THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES AND RESEARCH

INCOMMUNICATION STUDIES

I. Trends in Theory & Research

II. Types of Research

III. Perspectives in Social Science

IV. Laws vs. Rules Perspectives

V. Triangulation

Ringo Ma

A Brief History of National Communication Association

(NCA)

1914-1923 National Association of Academic Teachers of Public Speaking

1923-1946 National Association of Teachers of Speech

1946-1970 Speech Association of America

1970-1997 Speech Communication Association

1997-present National Communication Association

Two Major Journals of NCA

• Quarterly Journal of Speech– 1915 Quarterly Journal of Public Speaking– 1918 Quarterly Journal of Speech Education– 1928 Quarterly Journal of Speech

• Communication Monographs– 1934 Speech Monographs– 1976 Communication Monographs

Trends in Theory and Research(See Ringo Ma’s article on name change from SCA to NCA)

• 1914-1930s: Skill-oriented “public speaking” teaching• 1917: “Speech” was adopted to replace “public speaking” and

other terms.• 1920s: Speech pathology and theatre began to separate from

public speaking, discussion & debate.• 1930s: Classical approaches to rhetoric and communication-

related studies in social science were imported.• 1940s: The National Society for the Study of Communication

(the predecessor of Int’l Communication Association) was founded by “speech” scholars.

• 1960-1970: New concepts of communication emerged. Debates between “speech” and “communication.” “Speech Communication” as the compromise. SCA was founded.

• 1997: Name change from SCA to NCA.

Three Types of Research(Raymond K. Tucker, Richard L. Weaver, II, & Cynthia

Berryman-Fink)

• The Historical-Critical Research

– It involves reconstruction of the past in a systematic manner by collecting evidence, evaluating it, verifying it, and synthesizing it to establish facts and to reach defensible conclusions.

• The Descriptive Research

– It paints a picture of the status quo or the present state of affairs. It depicts or characterizes current conditions.

– Unlike historical research, which examines written records of phenomena, descriptive research involves the collection of information directly from individuals who possess the information. Unlike experimental research, it does not manipulate conditions or arrange for events to happen.

• The Experimental Research– An experiment is a recording of

observations, quantitative or qualitative, made by defined and recorded operations and in defined conditions, followed by examination of the data by appropriate statistical and mathematical rules, for the existence of significant relations. (Raymond Bernard Cattell)

Example of Experimental Research:“Solomon four-group design”

• Groups Pre-test Treatment Post-test• A. Experiment X X X• B. Control X X• C. Experiment X X• D. Control X• -------------------------------------------------------------------------

If A & C are significantly different from B & D, then it can be concluded that “the treatment caused the difference” (if x, then y).

Theoretical Perspectives

• Etic Approach depends upon phenomenal distinctions

judged appropriate by the community of scientific observers (Marvin Harris)

• Emic Approach makes an intensive investigation of a

single culture to “get inside the native’s skin” (Bronislaw Malinowski)

• Behavioristic Approach– Behavior is externally controlled by the

environment.

– Behavior is predictable because of environmental conditioning.

• Humanistic Approach– Behavior is internally controlled by the

person.

– Behavior is unpredictable because of freedom of choice.

• Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert Mead)– A focus on the interaction between the

actor and the world.– A view of both the actor and the world as

dynamic processes and not static structures.

– The great importance attributed to the actor’s ability to interpret the social world.

Objective vs. Subjective Positions (Katherine Miller)

• Explanation of social phenomena based on causal relationships

• Separation between knower and known through use of the scientific method

• Cumulation of general knowledge through testing of the community of scholars

• Understanding of social phenomena based on situated knowledge

• Inquiry from the inside through ethnography and reports of social actors

• Emergent and local understandings of situated social life

“Laws” vs. “Rules” Perspectives(external regularity vs. internal reality)

• “Laws”If X, then Y.

• “Rules”Person A wants Y;

Person A knows that s/he must do X if Y is to occur;

Person A sets him/herself to do X.

* Rules are “norms” or “guides” that help us behave appropriately and effectively in communication situations.

• The covering laws perspective based on positivism assumes that human behavior is externally controlled by the environment so a law-type cause-effect relationship can be identified.

• The human action (“rules”) perspective emphasizes that the key to understanding human communication is through investigating how human “actors” (not “reactors”) interpret communication events, what goals they intend to fulfill in a given situation, and how they interactively make sense of these events. (Dominic A. Infante, Andrew S. Rancer, & Deanna F. Womack)

Theories based on the “laws” perspectiveExample: Uncertainty Reduction Theory

• Uncertainty Reduction Axioms (7)

• Uncertainty Reduction Theorems

– Amount of Communication (Theorems 1-6)

– Nonverbal Expressiveness (Theorems 7-11)

– Intimacy of Content (Theorems 12-15)

– Information-Seeking (Theorems 16-18)

– Reciprocity (Theorems 19, 20)

– Real and Perceived Similarity (Theorem 21)

Verbal C

omm

Uncertainty

Uncertainty

Nonverbal expressiveness

Info seeking

Uncertainty

Intimacy

Uncertainty

Uncertainty Reduction Axioms

Liking

Uncertainty

Uncertainty

Perceived

Similarities

Reciprocity

Uncertainty

Amount of Communication

Intimacy level of Communication

Nonverbal affiliative expressiveness

Info. Seeking

Behavior

Similarity

Reciprocity liking

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Research based on the “laws” perspectiveExamples

• Gudykunst, W. B. (1983). Uncertainty reduction and predictability of behavior in low and high context cultures: An exploratory investigation. Communication Quarterly, 31, 49-55.

• Gudykunst, W. B., & Nishida, T. (1984). Individual and cultural influences on uncertainty reduction. Communication Monographs, 51, 23-36.

In the first study, Gudykunst found that subjects in an HCC were more cautious in initial interactions, had a greater tendency to make assumptions based upon a stranger's cultural background, and asked more questions about a stranger's background, than did subjects in an LCC.The second study disclosed that Japanese respondents (HCC) indicated a lower preference to use self-disclosure and interrogation as uncertainty reduction strategies, but at the same time reported higher levels of attributional confidence than did U.S.A. respondents (LCC).

Theories based on the “rules” perspectiveExample: Coordinated Management of Meaning

(CMM)

• Two people who are interacting socially construct the meaning for their conversation. Each individual is also comprised of an intrapersonal system which helps explain their actions and reactions. (Both coordinative and interpretative approaches of the “rules” perspective are applied).

• Three basic concepts– The context of a conversation

(relationship, episode, self-concept, and archetype)

– Constitutive or definition rules (rules for interpreting the words and actions used)

– Regulative or behavior rules (rules for deciding how to behave when someone performs a particular speech act)

Research based on the “rules” perspectiveExample

• Ma, R. (1992). The role of unofficial intermediaries in interpersonal conflicts in the Chinese culture. Communication Quarterly, 40, 269-278.

Q. What are the key factors in a successful or satisfactory mediation as perceived by insiders (Chinese)?

A.The mediator was usually a friend of the two parties in conflict or an elderly person respected by both. He or she intervened on his or her own initiative or in response to a request by a person other than the two in conflict. Impartiality and face maintenance were perceived as two key factors in successful mediation.

Theoretical Perspectives on Research• Weaknesses of Quantitative Methods

– Pre-determined concepts are applied, so unique cultural/social phenomena may be overlooked.

– When findings are different from what were hypothesized, only unwarranted explanations can be offered.

• Weaknesses of Qualitative Methods– “Lack of precise statements about qualities does not

make research qualitative but just sloppy” (Felipe Korzenny & Betty Ann Griffis Korzenny)

– Non-generalizable results contribute minimally to theoretical and conceptual developments.

– Very small sample does not paint any picture. (see example of criticism)

Qualitative methodologies are especially useful in obtaining an in-depth understanding of “what

is going on”

• Understanding how meanings are negotiated through social interaction.

• Understanding a problematic situation with the belief that humans take an active role in the shaping of the process.

• Understanding the insider’s perspective in a culture or organization.

Triangulation of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods

• The distinction between the two is often artificial.

• Strengthened validity and reliability through the juxtaposition of subjective and objective data.

• Four types of triangulation: data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, and methodological triangulation.

Example of Triangulation

• Hecht, M. L., Ribeau, S., & Alberts, J. K. (1989). An Afro-American perspective on interethnic communication. Communication Monographs, 56, 385-410.– qualitative and quantitative analyses identified

7 issues Afro-Americans perceive as salient to their interethnic communication (e.g., negative stereotyping, acceptance, etc.)

– Both open questions and quantitative methods (for testing associations and comparisons) were used.

Example of Triangulation

• Ma, R., & Chuang, R. (2001). Persuasion strategies of Chinese college students in interpersonal contexts. Southern Communication Journal, 66, 267-278.– Three themes were generated from 16 categories of

persuasion strategies: anshi 暗 示 (hinting), yi shen zuo ze 以 身 作 則 (set an example by one’s own action), & tou qi suo hao 投 其 所 好 (to agree to whatever pleases others).

– Both open questions and quantitative methods (for testing associations and comparisons) were used.

These slides can be reviewed at

http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ringoma/lectures/theoretical.ppt

Thank you!