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UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA-MAMPONG CAMPUS
FACILITY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
SURVEY ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS
AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE ACADEMIC
INSTITUTION IN GHANAA CASE STUDY OF MAMPONG MUNICIPALITY
BY
DWIRA MARK HAYFORD
MAY, 2014
1
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA-MAMPONG CAMPUS
FACILITY OF SCIENCE AND ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION
SURVEY ON ERGONOMIC AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS
AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND RESEARCHERS IN STATE ACADEMIC
INSTITUTION IN GHANAA CASE STUDY OF MAMPONG MUNICIPALITY
BY
DWIRA MARK HAYFORD
(5101930056)
A PROJECT WORK PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND
ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION,
WINNEBA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE
IN ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND SANITATION EDUCATION
MAY, 2014
2
DECLARATION
STUDENT’S DECLARATION
I, DWIRA MARK HAYFORD, hereby declare that the presentation in this project work is
based entirely on my own work except references to other people’s work which have been
dully acknowledged. Itherefore declare that this work has never been presented wholly or
partially for any other studies anywhere.
STUDENT’S NAME: DWIRA MARK HAYFORD
SIGNATURE: ………………………………………………….
DATE: ……………………………………………………………
SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION
I hereby declare that, I supervised this work in accordance with the guidelines and
regulations of the University of Education, Winneba’s Supervision of project work.
SUPERVISOR’S NAME: MR. BENJAMIN TIMUUM
SIGNATURE: ………………………………………………….
DATE: ……………………………………………………………
i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Ebenezer, this is where the Lord Almighty has brought me this far. This project would not
have been successful if not through his protection and guidance showered on me from level
hundred up to this stage of my life in the academic platform. My sincere gratitude goes to
my able Supervisor Mr. Benjamin Timuum for his encouragement, constructive criticisms,
guidance and suggestions offered during the preparation of this dissertation
My heartfelt gratitude goes to Mr. Apau the deputy registrar of the university of Education-
Mampong campus, Mr. Oteng Kwadwo Akyina a lecturer of university of Education-
Mampong Campus, Madam Comfort of University farms, Portia Manu-boafo of Maakro
S.D.A church, Zakiya Yahaya of Buokrom, Alice Dopsey of Buokrom (South Africa) S.DA.
Church, Madam Nadia Moro my course mate at the university and GNAAS fellowship
member for sharpening my life to be dedicated to Christ Jesus from level hundred up to date.
I am equally indebted to all the national executives for their support in hard times and my
land ladies Elizabeth Appiah, Mary Appiah and Haggai Donkor all in Mampong. All elders
of Mampong New Town S.D.A church and Theresa Donkor also of Mampong New Town
S.D.A Church.
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Dwira and Mr. Maxwell Afriyie Dwira my
brother whose hard work and total commitment has push me to this far in life.
May God bless you!!!
My other siblings namely Comfort Anokyewaa and her husband, Jermina Dwira, Elizabeth
Dwira, Thomas Owusu and Owusu Arhin for their love, physical and spiritual support in
prayers, care they showed in my academic carrier. All that l will say to them is that may God
replenish anything you have lost about my four University Education in CAGRIC
iii
ABSTRACT
Work-related ailments that emanate from ergonomics and occupational hazards among
workers especially teachers and researchers in our academic institutions in the country has
been neglected and this is posing certain health impacts on the teachers and researchers in
the teaching profession. In view of this problem, the researcher conducted a survey on
ergonomics and occupational health hazards and safety of teachers and researchers in our
academic institutions in Ghana using Mampong Municipality as case study to find out the
gravity of the problem. Questionnaires containing forty-three (43) items with contingencies
and matrix questions under the three parts of which the questions made up of thirteen open
ended type and 30 close-ended types were used to collect the data for the study. The twelve
schools from the tertiary, secondary and basic levels were selected using convenient
sampling and respondents from three levels were also selected using simple random
sampling.Two hundred (200) respondents were sampled and statistical tool used to analyze
data collected was the Statistical Package for Social Science(SPSS) version 16using
frequencies, table and Chi-squares to establish relationships between some test items. The
recovery rate of questionnaires was 75%. The results reveal that 88% of the teacher and
researchers are trained with diploma, degree and master in the respective field of education
and have taught for more than two years. However, 98% of the teachers and researchers
suffer from certain work-related ailments in the school arising from compounding
ergonomics (furniture they use), teaching aids, occupational safety, physical environment
and social environment. As many as 62% of the teachers and researchers have been on
health issues. Up to 76% of the teachers and researchers attributed their health problems to
the furniture they use in their school and 86% of the teachers and researchers generally
iv
suffer from work-related stress as a result of workload. Up to 82% of the teachers and
researcher’s schools do not have fire extinguishers in place and finally 89% of them lacked
training in the operation of the fire-fighting devices. From the findings, I recommend that
the teaching profession is associated with some health problems so the government, policy
makers, ergonomist and all stakeholders in education should inculcate the health and safety
of teachers and researchersinto the occupational health and safety management standards of
the country.
v
TABLE OF CONTENT
CONTENTS PAGES
DECLARATION.....................................................................................................................i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.....................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................iii
ABSTRACT...........................................................................................................................iv
TABLE OF CONTENT........................................................................................................vi
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................................x
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Problem..................................................................................................4
1.3 Significance of the Study...................................................................................................6
1.4 General Objective.............................................................................................................7
1.5 Specific Objectives............................................................................................................7
1.6 Research Questions...........................................................................................................8
1.7 Research Hypothesis.........................................................................................................8
1.8 Scope of the Study.............................................................................................................8
1.9 Limitation..........................................................................................................................9
1.10 Definition of Terms.........................................................................................................9
1.11 Theoretical Framework.................................................................................................10
1.12 Conceptual Framework..................................................................................................11
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW.............................................................................................14
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................14
2.2 Ergonomics and Occupational Health Hazards and Safety of Teachers (EOHHS):
Historical perspective.....................................................................................................14
2.2.1 Historical Perspectives..................................................................................................15
2.3 Ghanaian Case.................................................................................................................15
2.4 Occupational safety..........................................................................................................16
vi
2.4.1 Office Hazards..............................................................................................................18
2.4.2 Ergonomic Hazards......................................................................................................18
2.4.3 Electricity Hazards........................................................................................................19
2.4.4 Slips Trips and Falls Hazards........................................................................................20
2.4.5 Influence of Occupational Safety on Teacher..............................................................20
2.5 Occupational Health.........................................................................................................21
2.5.1 Chemical Hazards..........................................................................................................22
2.5.2 Work Related Stress......................................................................................................23
2.5.3. Influence of Psychological Stress on Teachers............................................................24
2.5.4 Biological hazards.........................................................................................................25
2.5.5 Influence of occupational health on teaching................................................................25
2.6 Physical Environment......................................................................................................27
2.6.1 Visual Factors................................................................................................................28
2.6.2 Housekeeping................................................................................................................28
2.6.3 Acoustic Factors............................................................................................................28
2.6.4 Thermal Factors.............................................................................................................29
2.6.5 Influence of Physical Environment to Teachers Performance of Duties.......................29
2.7. The School’s Social Environment Influence on Teachers’ Performance........................30
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHOLOGY.......................................................................................32
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................32
3.2. Location of Study Area...................................................................................................32
3.3 Climate and Vegetation...................................................................................................32
3.4 Demography of the Study Area.......................................................................................33
3.5 Research Design...............................................................................................................33
3.6 Target Population............................................................................................................34
3.7 Sample Size and Sample Selection..................................................................................34
3.8. Data Collection Procedures.............................................................................................35
3.9 Research Instruments.......................................................................................................36
3.10 Instrument Validity........................................................................................................37
3.11 Data Analysis Procedures..............................................................................................37
vii
3.12 Operational Definition of Variables..............................................................................38
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION........................42
4.1. Introduction.....................................................................................................................42
4.2 Response Rate..................................................................................................................42
4:3 Demographic Information...............................................................................................43
4.4 Qualified Teachers (Train and Untrained).......................................................................44
4.5 Respondents Subjects’ Distribution.................................................................................47
4.6. Ergonomic Safety............................................................................................................49
4.7 Occupational Safety..........................................................................................................55
4.8 Fire Safety Measures......................................................................................................57
4:9 Firefighting Training and Techniques.............................................................................58
4.10 The Availability of Emergency Doors.........................................................................59
4.11 Safety from Slips and fall...............................................................................................60
4.12 Influence of Occupational Health on Teachers Performance........................................60
4.13 Analyses of results on the Person in charge of Health Emergencies in the Schools......62
4.14 Analyses of results on Teachers Dining Area...............................................................64
4.15 Analysis of results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers........................65
4.16 Analyses results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving their
Appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers...............................................................66
4.17 Analyses results on Common Ailments Teachers Suffered since they received their
appointment before the Survey and their Percentages....................................................67
4.18 Analyses of results on the Influence of Physical Environment on Teachers
Performance...................................................................................................................68
4.19 Influence of Noise on Performance...............................................................................68
4.20 Influence of Social Environment on Teachers Performance of Duties.........................69
4.21 Analysis of Data on the Study Hypothesis.....................................................................70
4.22 Summary of the Chapter...............................................................................................73
viii
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS.......74
5.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................74
5.2 Summary of the Findings.................................................................................................74
5.2.1 Influence of Occupational Safety Hazards on Teacher’s Performance.........................75
5.2.2 Influence of Occupational Health Hazards on Teachers’ Performance Of Duties.......76
5.2.3 Influence of Occupational and Environment Hazards on Teachers Performance........78
of Duties........................................................................................................................78
5.3 Conclusions......................................................................................................................79
5.4 Recommendations............................................................................................................80
REFERENCES.....................................................................................................................82
APPENDIX...........................................................................................................................87
ix
LIST OF TABLES
PAGES
Table 3.1 Showing the Sampling Size of the Target Population
Table 3.2: Shows the Operationalization of Variables in the Study
Table 4.1: Return Rate of the Questionnaire Administered
Table 4.2: Respondents Gender
Table 4.3: Category of Schools where the Subjects were Pooled to Answer
Questionnaires
Table 4.4: Trained and Untrained teachersin the sample schools.
Table 4.5: Professional Qualification of Train Teachers
Table 4.6: Teaching Duration of the Subject Teachers Encountered During the Survey
Table 4.7: Respondents Subjects’ Distribution
Table 4.8: Respondents Responsibilities (position held in school) besides Teaching in
the Classroom
Table 4.10: The Comfort of Office and Classroom Furniture (Chairs and Tables) used
by Teachers
Table 4.11: Teaching aids used by teachers in school
Table 4.12: Ventilated Materials used in Schools
Tables 4.13: Nature of Light in Offices and Classroom in Schools
Tables 4.14: Working Exposure of Respondents
Table 4.15: Laboratory Presents in the Schools of the Respondents
Table 4.16: Respondents that uses Computers in Teaching
Table 4.17: Teachers level of agreement on the safety of school structures in schools
Table 4.18: Shows Teachers’ Level of Agreement on availability of fire Extinguishers
in schools
Table 4.19: Teachers Level of agreement on Firefighting Training as Needful Exercise
Table 4.20: Teachers Level of agreement on availability of Emergency Doors in Offices
and Laboratories
Table 4.21: Use of Precautionary Measures against slips and falls in their schools
Table 4.22: Analyses on the Number of Teachers Trained on Health Issues
x
Table 4:23 Analyses on the number of Teachers who have received Vaccination
Table 4.24: Analysis of results on Teachers’ use of Protective Clothing when Handling
Chemicals in School
Table 4.25: Teachers Responses on Handling of Emergencies in the School
Table 4.26: Teachers Response on first aid box in the School
Table 4.27: Shows the results on Teachers Dining Area in the School Contacted
Table 4.28: Shows the results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers
Table 4.29: Shows the results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving
their appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers
Table 4.30: Shows the results on Common Ailments that has affected Teachers and
Researchers in Schools
Table 4.31: Analyses of results on Noise Control in the Staffroom and Classrooms
Table 4.32: Results on Management Sensitivity to Teachers Concerns
Table 4.33: Shows chi-square Analysis on Air Quality in Classrooms and Offices and
Safety of School Buildings
Table: 4.34: Shows chi – square test Analysis on Ergonomics Hazards with regard to
comfortability of the Furniture used by Teachers and one of the Work-
Related Ailments (low back pain) Complained by Teachers
xi
CHAPTER ONE
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The idea of ergonomics as a discipline migrates from the culture of ancient Greece in the 5 th
century B.C. It wasa good deal of evidence indicates that Greek civilization used ergonomic
principles in the design of their tools, jobs and workplaces (Wikipedia, 2011). Different
bodies and association have come out with various definitions of ergonomics and
occupational health hazards and safety among workers. Among them are International
Ergonomics Association(IEA,2008) which defined ergonomics as the scientific discipline
concerned with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a
system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to design in
order to optimize human well-being and overall system performance” (IEA, 2008). The
association has categorized ergonomics into specialization which centers on physical,
cognitive, organization and environment for all professions in occupational sectors.
The science of ergonomics and occupational health and safety was adopted and became
useful in the United State of America in the late 1960’s by occupational health and safety
administration (OHSA) after a policy called “compensation-safety establishment” when
workers safety policy has failed in US. However, it was enforced by Occupational safety
and health Act, 1970 in America (Judson Maclaury, 1984).
However, in Ghana the health and safety of all employees in various occupational sectors
and professions are supported by the Ghana Labor Act, 2003, Act 651 is to ensure that
employees are not exposed to conditions that would lead them to work related injuries or
illnesses. Employees are also required to exhibit their duty of care in ensuring that they work
1
as per the employers’ standard operating procedures which must incorporate Safety and
Health requirements. However, are the Ghanaian workers as especially teachers and
researchers in our institutions and the employers aware of their safety and health
responsibilities and obligations? The ergonomics and occupational health hazards are
common in many occupation and occupational fields and affect numerous numbers of
workers. Among them, teaching occupation has got several ergonomics and occupational
health hazards. The hazards are commonly met by all teachers and others affect teachers of
particular subjects. Consequently, occupational illnesses are not easily identified as injuries
and many go unreported especially when the employer or worker is unable to link exposure
with the symptoms the employees exhibit (Reese, 2009). This probably explains the low
number of reported injuries and illness among teachers. Regrettably, not so much is known
about the accident severity and frequency rate among teachers (Litch, 1973) the situation is
further aggravated by lack of effective legislation guiding ergonomic and occupational
health and safety (E.O.H.S) management in schools, inadequate funds and changing
technology. In addition, teachers do not seem yet aware of the importance of reporting near
miss incidents.
WHO (1994) writes “In the most favorable circumstances work provides the income and
quality outcomes and also have positive impact on social, psychological and physical health
and well-being. In spite of these the fact that conditions at work and work environment, in
many countries still involve distinct and even severe hazards to health that reduces the span
of working of individuals”
(http://www.who.Int/occupationalhealth/publications/globstrateg y/en/print.html)(1994).
2
As stated early in the first paragraph about the categories of ergonomics in major
occupations, there are physical hazards, cognitive hazards, organizational hazards and
environment hazards which affect workers who operate at the place of work; these
hazardous factors can influence occupational health discomforts of teachers and researchers.
Aryal (2007) documents that most of the teachers faced numerous physical and
psychological problems as a result of work load and stress at the school. Hazards are arising
from psychosocial environment as well as working hours and physical agents. In the
teaching profession teachers and researchers are exposed to combination of hazards e.g.,
noise, shift work, stress (Smith, Namara and Wellens, 2004). Work and ergonomic factors
may be harmful to health and working capacity, and equal number of working people report
psychological overload at work resulting in stress symptoms (Dangol, 2007).
Occupational health hazards can threaten the health of many workers. In some cases,
materials involved in a person’s job may result to a long terms damage that appears only
after many years (http:// www.dore as dezines.com, 2001). Teachers and researchers in our
country’s institutions face a series of problems within the school the same at home as a
result of school associated causes. Not only in Ghana but in other developed or developing
countries too teachers and researchers face numerous health deteriorating incidences. Since
teachers are powerful stake holders of the school, many teachers and researchers spend their
life in such hazardous work environment, which cause a lot of adverse effect on their health.
Even though in Ghana ,there are some strategies that have been adopted by
employer(government and private owners) that monitors the increasing performance, such as
use of incentive schemes and numerous reform measures like awarding study leaves and
other incentives to the deserving teachers and researchers, and better remuneration.
3
However, the health hazard that is associated with the work which ranges from physical to
psychosocial has been trampled upon by the employers (Milan, 2011). Therefore, this study
seeks to contribute to the development of education in the country by investigating the
potential ergonomic and occupational health hazards and safety of teachers and researchers
and the need to inform those in the authority to factor it into the national occupational health
and safety management standard.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
Occupational health has received increasing attention in recent years as a result of mounting
concerns over exposure to carcinogens in the workplace (http://www.dore as dezines.com,
2001).
The duties of teachers and researchers in Ghana are not only limited to teaching or lecturing
in classes. However, it involves additional work which may requires extra hours in order to
discharge the other duties like prepare for lessons, (lesson planning) assess students
exercises, prepare teaching/learning resources (such as charts), laboratory work with
students, the use of laptops by tertiary institution lecturers to carry on their research work,
carry out guidance and counseling of students, perform non-teaching clerical duties and
satisfy requests from management. They also head the institution (principals), department
and classes, take charge of home science room, computer lab, and workshops (in case of
woodwork and metalwork), maintain students discipline both inside and outside classrooms
and train students for different sports and games. They too, accompany students to field
visits and other trips. As a result, teachers are exposed to many occupational health, safety
and environmental hazards, emanating from their variety of job functions (Kuria,2009).
4
(NUT,2012) writes “Most teaching staff spend most of their working hours each day on their
feet teaching or lecturing and due to the seating arrangement in the classroom, on lifting and
handling, working with computers, health and safety when using computers at home and
inhaling certain chemicals from laboratory are also at greater risk of health problems
including: varicose veins; poor circulation; bunions/corns, painful swelling in the feet and
legs; foot problems; joint damage, low back pain, heart and circulatory problems; and
specific problems in the case of pregnant women, including pre-term birth, spontaneous
abortions and slower foetal growth rates” (www.teacher.org.uk , 2008 ).
The causes of health hazards of teachers and researchers are not fully known. The working
environment exposes many teachers to health hazards that lead to injuries in vocal cord,
respiratory diseases, cancer, musculoskeletal disorder, reproductive disorders, mental and
neurological illness (WHO, 1996). The positive impact of introducing occupational safety,
health and environment (O.S.H.E.) management systems at the organizational level, both on
the reduction of hazards and risks and on productivity, is now recognized by employers and
governments (I.L.O, 2001). In U.K for example, adherence to O.S.H.E. regulations in all
workplaces, is enforced by Health and safety executive (H.S.E.) created through an act of
parliament (http://www.legislation.hmso.gov.uk , 2001 ). In U.S.A the same is done by
occupational safety and administration in the department of labor (http://www.OSHA.gov ,
1990).
In the case of Ghana, even though the country has different agencies like a the
Environmental Protection Agency, Department of Factory Inspectorate, Inspectorate
Division of the Ghana Minerals Commission and the Ghana Labor Commission and other
5
agencies under different jurisdictions which monitor different industries for workplace and
employee safety, however, there is no national body, policy nor process that govern
Occupational Safety & Health management in Ghana (Annan, 2013). So this study aims to
bring into light some ergonomic and occupational health hazards that affect teachers and
researchers in the teaching profession in our institution ranging from basic schools, second
cycle and tertiary schools (colleges of educations, polytechnics, health institutions (nursing
training schools) and the universities) in the country using Mampong Municipality as a case
study.
1.3 Significance of the Study
The study revealed the possible ergonomic and occupational health hazards associated with
the teaching profession andwhich normally affect the teachers and researchers who work in
such environment. The outcome of this study will be useful to the teachers and researchers
in our schools to be sensitized on the need to observe safety, health and the care of social
and physical environment, whether at work or at home in order to avoid any consequences
that will impede their work efficiency. They would also benefit from the results of the study
as this may be used to institute certain intervention measures. It would be useful for safety
designers in the educational sector to consider teachers and researchers from different
perspective which may include(stature , weight etc.) in their design of equipment like
office tables and seats, desks ,cupboard and office book shelf in the schools in Mampong
Municipality.
The study would also be beneficial to the public policy makers as they would understand
that the teaching profession has a wide range of hazards that need certain consideration
6
when formulating policies so that they can have some compensations due to the ill-health
injuries they experience at the work which sometimes seem unreported for the law to take
its course as enshrined in the Workmen’s Compensation Act 1987 (PNDCL 187) section 2.
It would also benefit the government to realize the need of establishing a body or an agency
to take charge of ergonomic and occupational health and safety issues that exist in our
workplaces and workers as a whole especially teachers in Ghana. They would also
provide data useful for planning purposes. Finally, it would be useful to the academia and
researchers as it will contribute to a new knowledge.
1.4 General Objective
The general objective of this study is to establish the fact that teachers and researchers in the
country’s institutions encounter certain ergonomic and occupational health hazards in their
work.
1.5 Specific Objectives
The following are the specific objectives of the research:
1. To find out the physical and psychological occupational health hazards among teachers
and researchers in our schools.
2. To determine the causes of ergonomic and occupational health hazards among teachers
and researchers in our schools.
3. To examine whether occupational safety has any effect on the performance of the
teachers and researcher in their work.
4. To examine the extent to which the seating conditions and other gadgets used affect
teacher’s health either in the classroom or in the office.
7
1.6 Research Questions
1) Have you ever experienced any hazards in the course of work before?
2) What were causes of the hazards you encountered?
3) Do the hazards have any influence on your performance as a teacher or researcher?
4) Have you ever been affected by the tables and chairs you use in your office or classroom
before?
1.7 Research Hypothesis
In order to answer the research questions adequately, the following null hypothesis were
formulated;
HO1 There is no significant relationship between occupational health hazards of teachers
and their performance in Mampong municipality
HO2 There is no significant relationship between ergonomic hazards of teachers and their
effect in teaching.
1.8 Scope of the Study
The study is focused on the ergonomics and occupational health hazards that are associated
with the teaching profession in state institutions in Mampong Municipality. The total sample
size of teachers and researchers was 50% which ranged from primary to the tertiary
institutions. It is organized into five chapters.
Chapter one comprises of the background of the study, problem statement, research
questions, research objectives, scope of the study and limitations. Chapter two covers related
8
literature under the topic, chapter three covers the methodology of the research. Chapter four
covers the data analysis and presentation and finally, chapter five deals with the major
findings conclusions and recommendations.
1.9 Limitation
A project of such caliber if not time and financial constraints on the part of the researcher,
should been given a approach nationwide research in order to obtain the true reflection of
the impact of ergonomic and occupational health hazards that exist among teachers and
researchers in our state institutions.
1.10 Definition of Terms
Occupation: It is the teaching processes that transpire in our various institutions for the
purpose of this study.
Ergonomic: refers to designing of the workplace furniture, equipment and environments to
fit the user and prevent repetitive strains and injuries.
Occupational safety: Reduction of school-work related injuries and illnesses among
teachers and researchers.
Occupational health: It is the promotion and maintenance to the highest degree of
physical, mental and social wellbeing of teacher in their profession.
Occupational hazards: Any condition at workplace (school) that can cause temporary and
permanent injury to the health of the teachers and researchers
9
1.11 Theoretical Framework
The following is a brief examination of the theories informing this research study.
Social ecology theory
This theory is founded on systems theory. It offers a set of theoretical principles for
understanding the relationship and complex interactions between diverse personal and
ergonomic, social environmental influences on human behavior and health (Stokols, 2000).
It is defined as the study of individuals and groups within the context of their various social
systems. The theory comprises of several core assumptions, namely interplay between facts
of both the physical and social environments in combination with personal attributes such as
temperature and behavior patterns. Social ecological theory contends that certain
behaviours, social roles and environmental conditions within an individual’s life situation
can exert a disproportionate influence on his or her well- being (Grzywacz and Faqua,
2000). For example, a person’s lifestyle may include several unhealthy sets of
circumstances, such as a high stress job which also requires a lengthy commute between
home and work. This coupled with factors in workplace, may contribute to unhealthy
behaviors such as smoking, alcohol consumption and lack of physical exercise. Social
ecology theory is attributed to Murray Bookchin (Stokols, 1992) who was the first person to
develop the set of principles used today to describe this field. These principles provide tools
for examining health issues in relation to present day to day physical and social
environments. It confirms that interpersonal strain in workplace, if the workplace itself fails
to provide adequate social support and personal fulfillment; all the properties are in place for
negative health outcomes.
10
1.12 Conceptual Framework
Conceptual framework is a graphical depiction of interrelationship between concepts and
constructs. In this survey, five variables were singled out. Ergonomics which constituted
sitting postures and working postures. Occupational safety, which constituted electricity
hazards, fire hazards and slips and fall .occupational health which constituted chemical
hazards, biological hazards and work related stress. Physical environment hazards
constituted thermal, lighting, acoustics and ventilation hazards. Social environment hazards
included work related violence hostility. Indicators of teachers’ performance of duties
include minimum Absenteeism, lesson attendance, and attendance to staff meetings.
11
Diagrammatically the study’s conceptual framework is shown in fig 1
Ergonomic safety hazards
Sitting posture
Working posture
12
Dependent Variables
Teachers outputs in their work in
public school in Mampong
Municipality
Absenteeism
lesson attendance
participation in staff
meetings
Occupational safety hazards
Electric hazards
Fire hazards
Teacher’s performance is important; it is the most crucial input in the education setup in any
country, thus it is important that their safety, health and environment at their places of work
be promoted. Attainment of this ideal is dependent on control and consequent elimination of
a number of hazards namely ergonomics hazards, occupational safety hazards, occupational
health hazards, and occupational environment hazards. The dependent variables in this study
were tested to find out if they influenced curriculum implementation by teachers through
13
Physical health occupational
hazards
Chemical hazards
Biological hazards
Work related stress
Moderating Variables
School Leadership
Physical environment hazards
Noise
Ventilation
Lighting
effective performance of their duties. The extent to which performance is dependent on
these variables was the gist of the study.
CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
This chapter will evaluate recent research studies that have been carried out on the
ergonomic and occupational health hazards and safety of teachers and researchers in our
public schools in Mampong municipality. The literature begins with a review on: the
14
historical perspectives of ergonomic and occupational health safety hazards in the teaching
profession, Ghanaian perspective, and then goes on to review the literature on ergonomic
hazards, occupational safety hazards, occupational health hazards, occupational environment
hazards-physical and social environment on teachers.
2.2 Ergonomics and Occupational Health Hazards and Safety of Teachers (EOHHS):
Historical perspective
According to CRIOP (2010) "Ergonomics is a scientific discipline that applies systematic
methods and knowledge about people to evaluate and approve the interaction between
individuals, technology and organization. The aim is to create a working environment and
the tools in them for maximum work efficiency and maximum worker health and safety.
Human factors are a scientific discipline that applies systematic methods and knowledge
about people to evaluate and improve the interaction between individuals, technology and
organizations. The aim is to create a working environment (that to the largest extent
possible) contributes to achieving healthy, effective and safe operations.
2.2.1 Historical Perspectives
The industrial revolution that swept across Europe in the 19th century triggered concerns
about health threats posed by dangerous working conditions (W.H.O, 2001). Concerns about
occupational safety, health and ergonomics continued into the 20th century and led to the
creation of the International labor organization (I.L.O) in 1919. The I.L.O constitution
emphasized the global nature of the threats to occupational safety and health, by assessing
15
the existing conditions of labor and calling for urgent improvement. It was developed in
USA, to assure safe and healthy conditions for workers, by authorizing enforcement of the
standards developed under the act and also assist the states by providing research
information, education and training in the field of occupational safety, health and for other
purposes. In European Union (E.U.), the Health and Safety Act of 1974, resulted from the
findings of the Roberns Report published in 1972. It produced conclusions and
recommendations upon which the health and Safety Act (1974) was based. In summary,
health and safety in the workplaces has been improved in most industrialized countries over
the past 20-30 years. The situation in developing countries however, is relatively unclear,
largely because of independent accident and disease recognition methods, record keeping
and reporting mechanism. However, it is estimated that at least 250 million occupational
accidents occur every year worldwide, most of them occurring in developing countries.
2.3 Ghanaian Case
Working standards or conditions for all employees in Ghana are being monitored and
controlled by the Workman’s Compensation Act 1987 (PNDCL 187). This act explains into
details what is supposed to be granted to an employee in case of injuries when working in
public and private agencies. However, the act does not include employees in the armed
forces of the country. Occupational health and safety of employees has been overlooked
until the inception of the Ghana labour act 2003 which compelled the employers in the
country be it public or private to utilized Act 651of the labour act 2003 to ensure that all
their employees are not exposed to conditions that would lead them to free from work
related injuries or illnesses. What this act does is that it expels out the health and safety
16
mechanisms that need to be put in place by the employers so that employees will work in an
incidence free environment.
In the case of the teaching profession, Ghana national association of teachers in
collaboration with the government brought out some monitoring mechanisms which took in
consideration the health and safety of teachers. This encompasses the allowances and
compensatory policies that need to put in place to care its employees in case of injuries or ill
health as a result of work. The Nation has different agencies under different jurisdictions
which monitor different industries for workplace and employee safety; however, there is no
national body, policy nor process that governs ergonomic, Occupational Safety & Health
Management in Ghana. The agencies include; environmental protection agency which is
monitored by EPA Act490. There is a Road Safety Commission but with little standards,
guidelines and impact on the safety of the transport industry and the pedestrian. The
Minerals Commission has the Mining Regulations 1970, which contains some guidelines in
Occupational Safety and Health but just for the Mining Industry.
2.4 Occupational safety
Safety should be a concern in virtually all workplaces, it is an important element to consider
during the design stage of a job, any equipment, or procedures associated with the job
(Hughes & ferret, 2003). Safety hazards are associated with numerous accidents and injuries
experienced in workplaces. Physically matching the job to the person will ensure that the
possibility of human error is minimized. Every organization (school) too, should have a
clear policy for the management of safety so that everybody associated with the organization
is aware of its safety aims and objectives. A proper prevention of accidents and ill-health
through management systems of control should be focused on rather than looking for
17
individuals to blame when an accident occurs. Clear responsibilities and lines of
communications for everyone in the organization ought to be maintained (Hughes & ferret
2003).
In USA, approximately 10% of workplace accidents occur because of unsafe conditions,
processes or facilities up to 15% of these are due to human error, 75% are due to oversights
or omissions in policies, procedures and practices (Meres et al, 2007). Direct safety
inspection may also prevent risk and hazard potential in workplaces. Available data from
developing countries, indicate that occurrence of occupational injuries, illnesses and
accidents, is higher in these countries than in developed countries (I.L.O, 2000). Perhaps due
to the fact some organizations (school included) hinder workplace safety efforts by placing a
higher emphasis on productivity than on safety measures (Mathew & Krush, 1990).
Occupational safety has been cited as an important program to measure teachers (and other
workers) well-being (Geyer et al, 1990).
In Ghana there is an enormous literature addressing safety promotion and, evaluating
various interventions in schools, however few have looked at school setting from the
perspective of being a workplace. Therefore, the emphasis is more on students/pupils safety
than on teachers. Occupational safety with its focus on teachers as integral part of the school
environment includes the dimension of school as a workplace in a framework aimed at
enhancing safety of school personnel. This being the case, there are unlimited safety hazards
outlined in the O.S.H.E. Act to which teachers (workers) are exposed to generally as a group
or individually due to handling of specific subjects deemed risky. Such hazards may be
outlined as follows:
18
2.4.1 Office Hazards
Offices are vulnerable to safety hazards generally met by all teachers. They include open
doors and drawers, sharp corners of filing cabinets, telephone and computer cables that are
crossing is less and, carpets with bulges or broken seams that often cause tripping accidents,
cuts, abrasions and sprains. Office design is also linked to ergonomic safety problems such
as lifting, climbing and repetitive motions which are associated with backaches and neck
aches (Angle, 2005). Working in limited space, and in overcrowded offices – though being
in a crowd is sometimes good - can become increasingly uncomfortable in other
circumstances for teachers (Wanner and Keys, 1988) .The British health and safety
executive (1995) showed that, congestion in offices can lead to “sick - building syndrome “ .
Where staff complains of illness more commonly than reasonably expected
2.4.2 Ergonomic Hazards
The large and increasing number of teachers affected by poor workstations design, make
ergonomic issues important (Linus, 2007).An ergonomically designed workstation or office
will be designed for the comfort and safety of the operator. In Finland, school ergonomics
are widely implemented, supported and extended in education by universities. The goal of
ergonomic principle is to look for ways to make the job fit the worker, not vice versa. A
comfortable table and chair are essential to teachers, as they spend long hours seated
especially when marking student work. For most of the last century, ergonomists widely
assumed that we should sit upright (Hooton, et al 1945). This emphasis on what Dainoff
(1994) described as the “cubist posture” (with 90°knee, torso and elbow positions) aimed to
prevent ergonomic risk factors that lead to discomfort and health disorders.
19
The late 1980’s saw a recognition that office work is more hazardous than had been believed
and that constrained sitting postures can cause health disorders, particularly when other risk
factors are present (NIOSH, 1997) on the side of teachers. They should be designed to
support the back properly throughout the working day. The chair should also allow the
worker to change legs and general working position easily (Linus, 2007). In offices, lack of
chairs and tables in sizes and shapes appropriate for teachers is an ergonomic problem. And
so is the carrying of heavy materials to, and around the school, such as upstairs, downstairs
or to classes. The introduction of ICT in schools, means teachers and students spend long
hours working with a computer. It is important therefore, to have Constant application of
ergonomics in computer laboratories. This has been associated with increasing efficiency of
computer teachers, increased performances, reduction of fatigue and retention of skilled staff
on the job (Peter and Button, 1992). Proper positioning of computers is crucial to prevent
injury and pain. Computers should be placed directly in front of the teacher, perpendicular to
light and should have screen protectors to protect eyes from glare.
2.4.3 Electricity Hazards
Electricity as a source of power in our schools and/or offices is accepted without much
thought to associated hazards (I.L.O, 2006). It is considered safe, clean and a quiet method
of transmitting energy. When not well handled, it can lead to safety hazards. These include
electric shock, burns, electric fires and explosions (Tylor, 2002). In schools, teachers are
exposed to electric accidents, such as those caused by unsafe electric equipment or faulty
electricity installations, (Hughes et al, 2005). There is also a tendency in offices to overuse
multi-sockets and unfused outlet adapters, which can create overload problems. Lose cable
20
connections are also common and are likely to cause overheating leading to fire outbreaks
(Tweedy, 2005).
2.4.4 Slips Trips and Falls Hazards
Slip and falls incidents are a significant safety problem in workplaces environments. Same
level falls accounted for 20-40% of occupational injuries in developed countries in
2005(Courtney et al, 2006). Liberty mutual workplaces safety index, estimated that, in USA,
the direct cost of disabling workplace falls from the same level was £6.9 billion annually. In
Taiwan such falls are cited as the leading cause of occupational injuries (Theodore, 2006).
Slips hazards are caused by wet or dusty floors and unsuitable footwear or floor coverings or
sloping floors. Trips hazards are caused by obstructions, poor housekeeping- obstacles left
on walkways, poor lighting levels, uneven floors, cables and trailing leads across walkways.
2.4.5 Influence of Occupational Safety on Teacher
Within the school, application of ergonomics result in improved working techniques,
reduced human errors and accidents and increased efficiency (Patkin, 1987). Poor
ergonomics have been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs)
repetitive strain injuries (RSIs) cumulative trauma disorders (CTDs) and occupational
overuse syndrome (OOS). Good ergonomic considerations promote effective lesson delivery
and creativity in class. (Moore, 1990) suggests that the skills of good teachers are likely to
be stretched to the greatest advantage in buildings designed to provide greatest amount of
flexibility that is least hindrance to anything teachers may wish to do. Electric shock in
offices can cause cardiac arrest, fibrillation of the heart, asphyxia and burns of the skin.
Such burns may be deep, slow to heal and often leave permanent scars, they may also occur
inside the body along the path of electric current causing damage to muscle tissue and blood
21
cells. As a result performance of the teacher in terms of mental and physical skills will
usually start to fall (Davis et al 1967) Training teachers on electricity safety is therefore
required, as a control measure for electrical hazards. Teachers should also be conversant
with cardiovascular resuscitation and treatment of electric burns. Working in limited space
and in overcrowded offices, can become uncomfortable for teachers (Warner and Keys,
1988).
This can translate to negligence of some duties such as preparation of professional
documents like lesson plans, subject scheme of work and lesson notes which are crucial in
teaching since they help a teacher manage time in class assess the available resources for
teaching plan the content to disseminate in class, therefore boost their confidence. (Sanders
& Horn, 1998). The British health and safety executive (1995) also showed that it can lead
to “sick building syndrome” where staff complain of illness more commonly than would
reasonably expect. Likewise slips, falls and trips lead to injuries, cuts, abrasions & sprains
which lead to absenteeism. This unlike in other professions is a serious problem because the
students can cause chaos if left unattended (Bray et al, 1986). Falls are also the leading
cause to near-miss incidences. According to research, every 10 ‘near misses’ at a particular
location leads to a minor accident.
2.5 Occupational Health
The world health organization (W.H.O, 1948) defines health as a state of complete physical
mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.
Occupational health operates within this framework. It is an area concerned with
occupational illnesses of worker caused by both long term and short term exposures to
health hazards in their work; they are categorized as follows:
22
2.5.1 Chemical Hazards
Chemical hazards arise from excessive airborne concentration of mists, vapours, gases or
solids (Gordon and Eric, 1985). They have inhalation hazard which can lead to poisoning. In
addition, they may act as skin irritants or may be toxic by absorption through the skin. They
can also be ingested, although this is not usually the principal route of entry into the body.
Schools as workplaces, expose teachers to enormous chemical hazards (Hughes & ferret,
2003). School laboratories are potentially hazardous places to teachers than normal
classrooms because there is presence of chemicals (irritants, corrosives, toxic, harmful and
carcinogenetic substances). Science teachers who work daily in these places are at a risk of
being exposed to the related hazards (Bray et al 1986).
Classrooms too have their measure of chemical hazards. The indoor air has special
pollutants sources such as dust and particles of chalk. (Lowenstein, 1991), Technical /
industrial subjects such as metalwork, agriculture, home science and woodwork, expose
teachers to chemical hazards. In a study done by Michal and Jolida (2005), it was
established that metalwork exposes workers (teachers included) to metal oxides that contain
organic compounds injurious to the body. While the noise associated with metal working
caused hearing loss; the work itself caused distorted posture over a long period, as well as
reproductive problems. Exposure to ultra violet light caused inflammation of the cornea
while equipments used in metal work are safety hazards to the teachers if not properly
handled. (Frey, 2005) Lozorich (2002) established that woodworking exposes workers
(teachers included) to dust, which is associated with several cancers, like those of nasal
cavity, lung and gastrointestinal track. Diseases like bronchitis and dermatitis have shown
23
high correlation to wood dust exposure. Pesticides used by agriculture teachers are also
hazardous.
2.5.2 Work Related Stress
Teachers are subjected to heavy occupational stress that may adversely affect their mental
health status and with an impact on professional performance (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe,
1978). The prevalence of workplace stress within the United Kingdom is believed to result
in an average of 13½ lost working days each year with one in five employees believing their
job to be extremely stressful (Smith et al, 2000).
In Ghana, the changes in educational system that have occurred in the past decades, brought
about new demands to the teachers and has also increased precarious working conditions.
Social transformations coupled with new teaching models have aggravated the problem.
They have escalated the teacher’s activities and social demands for teachers role, on one
hand and demands for quality teaching and positive results on the other hand (Zaragoze M,
1999). Growing responsibilities and demands on teachers, and not adapting to the new
demands of the profession has certainly exposed them to work related stress. This has
consequently resulted to health problems among them: musculoskeletal disorders, voice
problems, psychiatric disorders to name a few. Medical and social costs due to these
problems have grown increasingly in the past few years, with figures reaching billions of
shillings or dollars in various countries (Silvis, 2004). Absenteeism and tirdiness are also
greatly influenced by occupational stress, with high economic costs (Hughes&ferret2003). A
stress level among teachers is also increasing to a worrying level due to the increasing
teachers’ workload, Student misbehavior, which includes reluctance to follow instruction
and handling of problematic students (Abdul, 2005). Others like responsibility for students
24
success in examination, having a large class, difficulty in completing the syllabus in the time
available and lack of material resources, coupled with administrative work like managing
department, stock and inventory and too much work in one time, have also been cited as
stressors (Chin,2006).
Interpersonal relationship issues such as receiving unclear instruction from management,
lack of participation in decision making, lack of autonomy, lack of consultation or
communication, lack of colleague support and co-operation, and lack of appreciation for
work done, have contributory role on teachers work related stress (chan1998, kyriacou &
Sutcliffe, 1978) as quoted by chin 2006.
2.5.3. Influence of Psychological Stress on Teachers
Teachers also encounter health problems as a result of some psychological disorders that
occur in the teaching profession. This emanate from anxieties towards their work, problem
of insufficient month salaries for workers, limited incentive measures, violence among
teachers and students and inconsistent flow of information from the administrative level.
Dyson (2005) suggests that the purpose of teacher education is to prepare and develop
teachers, and that this process is continual throughout a teacher’s career. Physical
complaints such as back pain, chest pain, shortness of breath, heart palpitations, problems
with sleep or appetite, and fatigue are commonly used by the general population, rather than
psychological complaints, when claiming inability to work (Donaghy, 2004).
Alcohol abuse has also been linked to psychological distress, and may contribute to
frequent absence without explanation, lateness, interpersonal conflicts and decreased
performance (Baldisseri, 2007). The impact of psychological distress has potentially serious
25
implications (Jorm, et al., 2002) for the community, including teacher education. Thus,
understanding psychological distress, and individual coping strategies, has the potential to
contribute to teacher education.
2.5.4 Biological hazards
Biological hazards are transported through some forms of agent such as fungi, moulds-
which grow under dump conditions, bacteria and viruses. They can cause diseases such as
athletes foot, asthma attacks H.I.V (aids), ringworms among others. Most studies of airborne
bacteria in schools have referred to total bacteria counts, rather than identifications, (Jo and
Seo 2005, HESE 2006) or they have separated bacteria according to whether they are Gram-
positive and Gram-negative (Scheff et al. 2000b).
Bacteria counts ranged from 577 to 1000 CFU/m3with an average of 785 CFU/m3 (Scheff
et al, 2000b, Godwin and Batterman 2007, Viegas et al, 2010). In a study of classrooms in
Turkey, the most commonly observed bacteria were Staphylococcus (42.7%),
Corynebacterium (20.4%) and Bacillus (6.9%) (Aydogdu et al, 2005). Kim et al. (2007)
identified bacteria in 57 classrooms in Swedish schools, with Pseudomonas sp being the
most commonly reported (57%), followed by Steptomyce ssp (17%) and Bacillus sp (4%).
2.5.5 Influence of occupational health on teaching
Exposure to chemical and biological hazards poses serious health threats to teachers; voice
disorders including symptoms of soreness, hoarseness, weak voice and sore throat are
occupational illnesses that have been described among teachers and have been shown to
emanate from exposure to chemical and biological hazards (Hughes et al., 2003).Many
substances used in agriculture are irritants e.g. fungicides and pesticides. Irritant
26
(noncorrosive) substances can cause skin (dermatitis) or lung (bronchial) inflammation
(Hughes et al., 2003). Presence of water, gas taps, additional power points, apparatus and
chemicals in the laboratories expose science teachers to a huge chunk of health and safety
problems (Bray et al., 1986).
A study about quality life related to teachers’ voice health problems in Greece revealed that,
majority of teachers have a good voice, however, there are job aspects that can have
implications on teachers’ voice and vocal health. Among those mentioned are dirty
classrooms, internal and external noise, stressful social relationships, irritation and sound
competition and voice abuse or misuse. Stress problems may adversely affect mental and
physical health of teachers. It may cause a range of unpleasant mental effects on teachers
such as tension, frustration, anxiety, depression and poor concentration. It can lead to lack of
interest at work, and reduced job satisfaction which combine to worsen their performance.
(England Education Service Advisory Committee, 1998) Self-confidence is an essential for
successful teaching may be seriously affected as well (Pithers & Fogarly, 1995).
Stressful situations can contribute to voice misuse generating extra effort and forcing
adaptations in phonetic production, making the profession more vulnerable to development
of dysphonia. It also leads to burnout which results to relatively impaired teachers in the
quality of teaching and commitment (Wiley 2000). Other aspects of teacher’s work, like
increase in tone of voice, speaking frequently and competition with environmental noise also
expose them to dysphonia. Lack of vocal health cause physical sensations or discomfort
such as burning, cough, infections of the Larynx and hoarseness (England Education Service
Advisory Committee, 1998). All these conditions can contribute to increased sickness and
absenteeism which can also create stress among other teachers who have to cover for absent
27
colleagues but still do their own work. This ultimately affects the school outcomes (Yin
ling’s, 2006) and poor performance of teachers in their job. Work-related stress contributes
to musculoskeletal problems which are associated with high economic costs due to
compensating schemes, medical expenses, disability pensions, lost days of work and
reduced productivity. Human errors made under the effect of occupational stress may lead to
injuries or loss of lives. Work related burn out is also caused by stress and it is linked to
emotional exhaustion, depression, irritability and boredom (Schultz & Schultze, 1998).
2.6 Physical Environment
The physical environment of the school describes the physical and aesthetic surroundings of
the school. The physical environment and the working conditions which it provides have
been of interest to industrial and commercial organizations, particularly if they affect health,
safety and welfare of employees. The aim of this is to search for those designs and
conditions which maximize the efficiency or productivity of factories, offices and other
workplaces (Sundstrome, 1987). Although the physical working environment in schools is
not as dangerous as those of manufacturing or construction industries, it is not entirely free
of occupational hazards. For instance, proper design and maintenance of ventilation system
is essential in providing a healthy school environment. In the planning of physical
environment of a school therefore, various aspects need to be considered to enhance teachers
and other workers performance (Bray et al., 1986). These include:
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2.6.1 Visual Factors
This refers to the quality of illumination in a place. Two aspects which need to be
considered to achieve this are: first the quality of illumination in different parts of the room,
which will be determined by the level of natural and artificial light available and Secondly,
the way classrooms and the staffroom (offices) are arranged, such that, there are no
unwanted distractions, such as windows overlooking the playing field (Bray et al ,1986)
Lighting system should support tasks to be done and also minimize glare from ceilings,
walls and floors. Window coverings for workers facing the playing field should be provided
to reduce glare in his study on physical settings Glynn (1982) indicated that, visual factors
not only influence behavior but also conveys information about people associated with the
setting, such as level of effectiveness and efficiency in their work.
2.6.2 Housekeeping
Good housekeeping refers to the cleanliness and good order of equipment and facilities in
the school. The quality of indoor air may deteriorate when one or more of these processes
are inadequate.
2.6.3 Acoustic Factors
This refers to level of noise, both internal and external. In schools administrative areas, high
speed copiers, telephones, cell phones, fax machines, hallways, back areas and human, can
be noisy and distracting, hence become an occupational hazard (Hughes & Ferret 2003).
Porteous (1977), clearly shows that the extent to which a classroom or office is affected by
noise depends on the organization of the physical environment.
29
2.6.4 Thermal Factors
This refers to temperature regulation. Temperature per seconds has little effect on man’s
performance unless it is too low or too high (Walton P, 1980). The effects of temperature
especially high temperatures must be considered in relation to humidity. A good school
heating, ventilation and air conditioning system (HVAC) is important in offices and classes
to provide air at comfortable temperature and humidity levels and free of harmful
concentrations of air pollutants.
2.6.5 Influence of Physical Environment to Teachers Performance of Duties
Teachers who work in a school which is neat, pleasant and has modern facilities are likely to
experience a job satisfaction and motivation than those working in an unpleasant school
environment (Hayward, 1997). Motivation has a substantial effect on the attribution of
teacher efficacy which in turn has a positive effect on learners performance (Enderlin-
Lampe, 1997). As Likeje (1991) puts it so succinctly “motivation could make a mule dance”
and when it is absent, teachers are likely to consider their commitment as only “a fair day’s
work for a fair day’s pay”. Classroom physical environment presents risk agents such as
chalk dust, which can negatively interfere with the teachers’ voice. Environmental factors
are known to influence behavioral outcomes. A school physical environment that promotes
orderly behavior by students also encourages interaction between teachers and students and
efficient administrative support seen to be critical conditions for teachers to work effectively
(Smith, 1989). Noise hazards affect teachers’ performance in two ways: in short term it can
prevent voice communication by the interference with reception of speech, while in the long
term, it can lead to the damage of the ear (Davis & Tyler, 1967).
30
Noise is a hazard in teaching of music, due to poorly constructed rehearsal halls. Prolonged
working in such an environment causes a major hearing loss, the unfortunate part is that,
loss of hearing related to acoustics, is never compensated by insurance companies as these
cases are very difficult to prove (Douglas,2003).This ironically, makes teachers become
victims of the very profession they diligently trained for. Effective teaching requires
intensive vocal use, but for it not to harm the teaching profession the voice has to be
comfortable for the speaker and correctly projected and noise well controlled (Lillian et al,
2004).
Exposure to indoor contaminants can cause serious health problems to the teacher. The most
common include headaches, dizziness, nausea, allergy attacks, respiratory problems and
sometimes life threatening conditions such as legionnaire’s disease. This can lead to increase
in absenteeism, poor lesson delivery and attendance or in serious cases death, (USA
Environmental Agency, 2010).Due to their occupational environment being characterized by
permanent contact with people particularly students, teachers are at a higher risk of
contracting infectious diseases such as hepatitis A (Lehman et al., 1999). Excessive
exposure to high temperature may lead to disorders such a heat exhaustion and cramps.
2.7. The School’s Social Environment Influence on Teachers’ Performance
The social environment describes any emotional and social conditions that affect the well-
being of teachers. Successfully managing a school social environment is necessary and
essential educational investment. Research increasingly shows that there is a clear link
between social environment, quality of schools and educational performance. Prevention of
harassment and interpersonal hostility in workplace is important (Salin, 2008). Harassment
31
may emanate from colleague teachers, principal or from students. Extremely negative
consequences are associated with it, such as high costs, in the form of increased
absenteeism, high turnover of personnel, decreased commitment and productivity. It also
contributes to work related stress (Andrea Russo et al., 2008). Violence and violence threat
are becoming more and more frequent in public institutions.
In Croatia a survey conducted in E.U member states revealed that 12 % of those employed
in education sector in all member states experienced some form of violence making the
sector have the second largest percentage of violence just below government and defense.
Incidents of bullying at schools arouse much attention locally due to the sudden increase in
number of cases of school violence reported by the media. This has put more pressure on
teachers. Unfortunately not many teachers are confident enough to handle school violence.
A study undertaken by bureau of labour statistics (USA, 1991), showed that assaultive
behavior in workplaces often produces injury, psychological distress and economic loss.
Hostility is a social hazard that has major health problems and disease end points. It may
lead to absence spells, risky behavior, alcohol consumption and even drug abuse (Smith et
al., 1985). These consequently have a share of problems such as mental disorders like
depression and anxiety disorders (Thomas and Morris, 2003).
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CHAPTER THREE
3.0 RESEARCH METHOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter describes the methodology that was used to conduct the study. This includes
location and demography of the study area, climate and vegetation, schools in the study area,
research design, target population, sample size, sampling procedure, research instruments,
data collection procedures and data analysis techniques and operational definition variables.
3.2. Location of Study Area
Mampong Municipal, which is one of the Thirty (30) Administrative Districts in the Ashanti
Region of Ghana, is located on the northern part of the region, and shares boundary with
Atebubu District, Sekyere East, Afigya-Sekyere, and Ejura-Sekyeredumasi to the north, east,
south, and west respectively. The Municipal is located within longitudes 0.05 degrees and
1.30 degrees west and latitudes 6.55 degrees and 7.30 degrees north, covering a total land
area of 2346km². It has about 220 settlements with about 70 percent being rural. The rural
areas are mostly found in the Afram Plains portion of the District where Communities with
less than fifty (50) people are scattered hithertho.
3.3 Climate and Vegetation
The municipality has an average annual rainfall of 1270mm and two rainy seasons. The
major rainy season starts in March and peaks in May/June. There is a slight dip in July and
a peak in August, tapering off in November. The period between December and February is
usually dry, hot and dusty. The municipality lies within the wet semi-equatorial forest zone
and has a beautiful undulating land forms which ranges from scarps, hills to low laying
tropical paradise. The vegetation of parts of the municipality particularly the north, is
33
reduced to a savannah grass land. This phenomenon has therefore considerably changed the
flora and fauna in the area thus, reducing the number of streams and springs as well as
animal wildlife in the municipality. However there have been constant efforts by the
Municipal Assembly, the Forestry Division Unit within the municipality
3.4 Demography of the Study Area
The population of the Sekyere South Municipality is currently 88,625 (2008 projection), as
against 78,056 as at (Ghana Population and Housing Census 2000). The municipality
experienced a marginal increase in population growth. The current projected growth rate is
1.4% as against 1.6% of the 2000 population and housings census.
3.5 Research Design
A research design is a plan showing how the problem under investigation can be solved
(Orodho, 2003). It functions as the research blue print (Crezwell, 2003). To tackle the
questions posed in this study, the researcher used descriptive survey. Mugenda (1999) noted
that a survey research attempts to collect data from members of the population and describes
the existing phenomena by asking individuals about their perception, attitudes, behavior and
values. Descriptive survey research is designed as a method for collecting information by
interviewing or administering a questionnaire to a sample of individuals to collect the
information on their attitudes opinions and habits (Orodho and Kombo, 2002). The study
also employed qualitative and quantitative methods to analyze the data. A mixed method
approach converge findings and extend the breadth of inquiry (Creswell, 1994). Qualitative
method was used as a tool, because of its broad approach towards understanding and
explaining the meaning of social phenomenon in naturalistic setting (Marshal and Rossman,
34
1999). Quantitative method was employed to analyze Likert- scale data found on the survey
questionnaire.
3.6 Target Population
Target population as defined by Best and Khan (1999) is the small portion of the population
selected for observation and analysis. It is the population to which a researcher wants to
generalize the results of a study. Based on this understanding, the target population was
teachers and researchers from the 12 public schools ranging from the university to the basic
schools in Mampong municipality of Ghana. Public schools were chosen for this study
because they form over 90% of all schools in the Municipality. The public schools
especially the secondary were either, boarding or day. Other characteristics associated with
the schools included boys only or girls only but most of the schools were mixed.
3.7 Sample Size and Sample Selection
The study adopted both probability and non-probability sampling methods. Probability
sampling is the process where random selection is used to select respondents with each of
them having an equal chance of being included in the sample (Singleton, 1988). In non-
probability sampling, there is no way of specifying the probability of each unit inclusion in
the sample and there is no assurance that every unit has some chance of being included. In
this method, a desired number of sample units are selected deliberately or purposively,
depending upon the objective of inquiry so that only the important items representing the
true characteristics of the population are included in the sample (Nachmias and Nachmias,
1996). Convenient sampling was used in selecting the twelve public schools out of 174
public schools and 4 private schools which have been classified into tertiary, secondary and
basic schools (See table 3.1 below). The enrollment of teachers in the municipality were
35
thousand three hundred and seventy-eight (1378).Out of this number200 of them were
sampled randomly from the three levels of schools but 150 which represent 75% were
received after the questionnaire administration from the twelve sampled schools. Purposive
sampling technique was used to sample the schools into three main categories, that is: boys
only, girls only and mixed schools. This was crucial in order to establish whether the
category of the school was significant to the research questions. Simple random sampling
was used to select the teachers from the three levels of schools in the municipality as
mentioned above.
Table 3.1 Showing the Sampling Size of the Target Population
LEVELS AND
CHARACTERISTICS OF
SCHOOLS
TOTAL NUMBER OF
SCHOOLS IN THE
MUNICIPALITY
TOTAL NUMBER
OF SAMPLE
SCHOOLS
TERTIARY: Mixed Boys only 3 2
SECONDARY (Mixed and
Girl only )
4 3
BASIC Mixed 167 7
Total 174 12
3.8. Data Collection Procedures
The data was collected from 200 teachers from the sampled schools using self-administered
questionnaires. According to kotler (1998), the advantage of using self-administered
questionnaire is to ensure the respondents privacy. In this sense, the researcher dropped the
questionnaires personally to keep such level of confidentiality. This is important as it helped
the researcher establish a rapport with respondents while introducing the survey. The
researcher used pick and dropped approach (i.e. where the researcher submits the
36
questionnaire to the respondents and return for the questionnaires after it has being answered
within the stipulated period). Some of the questions were responded instantly and the
researcher collected them back on that same today. However, to some respondents, one (1)
week was given to them to respond to the questions after which the researcher picked them.
This was done to allow respondents to have enough time to respond positively to the
questions.
3.9 Research Instruments
The instrument used for the study was Questionnaire. It was prepared for teachers who
perform dual functions in the school settings (that is those in classroom and administrative
setting). A questionnaire is a carefully designed instruction for collecting data direct from
the people (Kasomo, 2006). It has an advantage of achieving rapid contact with a large
number of people (Krathwohl, 1998). It was divided into three parts namely part 1, part 2
and part 3. Part 1 consist of questions aimed at obtaining information on the profile of the
teacher (i, .e Biodata), part 2 also consist of questions aimed at getting information on
ergonomic in the teaching profession and finally,thepart 3 was sub-divided into four sections
labeled A, B, C, D. These sections consisted of questions aimed at getting information on
occupational safety, occupational health and occupational environment of teachers
respectively. The researcher used questionnaires which consist of both
open-ended/unstructured and closed-ended/structured questions. Contingency questions and
matrix questions were also used. The aim of using the open-ended questions was for the
researcher to allow respondents to freely discuss issues without limiting the score. The close
ended questions were utilized because they are quicker and easier to complete therefore
touching on a wider range of information. The contingency questions were used because
37
follow up questions were needed to get further information. Matrix questions were used to
get information from questions which share the same set of responses.
3.10 Instrument Validity
According to Borg and Gall (1998) validity is defined as the degree to which a test measures
what it purports to measure. Mugenda and Mugenda (1999) also define it as the accuracy or
meaningfulness of inferences which are based on research results. To ensure the validity of
the questionnaire the researcher in collecting the data, a pre-test was conducted using the
various principals from the tertiary institutions, headmasters from the secondary schools the
researcher sampled since they were not used as part of target group and their experiences
they have had due to their long services in the profession as teachers and now principals and
headmasters of their institutions. This helped to check the appropriateness of the language
used in constructing each item, construct validity and content validity of the questionnaire.
The researcher also consulted further with the study supervisor for further insight into the
validity of the instruments and then made the appropriate modifications.
3.11 Data Analysis Procedures
Kerlinger (1986) defines data analysis as the process of categorizing, manipulating and
summarizing data in order to obtain answers to research questions, once data was collected it
was edited by carefully inspecting it in order to identify the mistakes and any wrongly
answered and not responded to items, it was then coded. The quantitative data was analyzed
using descriptive statistics to describe, summarize and explain or make sense of a given
data.
38
The chi-square test of independence of attributes was used to test whether there was any
association or relationship between the identified occupational and ergonomic hazards on
questionnaire sections A, B, C .D and part 2 and to access the teachers’ performance of
duties in the Mampong Municipality. The test was done at 0.05 level of significance and
appropriate degrees of freedom on the formulated hypothesis.
According to (Vaughan D, 1998) Ch.-square test of independence is a statistical technique
used to compare the difference between categorical frequencies when data is categorical and
drawn from a population with uniform distribution in which alternative responses are
equally likely. Other statistics such as percentages, frequencies of distribution were used to
give face values of the influence of occupational safety, health and environment on teachers.
Correlation coefficient(r) test was done at a significance level of 0.05 to analyze the degree
of relationships between the variables measured in sections A,B.C.D. of questionnaire with
teachers work related ailments as measured in section 2, B of the questionnaire. There
searcher used statistical package for social sciences (SPSS) version 16 software to analyze
the qualitative data. The quantitative data was then presented using tables and graphs while
qualitative data was presented in prose.
3.12 Operational Definition of Variables
Kerlinger (1973) says that an operational definition assign meaning to a concept or construct
by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it. He continues to say that, it
gives meaning to variables by spelling out what the investigators must do to measure it.
39
Table 3.2: Shows the Operationalization of Variables in the Study
Objective Variables Indicators Measures Scale
Influence of
physical
health
occupational
hazards
Independent
variable
Chemical
hazards
Dependent
variables
Teachers
performance
of duties
Safe use of
chemicals by
preventing them
from exposure.
Execution of control
measures.
Are Training
opportunities
available to acquire
information
Are there
Personal
protective clothing
and equipment
Is there a School
nurse available all
the times
Maintenance of
cleanliness in the
School.
Eating
arrangements
Proper ventilation
Ordinal
Nominal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Influence of
ergonomic
and safety
hazards to
teachers
performance
of duties
Independent
variable
Ergonomic
hazards
Safe use of work
equipments/facilities
Availability of
Computer antiglare
Computer desk in
proper size for the
user and space
available.
Are the Chairs &
Tables comfortable?
Is there enough
space in the office
Number of furniture
per
Nominal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
40
teacher
Independent
variable
Electricity
hazards
Safe use of
electricity
appliances in the
school
Maintenance of
electric appliances
Fire safety measures
Number of
sockets in the
staffroom.
Safe installation
of electric
equipment.
Rules for
operating
and switching off
electrical appliances
Fire fighting
equipment
Fire safety
drills/training
Nominal
ordinal
Ordinal
Nominal
Ordinal
Falls and slips Cleaning
Sufficient lightning
Permanent stairs
have guard rails
Regular cleaning
of floors
Nominal
Ordinal
Influence of
psychological
stress on
teachers
performance.
Independent
variable
Psychological
hazards
Better policies on
salaries and
incentives.
Compensatory
policies for workers
Is there any good
policies on the
salaries,
Good Incentive
packages
Flexible
compensate for
workers
Ordinal
Ordinal
Ordinal
Influence of
physical
environment
on teacher
Physical
conditions
Facilities for rest
and eating meals.
Drinking water
Sanitary
Where meals are taken
in.
Are there
Facilities Ordinal
41
performance conveniences
Sufficient
Ventilation
for rest and eating
meals?
Availability of
clean drinking
water
Availability of
Sanitary facilities,
Separate for man and
woman
Nominal
Nominal
Lighting Adequate level Must be
suitable and
sufficient.
Emergency
lighting
system
If there is glare
from sunlight, are
there suitable blinds
for protection?
Ordinal
Nominal
Nominal
Noise hazards Reaction to
exposure
Control measures
loss of
concentration
Fatigue
Ordinal
Ordinal
Social
environment
Physical assaults Frequency Ordinal
Violence occurrence
Cases of
harassment.
Communication
channels
Frequency
Frequency
efficiency
Ordinal
42
CHAPTER FOUR
4.0 DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1. Introduction
This chapter presents the results of the data collected and further discusses the findings.
Descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were used to analyze responses to
various questionnaire items. An inferential statistic the chi- square (X²) test of independence
was also used to analyze responses to various items on the questionnaire and to test the
study hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance and appropriate degrees of freedom.
4.2 Response Rate
A total of 200 questionnaires were issued to the respondents from the sampled schools. One
hundred and fifty (150) out of the two hundred (200) questionnaires given were answered.
The analysis was therefore done using the seventy seven questionnaires received from the
respondents. The results are presented as shown below.
Table 4.1: Return Rate of the Questionnaire Administered
VARIABLES FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE (%)
Response 150 75%
Non-Response 50 25%
Total 200 100
The research targeted 200 respondents with 150 respondents answering the questionnaires
which constituted 75% and the remaining 50 respondents constituted 25% of which the
questionnaires were either not answered or had been displaced by respondents
43
4:3 Demographic Information
The following information was sought from the respondents on their occupation: gender,
category of schools, qualified teachers in the sample schools, level of professional training,
teaching experience and responsibilities, the respondents have in their school besides
classroom teaching. Table 4.2 indicates gender distribution of the teachers’ interviewed.
Table 4.2: Respondents Gender
The teaching as an occupation has become competitive among genders and my study
conducted in Mampong municipality on teachers from table 4.2 indicates that 69.3% were
males while 30.7% were also females. When you critically observe the table well, there was
a significant difference between gender in the responses; the male teachers were twice more
than female teachers because the promotion of girl child education in the municipality is
low, Ghana Education service branch in the municipality do not often post female teachers
to the various schools and finally, even the tutors in the two girl schools namely (Saint
Monica’s Senior High and Saint Monica’s College of Education) all in the study area were
mostly males. This research is in line with Abakisi’s (2009) findings when he worked on the
employment satisfaction of teachers in Junior High School in the Ejisu-Juaben District
Assembly whichunveiled that the maleteachers dominated femaleswith 64% of males and
36% of females.
44
Gender Frequency Percentage (%)
MALE 104 69.3
FEMALE 46 30.7
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.3: Category of Schools where the Subjects were Pooled to Answer
Questionnaires
Categories of Schools Frequency Percentage (%)
BASIC LEVEL 76 50.7
SECONDARY LEVEL 48 32.0
TERTIARY 26 17.3
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.3: shows the category of schools covered by the respondents and indicates that 51%
(76) respondents were teaching at the basic level, 32% (48) respondents were teaching at the
secondary level while 17% (26) respondents were teaching at tertiary level. This showsthat
majority of the respondents were from the basic level due to the large number of basic
schools that are found in the Municipality.
4.4 Qualified Teachers (Train and Untrained)
Table 4.4: Trained and Untrained teachersin the sample schools.
Qualify Teachers Frequency Percentage (%)
TRAINED 132 88.0
UNTRAINED 18 12.0
Total 150 100.0
Training is very important in the field of life of which the educational sector specifically the
teaching profession which is more sensitive in behavioral aspect of life of students in
various schools. Training is way of guiding, educating and instructing one to keep up to the
demand ofhis or her master. In view of this, table 4.4 shows that teachers trained are
represented by 88% and those that are untrained constitute 12%. Information on trained and
untrained teachers was sought because the systematic and logical nature of delivery of
45
lesson is found to be paramount in teaching profession to bring out the total change in the
students or pupils in the schools. From the analysis, it is seen that the number of trained
teachers far out weight the untrained ones. This means that the level of competence in
performance of teacher and systematic delivery of lessons to the pupils or studentsin various
schools ranged from primary to tertiaryin the municipality.
Table 4.5: Professional Qualification of Train Teachers
Professional Qualification Frequency Percentage
CERTIFICATE,O AND A' LEVEL 10 6.7
DIPLOMA IN EDUCATION 35 23.3
DEGREE IN EDUCATION 75 50.0
MASTER IN EDUCATION 17 11.3
OTHERS LIKE BSC,BA,MSC 13 8.7
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.5 shows the various qualifications of the respondents who are trained and untrained
and are teaching in the sampled school. From the analysis we can deduce that 87% of the
respondents have being trained with 50% of teachers having degree in education, 23% of the
teachers having diploma in education, 11% of them having master in education and
remaining respondents were 7% and 9% for respondents with certificate O and A level and
others like Bachelor Science (BSC), Bachelor of Art (BA), Master of Science (MSC). The
information on professional training was sought to monitor the kind of qualifications the
teachers who are teaching and lecturing in the sampled schools have and verify whether they
46
really qualify to be working at their stations and from the analysis it shows that the teachers
qualified to teach at the various schools.
Table 4.6: Teaching Duration of the Subject Teachers Encountered During the Survey
Years of Teaching Frequency Percentage (%)
LESS THAN 1 YEAR 22 14.7
1-5 YEARS 47 31.3
6-10 YEARS 31 20.7
11-15 YEARS 21 14.0
16-20 YEARS 17 11.3
ABOVE 20 YEARS 12 8.0
Total 150 100.0
From table 4.6: The findings indicate that teachers had varied teaching experience, 31% had
teaching experience of between 1 to 5 years, 21% had teaching experience of 6 to 10 years,
15% had teaching experience below one(1) year, 14% had the experience of 11 to 15 years,
teachers who had teaching experience of 16 to 20 years recorded11% while 8% had
teaching experience above 20 years. This implies that 53% of the respondents had
experience of more than 5 years which translate to a good performance, building on the
premise that performance improve with experience.
47
4.5 Respondents Subjects’ Distribution
The distribution of teachers according to the subjects groups is shown on table 4.8.2 below.
Table 4.7: Respondents Subjects’ Distribution
The finding from table 4.7 above indicates that 60 teachers (40%) taught science subjects
which include biology, chemistry and physics and other related science courses that were
taught in the tertiary institutions namely histology, entomology and crop science, 29
teachers (19%) were teaching all subjects, 24 teachers (16%) taught technical applied
subjects namely technical skill, Information Communication Technology (I.C.T), Home
Science, Agricultures, 21 teachers (14%) taught languages namely English, Twi, Hausa
while 16 teachers (11%) taught humanities subjects namely geography, history, social
studies, Christian Religious Studies (C.R.S). This indicates that all the subjects taught in
various levels of schools are fairly represented in the sample. This would enable relevant
information to be obtained as different subjects expose teachers to different occupational
risks and hazards differently.
48
Subject Distribution to Respondents Frequency Percentage(
%)
SCIENCES 60 40
TECHNICAL APPLIED 24 16
HUMANITIES 16 10.7
ALL SUBJECTS 29 19.3
LANGUAGES 21 14.0
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.8: Respondents Responsibilities (position held in school) besides Teaching in
the Classroom
Positions Frequency Percentage (%)
ADMINISTRATOR 2 1.3
REGISTRAR 1 .7
EXAM OFFICER 15 10.0
DEAN OF STUDENTS 2 1.3
HEADMASTER/HEADMISTRESS 8 5.3
HEAD OF DEPARTMENT 20 13.3
SPORTS/MASTER/MISTRESS 17 11.3
OTHER POSITIONS (FORM MASTER,
ACADEMIC COUNSELERS,WELFARE,
GHNATOC OFFICIAL,ETC)
85 56.7
Total 150 100.0
To check the other responsibilities of teachers apart from the normal teaching done in the
classroom, the findings from table 4.8indicates that, 57% respondents were having or
holding other responsibilities or positions such as Form Masters, Academic counselors,
Welfare and GNAT Official in the school as teachers, 13% respondents were head of
department, 11% respondents are sport masters and mistresses, 10% respondents were exam
officers while 5%, 1%, 1% and 1% were respondents who were teachers and the same time
as Headmaster/ Headmistress, Dean of students, Administrators and registrar respectively.
This information was sought to investigate whether there were other responsibilities that
teachers perform aside their teaching and also monitor how they combine the respective
49
duties in the school to ensure efficient and effective teaching and learning. From table 4.9 it
proves that teachers perform different duties part from the already known duties in schools
as subjects of academic delivery.
4.6. Ergonomic Safety
This section presents data of findings on the ergonomic materials that are used by teachers in
their schools. These encompass the comfortability of the furniture the teacher used in
various offices and classroom, teaching aid, means of ventilation, nature of light in the
classroom and offices, working exposure and computers used by teacher in teaching or
lecturing.
Table 4.10: The Comfort of Office and Classroom Furniture (Chairs and Tables) used
by Teachers
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 36 24.0
NO 114 76.0
Total 150 100.0
The comfort of using materials like chairs, table etc at workplace is very important to every
worker because it keeps him or her healthy and also prevents them from any health
complications. From the data on table 4.10 above, it indicates that 76% (114) of theteachers
said “No” which means they were uncomfortable about the furniture they used in their work
while 24% (36) of the teachers responded “yes” in the affirmative that their level of comfort
actually depend on the quality of the furniture they use for either storing of books or sitting
when marking exercises or for relaxation in the school. The information was sought to cross
50
examine whether the furniture the teachers use has some associated adverse health effects on
them and from the analysis it indicates clearly that more than twice of the teachers expressed
their discomfort about the furniture when using them and have had certain health
complications such as backaches. It could be that the design of the furniture did not favour
the teacher’s height (i.,e be it longer and shorter). This research is in line with Beach, (2005)
from findings which affirmed that furniture used by teachers has reflected many impacts on
their health in schools.
Table 4.11: Teaching aids used by teachers in school
Teaching aids Frequency Percentage (%)
CHALK 92 62.0
MARKER 57 38.0
Total 150 100.0
From table 4.11 the data there indicates that 62% (92) of the respondents were using chalk
for teaching in the classrooms while 38% (57) of them depended on markers when teaching
in the respective classroom. From the study the researcher realized that most of the basic and
few secondary schools teachers were using chalk and tertiary schools mostly used the
markers. The information was sought to investigate teacher’s level of comfort in the aids
that they used in teaching. We could deduce that the majority (62%) of the teachers who
used chalk complained so much about the health problems they had since they started using
it and being soiled everyday by dust particles of the chalk.
51
Tsable 4.12: Ventilated Materials used in Schools
Ventilated materials Frequency Percent
WINDOWS,GLASS LOUVERS AND
DOORS OPENED INTERMITTENTLY
119 79.3
FAN 18 12.0
AIR CONDITION 6 4.0
OTHERS 7 4.7
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.12 shows the means of ventilation at the various offices and classrooms in the
sampled schools in municipality. It is clear form above that the main source of most
ventilation in the schools were windows, glass louvers and doors which could be opened
intermittently and represents 79% which constituted 119 respondents, 12% (18) respondents
use fans in the classrooms and offices while 5% (7) depended on others source such as like
block moldings while 4% (6) of the respondents were using air conditioners in their offices.
From the research, it was deduced that almost all the tertiary schools like the University and
Colleges of Education were using fans in the classrooms and air conditions were used in
some of the offices of the lecturers. It could be concluded from the above that in terms of
modernized ventilation, the tertiary schools in the municipality were better than those at the
basic and secondary levels.
52
Tables 4.13: Nature of Light in Offices and Classroom in Schools
Nature of light in classroom and offices Frequency Percentage (%)
NORMAL BRIGHTNESS 121 80.7
BRIGHTER THAN EXPECTED 4 2.7
DIM 7 4.6
DO NOT HAVE ALL 18 12.0
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.13 shows the nature of light in the classrooms and offices of the teachers in the
schools and it indicated that 81% (121) of the respondents expressed that the light in the
classroom and offices had normal brightness, 12% (18) had no access to electricity in their
school while 5% (7) depended on dimlights in classroom while 3% (4) of the subject were
utilizing brighter lighting system. This information was sought to check the glare of the light
used in the classrooms and offices of the teachers since light could also have detrimental
effect on the health of the teachers when it becomes dim and brighter than expected in the
classroom. From the analysis, it could be concluded that light used in the classrooms are
normal and may not bring any health complications to teachers if it is uninterruptedly
available
53
Tables 4.14: Working Exposure of Respondents
Indicative response factor Frequency Percentage(%)
STANDING WHEN TEACHING OR
LECTURING
129 86.0
SITTING WHEN TEACHING OR LECTURING 2 1.3
STANDING, SITTING AND WRITTING ON
BOARD WHEN TEACHING
19 12.7
Total 150 100.0
The kind of postures workers undertake to discharge his duties is important and even
determines how productive the worker will be in the working environment. Therefore, this
information was sought to survey the working posture of the teachers and researchers in the
schools. From table 4.14 the data shows that 86% (129) teachers teach or lecturewhile
standing, 13% (19) teachers also teach while standing and writing on the board in the course
of delivery of lessons, sitting while marking or relaxing during break hours and even sitting
during delivering hours. Only 1% of teachers sit when teaching or lecturing in the classroom
and lecture halls. From the analysis, there may be certain potential health risks to teachers
since standing postures are associated with greater pelvic tilt and lumbar lordosis (De
Carvalho et al, 2010). This clearly show that most teachers stand while teaching in the
classrooms.
54
Table 4.15: Laboratory Presents in the Schools of the Respondents
Variables Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 61 40.7
NO 89 59.3
Total 150 100.0
The purpose of the laboratory in schools is to bring abstract sciences into practical setting
for the understanding of students. In view of this, table 4.15 shows the number of
laboratories available for the respondent’s work. About 89 teachers representing 59% said
no which means that their schools were not having it in place while 61 teachers representing
41% yes which also indicate that they have it in place. From the analysis, we can say that the
study of science in our schools is not as effective as wanted because the schools do have
needed facilities to practicalzed the subject for the understanding of the students. Even the
41% of teachers who were having laboratories in their schools, about 39% of them practice
proper laboratory safety cautions which means they have some of personal protective
clothing in place which protect some of the students when they attend their practical lessons
in the laboratory. Since we have less than half of the laboratories having the personal
protective clothing in place, the students will be exposed to many health risks that could
either be through inhalation or skin contacts.
55
Table 4.16: Respondents that uses Computers in Teaching
Variables Frequency Percentages (%)
YES 40 26.7
NO 110 73.3
Total 150 100.0
Presentation of lessons in the classroom takes different format which includes the use of
PowerPoint which normally goes with the use of computer in the classroom. In view of this,
table 4.16 shows teachers who were using computers (laptops) when teaching and 100
teachers representing 73% responded “No” while 40 teachers representing 27% responded
yes which means they use computers in teaching. The information was sought to check
whether they have some protective covers at screens of the computers the individual
teachers used and those that were found in the computer labs of the schools in the
Municipality. From the study, it was observed that even the 27% of teachers who were using
computers were not having the screen filters and other protective gadgets in place.
4.7 Occupational Safety
This section presents data on teachers’ level of agreement on implementation of
occupational safety in their schools.
56
Table 4.17: Teachers level of agreement on the safety of school structures in schools
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 18 12.0
DISAGREE 19 12.7
NEUTRAL 22 14.7
AGREE 62 41.3
STRONGLY AGREE 29 19.3
Total 150 100.0
The findings from table 4.17 indicate that 37 (25%) teachers, disagreed that their school
buildings were safe enough to work in. 22(15%) teachers were neutral while 91(60%) of the
teachers agreed the buildings were safe and secure and therefore did not hinder their
performance and do not threaten them when they are teaching in the various classrooms.
Safe structures /buildings promote use of skills by teachers since they do not hinder anything
a teacher may wish to do to ensure effective lesson delivery such as displaying charts on the
wall.
57
4.8 Fire Safety Measures
Table 4.18: Shows Teachers’ Level of Agreement on availability of fire Extinguishers
in schools
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 85 56.7
DISAGREE 39 26.0
NEUTRAL 13 8.7
AGREE 9 6.0
STRONGLY AGREE 4 2.7
Total 150 100.0
The data on table 4.18 reveal that 124 (83%) teachers disagreed that their school had fire
extinguishers that are in perfect working conditions to use in case of fire outbreak.13
(9%) teachers were neutral and 4 (3%) teachers agreed they had fire extinguishers that are in
working state. Majority of teachers therefore confirmed their schools do not have
firefighting preparedness. Having such preparedness is a control measure for fire hazards.
Fire accidents lead to injuries that hinder teachers’ mental and physical skills. This may also
cause the stationary of the teachers used for references burnt up, which may affect them
psychologically.
58
4:9 Firefighting Training and Techniques
Table 4.19: Teachers Level of agreement on Firefighting Training as Needful Exercise
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 103 68.7
DISAGREE 32 21.3
NEUTRAL 15 10.0
AGREE 0
STRONGLY AGREE 0
Total 150 100.0
The data from table 4.19 indicate that 135 (90%) of the teachers disagreed on having
received firefighting training and techniques since their appointed before the survey. 9 (6%)
teachers were neutral. This shows that teachers are not aware of what to do in case of fire
incidence either in class or in the offices. Science teachers, whose work in the laboratory
puts them at a higher risk of fire hazards were indeed concerned about this, one of them
commented that “I avoid performing some experiments for fear of fire outbreak, and instead
emphasized the claim on basis of theoretical explanations” a factor that he attributes to poor
performance of questions set from that particular area of the curriculum.
59
4.10 The Availability of Emergency Doors
Table 4:20: Teachers Level of agreement on availability of Emergency Doors in Offices
and Laboratories
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 63 42.0
DISAGREE 27 18.0
NEUTRAL 15 10.0
AGREE 26 17.3
STRONGLY AGREE 19 12.7
Total 150 100.0
From table 4:20 the findings indicate that 60% of the respondents disagreed with the view
on having emergency doors in their offices and laboratories, 10% were neutral, while 29%
agreed. Those in agreement however, specified that, such doors did not open from outside.
This poses a great danger of trapping victims inside a room in case there is fire, as there is
always a tendency to crowd behind the door in attempt to escape. They also reported most of
the windows have been covered with metal nets which makes it impossible for them to
escape in case of fire outbreak in the classroom and offices.
60
4.11 Safety from Slips and fall
Table 4.21: Use of Precautionary Measures against slips and falls in their schools
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 11 7.3
DISAGREE 14 9.3
NEUTRAL 21 14.0
AGREE 60 40.0
STRONGLY AGREE 44 29.3
Total 150 100.0
The results above indicate that 17% of teachers felt that the floors of their offices and the
classrooms including the staircases are not kept dry enough to avoid slips and falls, 14%
were neutral while 69% were in agreement that indeed precautions are taken to protect them
from slips and falls in their schools. The respondents admitted that the floors and staircase
were kept dry all the time so most of the teachers avoided slips and falls in the various
classroom and offices. These findings established is in line with the findings of the British
health and safety executive that slips and falls lead to injuries, cuts and abrasions which lead
to absenteeism of workers.
4.12 Influence of Occupational Health on Teachers Performance
The study further investigated whether occupational health hazards have any influence on
public school teachers’ performance of duties in the survey. This section presents data on
teachers’ responses on occupational health in their respective schools, and the influence
these have on the performance of their duties.
61
Table 4.22: Analyses on the Number of Teachers Trained on Health Issues
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 57 38.0
NO 93 62.0
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.22 reveals that 62 percent of the interviewed teachers had not been trained on any
health issues, 38 percent had been trained, most of them on general health issues which
includes (sex education and sanitation related diseases) and the current pandemic disease
HIV/AIDS and Hepatitis. The findings of the study are that most of the respondents had
little information on health hazards related to their work. This implied that most of the
teachers were in danger of passive exposure to work related health hazards.
Table 4:23 Analyses on the number of Teachers who have received Vaccination
Variable Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 69 46.0
NO 81 54.0
Total 150 100.0
From analysis above, it indicated that 54% of the respondents had not received vaccination
to protect themselves against infectious diseases, 46% of them had received vaccination
against infectious diseases. This can be attributed partly to lack of strictness by the
authorities in charge of recruitment section of the Ghana Education Services in receiving
such vaccination and partly due to lack of information.
62
Table 4.24: Analysis of results on Teachers’ use of Protective Clothing when Handling
Chemicals in School
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 14 9.3
NO 106 70.7
NOT APPLICABLE 30 20.0
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.24 reveals that 20% (30) of teachers- who are required to wear protective clothing
due to the subjects they teach do not wear them, only 9%(14) teachers wore such clothing
while 71% (106) teachers did not .This findings reveal that majority of the teachers are in
danger of being exposed to chemical hazards which include concentration of mists vapor
gases, acids and alkaline and solids especially for most sciences and other teachers in the
respective schools. These are associated with voice disorders, soreness and hoarseness
which interfere with lesson delivery.
4.13 Analyses of results on the Person in charge of Health Emergencies in the Schools
Table 4.25: Teachers Responses on Handling of Emergencies in the School
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
SCHOOL NURSE 38 25.3
COLLEAGUE TEACHER 85 56.7
DON'T KNOW 27 18.0
Total 150 100.0
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The results from the table 4.25 above reveals that 25 percent of teachers agreed with having
a school nurse to take care of health emergencies in their school, 57 percent of the teachers
revealed that such emergencies are handled by colleague teachers, regardless of their
knowledge on health problems of the patients. These findings reveal that teachers may be
exposed to chemical hazards and biological hazards such as infectious diseases which can
inflict them in the course of administering first aid either to students or colleague teachers
since they have little knowledge on the precaution to be taken first before the treatment.
Table 4.26: Teachers Response on first aid box in the School
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 123 82.0
NO 18 12.0
I DON'T KNOW 9 6.0
Total 150 100.0
From analysis of the data on table 4.26 above it reveal that, 82% (123) of the teacher have
first aid box in the schools. However, most of the teachers commented that the first aid box
was not well-equipped and they also commented that the boxes were stored in open places in
the staff common room and which affected the efficacy of the drugs since most of them are
not to be exposed to the sun and other conditions, 12% (18) of the teachers admitted having
no first aid kit in their schools. Only 6% (9) of the teachers could not specify whether the
school has first aid kit in place. Even most of the teachers admitted having the first aid box
in their school but it was not useful to either the teachers or students in terms of sickness.
Those who are in charge of administering the drugs to a sick teacher or student when not
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available all the time there will be chaos as to who is supposed to be performing such duties
in the school.
4.14 Analyses of results on Teachers Dining Area
Table 4.27: Shows the results on Teachers Dining Area in the School Contacted
Response Frequency Percent
STAFF COMMON ROOM 100 66.7
CLASSROOM 20 13.3
CAFETERIA 11 7.3
DINING AREA 6 4.0
UNDER TREES 13 8.7
Total 150 100.0
From table 4.27 the results reveal that, majority of the respondents 100(67%) expressed that
they take their meals in the staffroom, 20 (13%) stated other areas like classroom, 13 (9%)
expressed that they take meals under trees, 11(7%) of teachers were patronizing the school
cafeteria while 6 (4%) took meals from a dining hall. These findings indicated that most
schools do not have dining facilities for teachers, this poses a danger of Biological hazards
which include rodents, virus, bacteria which are attracted by food particles left behind
especially when thorough cleaning is not done regularly. Some of respondents stated they
sometime take snacks when they are in the laboratory, this does not only expose them to
biological hazards but chemical hazards as well.
65
4.15 Analysis of results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers
Table 4.28: Shows the results on Level of Work- Related Stress among Teachers
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 129 86.0
NO 21 14.0
Total 150 100.0
The findings from table 4.28 above reveal that majority of the respondents 86% (129) of
teachers suffered from work related stress in the preceding of the first year as a teacher
before the survey while 14 % (21) expressed that they did not suffer from any work related
stress in the preceding of the first year as a teacher before the survey. From the analysis,
majority of teachers who complained aboutwork-related stress attributed it to workload on
teachers in their various schools. This is because from the study it was realized that most of
the basic and secondary schools teachers handle more than one subject with enrolment of
about 60 in each class and the teachers need to discharge their duties bygiven the students
exercises to all the classes he taught that very day for assessment sake and this put a lot of
stress on the teachers especially the marking of the exercises. Stress contributes to burnout
and low motivation to work. Human errors made under the effect of occupational stress can
reduce productivity in teachers. This trickles down to the students hence affecting their
performance.
66
4.16 Analyses results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving their
Appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers
Table 4.29: Shows the results on Pre Medical Screening for Teachers before giving
their appointment letter to Start Work as Teachers
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
YES 19 12.7
NO 131 87.3
Total 150 100.0
The findings on table 4.29 indicates 87% (131) of teachers admitted that they did not receive
any pre-medical screening before given their appointment letters to them while only 13%
(19) of teachers agreed to have received pre-medical screening before they were given their
appointment letter as teachers. The information was sought to investigate the teacher’s
health status before they start working so that health problems that may occur as a result of
their work could easily be identified by health experts and the teachers themselves. From the
analysis, it indicates that most of our teachers in the educational sector do not receive any
pre-medical screening before ushering them to the work as teachers and this may bring
untimely death to teachers who are asthmatic which may occur as a result of their frequent
exposure to the dust produced by chalk in the classrooms.
67
4.17 Analyses results on Common Ailments Teachers Suffered since they received their
appointment before the Survey and their Percentages
Table 4.30: Shows the results on Common Ailments that has affected Teachers and
Researchers in Schools
Variables Frequency Percentages (%)
Neck pain
Chest pain
Itchy eyes
Allergy
Flu
Low back pain
Skin dermatitis
Anxiety
Heart burn
Voice disorder
Joint pain
15
9
15
7
20
25
10
9
5
30
5
10.0
6.0
10.0
4.7
13.3
16.7
6.7
6.0
3.3
20.0
3.3
Total 150 100.0
Table 4.30 shows work related ailments that teachers have been suffering from since their
appointment as teacher in the educational sector. Apart from voice disorders which recorded
a little higher percentage of 20 with 30 teachers, the rest of them have suffered from a
significant work-related ailment which originated from the work they do as teachers. Among
the work-related ailments, the one the teachers complained as severe was flu, low back pain
and voice disorders of which they attributed to frequent talking, frequent exposure of dust
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for chalk and the problems associated with the furniture they use in school. Even though
these illnesses are considered minor, however, it may become chronic when it persists for a
longer period of time in the teacher’s life in teaching.
4.18 Analyses of results on the Influence of Physical Environment on Teachers
Performance
In this section the researcher wanted to establish whether there was any influence of
physical environment on teachers’ performance of duties .To achieves this objective the
respondents were asked their opinions on physical environment in their schools and their
responses were tabulated as shown below.
4.19 Influence of Noise on Performance
Table 4.31: Analyses of results on Noise Control in the Staffroom and Classrooms
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 65 43.3
DISAGREE 24 16.0
NEUTRAL 29 19.3
AGREE 10 6.7
STRONGLY AGREE 22 14.7
Total 150 100.0
Results from table 4.31, indicates that 89 (59%) teachers found the noise levels in the
staffroom uncomfortable to work in. About 29 (19%) teachers, were Neutral, while 32
(21%) of them indicated that noise in their staffrooms were controlled, therefore not a
69
hindrance to their performance .This indicated that majority of the respondents did not work
comfortably in their respective staffroom or offices and in classrooms due to noise hazard.
Control of noise enhances concentration and proper utilization of time. Noise in classes can
prevent communication through its interference with reception of speech. It can also cause
ear damage. Noise control can encourage teachers to work in their offices when doing lesson
preparation and when marking students work.
4.20 Influence of Social Environment on Teachers Performance of Duties
In this section the researcher wanted to establish whether social environment in public
school teachers had any influence on their performance of duties. The pooled responses
were tabulated as follows.
Table 4.32: Results on Management Sensitivity to Teachers Concerns
Response Frequency Percentage (%)
STRONGLY DISAGREE 37 24.7
DISAGREE 36 24.0
NEUTRAL 18 12.0
AGRRE 38 25.3
STRONGLY AGREE 21 14.0
Total 150 100.0
The resultson table 4.32 indicate that 73 teachers, (49 percent) felt the management staffs in
their school are not sensitive to teachers concerns, 18 teachers, (12%) were neutral, 59
teachers, (39%), felt the management staff listened to teachers concerns. This findings reveal
that majority of the respondents felt the management was insensitive to their concerns. This
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can also affect the teachers psychologically because they may feel inferior in the
management of the school.
4.21 Analysis of Data on the Study Hypothesis
This aspect of the study aimed to assess the influence of each independent variable on the
dependent variable and was tested using the chi –square test. According to (Kelinger 1993)
hypothesis will be considered to be significant, if the calculated chi- square statistic exceeds
a critical value at alpha 0.05 level of significance and at appropriate degrees of freedom after
the analysis. One of the objectives of the study was to find out whether there was any
influence of occupational safety on teachers performance of duties in selected public schools
in Mampong Municipality.
To establish thischi– square test of independence was used to test the hypothesis.
HO1: There is no significant relationship between occupational health hazards of teachers
and their performance in the Mampong Municipality. The hypothesis was analyzed by
assessing if there was a relationship between, clean air quality in offices and classrooms that
is motivating to work, and safety and maintenance of the school buildings.
71
Table 4.33: Shows chi-square Analysis on Air Quality in Classrooms and Offices and
Safety of School Buildings
LEVEL OF AIR QUALITY IN THE OFFICE
AND CLASSROOM
TotalMEASURES SD D N AG S AG
SCHOOL
BUILDING
AREN SAFE
AND WELL
MAINTAIN
SD 4 4 2 5 3 18
D 7 5 1 5 1 19
N 3 7 6 3 3 22
AG 6 12 13 23 8 62
SAG
4 7 3 9 6 29
TOTAL 24 35 25 45 21 150
KEY:
SD: strongly disagree. D: Disagree A: Agree, SAG: Strongly agree, N: Neutral
N= 150
Pearson Chi-Square= 18.422
Degree of freedom = 16 Critical Value= 0.310 P>0.05
From the chi- square (X²) computation, the calculated value was 18.422, which was greater
than the critical value of 0.310 at 5% confidence level and 16 degrees of freedom. In this
case of the judgment, the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternative hypothesis accepted.
There is therefore significant relationship between provision of safe maintained school
buildings and teachers’ motivation to work. The findings further imply that there is a
72
significant relationship between occupational safety and teacher’s performance of duties in
public schools in Mampong Municipality.
HO2 There is no significant relationship between ergonomic hazards of teachers and its
influence on teaching.
The hypothesis was analyzed to find if there was a relationship between ergonomics hazards
with regard to the type of furniture used by teachers and one of the work-related ailments
(low back pain) that teachers complained during the study.
Table: 4.34: Shows chi – square test Analysis on Ergonomics Hazards with regard to
comfortability of the Furniture used by Teachers and one of the Work-
Related Ailments (low back pain) Complained by Teachers
MEASURE
LOWBACKPAIN
Total
COMPLAI
N
NOT
COMPLAIN
FEELCOMFORTUSIN
GFURNITURE
YES 30 6 36
NO 78 36 114
Total 108 42 150
Pearson Chi-square = 3.018
Degree of freedom= 1
Critical value= 0.08
P>0.05
From the chi – square test computation the calculated value was 3.018 which was greater
than the critical value of 0.08 at 5% confidence level and the degree of freedom. In this case
the judgment made was to reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative hypothesis.
73
This implies that there is a significant relationship between the level of comfortability of
teachers using the furniture in schools and the low back pain they have experienced since
they used them.
4.22 Summary of the Chapter
In the survey, the researcher grouped the variables into two namely Independent variables
which includes ergonomics hazards, occupational hazards, physical health occupational
hazards physical environment hazards and social environment hazards were analyzed using
SPSS so as to identify their effect on the dependent variable –influences on teacher’s
performance of duties in Mampong Municipality.
From the analysis, presentation and interpretation of the data collected, it is crucial to note
that ergonomics, occupational safety, health and environment immensely contribute to the
teachers’ performance of duties in schools within the Municipality. The researcher came up
with ergonomics hazards which attributed to furniture used by teachers, occupational safety
hazards, physical health occupational hazards, physical environment hazards and social
environment hazards as pertinent factors that affect teachers’ performance of duties in public
schools.
Therefore, the ministry of education should adapt this report to assist in setting up the
relevant policies and procedures which will help correct the situation, so as to help them
achieve the set goals and objectives and inculcate it into the occupational health and safety
management standard that is not given recognition in the country.
74
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMEDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the analysis of the data collected so as to make informed conclusions
through interpretation and presentation. The overall objective of the researcher was to find
out whether teachers and researchers in our institutions encounter some ergonomics and
occupational health hazards that are related to their work. The researcher had four major
objectives; to find out the influence of occupational safety, whether there are physical and
psychological occupational health hazards among teachers and researchers in schools, the
cause of causes of the ergonomics and occupational health hazards among teachers and
researcher in our schools and to examine the extent to which the seating conditions and other
gadgets used affect teacher’s health either in the classroom or in the office. The findings
have been analyzed above and the researcher comes up with the following summary of
findings, conclusions and recommendations to the research conducted in Mampong
Municipality.
5.2 Summary of the Findings
The study sought to establish whether teachers and researchers in the country’s institutions
encounter certain ergonomics and occupational health hazards in their work places. Chapter
4 presented the results of the data collected and further discussed these findings. Entirely,
150 (100%) respondents were interviewed. Out of these, 69 % were male and 31 % were
female. 88% of them were trained in education course either at diploma level or degree and
masters level while 12% were untrained with Bachelor of Science, Art and Master of
75
Science from courses that qualify them to handle subjects at the basic, secondary and tertiary
school level.
The third objective of the study was to determine the relationship between occupational
safety and teachers’ performance of duties. The data analysis and interpretation of responses
from the respondents revealed the following major findings under the objectives.
5.2.1 Influence of Occupational Safety Hazards on Teacher’s Performance
The data showed that, most school buildings in Mampong Municipality are safe and well
maintained,(91) 60 percent of the interviewed teachers felt the building , were safe and well
maintained enough for use by both teachers and students.. However, 24percent of the
respondents felt the buildings were not safe in terms of structural designs. Fire-fighting tools
like fire extinguishers were not available in most schools, 124 (83%) teachers disagreed with
having a fire extinguisher in their schools. Out of 11 teachers who agreed with having a fire
extinguisher, only 3 teachers knew the location of the gadget. Further analyses showed that
where fire extinguishers were available they were either inadequate for all the buildings, or
they were not accessible to teachers and most of them were out of order due to lack of
regular servicing.
The survey also revealed that all the respondents did not know how to operate a fire
extinguisher, including those from schools where such gadgets were available. These
findings were further supported by self-reports from respondents in which 135 (89 %) of the
teachers disagreed with receiving fire-fighting training and safety including those teachers
that taught science and computer subjects which require them to work in fire prone areas
such as science and computer laboratories. Sixty (60%) teachers strongly disagreed to
76
having emergency doors in their offices and laboratories which opens from outside, to serve
as a precautionary measure against suffocation in case of fire incident.
Electrical installation in the offices and classrooms in most schools were reported to be
properly located. About 92 respondents representing (61%) of the teachers agreed that
electrical wires are located properly in their respective schools and that there was no chance
of accident from them. The responding teachers felt, precautions were not taken to ensure
that, no accidents occurred from such installation for instance provision of enough sockets to
avoid overloading.
On slips and falls the data analysis indicated that 104 (69%) teachers agreed with having
precautionary measures taken in their schools to prevent slips and falls, both in offices,
laboratories and classrooms. These findings were further supported by data that showed that
most offices, laboratories and classrooms of the schools contacted were regularly cleaned to
keep the floors dry and free from such dangers. The survey also revealed that the furniture
(tables and chairs) used by teachers in their offices and classrooms were unsuitable. About
114 (76%) of the teachers disagreed with having comfortable furniture in offices and
classrooms in their respective schools.
5.2.2 Influence of Occupational Health Hazards on Teachers’ Performance Of Duties
Work related ailments have been associated with increased absenteeism among teachers, as
outlined in the literature review of this study. Table 4.30 shows the work – related ailments
suffered by teachers since their appointment even before the interview and the percentage of
teachers who experienced such ailments. Only work – related complaints were included for
the figures shown.From the survey, the duration of health complaints since their
77
appointment among the sufferers was also investigated, 8 out of 10 single health complaints
showed an average duration of one year or longer. These findings indicated that teachers
suffered from health problems in the long term. The average duration of anxiety was longest
among the 10 health complaints. Anxiety is mostly associated with work related stress,
which has been shown to be a result of heavy workload and affect the teachers
psychologically.While itchy eyes ranked third. prolonged reading of teaching materials,
assessing assignments or doing computer work, and insufficient sleep could be the cause of
the itchy eyes due to eyestrain, while use of poor quality chalk could be the cause of the
high rate of skin dermatitis. The study further revealed that, most of the teachers 62% were
not trained on how to deal with health issues, including the need to receive vaccination
against infectious diseases, despite the fact that their work involved interacting with people
from different areas. Other findings indicate that most of them 105(69%) teachers did not
wear protective clothing when handling chemicals at their schools which could cause skin
dermatitis to teachers at the laboratories. First aid box was also available to most schools but
they were inadequate for both teachers and students. However, there was no training for
teachers on how to provide appropriate first aid.
The study also revealed that most teachers handle health emergency cases in their respective
schools, since most schools do not have qualified school nurses , this exposes teachers to
both biological and chemical hazards since, they lack health training to cater for such cases.
Biological hazards have been cited in the study as causes of occupational health ailments
among teachers. However, from the survey table 4.27 reveals that, 66.7% of the interviewed
teachers took their meals in the staffroom and other areas. This could attract rodents like
78
rats, moulds and fungi and can cause odour in the staffroom due to the food particles that
may be left in these places especially if they are not regularly cleaned.
5.2.3 Influence of Occupational and Environment Hazards on Teachers Performance
of Duties
From the study the responding teachers reported that social environment influenced their
performance. Most of the teachers, 42 percent felt the management was insensitive to the
teachers concerns. The study further revealed that decisions made in schools are not clearly
communicated to all teachers. Other findings revealed that most of the responding teachers
did not feel comfortable when interacting with their colleagues in their school especially
those in management.
The physical environment has been cited in this study’s literature review as influencing
teachers’ performance. This is in relation to factors such as acoustic levels, ventilation in
building, proper housekeeping and thermal factors. From the survey, it was reported that
noise levels in the staffroom were uncomfortable to work in, for most teachers, noise from
humans increase if they work in limited space. This interferes with concentration and also
proper time utilization. The survey further revealed that most teachers felt the premises they
work in are not clean enough, which was demotivating to work. Sanitary fixtures like toilet,
hand wash basin were reported not to be well maintained and even in some schools they
were using the public latrine because they were not available in the schools for the teachers.
Additionally, healthy drinking water was also not available to most of the respondents in
their offices.
79
5.3 Conclusions
The study is to establish the fact that teachers and researchers in the country’s institutions
encounter certain ergonomic and occupational health hazards in their work places which
needs to inform those in the authority to incorporate it into the national occupational health
and safety management standard to consider that teaching as a profession is also associated
with some health implications. In view of this, the researcher concluded based on the results
obtained from chapter four using the objectives of the study.
The study sought to establish whether there were some physical and psychological
occupational health hazards among teachers and researchers in schools. The results indicated
that there were some dermatitical effect and the anxieties of teachers as a result of work-
related stress in their work.
The study sought to examine whether seating conditions and other gadgets used by teachers
has any effect on their health. The study showed that most of the furniture used in school by
the teachers is given them certain health complications since they expressed their level of
displeasure in using the furniture. The teachers complained of backaches anytime they used
them for longer period.
The study also sought to establish whether occupational environment influenced teachers’
performance. Results from the study established that, lighting systems in most schools
supported the tasks teachers were doing in offices and classrooms, Acoustic hazards were
however found to dominate most offices probably due to congestion. This can lower
motivation and job satisfaction. Noise was seen to prevent voice communication and also
contributed to improper utilization of time. Air quality in offices and classrooms was found
to be uncomfortable by most teachers due to inadequate ventilation.
80
The study further established that welfare arrangements which included provision of
drinking water and facilities for rest and eating meals, proportional to size of workforce,
were not available to most of the teachers. Sanitary fixtures like hand wash basins, soap and
hand drying materials were not available for teachers use in many schools hence posing the
danger of spreading germs. The study further established that teachers lacked training in
fire-fighting techniques, most schools, consequently lacked fire-fighting preparedness which
was clearly shown, by lack of fire-fighting tools like fire extinguishers and horse reel. Fire
control measures to some schools were found to be missing in most schools. However, the
tertiary institutions within the Municipality have them but are not effective. Such measures
include: fire alarms and emergency doors in offices, classrooms and laboratories.
5.4 Recommendations
I urged in this document that teachers and researchers in our state institutions really
encounter certain ergonomics and occupational health hazard that affect their health and
performances as well in school within the Mampong Municipality. It is against this
background that the recommendations below are made:
The ministry of education should collaborate with ministry of health to have pre-
medical screening for any teacher before he or she begins to work as a teacher.
Since the research brought out some work-related ailments about teaching, the
government and policy makers should inculcate it into the existing policies about
government workers so that incentive should also be given to teachers and researchers
in our institutions in Ghana
81
Designers of furniture used by teachers and researchers in classrooms and offices to
discharge their duties should be made considering all sizes, height and weight of users
before distributing them to the various schools.
Teachers should report any problem they encounter that emanate from the teaching to
the appropriate authority for them to be aware that there are some health risks
associated with the teaching profession.
With regard to occupational health, it is recommended that teachers wear protective
clothing’s when handling chemicals to avoid ailments related to such exposures. The
schools should ensure that there are facilities for rest and eating meals for teachers, as
this will ensure reduction in exposure to both chemical and biological hazards.
There is the need to provide a good occupational environment for teachers by ensuring
unnecessary noise is controlled in and around the school buildings. Such buildings
should also be well ventilated, and proper housekeeping maintained. Proper records
regarding accidents and injuries sustained and suffered by teachers, and their causes
should be kept in schools to provide information to teachers, as well as serving as
measures to control reoccurrence of similar incidences.
82
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APPENDIX
TEACHERS QUESTIONNAIRE
DATA GATHERING QUESTIONNAIRE FOR RESEARCH ON ERGONOMIC AND
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH HAZARDS AND SAFETY OF TEACHERS AND
RESEARCHERS IN STATE INSTITUTIONS
This questionnaire will be used in gathering data for the purpose of an academic research
and full confidentiality will be maintained. It is my hope that the recommendations that will
come out from the research findings will be useful to reduce employee’s accident and the
improvement working conditions in workplaces. It will assist the ergonomists and safety
planners in the educational sectors to consider all factors in the design of equipment (tables
and chairs) that are used by the teachers and researchers in the offices and classroom which
can pose some health threat to their life in school. It will bring into light some hazards that
are associated with the teaching profession which will draw the attention of the government
and other policy makers to factor it into occupational health and management standards of
the country. The response and complete of this questionnaire is purely voluntary. However,
your participation completing the questionnaire will highly be appreciated. Please kindly
respond to the following questions.
BIODATA
1) What is your gender? A) Male 〔 〕 B) Female 〔 〕
2) What is the name of your school? ……………………………………………………
3) Category of the school you work. A) Primary level 〔 〕B) Secondary 〔 〕
C) Tertiary 〔 〕
4) Teacher training A) Trained B) Untrained
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5) Highest Professional training attained A) Certificate A〔〕
B) diploma in education〔〕 C)Degree in education 〔〕 d) Master’s in education 〔〕e)
any other specify…………………
6) Teaching experience (tick √) where applicable Less than 1 year 〔〕1-5 years 〔〕6-
10 years〔〕11-15 years 16-20 years 〔〕above 20 years 〔〕
7) Category of school you teach
Boy only 〔〕Girl only 〔〕 Mixed school 〔〕Others〔〕
8) Which subject do you teach? Please specify………………………………………..
9) How many teachers teach subject with you in the school? Please specify the number
………………………………………………………………………………………..
10) Are you member of discipline or guidance team?
Yes 〔〕 No 〔〕 Please specify which…………………………….
11) Position held in the school (tick √ where appropriate)
Principal 〔〕Administrator 〔〕 Registrar 〔〕Examine Officer 〔〕
Dean of student’s 〔〕Headmaster /Headmistress〔〕Head of Department 〔〕Sport
Master/mistress 〔〕 others, please
specify………………………………………………………….
PART 2
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ERGONOMIC
I. Do you have a place of work? Yes No ⎕ ⎕ If yes, where is it?
a) In an organized school ⎕b) In church as school ⎕c) In a house as school ⎕d) Community Centre as school ⎕e) School under trees ⎕
II. You have light in your classroom or lecture halls and the respective offices for staff?
Yes NO ⎕ ⎕III. Are you having offices for each teacher at these places of work? Yes ⎕ No ⎕
If yes, how is the nature of room?
a) Roofed and sealed with doors and windows ⎕b) Roofed and not sealed but with doors and windows ⎕c) Roofed but without doors and windows ⎕d) Furnished with all the above. ⎕
IV. Is the room furnished with which kinds of furniture?a) Ordinary table and chair without backrest ⎕b) Table and Cushion chair with backrest ⎕c) Stuffing table and swerving chair ⎕d) Table and cushion beach ⎕e) Plastic table and plastic chair ⎕f) Ordinary table and chair with backrest. ⎕
V. Do you feel comfortable using the furniture? Yes ⎕ No ⎕
If no, why?
a) I have been experiencing backache any time l used it ⎕b) I had backache because of it ⎕c) The chair is longer than the table ⎕d) The chair is smaller than table ⎕e) The table is longer than the chair ⎕f) The table is smaller than the chair ⎕g) Both table and chair are longer than my height ⎕
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h) Both table and chair are smaller than my height ⎕
VI. Which of the teaching aids do you use in writing on the board?
a) Chalk ⎕b) Marker ⎕ Other, please specify……………………………………
VII. What are means of ventilation found in your classroom?
a) Windows, glass rovers and doors opened intermittently. ⎕ b) Fan ⎕ c) Air condition ⎕ d)Others specify………………………………………………
VIII Source of light in the classroom apart from sunlight for both day and night studies.
a) Generator ⎕ b) VRA ⎕ c) ECG ⎕ d) Lantern ⎕ e) Absent of light ⎕ IX). Is the source of power available all the time? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕ X). How is the nature of the light you use in your classroom and office?
a) Normal Brightness ⎕ (b) Brighter than expected ⎕ c) Dim ⎕ d) Do not have at all ⎕
XI). Working Exposure a) Standing when teaching or lecturing ⎕ b) Sitting when teaching or lecturing ⎕
c) Standing, Sitting and writing on the board when teaching. ⎕XII). Do you have laboratory in your school? a)Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕XII). If yes, which are some of the personal protective equipment do you use when teaching
or lecturing? a) Gloves ⎕ b) Goggles ⎕ c) Lab coat and boot ⎕
d) Nose mask ⎕ e) All the above ⎕XIII). Do you use computer (laptop) in your teaching or lecturing? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕XIV). If yes, what do you use reduce the glare of the computer rays?
a) Screen filter ⎕ b) Transparency white robber ⎕ c) Other,
specify……………
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PART 3SECTION (A)
Occupational Health
1. Have you ever been trained on health issues? a) Yes⎕ b) No ⎕ If the answer is yes, which issues? Please specify …………………………………………
2. Have you ever been vaccinated against infectious diseases………………………………
3 Do your wear protective clothing when using chemicals in the school?
a)Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕ c) not applicable ⎕4) Who takes care of health emergencies in the school? Please tick where appropriate)
a) School nurse⎕ b) Colleague teacher ⎕ c) Don’t know ⎕5) Do you have a first aid box in the school? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕ c) I don’t know ⎕
6) If the answer above is yes, where is it kept? Please specify……………………………….
7) Where do you take your meals in school? Please specify the area…………………………
8) Do you suffer from work-related stress? a) Yes ⎕ b) No ⎕
9) The stress that you mentioned in the last question mainly comes from? (Tick all that
apply) a) Heavy workload ⎕ b) Guidance work ⎕ c) Getting along with colleagues ⎕ d) Lack of enough time to cover the syllabus others, specify……………
10) In the last 12 months, how many days of sick leave have you taken due to work-related
health problems? a) No time off work ⎕ b) less than 1 day ⎕ c) 1 – 5 day’s ⎕
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d) 6-10 days ⎕ e) 10days plus ⎕11) Did you go through any pre- medical screening prior to your current job appointment?
Yes 〔〕 No 〔〕
12. For what approximate period after job appointment did you suffer from the following
health problems or illnesses? Please tick (√) the appropriate boxes to indicate the severity as
well as the cause and fill in the last column to indicate the duration (within years) of the
corresponding health problem or illness.
ordinary health problem and complains (please tick appropriate box)
SEVERITY CauseIn your opinion was the health problems caused or worsened by the job?
Duration of the health problems (within) in years
Not at all
A little
Some Serious Yes No 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Neck pain 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Low back pain 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Anxiety 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Heartburns 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Nasal disorders 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Voice hoarseness 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Skin-dermatitis due to the use of chalk and chemical.
1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Allergy 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Chest pain 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Flu 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 〔〕,after 20years〔〕
Itchy eyes 1-5〔〕6-10 〔〕11-20 ( ),after 20years〔〕
Joint pain 1-5〔〕6-10 ( )11-2( ),after
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20years ()
Other, specify………………………………………………………………………………
SECTION B
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY
13. Please provide your opinions for the following statements. Your response to the
statement will be based on a 5 – point scale ranging from ‘1’ to ‘5’. Your response can be
any number between 1 & 5 depending on how much you agree with the statement. The more
you agree the higher the score. Please bear in mind that there are no right or wrong answers.
The scale mean 1) strongly disagree
2) Disagree
3) Neutral
4) Agree
5) Strongly agree
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 51 The school buildings are safe and well maintained
2 There is ample number of fire extinguishers in the school and all of them are in working condition
3 Fire drills take place once in every month
4 Everyone in the school is aware of do’s and do not’s in case of an emergency
5 The floors especially the staircase are always kept dry to avoid slips & falls
6 The electrical wires are located in the proper way and
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there is no chance of accident from them
7 There are emergency doors opening from outside, in the offices & laboratories
SECTION C
14: PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5A I find the level of temperature in my office
comfortable to work in
B I find the level of air quality in the office and
classroom very clean and motivating to work
C I find the noise levels in the staffroom well
Controlled.
D I find the lighting of the classrooms and office to be
excellent when I am working
E I find the external physical appearance of the school
very appearing
F Sanitary fixtures (toilets, hand wash basin) in the
school are very well maintained and enough for all.
15 SECTIONS D
SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT
1 2 3 4 5
A Decision are clearly communicated to all teachers
B I find the management sensitive to the teachers
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concerns.
C I am comfortable when interacting with colleagues
in the school, including those in management
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