Theory of KnowledgeTheory of KnowledgeEssay Preparation

By Steve Reynolds Li Po Chun United World College of Hong Kong

TOK EssayTOK Essay

Background to the assessed task:Choose one title from a prescribed

list of 10 set by the IB. Externally assessed.Word limit – 1,200 – 1,600.Worth 40 points.The TOK teacher may comment on

one draft only.

TOK EssayTOK Essay

Questions are cross disciplinary in nature.Consider knowledge issues relevant to the

question and formulate a main idea.THe main idea should make a claim and

be subject to counter-claims (the task is more about exploring your arguments than answers; more about demonstrating thinking than being ‘right’)

The essay should reach a conclusion.The ideas should show links between

knowledge issues…Ways of Knowing and Areas of Knowing.

TOK EssayTOK Essay

Other details:The essay should be legible and well

presented.References and bibliography should be

included if appropriate.“Common knowledge” (e.g.. “the world

is round”) need not be referenced but any ‘factual’ claims (evidence based on fact) or quotations should.

Bibliographies, references, maps, diagrams, illustrations and tables are not included in the word count.

How to write a TOK Essay?How to write a TOK Essay?

The first thing to decide on is which question to choose! This is a vital first step. Students should consider which question:

They find most interesting and enjoyable to explore (motivating).

Covers an area that they have most knowledge in (expertise)…though they may want to choose to explore an area they have little knowledge and experience of (curiosity & discovery).

How to Write a TOK Essay? How to Write a TOK Essay?

This presentation focuses on an example of approaches to writing a TOK essay focusing on a question set in 2007:

“Can a machine know?”

TOK Essay Writing – Stage OneTOK Essay Writing – Stage One

“Unpack the question.” (www.digitalbrain.com)

It is vital to understand what the question is asking (and students should keep reminding themselves throughout their planning & writing so as to stay focused). So:

Identify key words in the question.Evaluate the meaning of the question.Identify the Knowledge issues in the

question.

Unpacking The QuestionUnpacking The QuestionIdentify key words:

“Can machines know?”A machine is defined scientifically as a device that transmits or alters energy. Machines can range from a washing machine to a computer.

Knowledge has many definitions relating to information, fact, experience and understanding.

Question arising: What kind of machine shall I focus on?

Question arising: What philosophy/ies of Knowledge shall I refer to?

Unpacking The QuestionUnpacking The QuestionUnderstanding (giving meaning to) the

question:“To reflect on the nature of knowledge with reference to how far machines possess it?”

Re-writing the question for more personal understanding (but not forgetting I must answer the actual question)

Identifying the Knowledge issues:•What is knowledge?•How far and in what form can machines possess it?•Can humans quantify knowledge in other forms?

Focusing: •My focus on machines will be on artificial intelligence (AI). (Computer Science describes AI as an, ‘intelligent agent.”:A system that perceives its environment and takes action which maximizes its chance of success. AI coined by John McCarthy in 1956. •NOTE: After this stage you might realize that this is not the right question for you, in which case choose a different question!

TOK Essay Writing – Stage TwoTOK Essay Writing – Stage Two‘Thought showering’ ideas.What do I need to find out in order to write

the essay? Explore and research a range of ideas and themes that might inform my understanding of the question and contribute to the content of your essay. A variety of approaches can be used to organizing research materials & your thinking:

Spider graphs.Mind maps.Lists/bullet points. For example:

‘‘Thought showers'Thought showers' Option: A mind map that keeps elements of TOK much in focus

and raises knowledge issues:

Can a machine know?AoK and WoK LINKS

Emotion

Logic & reason

MathematicsPerception

Language

Natural Sciences

Can AI feel? Does it have, ‘social intelligence’? Dreyfus vs. Newell & Simon.

Alan Turing’s test vs. John Searle. Language processors?

Materialist theory of physical mind. Mind is physical therefore can be reproduced.

Input from sensors to define world e.g. microphone, camera. Recognition e.g. fingerprint matching.

Computing devices all rooted in mathematical devices. Algorithms at base of AI learning. “Qualification problem”. “Dartmouth Proposal”.

‘‘Thought shower’ Thought shower’ – Mind Map in – Mind Map in FocusFocusExamples of more detailed notes from the mind

map:Emotion: Can AI feel? Can it have ‘Social

intelligence’ (e.g. empathy)? How can we ever know if AI feels unless we are also AI? Claim: Newell & Simon’s, ‘Physical symbol system hypothesis’ states that all knowledge exists through symbols and therefore AI has sufficiency to ‘know’. Counter claim: Dreyfus argues humans depend on unconscious instinct (a “feel”) integral to our knowing. Different from purposeful manipulation of symbols by computers/AI.

‘‘Thought shower’ Thought shower’ – Mind Map in Focus – Mind Map in FocusLanguage: don’t computers have a

‘language’? Language processors recognize human voice? Claim: Alan Turing’s tests including, ‘Polite conversation’. If AI acts as intelligently as humans it is as intelligent. Counter claim: John Searle’s, ‘Chinese room argument’. You can use a book to ‘translate’ Chinese symbols but you still don’t understand it.

‘‘Thought shower’ Thought shower’ – Mind Map in Focus – Mind Map in FocusMathematics/Logic/Reason:AI roots are in mathematical devices (from

abacus). Part of human knowledge is learning. Algorithms are at the base of AI ability to learn. Claim: “Dartmouth proposal” at AI conference 1956, that every part of learning can be defined, therefore can be simulated by computer. Counter claim: “Qualification problem’. McCarthy identified that human knowledge paradigms use assumptions (if one says, “bird” one instantly imagines a small flying, singing creature, though this may not be accurate). Humans know despite lack of certainty/logic (faith as a WOK?).

TOK Essay Writing – Stage ThreeTOK Essay Writing – Stage ThreeHaving explored and researched ideas,

identify a thesis. That is, a ‘central point’ or, ‘main idea’.

Distill it to one sentence if possible (and keep that sentence clearly displayed in the study area).

Identify sub sections from the thesis (these can be the basis of the paragraphs). Each one is an argument or part argument (claims & counter claims).

JUSTIFY all arguments (show evidence).For example:

The Thesis The Thesis “Whilst machines can exhibit and utilize

elements of knowing, they lack the self-conscious, sub-conscious and emotional traits of full human knowing.”

Sub sections: Emotion: Newell & Simon (symbols) vs.

Dreyfus (instinct & feeling). Social intelligence & empathy.

Math/Logic/Reason: “Dartmouth proposal” vs. “Qualification problem”.

The ThesisThe Thesis

Sub sections: Language: Turing’s ‘Polite conversation’

vs. Searle’s ‘Chinese room argument. Don’t forget to include personal examples/experiences where you can include your arguments.

Order sub sections from weakest to strongest argument (to help ensure that in the body of the essay the paragraphs will build to a climax and hold the reader - developmental).

TOK Essay Writing – Stage Four TOK Essay Writing – Stage Four

Structuring and writing the essay.Use the material created so far to write a draft of

the essay:State the question.Introduction. This is the “point of entry” for the

reader. Attract the reader and focus their attention (might use an anecdote, surprising information or a dialogue to open). Avoid dictionary definitions. Include the thesis in the last sentence of the introduction “thesis first”.

Be concise.

Structuring and Writing the EssayStructuring and Writing the Essay The body of the essay, broken into paragraphs. Use the sub

sections of the thesis as a structural guide. JUSTIFY all claims and statements (show evidence for

arguments). Don’t forget to include COUNTER CLAIMS. CLARIFY (make ideas and arguments clear and complete).

Don’t generalize. SOURCE claims (footnotes and bibliography where

appropriate). VARY sources – facts, personal experiences. CHECK sources for accuracy. COHERENCE – is more important than being ‘right’ or ‘wrong’.

Check for logic and flow in any arguments. LINKS – check that links are made between AoKs and Woks

where appropriate. When the body of the essay is completed, check that the

paragraphs are in the most effective, flowing order (building the argument).

Structuring and Writing the EssayStructuring and Writing the EssayConclusion. The “point of exit”. Closure for the reader.

Conclude the argument by: Summing up.New questions arising (e.g. “Strong AI may

herald knowledge in machines on a human scale in the future.”)

A final perspective. “Thesis last”. Restate the thesis (it may have changed as the essay has developed).

Structuring and Writing the EssayStructuring and Writing the Essay

Now re-read the essay against the assessment criteria. Does the work meet the assessment requirements (have you ‘played the game’).

Re-draft the essay as necessary and polish it up:

Check spelling and grammar.Tidy presentation. Number pages.Word count.Consistent sourcing as appropriate.

In SummaryIn Summary

“unpack the question” – key words; understanding the question; identifying knowledge issues.

‘Thought shower’ ideas – research, explore, question, imagine. Use spider graphs, mind maps, lists. Record sources explored. Identify links, counter claims and examples.

Create a thesis (big idea or central point). Make sub-sections for associated arguments. Justify arguments and include examples.

Structure and write a draft of the essay. Re-read, check against criteria, re-draft,

polish.

The assessment criteria looks for..The assessment criteria looks for..

Criterion A: Understanding knowledge issuesFocuses on Knowledge issues (KI) that are relevant to

the titleDemonstrates understanding of the KIEffectively links & compares WoK’s & AoK’s

Criterion B: Knower’s perspectiveEvidence of independent thinkingShows personal, reflective exploration & self

awareness as knowerConsiders different perspectives (counter-claims)Varied & effective examples

The assessment criteria looks for..The assessment criteria looks for..

Criterion C: Quality of analysis of KIExplores KI with depth/detail and insightCoherently justifies all main pointsCounter claims explored & evaluated Implications/assumptions of argument identified

Criterion D: Organization of ideasEssay is well structured/effective organizationConcepts are clear & appropriately refinedFactual information is correctSources are acknowledgedReferences permit tracing of sourcesWord limit has been met

BibliographyBibliography

http://peernet.ibpc.ca/tok/tokassessment/tok essay

www.digitalbrain.com/roztru/tok http://essayinfo.com/essays/Members.tripod.com/~lklivingston/essay/IB Theory of Knowledge subject guide 2007.