamic Republic of Iran to the east, the Persian Gulf to the southeast, Saudi Arabia
and Kuwait to the south, and Jordan and the Syrian Arab Republic to the west.
Topographically, Iraq is shaped like a basin, consisting of the Great Mesopotamian
alluvial plain of the Tigris and the Euphrates rivers (Mesopotamia means, literally,
the land between two rivers). This plain is surrounded by mountains in the north
and the east, which can reach altitudes of 3 550 m above sea level, and by desert
areas in the south and west, which account for over 40 percent of the land area. For
administrative purposes, the country is divided into eighteen governorates, of
which three (Arbil, Dahuk, and As Sulaymaniyah) are gathered in an autonomous
region in the north and the other fifteen governorates are in central and southern
Iraq. This division corresponds roughly to the rainfed northern agricultural zone
and the irrigated central and southern zone.
It is estimated that about 11.5 million ha, or 26 percent of the total area of the
country, are cultivable. The remaining part is not viable for agricultural use under
current conditions and only a small strip situated along the extreme northern
border with Turkey and the Islamic Republic of Iran is under forest and
woodlands. The total cultivated area is estimated at about 6 million ha, of which
almost 50 percent in northern Iraq under rainfed conditions. Less than 5 percent is
occupied by permanent crops . Permanent pasture covers around 4 million ha.
Livestock grazing occurs throughout all agricultural zones, but is more widespread
in the north where hillside grazing prevails. Small ruminants (mainly sheep and
goats) are the main livestock species. However, beef cattle have been the
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traditional source of dietary protein for most Iraqis. Poultry production occurs in
close proximity to urban centres.
Climate
The climate in Iraq is mainly of the continental, subtropical semi-arid type, with
the north and north-eastern mountainous regions having a Mediterranean climate.
Rainfall is very seasonal and occurs in the winter from December to February,
except in the north and northeast of the country, where the rainy season is from
November to April. Average annual rainfall is estimated at 216 mm, but ranges
from 1 200 mm in the northeast to less than 100 mm over 60 percent of the
country in the south (Table 2). Winters are cool to cold, with a day temperature of
about 16 °C dropping at night to 2 °C with a possibility of frost. Summers are dry
and hot to extremely hot, with a shade temperature of over 43 °C during July and
August, yet dropping at night to 26 °C. Iraq can be divided into four agro-
ecological zones (FAO, 2003):
Arid and semi-arid zones with a Mediterranean climate. A growing season
of about nine months, over 400 mm of annual winter rainfall, and
mild/warm summers prevail. This zone covers mainly the northern
governorates of Iraq. Major crops include wheat, barley, rice and chickpea.
Other field crops are also produced in smaller quantities. There is some
irrigation, mainly from springs, streams and bores.
Steppes with winter rainfall of 200–400 mm annually. Summers are
extremely hot and winters cold. This zone is located between the
Mediterranean zone and the desert zone. It includes the feed barley
production areas, limited wheat production, and it has limited irrigation.
The desert zone with extreme summer temperatures and less than 200 mm
of rainfall annually. It extends from just north of Baghdad to the Saudi
Arabian and Jordanian borders. It is sparsely populated and cultivated with
just a few crops in some irrigated spots.
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The irrigated area which extends between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
from the north of Baghdad to Basra in the south. Serious hazards for this
area are poor drainage and salinity. The majority of the country’s
vegetables, sunflower and rice are produced in this zone.
Population
Total population is about 28.8 million (2005), of which 33 percent is rural.
Average population density is estimated at 66 inhabitants/km2, but varies greatly
from the almost uninhabited Anwar province in the desert in the western part of
the country to the most inhabited Babylon province in the centre of the country.
Average population growth was estimated at 3.6 percent during 1980–90, but
emigration of foreign workers, severe economic hardships and war have since
reduced this growth rate. In 1991 safe water supplies reached 100 percent in urban
areas but only 54 percent in rural areas. The water supply and sanitation situation
has deteriorated as a result of the wars, among other things owing to shortages of
chlorine imports for water treatment. In 2006 access to improved drinking water
sources reached 77 percent of the population (88 and 56 percent of urban and rural
population respectively). The sanitation coverage was 76 percent (80 and 69
percent respectively).
4
Figure 1: Iraq map
5
Economy, agriculture and food security
In 2000 the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was US$25.9 billion, with an annul
rate growth of -4.3 percent. In 1989 the agriculture sector contributed only 5
percent to GDP, which was dominated by oil (61 percent); in 2000 the agriculture
sector accounted for 5 percent of GDP.
The economically active population is about 8.2 million (2005) of which 78
percent is male and 22 percent female. In agriculture, 0.7 million inhabitants are
economically active, of which 45 percent male and 55 percent female. While the
agricultural labour force represented 31 percent of the economically active
population in 1975, it decreased to about 8 percent in 2004, partly due to the
introduction of agricultural mechanization, the development of education and
health services in the urban areas and increased job opportunities encouraging
rural–urban migration. However, after public service and the trade sector,
agriculture still is the main provider of employment in Iraq (FAO, 2003).
A large portion of Iraq’s population lives in poverty, with many people engaged in
subsistence agriculture.
The nation-wide rationing system set up by the Government of Iraq in 1991
prevented famine but with the decline in the energy content of the ration and the
reduction in food available outside the rationing system, malnutrition and
mortality of young children increased dramatically. In April 1995 the Oil-for-Food
Programme was established under Security Council Resolution 986 (SRC 986),
according to which the distribution of humanitarian supplies to the population is
undertaken by the government in the centre and south and by the UN Inter-Agency
Humanitarian Programme on behalf of the government in the three northern
governorates. This arrested further decline in nutrition (FAO, 2000). However,
despite substantial increases in the food ration since SCR 986, the following has
occurred:
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child malnutrition rates in the centre and south of the country do not appear
to have improved significantly and nutritional problems remain serious and
widespread
existing food rations do not provide a nutritionally adequate and varied diet
the monthly food basket lasts up to three weeks, depending on the type of
ration
despite shortfalls in the ration, some segments of the population can
supplement their diet with market purchases, albeit at considerable cost.
Water resources and use
Water resources
Both the Tigris and the Euphrates are transboundary rivers, originating in Turkey.
Before their confluence, the Euphrates flows for about 1 000 km and the Tigris for
about 1 300 km within the territory of Iraq.
The area of the Tigris River Basin in Iraq is 253 000 km2, which is 54 percent of
the total river basin area. The average annual runoff is estimated at 21.33 km3 as it
enters Iraq. All the Tigris tributaries are on the left bank. From upstream to
downstream:
the Greater Zab, which originates in Turkey. It generates 13.18 km3 at its
confluence with the Tigris; 62 percent of the total area of this river basin
of 25 810 km2 is in Iraq;
the Lesser Zab, which originates in the Islamic Republic of Iran and which
is equipped with the Dokan Dam (6.8 km3). The river basin of 21 475 km2
(of which 74 percent is in Iraqi territory) generates about 7.17 km3, of
which 5.07 km3 of annual safe yield after construction of the Dokan Dam;
7
the Al-Adhaim (or Nahr Al Uzaym), which drains about 13 000 km2
entirely in Iraq. It generates about 0.79 km3 at its confluence with the
Tigris. It is an intermittent stream subject to flash floods;
the Diyala, which originates in the Islamic Republic of Iran and drains
about 31 896 km2, 75 percent of which in Iraqi territory. It is equipped
with the Derbendi Khan Dam and generates about 5.74 km3 at its
confluence with the Tigris;
the Nahr at Tib, Dewarege (Doveyrich) and Shehabi rivers, draining
together more than 8 000 km2. They originate in Iranian territory and
bring together about 1 km3 of highly saline waters in the Tigris;
the Karkheh, the main course of which is in the Islamic Republic of Iran
and which, from a drainage area of 46 000 km2, brings around 6.3 km3
yearly into Iraq, namely into the Hawr Al Hawiza during the flood season
and into the Tigris River during the dry season.
The average annual flow of the Euphrates as it enters Iraq is estimated at 30 km3,
with a fluctuating annual value of between 10 and 40 km3. Unlike the Tigris, the
Euphrates receives no tributaries during its passage in Iraq. About 10 km3 per year
are drained into the Hawr al Harnmar (a marsh in the south of the country). The
Shatt Al-Arab is the river formed by the confluence downstream of the Euphrates
and the Tigris; it flows into the Gulf after a course of only 190 km. The Karun
River, originating in Iranian territory, has a mean annual flow of 24.7 km3 and
flows into the Shatt Al-Arab, to which it brings a large amount of fresh water just
before reaching the sea.
It is difficult to determine the average annual discharge of the Euphrates and Tigris
rivers together due to the large yearly fluctuation. According to the records for
1938–1980, there have been years in the mid-1960s when 68 km3 were recorded
in the two rivers and years in the mid-1970s when the amount reached over 84
km3. On the other hand, there was the critical drought year with less than 30 km3
at the beginning of the 1960s. Such variations in annual discharge make it difficult
8
to develop an adequate water allocation plan for competing water demand from
each sector as well as to ensure fair sharing of water among neighbouring
countries (UNDG, 2005).
This yearly fluctuation in the annual discharge has also caused large and possibly
disastrous floods as well as periodic severe droughts. The level of water in the
Tigris can rise at a rate of over 30 cm/hour. In the southern part of the country,
immense areas are regularly inundated, levees often collapse, and villages and
roads must be built on high embankments. The Tharthar Reservoir was planned in
the 1950s among other to protect Baghdad from the ravages of the periodic
flooding of the Tigris by storing extra water upstream of the Samarra Barrage.
The major part of the river flow occurs during the spring flood period, which is
from February through June on the Tigris River and from March through July on
the Euphrates River. On the Tigris the natural flow during this period makes up
60–80 percent of the total annual flow and on the Euphrates 45–80 percent. During
the low water period (July through September) the natural flow does not exceed 10
percent of the annual amount under normal conditions.
In order to increase water transport efficiency, minimize losses and waterlogging,
and improve water quality, a number of new watercourses were constructed,
especially in the southern part of the country. The Third River (also called Saddam
River), which was completed in 1992, functions as a main outfall drain collecting
drainage waters from more than 1.5 million ha of agricultural land from the north
of Baghdad to the Gulf between the Euphrates and the Tigris. The length of the
watercourse, completed in December 1992, is 565 km, with a total discharge of
210 m3/s. In 1995 an estimated 17 million tons of salt was said to have been
transported to the Gulf through the Third River. Other watercourses were also
constructed to reclaim new lands or to reduce waterlogging. Groundwater aquifers
in Iraq consist of extensive alluvial deposits of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and
are composed of Mesopotamian-clastic and carbonate formations.
9
The alluvial aquifers have limited potential because of poor water quality. The
Mesopotamian-clastic aquifers in the northwestern foothills consist of Fars,
Bakhtiari and alluvial sediments. The Fars formation is made up of anhydrite and
gypsum inter-bedded with limestone and covers a large area of Iraq. The Bakhtiari
and alluvial formations consist of a variety of material, including silt, sand, gravel,
conglomerate and boulders, with a thickness of up to 6 000 metres. Water quality
ranges from 300 to 1 000 ppm. Another major aquifer system is contained in the
carbonate layers of the Zagros Mountains. Two main aquifers are found in the
limestone and dolomite layers, as well as in the Quaternary alluvium deposits. The
limestone aquifer contributes large volumes of water through a number of springs.
The alluvial aquifers contain large volume reservoirs and annual recharge is
estimated at 620 million m3 from direct infiltration of rainfall and surface water
runoff. Water quality is good, ranging from 150 to 1 400 ppm (ESCWA, 2001).
Good quality subterranean water has been found in the foothills of the mountains
in the northeast of the country and in the area on the right bank of the Euphrates.
The aquifer in the northeast of Iraq has an estimated safe yield of between 10 and
40 m3/sec at depths of 5–50 metres. Its salinity increases towards the southeast of
the area until it reaches between 0.5 and 1 mg/l. The aquifers on the right bank of
the Euphrates River, trapped between gypsum and dolomite at depths increasing
towards the west where water is found at 300 m (at Abu-Aljeer), have an estimated
safe yield of 13 m3/sec. In the western part of that area the salinity of the water is
only 0.3 mg/l compared with 0.5–1 mg/l in the eastern section. In other areas of
the country good quality water is fairly limited because of high levels of salinity
(Ministry of Irrigation, 1986). An estimated 0.08 km3/year of water from the Umm
er Radhuma aquifer enters Iraq from Saudi Arabia. Internal renewable water
resources are estimated at 35.2 km3/year .
Total gross dam capacity of the major dams in the Tigris Basin is estimated at
102.2 km3, of which on-river dam capacity is 29.4 km
3 (7 dams). The off-river
storage Samarra Tharthar Dam, constructed in 1954, has a capacity of 72.8 km3. It
10
is filled with Wadi Tharthar waters and, since 1985, also with Euphrates water.
Total gross capacity of the major dams in the Euphrates Basin is estimated at 37.5
km3, of which on-river dam capacity is 34.2 km
3. The off-river Ramadi-Habbaniya
Dam, constructed in 1951, has a capacity of 3.3 km3; it can be filled with upstream
Euphrates waters and drains into the Euphrates downstream (UNEP, 2001a).
There are eleven major wastewater treatment plants in Iraq, three of which are in
Baghdad. All the treatment plants are located near rivers (three near the Euphrates,
two near the Tigris, two near the Diala, and one each near the Kahla, the Aw
Diwaniyah, the Husseinya and the Shatt Basrah). The total treatment capacity of
these plants is 650 000 m3/day. The technologies used are: primary sedimentation,
aeration and secondary sedimentation (chlorination) at five plants; primary
sedimentation, trickling filtering and chlorination at three plants; primary
sedimentation, extended aeration and chlorination at two plants; aeration lagoons
and secondary sedimentation at one
plant (UNEP, 2001b). Until now, the majority of wastewater after treatment has
been discharged into rivers and drainage canals by gravity and there is no definite
canal network for wastewater collection.
The two largest wastewater treatment plants were built in Baghdad County (Salih,
2001). The first, Al-Rustumia, was designed to handle an average flow of 204
million m3/ year and the second, Al-Karkh, handles an average flow of 150
million m3/year.
Baghdad city is generally supplied by less saline drinking water (0.8–1.2 dS/m)
and this salinity increases 2–3 times in the wastewater. It can therefore be used
without creating any salinity and alkalinity problems except for very sensitive
crops. The sodium concentration is rather low, resulting in a sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) ranging between 2.68 and 3.12 for the Al-Rustumia station and
between 4.38 and 5.24 for the Al-Karkh station. The chloride content of
11
wastewater of the Al-Karkh station is fairly high for surface irrigation and not
recommended for sprinkler irrigation, while the
chloride content of the Al-Rustomia station is appropriate for surface irrigation but
generally inadequate for sprinkler irrigation. The bicarbonate content of
wastewater from both stations is adequate for surface irrigation but inappropriate
for sprinkler irrigation. The phosphorus and potassium contents of wastewater
from both stations are fairly low. Contents of iron, magnesium, chromium, zinc,
cobalt and boron in wastewater of both stations are generally within acceptable
limits. In 2002, the total installed desalination capacity was 384 513 m3/ day. This
refers to the installed gross capacity (design capacity) (Wangnick Consulting,
2002).
Water use
In 2000, total water withdrawal was estimated at 66 km3, of which 79 percent for
agricultural purposes, 6.5 percent for domestic supplies and 14.5 percent for
industrial use (ESCWA, 2005) . Hydroelectric power generation is about 17
percent of current electrical energy production in Iraq. Existing power plants have
been neglected for over a decade and a number of new projects were suspended in
the aftermath of the Gulf War. The volume and timing of water entering Iraq from
neighbouring countries is a significant factor in hydropower production (UNDG,
2005).
12
International water issues
The water resources of Iraq depend largely on the surface water of the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers and most of the natural renewable water resources of Iraq come
from outside the country.
The protocol concerning the regulation of water use of the Euphrates and Tigris
rivers dates back to 1946 when Turkey and Iraq agreed that the rivers’ control and
management depended to a large extent on the regulation of flow in Turkish
source areas. At that time, Turkey agreed to begin monitoring the two rivers and to
share related data with Iraq. In 1980 Turkey and Iraq further specified the nature
of the earlier protocol by establishing a Joint Technical Committee on Regional
Waters. After a bilateral agreement in 1982, the Syrian Arab Republic joined the
committee. Turkey has unilaterally guaranteed to allow 15.75 km3/ year (500
m3/s) of water of the Euphrates across the border to the Syrian Arab Republic, but
no formal agreement has been reached so far on the sharing of the Euphrates
water. According to an agreement between the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq
(1990), Syria agrees to share the Euphrates water with Iraq on a 58 percent (Iraq)
and 42 percent (Syria) basis, which corresponds to a flow of 9 km3/year at the
border with Iraq when using the figure of 15.75 km3/year from Turkey. Up to
now, there has been no global agreement between the three countries concerning
the Euphrates waters (FAO, 2004).
The construction of the Ataturk Dam, one of the projects of GAP completed in
1992, has been widely portrayed in the Arab media as a belligerent act, since
Turkey began the process of filling the Ataturk Dam by shutting off the river flow
for a month (Akanda et al, 2007). Both the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq accused
Turkey of not informing them about the cut-off, thereby causing considerable
harm. Iraq even threatened to bomb the Euphrates dams. Turkey countered that its
co-riparians “had been informed in time that river flow would be interrupted for a
period of one month, due to technical necessity” (Kaya, 1998). Turkey returned to
13
previous flowsharing agreements after the dam became operational, but the
conflicts were never fully resolved as downstream demands had increased in the
meantime (Akanda et al, 2007). Turkey contributes about 90 percent of the total
annual flow of the Euphrates, while the remaining part originates in the Syrian
Arab Republic and very little is added in Iraq. Turkey also contributes 38 percent
directly to the main Tigris River and another 11 percent to its tributaries, which
join the main stream of the Tigris further downstream in Iraq. Most of the
remainder comes from three tributaries originating in the Islamic Republic of Iran
(FAO, 2004).
As shown, a number of crises have occurred in the Euphrates-Tigris Basin, partly
due to lack of communication, conflicting approaches, unilateral development, and
inefficient water management practices. The Arab countries have long accused
Turkey of violating international water laws with regard to the Euphrates and the
Tigris rivers. Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic consider these rivers to be
international and thus claim a share of their waters. Turkey, in contrast, refuses to
concede the international character of the two rivers and only speaks of the
rational utilization of transboundary waters. According to Turkey, the Euphrates
becomes an international river only after it joins the Tigris in lower Iraq to form
the Shatt al-Arab, which then serves as the border between Iraq and the Islamic
Republic of Iran until it reaches the Gulf only 193 km further downstream.
Furthermore, Turkey is the only country in the Euphrates Basin to have voted
against the United Nations Convention on the Law of Non-navigational Uses of
International Watercourses. According to Turkey, if signed, the law would give the
lower riparians “a veto right” over Turkey’s development plans. Consequently,
Turkey maintains that the Convention does not apply to it and is therefore not
legally binding (Akanda et al, 2007). Problems regarding sharing water might
arise between Turkey, the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq, since according to
different scenarios full irrigation development by the countries in the Euphrates-
14
Tigris river basins would lead to water shortages and solutions will have to be
found at basin level through regional cooperation.
In 2002, a bilateral agreement between the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq was
signed concerning the installation of a Syrian pump station on the Tigris River for
irrigation purposes. The quantity of water drawn annually from the Tigris River,
when the flow of water is within the average, will be 1.25 km3 with a drainage
capacity proportional to the projected surface of 150 000 ha (FAO, 2002)
In April 2008, Turkey, the Syrian Arab Republic and Iraq decided to cooperate on
water issues by establishing a water institute consisting of 18 water experts from
each country to work towards the solution of water-related problems among the
three countries. The institute will conduct its studies at the facilities of the Ataturk
Dam, the biggest dam in Turkey, and plans to develop projects for the fair and
effective use of transboundary water resources (Yavuz, 2008).
IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE DEVELOPMENT
Evolution of irrigation development
The oldest and most deeply rooted hydraulic civilization of the world started in
Mesopotamia, from which agricultural and agro-ecological systems developed that
are strongly related to the presence of water. The history of irrigation started about
7 500 years ago when the Sumerians built a canal to irrigate wheat and barley in
Mesopotamia. Irrigation potential is estimated at over 5.55 million ha, of which 63
percent in the Tigris Basin, 35 percent in the Euphrates Basin, and 2 percent in the
Shatt Al-Arab Basin. Considering the soil resources, it is estimated that about 6
million ha are classified as excellent, good or moderately suitable for flood
irrigation. With the development of water storage facilities, the regulated flow has
increased and significantly changed the irrigation potential, which was estimated
15
at 4.25 million ha only in 1976. However, irrigation development depends to a
large extent on the volume of water released by the upstream countries.
The total managed water area was estimated at 3.5 million ha in 1990, all of it
equipped for full or partial control irrigation (Table 3). The areas irrigated by
surface water were estimated at 3 305 000 ha, of which 105 000 ha (3 percent) in
the Shatt Al-Arab River Basin, 2 200 000 ha (67 percent) in the Tigris River
Basin, and 1 000 000 ha (30 percent) in the Euphrates River Basin. However, not
all these areas are actually irrigated, since a large part has been abandoned due to
waterlogging and salinity. The areas irrigated from groundwater were estimated at
220 000 ha in 1990, with some 18 000 wells (Figure 3).
About 8 000 ha were reported to be equipped for localized irrigation, but these
techniques were not used. Water use efficiency at the farm level is reported to be
poor. In 1997, the total irrigated area was estimated at 3.4 million ha, of which
87.5 percent bobtained water from river diversion, 9.2 percent from rivers using
irrigation pumps, 3.1 percent from artesian wells and 1.2 percent from spring
sources (FAO, 2003). In December 1983 the first 87 500 ha stage of the massive
Kirkuk Irrigation Project (renamed Saddam) was opened, of which more than 300
000 ha were eventually irrigated. In 1991 a large supplemental irrigation project,
the North Al-Jazeera Irrigation Project, was launched in order to serve some 60
000 ha using a linear-move sprinkler irrigation system with water stored by the
Mosul Dam (former Saddam Dam).
Another irrigation project, the East Al-Jazeera Irrigation Project, involved the
installation of irrigation networks on more than 70 000 ha of rainfed land near
Mosul. These projects were part of a scheme to irrigate 250 000 ha of the Al-
Jazeera plain. To the south of Baghdad, completed land reclamation schemes
included Lower Khalis, Diwaniya Dalmaj, Ishaqi, Dujaila and much of Abu
Ghraib. The massive Dujaila project was intended t produce about 22 percent of
Iraq’s output of crop and animal products. Consultants have designed irrigation
16
schemes for Kifl-Shinafiya, East Gharraf, Saba Nissan, New Rumaitha, Zubair,
Bastora, Greater Musayyib and Makhmour. The project’s main outfall canal,
completed in December 1992, is known as the “Third River”. It runs for 565 km
from Mahmudiya, south of Baghdad, to Qurnah, north of Basra, and carries saline
water to an outlet on the Gulf (Taylor & Francis Group, 2002).
More recently, a new development project on the “Dissemination of improved
irrigation technologies” was introduced to increase wheat production. The target
was to plant up to 0.5 million ha of wheat under supplemental irrigation by the
year 2007. Currently, there are about 3 500 new farms in Mosul Province under
supplemental irrigation, with an average size of holding of 25 ha per farm. Wheat
is the major winter crop, covering 73 percent of the project area (ESCWA and
ICARDA, 2003).
Role of irrigation in agricultural production, economy and society
During the 1980s the State attempted to foster private sector investment in Iraq’s
agriculture. Oil revenues were used to acquire western technology and to lavish
government subsidies on the sector. The government distributed high-yielding
seeds and invested heavily in the irrigation infrastructure. The 1991 Gulf War
resulted in significant damage to the irrigation and transportation infrastructure
vital to Iraq’s agricultural sector, but it is difficult to evaluate its extent or severity.
Between 75 and 85 percent of crop area is generally planted to grains (mostly
wheat and barley). About one-third of Iraq’s cereal production is produced under
rainfed conditions in the foothills of the northwest in Iraqi-Kurdistan. Winter
wheat and barley are planted in the fall (September–November) and harvested in
the late spring (May–June). Yields on the rainfed crops are generally poor and
vary significantly with rainfall amounts. The remaining two-thirds of Iraq’s cereal
17
production occur within the irrigated zone that runs along and between the Tigris
and Euphrates rivers.
In 1991, there were 224 490 ha of irrigated wheat, with an average yield of 2.7
tons/ ha, while the rainfed wheat area was estimated at 508 620 ha, with an
average yield of 1.7 tons/ha. There were 200 770 ha of irrigated barley, with an
average yield of 1.8 tons/ha, while the rainfed barley area was estimated at 323
730 ha, with an average yield of 1.3 tons/ha. In 1998 the total area planted with
grain crops increased, giving 717 000 ha of irrigated wheat and 785 000 ha of
irrigated barley.
Other main irrigated crops are rice, maize, vegetables, sunflower, but also date and
fruit trees, which are important for the economy of the southern part of the
country. For the
most part, a single crop is planted per year, although there is some multiple
cropping of vegetables where irrigation water is available.
Record cropped areas were achieved in 1992 and again in 1993. However,
agricultural productivity suffered from lack of fertilizers, agricultural machinery
and the means of spraying planted areas with pesticides. Iraq’s irrigation
infrastructure fell into disrepair and salinity spread across much of the irrigated
fields of central and southern Iraq. Moreover, a severe drought which persisted
throughout much of the Middle East from 1999 through 2001 devastated crop
output in Iraq. Cereal production in Iraq’s raindependent northern zone was
particularly hard hit, but even the irrigated production of the central and southern
region suffered from diminished water availability (down to 43 percent of normal
levels). As a result of the drought, Iraq’s annual cereal production per capita
plummeted from its already low 1999 level of 77 kg to only 39 kg by 2000.
Shortage of fodder resulted in forced slaughter of sheep and compounded the
impact of an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in 1998. An estimated one
million head of livestock died due to lack of medicines (Schnepf, 2003).
18
Status and evolution of drainage systems
Throughout history the irrigated agriculture of Iraq’s central and southern region
has been menaced by salinization. Salinity was already recorded as a cause of crop
yield reductions some 3 800 years ago. It spread across much of the irrigated fields
as the Government ended its maintenance of the irrigation system. The water table
of southern Iraq is saline and so close to the surface that it only takes a little
injudicious over-irrigation to bring it up to root level and destroy the crop. High
groundwater tables affect more than half of the irrigated land. Once severe
salinization has occurred in soil, the rehabilitation process may take several years
(Schnepf, 2003). Half of the irrigated areas in central and southern Iraq were found
to be degraded due to waterlogging and salinity in 1970. The absence of drainage
facilities and, to a lesser extent, the irrigation practices (flooding) were the major
causes of these problems. In 1978 a land rehabilitation programme was
undertaken, comprising concrete lining for irrigation canals, and installation of
field drains and collector drains. By 1989 a total of 700 000 ha had been reclaimed
at a cost of around US$2 000/ha. According to more recent estimates 4 percent of
the irrigated areas were severely saline, 50 percent
medium saline and 20 percent slightly saline. Irrigation with highly saline waters
(more than 1 500 ppm) has been practiced for date palm trees since 1977. The use
of brackish groundwater is also reported for tomato irrigation in the south of the
country.
Due to the relief and the sloping river beds the possibilities of draining the excess
irrigation or flood water back to the rivers are few or none. A comprehensive
network of sub-surface tile drains and surface drainage canals collects the drainage
water from the agricultural fields and eliminates it through the Third River’s main
out-fall drain to the Shatt Al-Arab in an attempt to keep the irrigated lands free of
salinization and waterlogging problems. Drainage water pumping stations are used
19
to lift the effluent water to the main out-fall and onwards by gravity to the Gulf.
Almost all land reclamation and development projects contain both irrigation and
drainage components (FAO, 2003).
WATER MANAGEMENT, POLICIES AND LEGISLATION RELATED
TO WATER USE IN AGRICULTURE
Institutions
Governance in Iraq is in a state of flux at present. The Ministry of Water
Resources (MWR) is the bulk water supplier for the country and responsible for
the whole national water planning, operating twenty-five major dams, hydropower
stations and barrages and 275 irrigation pumping stations serving almost the entire
irrigated area.
The MWR comprises five commissions and eleven companies, employing 12 000
staff. Making the MWR functional again in the aftermath of the wars and collapse
of the
previous regime is a top priority and measures to achieve this are under way. Other
key institutions related to water in Iraq include the Ministry of Agriculture, the
Ministry of
Energy, the Ministry of Municipalities and Public Works, the Ministry of
Environment and other ministries and local governorates concerned with economic
and human resources. Higher educational institutions could provide scientific
support on water issues and potential human resources for the government. A few
NGOs are springing up, such as the Iraq Foundation, which is dedicated to
restoring the Mesopotamian marshlands (UNDG, 2005).
20
Policies and legislation
Water resources development and management plans were drawn up in the 1960s
and 1980s. These studies included a comprehensive and detailed analysis of needs,
opportunities and plans for the development and management of Iraq’s water
resources. Investments in water resources development over the years have
generally followed the plans outlined in these documents. They have not been
updated or revisited since their
publication, but the population has grown substantially, much project development
has taken place, multiple wars have been conducted, institutions and regimes have
changed, and regional and world markets for products have become greatly altered
(FAO, 2004). A Law on Irrigation (No. 12 of 1995) and another on Environment
(No. 3 of 1997) have been enacted (ESCWA, 2004).
Workplace Iraq – Wasit
The total area within the limits of Wasit governorate (0001226) dunums these
lands include 6 of the districts are Essaouira and Azizia and NUMANIYA and
Badra, kut and Hay follows a number of areas included in some of the tables and
the farmland of the total area (2,662,526) acres spread over seventeen center
administratively from districts and areas Governorate (Atlas agricultural Wasit
governorate)
Suffer arid and semi-arid soils of Iraq, including lack rainfall and low content of
organic matter, which is the main source of nitrogen soil organic and that the share
of water allocated to agriculture decreases with time due to the increased demand
for food due to population growth and the expansion of farmland, as well as the
competition for water from by other sectors such as industry and other so you must
work on better exploitation of water to maintain the sustainability of agricultural
production and increase it
21
Water is is the primary factor specified for farming systems in the world, one of
the five the foundations for the existence of life on this planet with air and light,
minerals and chlorophyll. If we take the mass of water on the planet as 100%, the
97% of them in the oceans and seas, and the remaining 3% of which 2% in the
snow
poles, and remains 1%, of which 98% water ground, leaving 2% of 1% of the river
water which is equivalent to 0.0002 of the total mass of water, The Hedrolojeon
believes that this percentage is enough to triple the population today if used
properly (Jenks et al, 2007 (
Crop used in this experiment is the maize crop, which is one of the important grain
crops planted on a very large scale in the world, comes after wheat and rice crop in
terms of area and production (FAO, 1980)
They are used as food for humans and used for animal feed and used in
manufacturing many products such as oil and starch. And it also crops that are
running on the accumulation of a large (Crawford and Kennedy, 1960.)amount of
nitrate within
Occupies maize (Zea mays L.) rank important in human and animal life, with a
global productivity rate of 6 t / ha in the United States between 9-10 tons / h and
the highest production on a farm where 24 distinct t / ha (Elsahookie, 1990).
22
1.2. Problem statement and justification
Corn production in Iraq saw a sharp declined between the years of 2006 and 2011
due to an erratic supply of irrigation water. The lack of adequate water supply
discouraged farmers to adopt “thirsty” summer crops such as corn.
Currently, Iraq requires approximately 300,000 metric tons of corn per year to
satisfy the feed consumption of its growing poultry sector. In 2010, Iraq produced
150,000 metric tons of corn, but imported the other 150,000 metric tons to meet
the feed consumption requirement.
Corn offers a good opportunity for profitability due to an interesting minimum
purchasing price offered for import (ID 550,000 per ton) for unlimited quantities
and the possibility to rise yields (which is currently only at half a metric ton per
donum) using the irrigation system which offer little use of water with high
production.
The Drip irrigation system with high efficiecy has the potential to raise
productivity to a level of 1.5 metric tons per donum.
1.3. Objective of the study
The main objective of the study is Utilize Information Technology to Design of
Drip Irrigation System for the Production of Maize in Iraq - al kut.
Specific objectives
The specific objectives of this study are
To calculate the crop water requirement of the maize in Iraq – al kut and
irrigation scheduling.
To select the type of the pipe which give the high efficiency of the system
and save water and energy.
To design the pipe network and select reasonable pump and pipe size of the
system.
23
2.0. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Iraq the prevailing situation
2.1.1. Water Resources
The estimating amount of water available in the country, the quantity (77) cubic
meters including almost 48 billion cubic meters of the Tigris River and the
amount of 29 billion cubic meters from the Euphrates River (and Atbtaat studies
that the quantity of untapped actually of these quantities are almost 25 billion
cubic meters cu.
In spite of the water problems between Iraq and the countries of origin of these
waters, but is at present in sufficient quantities to grow all areas of agricultural
land suitable for cultivation, especially if you have been dealing Water techniques
with water perfusion scientific methods correctly based on the study of for each
crop and with Ptguenat modern irrigation in the process of watering).Ministry of
Planning, the Central Bureau of Statistics)
2.1.2. Human Resources
in possession Iraq, a huge amount of the population, especially the agricultural
population, and increase the population in Iraq are almost increase obliged as
arrived in Iraq's population to 24813 million in 2001 after the population was not
exceed on the 6299 million for the year 1957 Population growth estimate more
than 4% a year, according to data in Table 2, when the population of Iraq had
reached 22989 million in 1999, the proportion of the workforce to 27.7% of the
total population, as the share of the agricultural sector, including 10.6% of the total
workforce. This steady population increases, which reflected a high rate of
population growth, especially the rural population is one of the factors which is a
major focus of the development of the agricultural sector and its development (
Ministry of Planning, the Central Bureau of Statistics)
24
2.1.3. Wasit governorate and the prevailing climate:
Wasit governorate is a province located in central Iraq, the center is the city of
Kut, which whose defining characteristics it in the form of a peninsula surrounded
by water from points east and west, south and away from Bgdadalta, located north
of 180 kilometers and linking southern Iraq
Kut city (the capital of Wasit governorate) surrounded by the Tigris River and is
located where the helm Kut built by the people of the province under the
supervision of the British in the first half of the twentieth century (1938),
bordering the Wasit province of north-eastern Diyala province on the south-eastern
province of Maysan and bounded on the south-west province of DhiQar along the
Garraf and extends adjacent a land route punctuated Noazem 'Dhi Qar' for
irrigation and filling the white storage capacity of 25 million cubic meters. Wasit
bordering the west provinces of Qadisiyah that based Medinhaldewanah, the
province of Babylon by its city of Hilla, the closest city to the west of the Wasit
and bordered to the east of the city of Mehran affiliated to Iran.
Located Kut on the Tigris River and subdivided them rivers: Dujaili, and Garraf,
Shatt Shatrah, Shatt heresy, and others, an area plain is the climate transition
between the Mediterranean climate and desert climate is warm and dry, rainfall
few and temperature is high, and begin to heat the rise as of March, peaking in
July and August.
Track Wasit governorate several districts and separate ways between them and the
following provinces:
Baghdad including: Nu'maniyah, Aziziyah, Essaouira, Zubaydiah the Dhi Qar
province, including: Muwafaqiya, neighborhood. Omens
•Maysan province, including: Sheikh Saad.
Babil province, including: Liberal, Aahimih, and NUMANIYA.
25
Diyala province, including: Badra.
The people of Kut rose upp to the British in 1915 as besieged for five months and
then withdrew them
Agriculture
Famous for Wasit province, the production of food, particularly cereals such as
wheat and barley, sesame, and also famous date palm and others, as well as
features a wealth of rich fish.
Districts and sub-districts
•neighborhood and associated each of my part Muwafaqiya I and omens.
•Azizia and associated each in terms of fossil and Aldboni.
•Kut, capital of Wasit governorate, with a population of 374 thousand inhabitants
and their associated both in terms of both Sheikh Saad and Wasit.
•Essaouira, a city located in Wasit province, with a population of 161 thousand
people and is linked by both my part Zubaydiah I and lipomas.
•Badra and associated both in terms of Jassan and Zurbatiyah.
•NUMANIYA and associated free area
2.2. DRIP IRRIGATION
Drip irrigation is a controlled method of irrigation, consisting of tubes with
emitters. It allows increasing water use efficiencies by providing precise amounts
of water directly to the root zone of individual plants (Burt and Styles, 2007).
26
Figure 2: Drip irrigation
2.2.1. Advantages of Drip irrigation
Many claims as to the advantages of Drip irrigation have been and are still being
made. Currently, the following advantages are recognized:
- The evaporative component of evapotranspiration is reduced, as only a limited
area of the soil is wetted. This is more prevalent with young trees;
- The higher degree of inbuilt management that localized irrigation offers reduces
substantially deep percolation and runoff losses, thus attaining higher irrigation
efficiencies. Consequently, localized irrigation is considered as a water-saving
technology;
- The limited wetted area results in reduced weed growth;
- Applicable to all forms of plots;
- Unaffected by wind;
- Reduced operating costs and labor. Human intervention is reduced to the periodic
inspection of equipment for filtering and control, and the proper operation of
drippers;
- Reduced risk of fungal diseases;
27
- Reduced sensitivity to the use of salt water. The salts are leached to each
application and trained at the periphery of the bulb humidifying outside the scope
of the active root zone. No risk of damage to the aerial parts of plants by spraying
of saline water.
2.2.2. Disadvantages of Drip irrigation
The major disadvantages of localized irrigation are:
- Localized systems are prone to clogging because of the very small aperture of the
water emitting devices hence the need for proper filtration and, at times,
chemigation;
- The movement of salts to the fringes of the wetted area of the soil may cause
salinity problems through the leaching of salts by rain to the main root volume.
This can be avoided if the system is turned on when it rains, especially when the
amount of rain is not enough to leach the salts beyond the root zone depth;
- Rodents, dogs and other animals in search of water can damage the lateral lines;
- For crops of very high population density, the system may be uneconomic
because of the large number of laterals and emitters required;
- The relatively high investment cost of the system;
- The spatial development of the root zone is limited and concentrated in the
vicinity of the dripper making plants more susceptible to wind throw.
28
2.2.3. Benefits of drip on maize
• More efficient use of limited water supplies
• Higher corn and soybean yields
• Better grain quality
• Lower labor costs
• More precise application of fertilizers
• Low operating pressure
• EQIP cost share funding opportunities
• Quick payback
(An ASABE Meeting Presentation Paper Number: 1008764 page 8)
Crop water requirements under drip irrigation
Evapotranspiration is composed of the evaporation from the soil and the
transpiration of the plant. Since under localized irrigation only a portion of the soil
is wetted, the evaporation component of evapotranspiration can be reduced
accordingly, using the appropriate ground cover reduction factor Kr.
For the design of localized irrigation systems:
ETcrop-loc = ETo x Kc x Kr
Where:
ETo = Reference crop evapotranspiration using the Penman-Monteith method;
Kc = Crop factor Kc
Kr = Ground cover reduction factor Kr.
29
FAO (1984) provides the reduction factors suggested by various researchers in
order to account for the reduction in evapotranspiration (Table 1).
Table 1: Values of Kr suggested by different authors (Source: FAO, 1984)
Ground cover
(%)
Crop factor Kr according to
Keller & Karmeli Freeman &
Garzoli
Decroix CTG
REF
10 0.12 0.10 0.20
20 0.24 0.20 0.30
30 0.35 0.30 0.40
40 0.47 0.40 0.50
50 0.59 0.75 0.60
60 0.70 0.80 0.70
70 0.82 0.85 0.80
80 0.94 0.90 0.90
90 1.00 0.95 1.00
100 1.00 1.00 1.00
Irrigation requirements
FAO (1984) defines the net irrigation requirements (IRn) as the depth or volume of
water required for normal crop production over the whole cropped area, excluding
contribution from other sources. The following equation is used:
IRn = ETcrop x Kr – R + LR
By incorporating the irrigation efficiency in the calculations, we obtain the gross
irrigation requirements (IRG)
IRG = (ETcrop x Kr) - R + LR
Ea
30
Where:
IRn = net irrigation requirement
ETo crop = crop evapotranspiration
Kr = ground cover reduction factor
R = water received by plant from sources other than irrigation (for example
effective rainfall)
LR = amount of water required for the leaching of salts
Ea = field application efficiency
Percentage wetted area
The percentage wetted area (Pw) is the average horizontal area wetted within the
top 30 cm of the crop root zone depth in relation to the total cropped area. This
number depends on the desirable percentage wetted area and the area wetted by
one emitter.
Keller and Bliesner (1990) present a relationship that may exist between the
potential production and Pw. They suggest that Pw often approaches 100% for
closely spaced crops with rows and drip laterals spaced less than 1.8 m apart
Taking this, and experience from elsewhere, into consideration, a Pw of 50-60%
for low rainfall areas and 40% for high rainfall areas is proposed for widely spaced
crops (F.A.O; 2007)
Area wetted by an emitter
The area wetted by an emitter, along a horizontal plane (30 cm below the soil
surface), depends on the soil and topography, on the flow rate of the emitter and
31
on the volume of irrigation water. It is therefore advisable to carry out simple field
tests in order to establish the area wetted by an emitter.
32
Number of emitters per plant and emitter spacing
The number of the emitters required per plant is established as follows
Emitters per plant = Area per plant x Pw
Aw
Area per plant (m²)
Pw = Percentage wetted area/100 (%/100)
Aw = Area wetted by one emitter (m²)
flow rate from the drop point
wet
diameters
33
2.2.4. Emitter selection
The following are some of the major emitter characteristics that affect the system
efficiency and should all be taken into consideration during the emitter selection
process:
Emitter discharge exponent
Discharge-pressure relationship to design specification
q = Kd . Hx
Where: q = emitter discharge (lph)
Kd = discharge coefficient that characterizes each emitter
H = emitter operating pressure (m)
x = emitter discharge exponent
Stability of discharge-pressure relationship over a long time
Manufacturer coefficient of variation
Range of operating pressure
Susceptibility to clogging
Type of emitter connection to lateral and head losses
34
Figure 3: Different types of Emitters
(a) Long-path
emitter
(b) Orifice
emitter
(c) In-line
labyrinth
with vortex
and filter
inlets
(d) Labyrinth
type molder
emitters
Source: FAO Module 9: Localized irrigation: planning, design, operation and
maintenance page10
35
Figure 4: Typical Drip System Layout
36
2.3. Maize Farming in Iraq
2.3.1. Crop selection
There are many factors to be considered in selecting
a crop for production. For instance, a farmer’s previous experience producing a
crop or the availability of a contract for the purchase of a crop can weigh in the
decision-making process. However, there are two factors that must always be
considered.
• Market demand for the period. When you could reasonably expect to be able to
deliver the product to the market with some historical data to give you an idea of
the normal volume and price during that period.
• Soil type, climate/micro climate, equipment, irrigation capacity and experience to
be able to have a reasonable expectation that an acceptable
quality product can be delivered to the market during the identified period at a unit
cost, which allows the farmer to make a profit at the lower end of the accumulated
range of historical price data.
If a farmer can satisfactorily answer these questions, he has probably identified a
sustainable opportunity.
Crop rotation
Crop rotation should be a basic part of any sustainable cropping plan. It is an
effective, low cost and widely used cultural practice to prevent or reduce the
buildup of populations of soil-borne plant pathogens, weeds and insect pests. An
effective rotation sequence includes crops from different families that are poor or
non-hosts of the pathogen(s) and pests of concern. In general, the longer the
37
rotation, the better the results. For example, a 3- to 5-year rotation is generally
recommended. From a practical standpoint, however, the number
of years and crops to include in a crop rotation will depend upon the availability of
land, the markets, the selection of commercially viable alternate
crops suited to grow in the area, the pathogen(s), and the purpose of the rotation
(prevention versus reduction). Crop rotation along with the judicious use of
appropriate herbicides is also important in controlling the buildup of different
weed species. Field corn is a valuable crop in a rotation as it can add great
quantities of organic material back into the soil. It is very competitive with weeds
once a stand is established and is useful in the rotation for weed control.
2.3.2. Preparing the field
Soil Tests
Soil tests provide an estimate of nutrient availability for uptake by plants and are
most useful for assessing the fertility of fields prior to planting.
Soil sampling methods are critical, since soil samples must adequately reflect the
nutrient status of a field. Although a single representative sample of an entire field
provides an average value, it is not the best way to develop recommendations for
parts of the field that are less productive. The best technique is to divide each field
into two or three areas, representing good, medium, and poor crop growth areas.
The best time to sample soil is soon after irrigation or rainfall, when the probe can
easily penetrate the moist soil. Before taking a soil sample, remove debris or
residual plant material from
the soil surface. The sample can be taken with a shovel, but a hollow, open faced
soil probe, is preferred. Sample the top15 to 20 cm of soil unless a salt problem is
suspected. If this is likely, then the second 30 to 60 cm should also be sampled.
38
Take 15 to 20 cores at random from each area and mix them thoroughly in a
plastic bucket to produce a single 0.5 L composite sample for each area. Since
there is usually less variability, only 8 to 12 cores need to be composited for the
deeper, second 30 cm samples. Place each sample in a separate double thick paper
bag and air dry the soil at room temperature before taking it to the laboratory. Soil
samples should be tested for Nitrogen (N), Potash (P) Potassium (K), Salinity
(ECe), pH and the minor elements of Boron (B), Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe),
Manganese (Mn), Molybdenum (Mo) and Zinc (Zn). Water Samples should be
tested for Salinity (ECw) and pH. Corn requires a soil ECe of less than 1.7 to
achieve the full yield potential of the variety. The ECw of the water should be less
than 1.1 for the same result. Ninety percent of yield potential requires a soil ECe
of 2.5 or less and water ECw of 1.7 or less.
Table 2: The corn planting dates in Iraq
Corn Planting Dates Summer Planting Spring Planting
Northern Iraq July 1 to 15 March
Central Iraq July 15 to 31 March
Southern Iraq July 20 to August 5 Mid February-
March
Soil Preparation
A good soil management program protects the soil from wind erosion, provides a
good, weed free seed bed or planting and destroys hardpans, salt layers or
compacted layers that may limit root development. In order to accomplish this:
• Till soil as deep as possible using a plow and a ripping or chiseling implement
• Prepare a good seedbed, breaking up all clods with a disc and smoothing with a
harrow or roller
39
• Apply pre-plant fertilizer based on soil test results
• If soil test results are not available apply 50 Kg DAP per donum
Make Beds:
• Spacing between beds should be 75 to 100 cm wide depending on equipment
available. Corn Planting Dates Summer Planting Spring Planting Northern Iraq
July 1 to 15 March Central Iraq July 15 to 31 March Southern Iraq July 20 to
August 5 Mid February- March 75 to 80 cm is preferred for high yielding high
density plantings. If corn is being planted on high ECe soils or irrigated with high
ECw water, a grower may wish to consider planting two rows on a bed, one line
on each side of a 1.5 meter bed, so that furrow irrigation will push the salt to the
center of the bed. Drip irrigation on 80 cm beds is another alternative to be
considered if the soil ECe is high and the water ECw is 1.1 or less.
2.3.3. Irrigation
Gravity irrigation using furrows is the dominant water delivery system in Iraq. In
some provinces, center pivot systems installed for wheat are also used. Since
furrows are the dominant system, land leveling is required to assure uniformity of
irrigation. Apart from this, when furrows are used, the appropriate combination of
stream flow size and length of furrow has to be selected. Furrow spacing is mainly
dependent on each crop. However, in all instances the furrow spacing adopted
should ensure a lateral spread of water between adjacent furrows that will
adequately wet the entire root zone.
The following table shows practical values of maximum furrow lengths depending
on soil type, slope, and stream size and irrigation depth for small-scale irrigation
(FAO, 1988).
40
Table 3: Maximum furrow lengths in meters
Clay Loam Sand
Net irrigation requirements
(mm)
Slope
(%)
Maximum
stream
Size/
furrow
(l/s)
50 75 50 75 50 75
0.0 3.0 100 150 60 90 30 45
0.1 3.0 120 170 90 125 45 60
0.2 2.5 130 180 110 150 60 95
0.3 2.0 150 200 130 170 75 110
0.5 1.2 150 200 130 170 75 110
To establish the appropriate combination of stream flow size and length of furrow
in the USAID-Inma corn field demonstration areas, tests were conducted to know
how fast the water flows over the furrow. In addition, tests to know how fast water
entered into the soil were also performed.
To be fully productive, corn irrigation requirements in the USAID-Inma
demonstration areas are shown in the following table:
41
Table 4 : Corn irrigation requirements in the USAID-Inma demonstration areas
Demonstration
Area
Crop Water
Requirements
(mm/year)
Irrigation
Requirements
(mm/year)
Basrah 696 696
Muthanna 528 521
Diwaniyah 543 543
Babil 610 610
Abu Ghraib 491 490
Diyala 410 405
Kirkuk 518 507
Al Qosh 455 454
Salah Al Din 547 538
Generally, more water is needed to leach salts and to compensate for irrigation
inefficiencies, especially in Iraq where water quality is a problem.
For that reason, the leaching requirement must be determined. Frequency of
irrigation is dependent on the water holding capacity of the soil, climatic factors,
such as temperature, wind, humidity day length, and the permissible soil water
depletion (in the case of corn a soil water depletion level of 50 percent of the total
available soil water has been used).
The water holding capacity of soil varies by soil type, with sandy soils having the
capacity to store about 40 mm of moisture per meter of soil, while heavy clay soils
have the capacity to hold up to 90 mm of moisture per meter. Other soil types fall
somewhere between these extremes. Corn is moderately sensitive to soil salinity.
42
Yield decrease is related to electrical conductivity of the soil. (ECe of extraction
saturated paste in dS/m).
Table 5: Corn Yield Decrease at ECe (soil salinity) Values
2.3.4. Mechanization
The important thing for mechanization of row crops is that both the front and rear
wheels of the tractor and all equipment are the same width track as the f u r row w
id t h. For example with an 80 cm bed spacing, the distance from the center of one
tire to the center of the tire on the opposite side will be 160 cm, or for 100 cm bed
spacing the distance will be 200 cm. The wheel spacing on tractors intended for
row crop use have adjustable track widths. Using a bed spacing that matches the
wheel spacing allows the tractor to pass through the field during planting and
cultivation of the early growth stages without intruding on the planted crop or
compacting the soil around and under the planted crop. This is a basic requirement
for mechanization. All mechanical operations have to be coordinated to be
effective. Thus all operations have to cover the same number of rows or beds. If
beds are shaped four rows at a time, planting should be four rows at a time,
cultivation four rows at a time, and harvest four rows at a time. Planting could be
ECe Value Percent(%) of Decreased Yield
ECe 1.7 dS/m 0%
ECe 2.5 dS/m 10%
ECe 3.8 dS/m 25%
ECe 5.9 dS/m 50%
ECe 10 dS/m 100%
43
done four rows and cultivation done two rows at a time, but there is no advantage
in doing so.
2.3.5. PLANTING
About one week after pre-irrigation cultivate the beds to destroy germinated weeds
and create a dry-surfacemulch to conserve the moisture below the cultivated layer
of soil.
If a cultivator is not available, drag a harrow, a pipe, a log, a section of chain link
fence or some other device through the field to knock the beds down to about half
of their original height. This will kill the germinating weeds and expose cool,
moist soil for planting. Some planters have disc or wing openers which will either
open or scrape off the previously cultivated bed to the depth of the undisturbed
moisture, if the planter does ot have this feature; the farmer should drag off the
beds prior to planting using one of the
methods listed above.
Plant the corn seed immediately after knocking the beds down.
• On 75 or 80 cm beds place one seed every 18 to 20 cm down the row
• Plant seeds to a depth of about 2 to 4 cm, into moisture
• On wider bed spacing place one seed every 15 cm down the row
After Planting
Corn seed should germinate and emerge within a week. Watch for signs of
cutworms
44
Attacking t h e n e w l y emerged corn plants and birds digging up the seeds before
they emerge. Birds are difficult to control. They can sometimes by frightened
away from emerging crops by noise making machines. It should not be necessary
to irrigate for two weeks or more after planting.
Note the very low bed or ridge that the corn is planted on after knocking the
bed down to expose the cool moist soil for seed germination.
CULTIVATION
As the corn grows, the farmer should be cultivating to cut or cover weeds that
germinate and to rebuild the irrigation furrow.
When corn has reached the height of approximately 15 cm (as shown in the photo
to the right) it is possible to throw soil onto the corn roots with each successive
cultivation, which accomplishes both the objectives listed above. In Iraq, corn may
be cultivated 5 or 6 times before it reaches a height that prohibits further
cultivation.
Cultivation does not appear to be a common practice in Iraq. Growers who are not
familiar with cultivation equipment can see some examples at the USAID-Inma
Farm Based Learning Centers (FBLC). There are two FBLCs in each region of
Iraq.
PEST CONTROL WEEDS
Weeds compete with corn for light, nutrients, and water, especially during the first
3 to 5 weeks following emergence of the crop. It is important to control weeds in a
corn field until corn is 15 to 20 cm high, which is when weeds impact corn yields.
Late-season weed infestations do not reduce corn yield nearly as much as early
weed competition; however, late season weeds can harbor destructive insect pests
45
such as thrips, which can vector Fusarium ear rot, and armyworms, which can
defoliate corn.
No single weed control regime is effective for all growing conditions. An
integrated weed management program utilizes a combination of cultural,
mechanical and chemical methods for consistent, effective weed control. It also
helps prevent the development of weed resistance to herbicides and the emergence
of a few dominant weeds. A vigorous, competitive crop produced through proper
seedbed preparation, variety selection, seeding rates, fertilization, irrigation,
cultivation, pest control and crop rotation is the best defense against weed
infestations and competition.
Herbicides are important where weed populations are high, with difficult-to-
control weeds, or where it is critical to gain time because cultivation equipment is
being used elsewhere. Herbicides reduce the early competition of weed infestation,
reduce the seed bank, and reduce the potential for competition in the following
crop.
Pre-plant, pre-emergent, or post-emergent herbicides are available that will
selectively control most species of weeds in corn. Select an herbicide based on
cost, weeds present, stage of corn growth, soil type, succeeding rotation crop, and
adjacent crops.
Farmers should consult their Agriculture Extension Specialist for herbicide
recommendations for Iraq.
Pre-Plant Weed Control
Several measures can be taken to reduce weed infestations before the crop is
planted, beginning with the selection of a relatively weed-free field.
46
Preparing the seedbed so that it is free of large soil clods provides favorable
conditions for corn seed germination and early growth, as well as improved
performance of pre-plant herbicides.
The selection of a vigorous growing variety planted on 75 cm row spacing will
help the crop compete with weeds. Uniform plant population densities of 18,000 to
21,000 plants per donum will maintain yields and reduce mid to late season weed
growth by maximizing shading.
Pre-plant, pre-emergent herbicides are applied to the soil surface and mechanically
mixed in the soil before the crop is planted. Herbicides applied before the corn
emerges offer the advantage of controlling weeds before they compete with the
corn when it is in the seedling stage. This is the most critical time in regard to
yield reduction. Pre-plant herbicides can be applied broadcast on flat ground and
incorporated by disking before beds are formed and the corn is planted, or they can
be applied in a band on pre-formed beds, then incorporated with a rolling
cultivator or power tillers. Dicamba 4% EC (Banvel) Sygenta is recommended for
use on corn in Iraq. Proper use of this herbicide will give control of growth
suppression to many annual, biennial and perennial broadleaf
weeds and many woody brush and vine species of plants. Consult the herbicide
label for a complete list of weeds that can be controlled. Dicamba 4% is NOT
registered for use on sweet corn, only dent corn. Direct contact with corn seed
must be avoided. If corn seeds are less than 3.8 cm below the surface of the soil,
delay the application until corn has emerged. Up to two applications of Dicamba
4% can be made during a growing season. Allow at least two weeks between
applications. Read the product label for full details on
application rate per donum and cautions. Dicamba 4% can be tank mixed with
other herbicides. USAID-Inma can only recommend a limited range of herbicides
listed in the USAID approved PERSUAP.
47
Farmers should contact the local Ministry of Agriculture Extension Specialist or
farm chemical dealer for information on corn herbicides registered and available in
Iraq.
Pre-irrigation before planting corn can be useful to germinate weed seeds that can
subsequently be controlled by cultivation or post-emergent herbicides such as
glyphosate. S-Metolachlor + Atrazine 66% SC (Primagram Gold) is recommended
for corn.
The recommended rate varies from 225 ml per donum to 612 ml per donum
depending on the weed to be controlled.
Farmers must carefully read the herbicide label for exact application rate
recommendations.
Post Emergent Weed Control
Weed wipers are excellent post emergent glyphosate application tools for killing
Johnson grass, nutsedge, and weeds that grow above the corn. (See photo right)
(The above mentioned herbicides are listed in the USAID-Inma PERSUAP)
DISEASES
Diseases which are frequently problems in desert production areas include, but are
not limited to:
Charcoal Rot
Macrophomina phaseolini
Symptoms
Charcoal rot first becomes noticeable when corn is in the tassel stage or later.
Infected stalks become shredded; the pith is completely rotted, leaving stringy
48
vascular strands more or less intact. Small, black, spherical sclerotia of the fungus
are found on and in the vascular strands; they are numerous enough to give the
internal stalk tissue a gray color. As plants mature, the fungus grows into the lower
internodes of the stalk, causing the plants to ripen prematurely and weakening the
stalks, which may cause them to break.
Comments on the Disease
The pathogen overwinters and is disseminated as sclerotia. Plants are infected
through roots only after being weakened by water stress. The fungus is favored by
high temperatures.
Management
Good water management to avoid stressing plants is important in managing this
disease, particularly as the crop approaches the flowering stage.
Crop rotation to non-host crops, such as small grains, can also help reduce the
disease potential. Avoid high plant populations There are no registered fungicides
to control
charcoal rot.
Seed Rots and Damping-off
Pythium spp., Fusarium spp., Penicillium oxalicum,
and other fungi
Symptoms
Seed rot causes the corn seed to rot before germination and damping off causes the
seedling to die soon after emergence. Infected tissue may be water-soaked
(Pythium),white to pink (Fusarium), or bluish (Penicillium).
49
The stem of infected seedlings becomes brown and soft near the soil line.
Aboveground symptoms include yellowing, wilting, and death of the leaves.
Variation in seedling size between healthy and affected seedlings.
Comments on the Disease
Seeds or seedlings may be predisposed to diseaseby several factors, including
planting depth,soil temperature, soil type, seed quality and mechanicalinjury to the
seed pericarp. These diseasesare more common in poorly drained,
excessivelycompacted, or cold (less than 13°C),wet soils. Sweet corn, especially
the supersweethybrids, is much more susceptible thandent (field) corn.
Management
Use high quality seed and good cultural practices, such as planting seed in warm
soil (above 13°C), proper seedbed preparation and optimum water management.
Seed treatments for field corn are usually not warranted.
Covered Smut
Ustilago zeae
Symptoms
The corn plant may be infected at any time in the early stages of growth, but
becomes less susceptible after formation of the ear. Aboveground parts may be
infected, but it is more common to see smut galls on the ears, tassels, and nodes
than on the leaves, internodes or aerial roots. The smut gall is composed of a great
mass of black, greasy, or powdery spores enclosed by a smooth white covering of
corn tissue. The gall may be 4 to 5 inches in diameter. When leaves are infected,
small pustules develop, usually on the midrib, causing some leaf distortion. After
50
the spores mature, the outer covering becomes dry and brittle, breaks open, and the
spores sift out. Greatest yield losses occur when the ear becomes infected or if
smut galls form on the stalks immediately above the ears.
Comments on the Disease
Corn smut is an extremely common disease of sweet, pop and dent corn
throughout the world. It is usually not economically important, although in some
years yield losses in sweet corn may be as high as 20 percent. Corn smut survives
as a resistant spore in the soil for as long as three years. These spores can be blown
long distances with soil particles or carried into a new area on unshelled seed corn
and in manure from animals that are fed infected corn stalks.
The spores germinate in moist air and give rise to tiny spores called sporidia. The
sporidia bud is like yeast, forming new spores that germinate in rain water that
collects in the leaf sheaths. This leads to infections that are visible after 10 days.
Plant injuries provide points for the fungus to enter the plant.
The smut fungus is sensitive to temperature and moisture changes. In a warm
season, the
amount of smut is related closely to the amount of soil moisture. When
temperatures are lower than normal, there may be little smut even though soil
moisture remains high.
Management
In order to reduce infection points from insect injury, control the corn borers as the
first tassels appear by application of insecticides when insect populations are high.
Consult the Ministry of Agriculture Extension Specialist for current insecticide
recommendations. Avoid injury of roots, stalks, and leaves during cultivation.
51
Deep plow diseased corn stalks in the fall to bury surviving spores. Plant resistant
hybrids or varieties, Dent corn is generally more resistant than sweet corn or
popcorn.
Downey Mildew (Crazy Top)
Scleropthora macrospora
Symptoms
Partial to complete replacement of the normal tassel by a large, bushy mass of
small leaves is the most noticeable symptom of Downey Mildew. No pollen is
produced. Ear
formation may also stop, causing ear shoots to be numerous, elongated, leafy and
barren. Plants may be stunted or taller than average.
Conditions
Downey mildew favors saturated soil conditions for 24 to 48 hours. Inoculum
survives in infected corn residue and wild grasses. Inoculum is dispersed as
waterborne spores in saturated soil.
Management
Provide adequate soil drainage, control grassy weeds, avoid sowing in low, wet
spots.
Leaf Blights
Anthracnose leaf blight –Colletotrichum g r a m i n i c o l a ,
Northern Corn Leaf Blight – Exserohilum turcicum
Southern Corn Leaf
B l i g h t - B i p o l a r i s maydis
52
Symptoms
Cigar-shaped gray-green or tan lesions
Leaf Blight Conditions
Leaf blight may not be a common problem in Iraq because development of the
disease favors cool to warm, wet, humid weather, and continuous corn with
reduced tillage. Inoculum survives in infected crop residue (leaves, leaf sheaths
and stalks), seed (endosperm). Inoculum is dispersed as airborne spores.
Management
Plant resistant hybrids and rotate corn with nongrass crops.
Cleanly plow under infected residue.
There are many Virus diseases, which can be spread by aphids. The best control
is resistant varieties. Varietal registration tests currently underway by USAID-
Inma will help identify better varieties for production in Iraq.
53
2.3.6. HARVEST
Figure 5: Maize Harvesting
Corn ears may be harvested by hand in small plantings and run through a
stationary thresher, but the commercial practice is to harvest with a combine with a
corn header. The header strips the ears off of the corn stalk and feeds them into the
threshing area. Header row spacing should match the planter row spacing.
(See Photo above) Research indicates gathering loss can increase 40 kg per
donum if the gathering opening is 10 or 12 cm off the row. If damage from
windstorms or corn borers cause ears in misaligned rows to drop off, field losses
often exceed 150 kg per donum. Corn heads aligned with combine wheels and
matched with planters and row bedders improve combine performance.
54
A rasp-bar cylinder, concave and filler bars, or a threshing rotor are needed for
corn. The machine must be set per the manufacturers recommendations to achieve
an efficient harvest. Converting from a spike-tooth cylinder reduces the combine's
ability to handle down rice, weedy m fields and rank, green stalk. A rasp-bar
cylinder normally improves head rice yield and reduces field loss in corn, grain
sorghum, wheat, and soybeans
Figure 6: Corn Combine Diagram
Field Corn Production in Iraq ( USAID-Inma)
55
Combines may have slight differences but they all operate in basically the same
way. When ears of corn or cut grain enters the combine paddles on a
1) Chain, that brings it up to the…
2) Cylinder, which is a large spinning cylinder covered with rough steel bars.
There it is rubbed between itself and the…
3) Concave. Most of the grain along with some chaff falls through the onto
the front of the…
4) Grain shoe augers, which take the material to the front of the chaffer (7).
Anything that doesn't fall through the small holes in the concave, like cobs,
are sent out the back of the cylinder where the…
5) Beater helps to throw them onto the…
6) Straw walkers. The walkers move back and forth to shake any grain that
might be left in the straw or stalks down where it falls onto the back of the
shoe augers. The back shoe augers send this small material forward where
it drops it on the front of the…
7) Chaffer. The chaffer shakes back and forth while the fan blows air through
it sending small, light pieces of stalk or cob out the back. Heavier material,
like grain, fall through the chaffer onto the…
8) Sieve. The clean grain that falls through the sieve is sent by an elevator
into the…
9) Grain tank on top of the combine. Anything that makes it through the
chaffer but not the sieve is sent by another elevator back to the front of the
combine where it goes through the whole process again.
Check the combine settings between fields for fines and cracked kernels. Fines and
cracked kernels spoil much faster than whole, sound kernels. If necessary adjust
combine settings.
56
Corn Harvest Moisture
Harvesting causes some kernel damage. The relationship of kernel damage to
moisture content is summarized in the illustration to the right. Depending on the
variety and seasonal conditions, minimum kernel damage occurs between 19 and
24 percent moisture (% m.c.).
In some cases, damaged corn has been discounted as foreign material or dockage.
The determination of a recommended moisture level for harvest in Iraq must also
consider the cost and availability of grain drying facilities. Corn must be dried
down to around 13 percent for storage.
Pre-harvest loss and gathering loss varies with insect damage, lodging, and how
tightly ears are held. Ear droppage begins in the 20 percent range (% m.c.) and
accelerates as corn dries. Storms can come without much warning. Because of
that, verify if stalk rot or insect damage exists. If lodging risk is high, harvest early
(around 20% m.c.) to avoid a potential 150 to 300 kg per donum field loss.
Aflatoxin is not likely to be a problem in wellmanaged corn. (Aflatoxin is a class
of toxic compounds that are produced by certain molds sometimes found in stored
grains, produced by Aspergillus flavus and related fungi. Moldy feedstuffs
contaminated with aflatoxins have caused severe disease and mortality in
livestock, particularly poultry.) However, aflatoxin may proliferate rapidly under
the right conditions, so a grower should consider his options.
If corn can be dried to 15 percent or below within a day, the spread of aflatoxin is
minimized by early corn harvest. Corn as wet as 28 percent moisture can be
harvested by adjusting the combine for reduced kernel damage and improved
separation.
Economical harvest timing depends on the drying cost or high-moisture discounts
and field loss and damage penalty. Farmers should consider their own
circumstances, including the risk of field loss, how quickly all the corn can be
57
harvested, drying options, and the market. Recover most of the drying cost by
reducing field loss and kernel damage. On this basis, beginning corn harvest at 20
percent m.c. is a sound decision for some; starting harvest around 18 percent m.c.
fits many other situations. Exposure to weather risks, shrinkage, field loss and
damage are compelling reasons to complete all corn harvest before the corn
reaches 14 percent m.c.
3.0. METHODOLOGY
Used to locate the intended area and
be able to measure its size, geographic
coordinates and slopes.
Used to determine the soil
characteristics
Used to generate the
climatic data of the study
area
Used to determine the maximum crop
water requirement, annual total gross
irrigation and irrigation scheduling
Used to determine the type of drip line
which saves water and energy
Used to model the pipe network
and select the reasonable pipe size
of the system
58
3.1. Google earth and the site dimensions determination
Description of Google earth
Here, for the sake of our study, we used it to locate our site subject to the study.
Indeed, it permitted us to delimit our site and measure its size, geographic
coordinates, the slope and latitude. This instrument allow us to work with altitude
error less than 2,5 m and with a planimetric error less than ±5 m.
Dimension of the site determination
Dimensions and coordinates of the site subject to the study are presented in the
following table.
Table 6: study area information
Characteristics of site Measure
Length 80
Width 50
Latitude 32°31’45,37”N
Longitude 45°46’51,94”E
Altitude 21m
Elevation1 21m
Elevation2 20m
Slope 1.3%
59
Figure 7: Location of the study area
Point-A-
longitude = 45°46
'51.93
"
Latitude = 32°31
'46.50
"
Point-B-
longitude = 45°46
'52.64
"
Latitude = 32°31
'46.22
"
Point-C-
longitude = 45°46
'52.10
"
Latitude = 32°31
'45.10
"
Point-D-
longitude = 45°46
'51.33
"
Latitude = 32°31
'45.32
"
Location of the study area
60
3.2. Collection of agro-climatic data
The annual rainfall and other climatic data were generated by the software
CLIMWAT 2.0 from the KUT-NAL – HAI station which is nearest from the
field.
Figure 8: Shows the location of KUT – NAL – HAI station and other stations
from the field.
61
Climatic data determination
The climatic/ETo and Rainfall data from the KUT-NAL – HAI station are in the
following tables
Table 7: Climate/ ETo
Month Min Temp Max Temp Humidity Wind Sun Rad ETo
°C °C % km/day hours MJ/m²/day mm/day
January 5.5 17.5 67 199 6.2 11.1 1.98
February 6.9 20 65 225 6.9 14 2.67
March 10.7 24 54 216 7.1 16.9 3.83
April 15.6 29.8 49 216 7.6 20 5.24
May 21 36.9 38 216 8.9 23 7.16
June 24.4 41.5 28 268 11.1 26.5 9.66
July 26.4 43.5 28 242 10.9 26.1 9.55
August 25.9 43.8 30 225 10.5 24.4 8.92
September 22.5 40.8 31 225 9.7 21 7.77
October 17.4 35 43 190 8.2 16.3 5.29
November 11.8 26.2 56 181 6.5 11.9 3.21
December 6.8 19.2 63 173 6 10.3 2.09
Average 16.2 31.5 46 215 8.3 18.5 5.62
Table 8: Rainfall data
Month Rain Eff rain
mm mm
January 31 29.5
February 23 22.2
March 14 13.7
April 27 25.8
May 11 10.8
June 0 0
July 0 0
August 0 0
September 0 0
October 6 5.9
November 24 23.1
December 15 14.6
Total 151 145.6
62
These data from CLIMWAT 2.0 were used in Cropwat 8.0 to estimate Crop Water
Requirement.
3.3. Soil data determination
Data used in the software (Soil Water Characteristics program - Hydraulic
Properties Calculator) for soil characteristics determination are: 36% of sand, 21%
of clay, 0.5% of organic matter and 6% of gravel. The figure and the
characteristics are shown as follows.
Figure 9: Presentation of characteristics of the soil
63
The data below coming from the software are used in Cropwat for Crop Water
Requirements estimation.
Table 9: Data of the study soil
Soil characteristics Values
Texture class Loam
Wilting point 21.4%Vol
Field capacity 27.1% Vol
Saturation 41.2% Vol
Available water 50 mm/m
Sat Hydraulic Cond 7.13mm/hr
Matric Bulk Density 1.56g/cm3
3.4. VeProLGs (1.6.0) and design parameter determination
Description of VeProLGs
Ve.Pro.LGs is a computer program for the verification and design of drip line and
areas of planting to save water and energy. Ve.Pro.LGs is a software application
that performs operational tests on equipment design and dimensioning of drip
irrigation, with the aim of increasing the uniformity of distribution of irrigation to
save water and reduce energy consumption .Through the use of Ve.Pro.LG / s is
possible to evaluate the functioning of entire sectors of irrigation on field crops,
trees, flowers and plants, although grown on slopes and strongly with changes in
elevation along the line.
In particular, the program has operational tools that allow:
To verify the operation of equipment already installed, identifying any
changes to improve performance
Guide the design choices in the construction of new facilities according to
criteria of high efficiency;
64
Provide useful parameters for site management;
Involve the evaluation of functional performance of the plants the costs of
amortization of the purchase of drip lines and energy costs for water
delivery.
Ve.pro.LG. s for the design of the distribution network at the sub-plot level,
namely driplines system.
The software Ve.Pro.L.G. s., name derived from the initials of "Verification and
Design of drip lines and areas of plant stems from Ve.Pro.LG. s first version,
released in 2003 and represents a substantial evolution, being able to assess the
functioning of entire planting areas and also extend the application range of the
horticultural industry and tree crops, even when grown on sloping ground, with
changes in elevation along the line.
Ve.Pro.L.G. s. is an application that, taking into account specific conditions of use,
performs audits of project scope and operation of drip lines and areas of irrigation
by drop, with the aim of increasing the uniformity of water delivery, water savings
and reduces energy consumption. For this purpose, with operational tools needed
to verify the operation of equipment already installed, identifying any changes to
improve performance and provide reliable and unbiased information to guide
design choices in construction of new facilities.
The software is already equipped with the operating characteristics of a large
number of drip lines full tested by the National Laboratory of Irrigation within a
Convention between ARSIA and University of Pisa and is a direct reference to
65
these, after choosing from a menu pull-down. "However, also allows you to check
the operation of any other kind of line dripping, provided we know the parameters
of functional skills
To use the full potential of Ve.Pro.LG s. must first provide details on the specific
situation in which we act. Having this information, software, through its
operational instruments, produces a complete picture of technical and economic
evaluations. In particular, on existing systems, specifying the model used drip line,
the slope of the terrain, the length and pressure lines, the operational tools "test
lines on the header of unilateral (l / h.m) and verify lines bilaterally on the head (l /
h.m) reconstruct the operation in terms of proper maintenance and adequate water
filtration, and provide for individual lines or optionally the entire industry, the
value of the following parameters:
- Index to estimate the uniformity of delivery EU (%);
- Energy input required for water delivery (Wh / m³);
- Minimum, maximum and average in liters per hour per meter of line (l /h.m);
- Pressure minimum, maximum and average, expressed as water column height H
(m w.c);
- Average intensity of irrigation (mm/h);
- Waste water or water that is lost in seepage, deep, to avoid excessive portions of
crops are irrigated in a deficit, expressed both in percentage terms than in m³ / ha
or even in m³ / year on the sector;
- Annual energy consumption in kWh / ha or optionally in kWh for the entire
industry;
- Annual energy cost in € / ha or optionally in € for the whole industry, both in the
case of pumps coupled to electric motors, which powered by a diesel internal
combustion engines;
- Annual incidence of the purchase cost of the drip lines in € / ha or optionally in €
for the entire industry.
66
Data for Irrigation Uniformity distribution Determination
Data useful and chosen in the software for the uniformity of irrigation distribution
determination are recorded in following table.
Table 10: VeProLGs data
Input data
Characteristics
Dripline P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000 )
Mainfold length (50m) PE AD PFA 6 DN 110
Inlet pressure 6.3 mH2O
Slope 1.3%
Line Side 1 80m
The dripline P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) was selected because it has low inlet pressure
and energy compared to the others even if all have the efficiency greater than 90%
Using these data in the software, one obtains the following data.
67
Figure 10: Uniformity of irrigation determination
68
The uniformity of irrigation distribution on the plot of 0.4ha determined is 97.3%,
the area flow rate is 7.4 l/s and the irrigation intensity is 6.7 mm/hour. This
uniformity is finally used in Cropwat to estimate Crop Water Requirements
3.5. CROPWAT 8.0 and Crop Water Requirements and irrigation
scheduling
Description of CROPWAT 8.0
CROPWAT is a decision support tool developed by the Land and Water
Development Division of FAO
(http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_databases_cropwat.html).
CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows is a computer program for the calculation of crop
water requirements and irrigation requirements based on soil, climate and crop
data. In addition, the program allows the development of irrigation schedules for
different management conditions and the calculation of scheme water supply for
varying crop patterns. CROPWAT 8.0 can also be used to evaluate farmers’
irrigation practices and to estimate crop performance under both rainfed and
irrigated conditions.
All calculation procedures used in CROPWAT 8.0 are based on the two FAO
publications of the Irrigation and Drainage Series, namely, No. 56 "Crop
Evapotranspiration - Guidelines for computing crop water requirements” and
No. 33 titled "Yield response to water".
CROPWAT 8.0 includes standard crop and soil data. When local data are
available, these data files can be easily modified or new ones can be created.
Likewise, if local climatic data are not available, these can be obtained for over
69
5,000 stations worldwide from CLIMWAT, the associated climatic database. The
development of irrigation schedules in CROPWAT 8.0 is based on a daily soil-
water balance using various user-defined options for water supply and irrigation
management conditions. Scheme water supply is calculated according to the
cropping pattern defined by the user, which can include up to 20 crops.
CROPWAT 8.0 is a Windows program based on the previous DOS versions. Apart
from a completely redesigned user interface, CROPWAT 8.0 for Windows
includes a host of updated and new features, including:
Monthly, decade and daily input of climatic data for calculation of
reference evapotranspiration (ETo);
Backward compatibility to allow use of data from CLIMWAT database ;
Possibility to estimate climatic data in the absence of measured values ;
Decade and daily calculation of crop water requirements based on updated
calculation algorithms including adjustment of crop-coefficient values ;
Calculation of crop water requirements and irrigation scheduling for paddy
& upland rice, using a newly developed procedure to calculate water
requirements including the land preparation period ;
Interactive user adjustable irrigation schedules ;
Daily soil water balance output tables ;
Easy saving and retrieval of sessions and of user-defined irrigation
schedules ;
Graphical presentations of input data, crop water requirements and
irrigation schedules ;
Easy import/export of data and graphics through clipboard or ASCII text
files ;
70
Extensive printing routines, supporting all windows-based printers
Context-sensitive help system
Multilingual interface and help system: English, Spanish, French and
Russian.
3.6. Determination of crop irrigation schedule
The crop irrigation schedule coming from Cropwat estimation useful for the maize
crop irrigation is recorded in the following table.
Table 11: Data of Crop irrigation schedule
Date Day Stage Rain Ks Eta Depl Net
Irr
Deficit Loss Gr. Irr
mm fract. % % mm mm mm mm
19-Mar 19 Init 0 1 100 46 12.5 0 0 12.7
30-Mar 30 Dev 0 1 100 46 15.5 0 0 15.8
6-Apr 37 Dev 0 1 100 49 19 0 0 19.4
11-Apr 42 Dev 0 1 100 47 19.4 0 0 19.8
16-Apr 47 Dev 0 1 100 47 21.3 0 0 21.7
20-Apr 51 Dev 0 1 100 45 21.2 0 0 21.6
24-Apr 55 Dev 0 1 100 49 24.7 0 0 25.2
28-Apr 59 Mid 0 1 100 49 24.7 0 0 25.2
1-May 62 Mid 0 1 100 45 22.4 0 0 22.9
5-May 66 Mid 0 1 100 59 29.6 0 0 30.2
9-May 70 Mid 0 1 100 59 29.6 0 0 30.2
12-May 73 Mid 0 1 100 52 25.8 0 0 26.3
15-May 76 Mid 0 1 100 53 26.6 0 0 27.1
18-May 79 Mid 0 1 100 50 24.8 0 0 25.3
21-May 82 Mid 0 1 100 55 27.6 0 0 28.2
24-May 85 Mid 0 1 100 57 28.5 0 0 29.1
27-May 88 Mid 1.2 1 100 57 28.5 0 0 29.1
30-May 91 Mid 0 1 100 59 29.7 0 0 30.3
2-Jun 94 Mid 0 1 100 61 30.7 0 0 31.3
5-Jun 97 End 0 1 100 62 31.2 0 0 31.9
8-Jun 100 End 0 1 100 62 31.2 0 0 31.8
11-Jun 103 End 0 1 100 59 29.5 0 0 30.1
14-Jun 106 End 0 1 100 52 25.9 0 0 26.4
18-Jun 110 End 0 1 100 69 34.5 0 0 35.2
22-Jun 114 End 0 1 100 57 28.5 0 0 29.1
28-Jun 120 End 0 1 100 67 33.7 0 0 34.4
3-Jul End End 0 1 0 37
71
From crop irrigation schedule in Cropwat the total gross irrigation and the total net
irrigation are respectively 690.3 mm and 676.4 mm for all the cycle of the maize
cultivation. The gross irrigation value (34.4mm) will be used to calculate the
duration of irrigation.
3.7. EPANET 2.0 and design of the irrigation scheme
Description of EPANET 2.0
Software that Models the Hydraulic and Water Quality Behavior of Water
Distribution Piping Systems.
Developed by EPA's Water Supply and Water Resources Division
(www.epa.gov/nrmrl/wswrd/dw/epanet.html) EPANET is software that models
water distribution piping systems. It is a Windows 95/98/NT/XP program that
performs extended-period simulation of the hydraulic and water quality behavior
within pressurized pipe networks.
Pipe networks consist of pipes, nodes (pipe junctions), pumps, valves, and storage
tanks or reservoirs. EPANET tracks the flow of water in each pipe, the pressure at
each node, the height of the water in each tank, and the concentration of a
chemical species throughout the network during a simulation period. Chemical
species, water age, source, and tracing can be simulated.
EPANET provides an integrated computer environment for editing network input
data, running hydraulic and water quality simulations, and viewing the results in a
variety of formats. These include color-coded network maps, data tables, time
series graphs, and contour plots.
EPANET provides a fully equipped, extended-period hydraulic analysis package
that can:
Handle systems of any size ;
72
Compute friction head loss using the Hazen-Williams, the Darcy
Weisbach, or the Chezy-Manning head loss formula;
Include minor head losses for bends, fittings, etc;
Model constant or variable speed pumps;
Compute pumping energy and cost ;
Model various types of valves, including shutoff, check, pressure
regulating, and flow control;
Allow storage tanks to have any shape (i.e., surface area can vary with
height);
Consider multiple demand categories at nodes, each with its own pattern
of time variation;
Model pressure-dependent flow issuing from emitters (sprinkler heads);
Base system operation on simple tank level or timer controls as well as on
complex rule-based controls
EPANET 2.0 for the design and dimensioning of pipes (pipeline system), from the
water intake to the head of each of the four sub-plots, namely, main and secondary
pipes.
EPANET performs extended period simulation of hydraulic and water quality
behavior within pressurized pipe networks. EPANET tracks the flow of water in
each pipe, the pressure at each node, the height of water in each tank, and the
concentration of a chemical species throughout the network during a simulation
period comprised of k multiple time steps.
EPANET was developed by the Water Supply and Water Resources Division
(formerly the Drinking Water Research Division) of the U.S. Environmental
Protection Agency's National Risk Management Research Laboratory.
73
EPANET contains a state-of-the-art hydraulic analysis engine that includes the
following capabilities:
- places no limit on the size of network that can be analyzed;
- computes friction head loss using either Hazen-Williams, Darcy-Weisbach, or
Chezy-Manning equations;
- includes minor head losses for bends, fittings, etc;
- models constant or variable speed pumps
- computes pumping energy and cost;
- models various types of valves including shutoff, check, pressure regulating, and
flow control valves;
- allows storage tanks to have any shape (i.e., diameter can vary with height);
- considers multiple demand categories at nodes, each with its own pattern of time
variation;
- Models pressure-dependent flow issuing from emitters (sprinkler heads);
- can base system operation on both simple tank level or timer controls and on
complex rule-based controls.
74
4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT
The summary of Crop Water requirement for maize obtained from CROPWAT are
shown in the following table
Table 12: Maize water requirements
Month Decade Stage Kc ETc ETc Eff rain
Irr.
Req.
coeff mm/day mm/dec mm/dec mm/dec
Mar 1 Init 0.3 1.03 10.3 4.9 5.5
Mar 2 Init 0.3 1.15 11.5 3.6 7.9
Mar 3 Deve 0.46 1.98 21.8 5.3 16.5
Apr 1 Deve 0.74 3.54 35.4 8.1 27.3
Apr 2 Deve 1.01 5.29 52.9 9.9 43
Apr 3 Mid 1.22 7.18 71.8 7.8 64
May 1 Mid 1.24 8.06 80.6 5.2 75.5
May 2 Mid 1.24 8.86 88.6 3.5 85.1
May 3 Mid 1.24 9.89 108.7 2.3 106.4
Jun 1 Late 1.15 10.41 104.1 0.1 104
Jun 2 Late 0.87 8.64 86.4 0 86.4
Jun 3 Late 0.57 5.61 56.1 0 56.1
Jul 1 Late 0.38 3.64 10.9 0 10.9
739.2 50.5 688.7
From the table above shows that crop water requirements of maize from this area
is higher at May and June which are 106.4 and 104 respectively due to high
evapotranspiration and low rainfall.
75
Figure 11 : Production cycle water requirements
From: Cropwat analysis, The total net irrigation is equal 676.4mm, with a
maximum daily water requirement of 8.6mm/day for a planting date of 01 March
(Figure14).
76
4.2. DRIP LINE DESIGN
The drip line design is the design of the irrigation system at field level. It is
consists in choosing, depending on the characteristics of the field, the drip line that
provides better uniformity while having a look at the investment cost
4.2.1. Drip line available in the study area and used in the
Design
The result of the investigation into the emitters available in the study area
gave the following table. This is essentially the Drip lines manufactured by
Netafim
Table 13: Drip lines available in the study area
Dripnet PC 16390 d.16 q.1.0 s.0.3
autocomp (2005)
Dripnet PC 16390 d.16 q.1.0 s.0.6
autocomp (2005) areas in
Python 80 d.22 q.0.6 s.0.4 (2001)
Python d.22 q.0.84 s.0.3 (2004)
RAAM d.16 q.2.3 s.0.8 autocomp
(2004)
RAAM d.16 q.1.6 s.0.8 autocomp
(2004)
RA’AM d.17 q.2.3 s.0.5
autocomp(1997)
RA’AM d.17 q.2.3 s.0.6
autocomp(1997)
Streamline 60 d.16 q.0.87 s.0.3
(2004)
Streamline 60 d.16 q.1.32 s.0.3
(2000)
Streamline 80 d.16 q.1.49 s.0.2
(2000)
Streamline 80 d.16 q.1.49 s.0.3
(2000)
Streamline 80 d.16 q.1.49 s.0.4
(2000)
Streamline SL60 d.16 q.0.87 s.0.4
(2000)
Streamline SL80 d.16 q.0.98 s.0.4
(2000)
Streamline SL80F d.16 q.0.98
s.0.3 (1999)
Typhoon 20 d.16 q.1.75
s.0.4(1998)
Uniram d.16 q.2.3 s0.3 autocomp.
(2002)
Uniram CNL d.16 q.2.3 s.0.6
autocomp (2004)
Uiram CNL d.16 q.2.3 s.0.6
autocomp. (2005)
Uniwine d.16 q.2.3 s.0.8
autocomp. (2005)
Uniwine d.16 q.1.6 s.0.8
autocomp. (2004)
P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000 )
77
4.2.2. Ranking of drip lines according to uniformity
According to the sub plots features i.e. square of side 80m with a slope of 1.3%,
the rank of drip line according to the distribution uniformity gives the result shown
in figure 15.
Figure 12: Ranking of Drip line according to uniformity
78
From: VePro.LG.s analysis
Of the 23 drip lines identified, 10 provide uniformity above 90%, which is
potentially useful in designing a system of drip irrigation.
Figure 13: Operating under P1d.16q1.4s.0.2
From: VeProLG analysis
P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) provides uniformity on line of 97.3%, with an operating
pressure of 6.3 mH2O and an irrigation intensity of 6.7mm/hour (figure 13).
79
Figure 14: Area checking under P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000)
From: VeProLG analysis
The area uniformity is 97.3 % and the area flow rate is 7.4 l/s = 26.64 m3/hour
(figure 14)
80
Discussion
(a) Among the 23 drip line available in the study area, 10 provide a uniform
distribution over 90%. (90% being the acceptable threshold in drip
irrigation). The first 4 drip lines ranking are self-compensating, i.e. drip
line whose discharge varies very little or not in case of change of pressure
(Emitter discharge exponent x close to zero). Another characteristic of self-
compensating drip lines is their relatively high cost due to this particular
characteristic.
The seventh ranking drip line P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) is not self-
compensating and does provide a very satisfactory uniformity of 97.4% on
line and on area. Moreover, P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) has the advantage of
operating under a very low pressure (6.3) which means a low energy
requirement by pumping (Annual cost of energy).
Knowing that the cost of non self-compensating drip lines is significantly
less than the cost of self-compensating drip line, and also considering that a
uniformity of 97.4% is sufficient to ensure proper functioning of the
system, it is preferable to choose the drip line P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) to
design the irrigation system.
P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) has an operating pressure of 6.3 mH2O therefore
the choice of the pump’s pressure will reflect this operational pressure and
should take into account the head losses due to the transport of water inside
the pipe lines.
Moreover, the intensity of irrigation issued by P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000)
(6.7mm/hour) is sufficient to meet the maximum daily water requirement
of 8.6mm/day in just 7 hours 15 minutes.
(b) EPANET elaboration: The pipe line system was fully designed with pipe
of 158.6 mm of diameter. This diameter ensures a flow velocity lower than
0.24 m/s while maintaining a pressure close to 6.3mH2O This corresponds
to the operational pressure of P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000)
81
A pump with a low operating pressure of 10 m.w.c has been used for the design.
Although P1d.16q1.4s.0.2 (2000) works with an operating pressure of 6.3mcw, a
pump with a pressure of 10 m.c.w was used in order to compensate the loss due to
the water transport inside the pipes (friction) and also to overcome the slope of the
field.
Has been also integrated a filter to the design although EPANET does not offer
this option. But in order to assure to the drip line system good water quality and
thereby avoid emitters clogging, the use of filter is required. The choice of this
filter could indeed integrate a sand filter and a disc filter as the source of water for
irrigation is surface water (river).
82
CONCLUSION
Utilization Information Technology (Google earth, VeProLGs, HWSD, SPAW,
CLIMWAT 2.0, CROPWAT 8.0 and EPANET 2.0) was lead to the Design of a
Drip Irrigation System for the Production of Maize in Iraq - al kut.
The final system has an efficiency of 97.4% and works with a very low request of
energy by pumping, only 6.3 m.w.c of operating pressure while the total head is 10
m.w.c. This performance increases substantially water saving in irrigation,
therefore, allows extension of irrigated areas with the same resource and also its
sustainable use.
The system also has the advantage of being designed entirely with irrigation
facilities available in the study area, which makes its eventual implementation
feasible and quite easy.
This design was made for the cultivation of maize in Iraq - al kut but the same
approach might be applied to other crops on different agricultural fields.
This methodological approach and especially the final result provide a guide to
Iraq for the future of irrigated agriculture to develop.
83
REFERENCES
Field Corn Production in Iraq USAID-Inma
Marvellous Mesopotamia, The world's wonderland, by Toseph T.Parfit
MA, Page 15
BBC: Secret Iraq - Insurgency a b c d official website of the Court of
Wasit governorate.
F.A.O Irrigation Manual Module 9. 2007. Localized Irrigation Systems:
Planning, Design, Operation and Maintenance;
Irrigation Manual: Planning, Development Monitoring and Evaluation of
Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer Participation Developed by Andreas P.
SAVVA Karen FRENKEN Volume IV Module 7
Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). 2005. The national strategy for
agricultural development.
Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI). 2002. Wastewater reuse. Water
demand management forum. 35 pp.
MWI. 2002. Water sector planning & associated investment Program,
2002 – 2011. Amman, Jordan.
FAO. 2008. Project Design & Management Training Programme for
Professionals in the Water Sector in the Middle East
FAO/ESCWA. 1994. Land and water policies in the Near East Region.
Case studies on Egypt, Jordan and Pakistan. Amman, Jordan.
Drip Irrigated Field Corn
84
Danny Sosebee, Jan Windscheffel and Michael Dowgert Ph.D.
Netafim Irrigation Inc. Fresno, CA
DRIP IRRIGATION IN CORN .Jim Klauzer Agronomist Clearwater
Supply,
541 889-0007
Rainbird International. 1980. Design manual drip irrigation systems.
Keller, J. & Bliesner, R.D. 1990. Sprinkler and Trickle Irrigation.
Chapman & Hall, New York.
Burt, C.M. and S. W. Styles. 2007. Drip and Micro Irrigation Design and
Management for Trees, Vines, and Field Crops. 3rd Edition. Irrigation
Training and Research Center, 2007;
Irrigation Water Management: Training Manual No. 1 - Introduction to
Irrigation/ FAO - food and agriculture organization of the United Nations
Irrigation Water Management: Training Manual No. 8, Structures for
water control and distribution
Irrigation Manual: Planning, Development Monitoring and Evaluation of
Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer Participation Developed by Andreas P.
SAVVA Karen FRENKEN Volume II Module 7
Irrigation Manual: Planning, Development Monitoring and Evaluation of
Irrigated Agriculture with Farmer Participation Volume III Module 8
85
Water report 22: Deficit Irrigation Practices, FAO
FAO Consultant A. Phocaides, HANDBOOK ON PRESSURIZED
IRRIGATION
TECHNIQUES, FAO/United Nations, Rome Italy, 2007.
FAO, 1998, Crop evapotranspiration – Guidelines for computing crop
water requirements by Richard G. Allen, Luis S. Pereira, Dirk Raes &
Martin Smith, Irrigation Paper No. 56 FAO, Rome Italy
FAO, 1992, CROPWAT, A computer program for irrigation planning and
management.
Prof. P.P.S. Lubana and Prof. M.P. Kaushal, Tutorial on Irrigation
Practices
www.toromicroirrigation.com
www.dripirrigation.org
www.irrigation.org
www.agcensus.usda.gov
Ve. Pro.L.G.s Program by Dott. Agric. Ivan Solinas & Dott. Marcello
Bertolaca
FAO CLIMWAT 2.0 Manual by Jurgen Griesen (2006)
Soil and Water characteristics USDA Agricultural Research Service in
cooperation with Department of Biological System Engineering
Washington State University
86
APPENDECIES
(a). Charts of climatic data from KUT-NAL – HAI station- Iraq
Maximum and Minimum Temperature (0C)
87
Humidity(%)
88
Wind(km/day)
89
Sunshine (hours)
90
Radiation (MJm2/day)
91
ETO (mm/day)
92
ETo (mm/day)
93
Rain (mm)
94
Effective rain (mm)
95
Rain and Effective rain (mm)
96
(b). Crop Water Requirements Graphs
ET crop (Maize) graph
97
Crop Water Requirements Graph (Maize)
98
ETC and Irrigation Requirements
99
(c). Irrigation Scheduling graph
100
(d). Agro – Climatic Data
Climate/ETO
101
Rain
102
Crop(Maize)
103
Soil
104
Crop Water Requirements (Maize)
105
Crop Irrigation Schedule
106
Crop Irrigation Schedule
107
Crop Irrigation Schedule
108
(e). Pipe network
109
(f). Performance pump curve
110
111
(g). Scheme Supply
