Papers onResearch, Thematic Areas and Case Studies

BAIF-2010

BAIF Development Research FoundationDr. Manibhai Desai Nagar, Warje, N.H. 4, Pune 411 058, Maharashtra

Website: www.baif.org.in; Phone: +91 20 2523 16 61 / 63; Fax: +91 20 2523 16 62

PrefaceBAIF Development Research Foundation has been working forthe development of rural community through implementingdiverse development programmes. With the growth of theorganization and its geographical spread the work in variousthematic areas is also scattered in various state locations.This publication is a compilation of all Research / Thematicpapers by Team BAIF published in National and Internationaljournals, workshop proceedings and research reports during theyear 2010. The contents have been arranged in three parts asResearch Papers, Thematic papers and Case Studies. Thepublication is made available to all within the organization andoutside. Sharing these across the organization is done toencourage location specific replication of the good practices andthe learnings from the thematic papers and case studies.BAIF gratefully acknowledges contribution from all the authorsand for the technical assistance and knowledge and informationsharing.

CONTENTS1. RESEARCH PAPERS1.1 Phenotypic Identification of Farm Animal Genetic ResourcesUsing Computer Learning with Scoring Function ................................................................................... 61.2 Improvement in Feeding Practices with Feeding ofComplete Feed Blocks for Cattle at Field Level Using Soya Hulls ................................................... 191.3 Breeding and Improvement of Local Goats with OsmanabadBucks with Specific Reference to Provide Sustainable Livelihoodin Clusters of Chandrapur, Gadchiroli, Yeotmal, Ahmednagar andNandurbar Districts ............................................................................................................................................ 211.4 Clinical Cases of Abortion in Osmanabadi Does Due toPestedes Petits Ruminant (Goat Plague) Outbreak ............................................................................... 221.5 Threatened Indigenous Rice Biodiversity in Thane District ofMaharashtra and BAIF’s Community Based Efforts in ItsConservation and Revival ................................................................................................................................ 231.6 Promotion of Underutilized Crops for Income Generationand Environmental Sustainability ................................................................................................................. 392. THEMATIC PAPERS2.1 Climate Change Impacts on Livestock Production andAdaptation Strategies: A Global Scenario .................................................................................................. 492.2 Indigenous Crop Genetic Resources and Traditional PracticesAssociated with Crop Cultivation in Tribal Blocks of Maharashtra .............................................. 602.3 Scope for Reducing Ill-Effects of Livestock Husbandry on Global Warming ............................. 612.4 Tree Planting on Private Lands ..................................................................................................................... 672.5 Forage Resource Development in India .................................................................................................... 812.6 Milk - A Life Line of India ............................................................................................................................... 942.7 Eco-friendly Goat Husbandry for Sustainable Livelihood of Small Farmers ........................... 1022.8 Development of Value Chain for Sustainable Agriculture ................................................................. 1052.9 Towards Market Orientation of Underutilised Horticultural Crops:Experiences with Rural Initiatives in India ........................................................................................... 110

2.10 Watershed Development Can Change the Rural Map of India ..................................................... 1132.11 Livelihood Techno-bank for Sustainable Development ofBackward Districts in Maharashtra, India .............................................................................................. 1202.12 Mitigating Global Warming While Providing Sustainable Livelihoods ........................................ 1292.13 Livelihood Enhancement Strategies for Tribal Regions of Maharashtra ................................... 1322.14 Small Holders and Role of NGOs in Improving their Livelihood .................................................. 1392.15 Traditional Seed Conservation Practices of Small Farmers in India ......................................... 1553. CASE STUDIES3.1 BAIF: Transforming Dreams into Reality for Rural India ................................................................ 1573.2 Exploring Livelihood Avenues in Distressed Vidarbha, India ........................................................ 1783.3 Mitigating Global Warming While Providing Sustainable LivelihoodThrough Integrated Farming Systems ..................................................................................................... 195

RESEARCH PAPERS

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Research Papers

l Phenotypic Identification of Farm Animal Genetic Resources Using Computer Learningwith Scoring Functionl Improvement in Feeding Practices with Feeding of Complete Feed Blocks for Cattleat Field Level Using Soya Hullsl Breeding and Improvement of Local Goats with Osmanabad Bucks with SpecificReference to Provide Sustainable Livelihood in Clusters of Chandrapur, Gadchiroli,Yeotmal, Ahmednagar and Nandurbar Districtsl Clinical Cases of Abortion in Osmanabadi Does Due to Pestedes Petits Ruminant(Goat Plague) Outbreakl Threatened Indigenous Rice Biodiversity in Thane District of Maharashtra and BAIF’sCommunity Based Efforts in Its Conservation and Revivall Promotion of Underutilized Crops for Income Generation and EnvironmentalSustainability

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Bhatia A. K1., Jain Anand1, Sadana D. K2., Gokhale S. B2., and Bhagat R. L2. 2010. Phenotypic identificationof farm animal genetic resources using computer learning with scoring function. Computers and Electronicsin Agriculture 73(2010). Pages 37 – 43.1 National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources, Karnal 132001, India2 BAIF Central Research Station, Urulikanchan, Pune 412202, India

Phenotypic Identification of Farm Animal Genetic Resources UsingComputer Learning with Scoring Function

Abstract

A precise identification of a given animal as belonging to a given breed is essential for livestockcensus, and developing policies for selection, improvement and conservation of animal geneticresources. It consists of assigning animals to a breed on the basis of certain phenotypic traitsand basically forms a classification problem. Existing computer learning algorithms require alearning data set for predicting the class of a new case. The available information on a breedconsists of analysed survey data on a number of its phenotypic traits. Usually this informationis presented in the form of breed descriptors as has been prepared for several breeds. Thispaper reports a learning approach in the form of a scoring function that aggregates traitvalues to provide a score for identifying breed of the given animal on the basis of breeddescriptor. Experiments with the scoring function on both simulated and actual data of fourIndian cattle breeds revealed high accuracy of identification. Its performance was comparableto the results obtained by Haendel (2003), in a recent instance-based learning algorithm.The scoring function technique has been extended to make a decision on breed classificationof an animal when breed descriptor of a single breed is available, and also in case the newanimal does not belong to any of the breeds under comparison. The technique involvesgeneration of one thousand animals’ simulated data from the available breed descriptors andlocating the score of new animal in the range of scores of the generated animals for decisionsupport on breed of the new animal.Keywords: animal genetic resources, breed, computer learning, scoring function, breedidentification1. IntroductionDomestic animals provide a wide range of outputs such as milk, meat, eggs, draught power,fiber, leather, and manure. Farm animal genetic resources include variability in domesticatedanimal species in the form of breeds (Bhat, 2004). Conservation of indigenous breeds is essentialfor sustainable management of agricultural systems. Identification of true to the type animalsof breeds is an important step for improvement, utilization and conservation of breeds. Thetask is performed with human judgment, which is based on experience. Hence alternativesystems are desired for objective decision on breed groupings of given animals.

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Individual assignment methods have been utilized to determine populationmembership of animals on the basis of highly polymorphic genetic markers such asmicrosatellites. Prominent examples of these methods are frequency method, Bayesianmethod and distance-based methods (Cornuet et al., 1999; Piry et al., 2004). These methodsprovide low accuracy of assignment in native breeds due to intermixing of gene pool underprevalent system of breeding and management (Bhatia and Arora, 2007). Moreover, besidesbeing costly and time consuming, these are not field-friendly methods due to involvementof sophisticated laboratory analysis.The breeds of domesticated animal species have been described on the basis ofphenotypic characteristics and breed identification on the basis of phenotype has been apractice under field conditions. Therefore, a computational technique utilizing phenotypictraits for identification of breeds of animals looks more logical.Computer decision making problems are included in the general category ofclassification. Inductive learning is creation of class description from examples. Inductionproblems start with a training set of pre-classified examples and the goal is to form adescription that can be used to classify previously unseen examples with high accuracy(Domingos, 1996). Inductive learning approaches include induction of decision tree, ruleinduction, instance-based learning, Bayesian classification, artificial neural networks, etc.Instance-based learning algorithms (Domingos, 1996; Haendel, 2003) are based onsimilarity assumption. Typically, these algorithms store a set of observed examples referredto as instances or exemplars and a test example is classified by finding the nearest instancesaccording to a similarity function. All the instance-based learning algorithms analyze thelearn data set at the moment when a prediction for a test example is required. They areeasy to implement and have excellent generalization capabilities for many real-worldproblems.Information on phenotypic characteristics of a breed is available in the form of breeddescriptor, which is the result of analyzed survey data on a few hundred animals of thebreed. Available instance-based learning methods cannot be utilized out of the box to predictbreed of an animal with breed descriptors due to mandatory requirement of learning dataset. Therefore, a scoring function has been devised for identifying breed of an animal fromthe available breed descriptors. It aggregates trait values to provide score of an animal onthe basis of breed descriptors for decision making on breed of the animal. Its performancehas been studied on simulated and actual data on four cattle breeds having breeding tractin adjacent states in Western and Southern India. Results obtained from the scoring-basedtechnique have been compared with PNC2 algorithm (Haendel, 2003). The learning data setfor PNC2 has been generated from breed descriptors.The remaining paper is organized as follows. Section 2 describes materials andmethodologies that include the scoring function for breed identification and the existinginstance-based learning techniques used for comparison purpose. Section 3 shows theresults obtained. Section 4 explains extension of scoring-based technique, and Section 5contains the concluding remarks.

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2. Materials and Methods

2.1 Information on Animal Genetic ResourcesBasic information on a breed is collected from its breeding tract by conducting systematicfield surveys. It starts with designing species-wise questionnaires that include parameterson general management practices along with morphological, production and reproductioncharacteristics of animals. Data on a few hundred animals of a breed are collected andanalysed to obtain frequencies of trait values in the case of qualitative traits and averagesalong with standard error in the case of quantitative traits. Analysis of data is performedseparately for each category of animals such as young-ones, adult females, adult males, draftanimals, etc. (Bhatia et al., 2009). The analyzed survey data provides breed descriptor, whichbecomes a source for reports and information systems on animal genetic resources (Ayalewet al., 2003). Breed descriptors are available for many of the indigenous breeds of livestockspecies such as buffalo, cattle, sheep, goat, etc. in India (Joshi and Vij, 2009).2.2 Scoring-based TechniqueScoring functions have been used in induction problems such as game playing programs(Rich and Knight, 1991). We have devised a scoring function (1) described below foridentification of breeds of animals. It calculates score of an unknown animal for a breedusing trait values and weights.

(1)where S is the calculated score of an animal, n is the number of traits, wi is the weightassigned to ith trait, and vi is the value of ith trait. This generates a score for the animalson the basis of breed descriptors.A maximum score equal to one hundred has been considered due to common practice ofcalculation in percentages. Sum of all the weights is taken equal to the number of traits, thatis, Σwi=n. The maximum value of ith trait is taken as: vimax = 100/n.For qualitative traits, where Fi is the frequency of the value of ith trait of unknown animalin the breed descriptor. For example, to calculate score of an unknown animal with black‘skin colour’ and a breed with a frequency of 0.8 for the value ‘black’ of the trait ‘skincolour’, Fi = 0.8.For the quantitative traits, vi=vi

max (1 - Di) where (1-Di) is the distance of the value of ith traitof unknown animal from the mean value of corresponding trait in the breed descriptor.Assuming the trait values to follow normal distribution, Di is the probability of inclusion ofthe value of ith trait of unknown animal in the normal curve with mean value and standarddeviation of the trait in the breed descriptor.Di=CSND(zi)-CSND(-zi), where CSND(z) is cumulative standard normal distribution value ofz. z is the standard normal variate, (z=((x-µ)/σ)).

Σ wiv

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The scoring function normalizes values of traits to avoid any bias. It provides a maximumscore of one hundred, irrespective of the number of traits and distribution of a total weightamong the traits. A similar scoring function has been used in Bhatia (1992) for decision onmicronutrient management in crops except that the values (vi) and weights (wi) are elicitedby a domain expert.Scores for an unknown animal are calculated for each breed under comparison. The breedwith the highest score is identified as the breed of the animal.The scoring-based technique can be used as an instance-based learning method with givenlearning data set in the following steps.i. Pre-processing of the learning data set to obtain frequencies of feature values in caseof qualitative/symbolic variables and averages along with standard deviations in caseof quantitative/continuous variables for each of the class in the learning data set.ii. Determination of weights for each of the variable so that sum of all the weights isequal to the number of variables. Alternately, each variable can have a weight equalto one.iii. Calculation of scores of a test example for each of the class in the learning data setusing the scoring function (1)iv. Assignment of the test example to the class with the highest score.2.3 Existing Instance-based Learning AlgorithmsSome of the common instance-based learning algorithms are NGE (nested generalizedexemplars) that constructs hyper-rectangles during training (Aha, 1995), RISE (rule inductionfrom a set of exemplars) that unifies rule induction and instance-based learning (Domingos,1996) and PNC2 (positive and negative exemplar-based clustering) that is a hierarchicalagglomerative cluster algorithm (Haendel, 2003).PNC2 system of classification is a recent instance-based learning algorithm, whichhas proved superior to existing techniques on a number of benchmark data. It performsagglomerative clustering during the learning process. Each data cluster leads to trivial cuboidsof its input vector. Clusters are assorted in groups according to their output value and theseare merged to the possible extent within each group. The output for a given input is predictedby assigning it the outcome of the closest cluster in the input space. Other clusters withina calculated neighborhood are also evaluated by a distance weighted voting.2.4 ExperimentsIn order to study the performance of scoring function technique as accuracy of identification,a set of experiments was conducted on simulated and actual field data on four cattle breeds.Table 1 shows the list of sixteen phenotypic traits for ‘cow’, and fourteen traits for ‘bull’ and‘bullock’ categories of animals of cattle species taken in the experiments. The traits havebeen considered due to their easy recording under field conditions.

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Table 1. Traits of 'cow', 'bull' and 'bullock' categories of animals of cattle species.

No. Phenotypic trait (unit) Options for trait values Cow Bull, Bullock1 Body length (cm) √ √2 Chest girth (cm) √ √3 Coat colour (%) Black, white, red, brown, black with white spots, red-white spots √ √4 Dewlap (%) Pendulous, large, medium, small √5 Ear length (cm) √ √6 Head length (cm) √ √7 Height at withers (cm) √ √8 Horn colour (%) √ √9 Horn orientation (%) √10 Horn shape (%) √ √11 Horn size (cm) √ √12 Muzzle colour (%) √ √13 Naval flap (%) √ √14 Poll (%) √15 Tail switch colour (%) √ √16 Teat shape (%) √17 Teat tip (%) √18 Udder shape (%) √

Table 2Accuracy of identification (%) for ‘cow’ category of animals of cattle species generated frombreed descriptors. All the values are averages (s.d.) of ten experiments.No. Breed combination Qualitative traits (10 traits) Quantitative traits (6 traits) All the traits

Scoring function PNC2 Scoring function PNC2 Scoring function PNC2

1 Dangi, Khillar 98.30 (0.75) 97.35 (1.62) 84.75 (4.32) 96.35* (0.82) 99.0 (0.62) 98.50 (1.20)

2 Dangi, Deoni 85.90 (3.0) 99.45* (1.74) 66.55 (1.79) 99.75* (0.26) 99.50 (0.62) 99.75 (0.63)

3 Dangi, Gir 98.95 (0.64) 99.85* (0.24) 95.3 (1.21) 99.0* (0.85) 99.90 (0.21) 99.75 (0.48)

4 Deoni, Gir 99.1 (0.61) 100* (0) 99.55 (0.44) 99.95* (0.16) 100 (0) 100 (0)

5 Deoni, Khillar 92.25 (1.65) 98.65* (1.16) 83.35 (2.46) 99.95* (0.16) 99.85 (0.24) 99.85 (0.24)

6 Gir, Khillar 99.80 (0.27) 100 (0) 92.40 (2.18) 98.05* (1.42) 99.90 (0.22) 100 (0)

7 Dangi, Deoni, Gir, Khillar 88.52 (1.39) 97.45* (1.52) 70.65 (1.52) 98.07* (0.37) 99.15 (0.44) 99.30 (0.68)*Value is better than its counterpart on the basis of t-test with 18 degrees of freedom at 5% significance level.

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Data were generated using breed descriptors from survey reports of Dangi, Deoni, Girand Khillar cattle breeds (Gokhale, 2003 ; Gokhale and Bhagat, 2006 Patil and Mitkari, 1999;and Tajane et al., 2000]). Breeding tracts of the four cattle breeds shown in Fig. 1 are locatedin Gujarat and Maharashtra states in Western India and adjacent Karnataka state in SouthernIndia. Dangi, Deoni and Khillar cattle breeds habitat adjacent breeding tracts. Breeding tractof Gir is isolated from the other three breeds.For breed identification, different combinations of two breeds were formed as follows.For ‘cow’ category these combinations were made from all the four breeds (total sixcombinations) whereas for ‘bull’ and ‘bullock’ categories the two-breed combinations weremade with Dangi, Gir and Khillar. Combinations of all the breeds were also compared.Simulated data for animals of the breeds were generated as trait values proportionalto the frequencies of values of respective traits in the breed descriptor in the case of

MADHYA PRADESH

MADHYA PRADESH MADHYA PRADESH

INDIA INDIA

INDIAINDIA

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GUJARAT GUJARAT

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(a) Dangi (c) Gir

(b) Deoni (d) Khillar

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Fig. 1. Breeding tracts of four cattle breeds: (a) Dangi (b) Deoni (c) Gir and (d) Khillar

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qualitative traits and as normal variates of the trait values in the breed descriptor in thecase of quantitative traits. A set of 100 animals was generated from the breed descriptorof each breed.Experiments on actual field data were conducted on ‘cow’ and ‘bullock’ categories ofanimals of Dangi and Khillar cattle breeds. The actual data on animals had been collectedfrom respective breeding tracts after ascertaining breed of animals.Score for an animal was calculated for each breed under comparison using the scoringfunction on the traits listed in Table 1. All the traits had a weight equal to one. The breedhaving the highest score for an animal was identified as the breed of the animal.Results of the scoring function were compared with PNC2 that required learningdata. Computer program for PNC2 available at http://www.newty.de/pnc2/index.html wasused for the purpose in the following steps.i. For experiments with simulated data as well as with actual data, the learning data setconsisting of fifty animals for each breed was generated from the breed descriptors ofbreeds under comparison with the procedure used for generation of simulated data.ii. For experiments with simulated data, the test data set consisting of 100 animals foreach breed was generated from the breed descriptors of breeds under comparisonwith the procedure used for generation of simulated data. For experiments with actualdata, the test data consisted of the actual animals of Dangi and Khillar cattle breedsas used for experiments with scoring function.iii. The learning data set as well as the test data set was converted into PNC2 data format,which accepts whole numbers (1, 2, 3 …) for qualitative trait values and real numberfor qualitative trait values. The first column in PNC2 data format contained class of anexample in whole number in both the learning data set and the test data set.iv. The computer program for PNC2 predicted accuracy of test data set in the followingsteps. (a) Load the file for learning data set. (b) Learn the model. We skipped tuningof parameters in PNC2 and used the default learning parameters. (c) Use the modelby loading the file of test data set and pressing ‘Test’ button.Accuracy values were obtained as percentages of correctly identified animals with scoringfunction as well as with PNC2. Student’s t-test was used to compare average performances ofthe two methods, assuming equal population variances (Daniel and Terrell, 1992, p. 339).3. ResultsTable 2 and Table 3 show the percent accuracy of identification for simulated animals offour cattle breeds for ‘cow’ and ‘bull’ categories, respectively using both the scoring functionand the PNC2. All the accuracy values are averages along with standard deviation (s.d.) often experiments involving generation of data set for each run. A ‘*’ alongside an accuracyvalue indicates that it is better than its counterpart as obtained using t-test with 18 degreesof freedom (d.f.) at 5% level of significance.

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Table 3Accuracy of identification (%) for ‘bull’ category of animals of cattle species generated frombreed descriptors. All the values are averages (s.d.) of ten experiments.No. Breed combination Qualitative traits (8 traits) Quantitative traits (6 traits) All the traits

Scoring function PNC2 Scoring function PNC2 Scoring function PNC2

1 Dangi, Gir 96.85 (1.0) 99.10* (1.30) 97.40 (1.07) 99.55* (0.49) 99.55 (0.44) 99.40 (0.57)2 Dangi, Khillar 98.40* (0.88) 94.25 (2.89) 90.60 (2.67) 96.50* (1.60) 99.40 (0.66) 98.50 (1.43)3 Gir, Khillar 98.35 (0.74) 100* (0) 86.55 (1.16) 92.95* (0.68) 99.35 (0.47) 100* (0)4 Dangi, Gir, Khillar 96.33 (1.04) 97.37 (1.30) 85.93 (1.61) 94.17* (1.22) 98.67 (0.56) 99.33* (0.68)*Value is better than its counterpart on the basis of t-test with 18 degrees of freedom at 5% significance level.

Table 4Accuracy of identification (%) for actual data. Accuracy values for PNC2 are averages (s.d.) of10 experiments.Breed Category of Number of Number of Breeds for scoring PNC2 Value of

animals animals traits comparison Function accuracy t-statisticsaccuracy (scoring-PNC2)

Dangi Cattle Cow 102 14 Dangi, Deoni, Gir, Khillar 100 95.20* (6.80) 2227Bullock 100 12 Dangi, Gir, Khillar 96 99.30* (1.16) -9.0

Khillar Cattle Cow 76 15 Dangi, Deoni, Gir, Khillar 96 79.26* (13.86) 3.821Bullock 109 13 Dangi, Gir, Khillar 96.3 91.94 (9.45) 1.453*PNC2 average accuracy differs significantly from the scoring function accuracy on the basis of t-testwith 9 digrees of freedom at 5% significance level.

Table 5Accuracy of identification (%) for actual data when Dangi and Khillar cattle breeds arecompared. Accuracy values for PNC2 are averages (s.d.) of 10 experiments.Category of Number of Number of scoring Function PNC2 Value of t-statisticsanimals animals traits accuracy accuracy (scoring-PNC2)

Cow 178 13 95.5 98.99* (1.02) -10.871Bullock 209 11 97.6 95.35 (4.10) 1.735*PNC2 average accuracy differs significantly from the scoring function accuracy on the basis of t-testwith 9 digrees of freedom at 5% significance level.Scoring function shows accuracy values lower than PNC2 when qualitative traits aretaken except in the bull category of animals in the breed combination Dangi, Khillar whereit provides 98.4% average accuracy. The difference between accuracy values is not significantwhen all the three breeds are compared for bulls. Scoring function performs poorly in caseof quantitative traits. It measures distances over the complete range of normal distributionthat includes extreme values. PNC2 considers a range of values in the learning data set tomeasure neighbourhood in continuous traits.Performance of scoring function is comparable with that of PNC2 when all the traitsare considered. The differences between accuracy values of the two methods are insignificantin all combinations of breeds in ‘cow’ category of animals. Accuracy of identification withscoring-based technique is 99.15% while PNC2 provides accuracy equal to 99.30% when

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all the four breeds are compared. PNC2 performs better in bulls for the breed combinationsGir, Khillar and Dangi, Gir, Khillar. Accuracy values for bulls are 98.67% and 99.33% withscoring function and PNC2, respectively when all the three breeds are compared. Theresults on simulated data indicate that the scoring function performs equally with PNC2when number of traits is large.Table 4 shows results on actual field data on Dangi and Khillar cattle breeds for ‘cow’ and‘bullock’ categories of animals. All the four cattle breeds have been taken for comparisonfor animals of ‘cow’ category. Dangi, Gir and Khillar cattle breeds are compared for bullocks.PNC2 accuracy values are averages along with (s.d.) of ten experiments involving generationof a learning data set of fifty animals for each run. Values of t-statistics for (scoring function-PNC2) have been calculated with 9 degrees of freedom at 5% level of significance to findwhether the average accuracy values for PNC2 are different from the accuracy valuesprovided by the scoring function. A ‘*’ alongside PNC2 accuracy indicates that the differenceis significant. A positive value of t-statistic indicates that scoring function performed betterthan average performance of PNC2, and a negative value indicates that the opposite is true.Scoring function performs better than the PNC2 in actual field data in two cases. Itprovides accuracy values equal to 100 and 96% for ‘cow’ category of animals of Dangi andKhillar cattle breeds, respectively while the corresponding average accuracy values for PNC2are 95.2 and 79.26%.Table 5 shows the results of actual data when all the animals of Dangi and Khillarcattle breeds are compared for these two breeds. PNC2 accuracy values are averages alongwith (s.d.) of ten experiments. The t-test has been utilized to find significant differences, asdescribed for Table 4. Scoring function provides comparable accuracy value in bullockcategory of animals. Average performance of PNC2 at 98.99% accuracy is better than theperformance of scoring function at 95.5% in cows.4. Extension of scoring function techniqueThe scoring-based technique has been extended to make a decision when (i) the score ofa new animal is calculated for a single breed, (ii) the new animal does not belong to any ofthe breeds under comparison. For decision making under these situations, one thousandanimals were generated from the breed descriptor according to the procedure described inSection 2.4. Scores of the simulated animals calculated with scoring function were sortedin ascending order. If the score of the unknown animal was located in the range of thescores of 1000 simulated animals of a breed, it was assigned to the breed. The procedurealso calculates the number of simulated animals lying below the score of the unknownanimal that helps in making a decision about its breed under the situation when it does notbelong to any of the breeds.Experiments were conducted on actual field data of cows and bullocks of Dangi andKhillar cattle breeds to demonstrate the decision making under above situations. Table 6shows the results as average accuracy (s.d.) of ten experiments when score of a test animalcalculated with breed descriptor of its breed is compared with animals simulated frombreed descriptor of the same breed. Both cow and bullock categories of animals shownearly cent-percent average accuracy of identification.

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Table 6 shows the accuracy of identification when scores of animals of a single breed arecompared with scores of 1000 animals generated from breed descriptor of the same breed.Accuracy values are averages (s.d.) of ten experiments.Table 6Breed Category Number of Animals Number of traits Accuracy (%)

Dangi Cow 102 14 99.9 (0.32)

Dangi Bullock 100 12 100 (0)

Khillar Cow 76 15 100 (0)

Khillar Bullock 109 13 98.9 (1.21)Table 7 shows the results when scores of test animals are calculated using breed descriptorof other breed. An animal was classified as accurate if its score for the other breed was lessthan the minimum score among the 1000 generated animals of the other breed. Cows ofDangi cattle breed show average accuracy of 93.91% when compared with Khillar cattlebreed. Cows of Khillar cattle breed show very small accuracy of 12.76% when comparedwith Dangi cattle breed.Table 7Accuracy of identification when scores of animals of a single breeds are compared with scores of1000 animals generated from breed descriptor of another breed. Accuracy values are averages(s.d.) of 10 experiments.

Breed Category of Number of Breeds for Number of Accuracy (%) of not identifiedanimals animals comparison traits as animals of the other breed

Dangi Cow 102 Khillar 14 93.91 (2.29)

Dangi Bullock 100 Khillar 12 53.70 (11.66)

Khillar Cow 76 Dangi 15 12.76 (2.71)

Khillar Bullock 109 Dangi 13 29.17 (10.79)

A.K. Bhatia et al. / Computers and Electronics in Agriculture 73 (2010) 37-43

Fig. 2. Distribution of scores of actual animals of Dangi and Khillar cattle breeds whencompared with scores of 1000 animals generated from breed descriptor of the same breed.

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Fig. 3. Distribution of scores of actual animals of Dangi and Khillar cattle breeds whencompared with scores of 1000 animals generated from breed descriptor of the other breed.Further experiments were conducted to demonstrate location of scores of animalsfrom actual field data calculated with scoring function in the range of scores of 1000generated animals. Fig. 2 shows the results of experiments to demonstrate the number ofanimals with scores below the minimum score, the number of animals with scores betweenvarious deciles and the number of animals with score above the maximum score among1000 animals generated from breed descriptors of the same breed. Fig. 3 shows the resultswhen scores of test animals are calculated using the breed descriptor of the other breedand the 1000 animals are generated from breed descriptor of the other breed. Both thefigures display results of a single experiment.The results show that scores of animals of both ‘cow’ and ‘bullock’ categories aredistributed among various deciles when they are compared with generated animals of thesame breed. In contrast, majority of animals’ scores are located either below the minimumscore of generated animals or in the first decile when these are compared with scores ofgenerated animals of the other breed. In Fig. 2, 100 bullocks of Dangi cattle have beencompared with the bullocks generated from breed descriptor of the same breed and itshows the animals distributed among various deciles with 22 animals in the tenth decile. InFig. 3, 100 bullocks of Dangi cattle are compared with bullocks generated from the breeddescriptor of Khillar cattle breed and it shows 66 animals located below the minimum scoreof generated bullocks. Scores of the remaining 34 animals are located in the first decile.Similarly, when 76 cows of Khillar cattle are compared with generated cows of Dangi cattle,scores of 10 animals are below the minimum score and that of 47 animals are in first decile.This explains very small average accuracy for Khillar cows in Table 7. The user is requiredto make a decision on breed of a test animal with this information in hand.5. ConclusionA learning technique in the form of scoring function has been devised for phenotypicidentification of an animal as belonging to a breed on the basis of available breed descriptors.Existing instance-based learning techniques cannot be applied straightway to solve theproblem due to requirement of learning data set. Experiments on the data generated for

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Bullock of Dangi with bullocks of Khillar

Cows of Khillar with cows of Dangi

Bullocks of Khillar with bullocks of Dangi

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‘cow’ and ‘bull’ categories of animals from breed descriptors of Deoni, Gir, Dangi and Khillarcattle breeds in India demonstrate good performance of the scoring-based technique. Itsperformance measured as percent accuracy of identification is comparable to the instance-based learning technique PNC2 when all the 16 (14) traits are taken for cow (bull) categoryof animals. Experiments with actual data on ‘cow’ and ‘bullock’ categories of animals ofDangi and Khillar cattle breeds also provide mixed results with both the scoring functionand the PNC2. The scoring-based technique has been extended for decision support underthe situations when an animal is compared to a single breed descriptor, and also when ananimal is compared to breed descriptor of other breeds. It provides the scoring function anextra edge over the existing instance-based learning algorithms besides being applicable tothe problem of breed identification using available information in the form of breeddescriptors. In principle, the technique can also be applied for identification of plant geneticresources.ReferencesAha, D.W 1995. An implementation and experiment with the nested generalized exemplarsalgorithm. Technical Report AIC-95-003, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC (1995).Ayalew W. Ayalew, J. Edward, O. Rege, E. Getahun, M. Tibbo and Y. Mamo. 2003. Deliveringsystematic information on indigenous animal genetic resources–the development andprospects of DAGRIS, Proceedings of the Conference on Tropical and Subtropical Agriculturaland Natural Resource Management (TROPENTAG) University of Gottingen, Deutschar, October8–10, 2003 (2003).Bhat, 2004 P.N. Bhat, Livestock genetic resources, their management and conservation –facts and strategies, Indian J. Anim. Genet. Breed. 25 (1) (2004), pp. 1–6.Bhatia, 1992 Bhatia, A.K., 1992. Development of a decision support system for micronutrientmanagement in crops. M.Sc. Thesis. Division of Computing Science, Indian AgriculturalResearch Institute, New Delhi, India.Bhatia et al., 2009 A.K. Bhatia, D.K. Yadav and P.K. Vij, Flexible data processing system forfield survey on domestic animal diversity, J. Livest. Biodivers. 1 (1) (2009), pp. 28–33.Bhatia and Arora, 2007 S. Bhatia and R. Arora, Genetic characterization and differentiationof Indian sheep breeds using microsatellite marker information, Korean J. Genet. 29 (3)(2007), pp. 297–306. View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (10)Cornuet et al., 1999 J.-M. Cornuet, S. Piry, G. Luikart, A. Estoup and M. Solignac, New methodsemploying multilocus genotypes to select or exclude populations as origins of individuals,Genetics 153 (1999), pp. 1989–2000. View Record in Scopus | Cited By in Scopus (651)Daniel and Terrell, 1992 W.W. Daniel and J.C. Terrell, Business Statistics for Managementand Economics (sixth edition), Houghton Miffin Company, Boston, USA (1992).Domingos, 1996 P. Domingos, Unified instance-based and rule-based induction, Mach. Learn.24 (2) (1996), pp. 141–162.Gokhale, 2003 S.B. Gokhale, Network Project on Survey, Evaluation and Characterization ofDangi Cattle Breed. Final Report, BAIF Central Research Station, Urulikanchan, Pune, India(2003).

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Gokhale and Bhagat, 2006 S.B. Gokhale and R.L. Bhagat, Survey, Evaluation andCharacterization of Khillar Cattle. Final Report, BAIF Central Research Station, Urulikanchan,Pune, India (2006).Haendel, 2003 Haendel, L., 2003. The PNC2 Cluster Algorithm, An Integrated LearningAlgorithm for Rule Induction. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of Electrical Engineering and InformationTechnologies, University of Dortmund, Germany.Joshi and Vij, 2009 B.K. Joshi and P.K. Vij, Conservation and utilization of animal geneticresources of India: present status and future perspective, Proceedings of the NationalSymposium on Livestock Biodiversity Conservation and Utilisation: Lessons from Past andFuture Perspectives Karnal, India, February 12–13, 2009 (2009), pp. 15–19.Patil and Mitkari, 1999 G.R. Patil and K.R. Mitkari, Characterization, Evaluation andConservation on Deoni Cattle. Final Report, Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying,Marathwada Agricultural University, Parbhani, India (1999).Piry et al., 2004 S. Piry, A. Alapetite, J.-M. Cornuet, D. Paetkau, L. Baudouin and A. Estoup,GENECLASS2: a software for genetic assignment and first-generation migrant detection, J.Heredity 95 (6) (2004), pp. 536–539. Full Text via CrossRef | View Record in Scopus | CitedBy in Scopus (582)Rich and Knight, 1991 E. Rich and K. Knight, Artificial Intelligence (second edition), McGrawHill, New York (1991).Tajane et al., 2000 K.R. Tajane, H.B. Gardharia, M.R. Gadariya and K.S. Dutta, Network Projecton Survey of Animal Genetic Resources of Gir Cattle. Final Report, Gujarat AgriculturalUniversity Cattle Breeding Farm, Junagarh, India (2000).

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Kale S. N., Aware M. J., and Nisal P. R. 2010. Improvement in Feeding Practices with Feeding ofComplete Feed Blocks for cattle at Field Level Using Soya hulls. Paper published in Compendium of7th Biennial ANA Conference 2010. Page 117.

Improvement in Feeding Practices with Feeding of Complete Feed Blocksfor Cattle at Field Level Using Soya Hulls

Abstract

The crop residues available as dried forest grass, maize stover, wheat straw, pearl millet straw,soya hull were analyzed (AOAC, 1975) of soya hull was used in feed stock as it was seasonallyavailable. The complete feed blocks prepared from soya hulls were fed to the lactating cattleat farmers’ house. The animals on soya hulls based complete feed showed rise in milk yieldfrom 7.1 L/day/animal to 7.7 L/animal/day. The fat percentage was 4.5 in the experimentalanimals compared to control animals 4.3 at the end of experimental period. Thus the mediumyielding cattle (5-10 L) can be maintained on complete feed containing up to 40% agriculturalwaste with the increase in milk and fat percentage.Keywords: complete feed block, soya hulls, crop residuesIntroductionThe nutrients from agro-industrial byproducts can be adjusted and complete feed formulated,which can be supplied to the medium milk producing cattle. Performance of the cattle ontotal mixed ration (TMR) can be compared as against the conventional method of feeding.During scarcity period, it is essential to develop a package of practice as feeding of soyahulls based complete feed, which will ultimately reduce the cost of feeding.Materials and MethodsThe crop residues available as dried forest grass, maize stover, wheat straw, pearl milletstraw, soya hulls were analyzed while fibre fractions were analyzed as per Van Soest et al.(1991). The crop residue available as soya hulls was used after grinding for complete feedproduction. Total of twenty two lactating cattle from eleven farmers were selected. One cattlefrom each farmer as control and another under complete feed diet was maintained. Thecomplete feed prepared was supplied to the experimental cattle from each farmer. Thedaily milk yield from each farmer for control and experimental animal was recorded. Themilk samples were collected fortnightly for analysis. The various feeds which were offeredto the control animals were also collected for analysis.

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ResultsThe animals on Soya hulls complete feed showed rise in milk yield from 7.1 L/day/animalto 7.7 L/animal/day. The fat percentage was 4.5 in the experimental animals compared tocontrol animals 4.3 at the end of experimental period. There is rise in milk yield and fatpercentage in complete feed group. Thus strategic supplementation of complete feed withlocally available crop residues as soya hulls results in rise in milk yield and fat percentagewhich ultimately reduces cost of feeding. The farmer is getting `123.20 from the completefeed fed group as compared to `113.60 from the control group animals.Table1. Chemical composition of the complete feed and the feed offered

Nutrient Complete Feed Block Concentrate Green fodder% % %Organic Matter 89.3 91.6 89.8Crude Protein 13.7 16.5 6.7Crude Fibre 14.9 11.6 25.8Ether Extraction 1.8 2.8 2.2NFE 57.9 60.5 54.3NDF 35.8 32.6 56.7ADF 26.8 20.4 32.5Lignin 3.2 1.2 3.4

Table 2. Milk yield and fat percentage in control and Complete feed GroupParameters Control Group Complete feed groupNo.of animals 11 11Av .Milk Yield (L) 7.1 7.7Av .fat % 4.3 4.5

ConclusionCompared to farmers feeding practice, the medium yielding cattle (5-10 L) can be maintainedon complete feed containing 40% agricultural waste like soya hulls. The milk yield and fatpercentage was higher and thus it was economically viable.ReferencesAOAC. 1975. Official Methods of Analysis. (12th Edition) Association of Official Analyticalchemists, Washington DC, USA.Vansoest, P. J., Robertson, J. B. 1991. Methods for dietary fiber, neutral detergent fibre andnonstarch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74: 3583-3597.

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Bhagure R. C., Pande A. B., Hatolkar V. B. and Khadse J. R. 2010. Breeding and Improvement of LocalGoats with Osmanabad Bucks with Specific Reference to Provide Sustainable Livelihood in Clusters ofChandrapur, Gadchiroli, Yeotmal, Ahmednagar and Nandurbar districts. Paper presented at the NationalSymposium SOCDAB – 2010. Page 128.

Breeding and Improvement of Local Goats with Osmanabad Bucks withSpecific Reference to Provide Sustainable Livelihood in Clusters ofChandrapur, Gadchiroli, Yeotmal, Ahmednagar and Nandurbar Districts

Genetical improvement of the local goats through breeding with Osmanabadi goats is beingundertaken on target population of about 6000 goats spread across 23 villages as a groupwith the goat population ranging between 300-350 is taken for the intervention. The localgoat keepers are persuaded to sell their nondescript bucks which are replaced by bucks ofOsmanabadi breed. Nearly 6500 local goats in 23 villages are covered under NAIP-3 projectarea. Preventive health and Goat management practices like deworming, vaccination, curativetreatments, breeding, weighing and different record keeping, goat insurance are introduced.Initially before starting the project operations, baseline survey was conducted. The activity isimplemented through formation of Common Interest Groups of people like Goat Group Leaders,Goat Keepers and Buck Keepers groups. The stock of 211 Osmanabadi bucks aged 1-1.5 yearswere selected from home tract Osmanabadi district. Routine feeding of the bucks wassupplemented with complete feed at the rate of 250 g/day/buck to boost their breedingperformance. During June- Sept 2009, about 1200 breeding services and about 180 kids bornare recorded. A total 176 kids are born. Out of 103 kiddings, 35.93% were singles, 59.23% weretwins and 4.86% were triplets. Average birth weight was 1.95 kg and Male:Female ratio is0.97:1.07. These kids after 4 months will be distributed to participants through CommonInterest Groups.

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Bhagure R. C., Pande A. B. and Kakade B. K. 2010. Clinical Cases of Abortion in Osmanabadi Does Dueto Pestedes Petits Ruimnant (Goat Plague) Outbreak. Paper presented at the proceedings of the 29thISVM Convention and National Symposium on Recent Developments in Diagnostics and TherapeuticsIncluding Applications of Nanotechnology in Veterinity Medicine. 17 -19 February 2011. Page no. 24.

Clinical Cases of Abortion in Osmanabadi Does Due to Pestedes PetitsRuminant (Goat Plague) Outbreak

About 450 healthy, breedable does are inducted in the villages of selected projected area ofChandrapur, Gadchiroli, Yeotmal, Ahmednagar and Nandurbar districts of Maharashtra undersustainable rural livelihood program. Some does were in advanced stage of pregnancy. Thegoats were produced from reliable Government Osmanabadi Goat Breeding Farm located nearOsmanabad. Previously there was history of outbreak in the project area. There is lack of goodveterinary care. The overall area lacks proper care and management practices for livestockhas fodder scarcity round the year. The similar signs and symptoms are seen in some pregnantOsmanabadi and local goats. Acute form of symptoms observed within 4-5 days. Sudden risein temperature to 104 to 1060F for 5 to 8 days. Dull coat, dry muzzle, depressed appetite,muco-purulent nasal discharge on nostrils, coughing, sneezing, conjunctivitis, matting of eyelids,necoratic stomatitis, small roughened, red necrotic foci, debris on tongue, gum, oral cavity.Severe diarrhea but not hemorrhagic, Dehydration, emaciation and dyspnea are seen. Abortionswere noted in about 42 pregnant goats. Some goats recovered. Postmortem findings: respiratingtract mainly affected, followed by abortions in females and died. Suggestions: Spraying of limepowder, maintain cleanliness. Isolation of sick goats from healthy one. Anti stress and treatmentwith foot lesions with mild potassium permangnate solution. Appling turmeric powder with oilon scars. Feeding palatable greens (if available) advised. Prophylactic measures to be taken:Deworming followed by vaccination of healthy goats. Conclusions: The disease was confirmedas Peste De Petits ruminants as the similar signs and symptoms observed in the affected goats.

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Patil S. M. 2010. Threatened Indigenous Rich Biodiversity in Thane District of Maharashtra andBAIF’s Community Based Efforts in Its Conservation and Revival. Paper published in Communitybreed biodiversity management South Asia Programme, India. Pages 55-87.

Threatened Indigenous Rice Biodiversity in Thane District ofMaharashtra and BAIF’s Community Based Efforts in Its Conservationand Revival

1. BAIF – MITTRA and Its WorkBAIF Development Research Foundation was established in 1967 by Late Dr. ManibhaiDesai, a disciple of Mahatma Gandhi to replicate his unique experiments in rural development.BAIF is well known both as a scientific and applied research organization in the countryand has successfully implemented several livelihood enhancement projects, primarily basedon the transfer of proven technology and the mobilization of people at the local level.BAIF, along with its associate organization, MITTRA (Maharashtra Institute forTechnology Transfer for Rural Areas), is actively involved in the conservation of local cropsand animal breeds in the state of Maharashtra.BAIF – MITTRA has started the Green and Applied Technologies Resource Centre(GATRC) in Jawhar taluka (block) of Thane district in Maharashtra. GATRC is being developedas a dedicated centre for the experimentation, demonstration, field action research andlarge scale replication of low costs sustainable agricultural practices.BAIF – MITTRA recognizes the urgent need to plan and undertake a programme topromote and popularize conservation, cultivation and management of neglected andunderused crop resources. Its objective is to diversify both income and crop options formarginal farmers while also improving the coping capacity of the rural marginalizedcommunities.The BAIF-MITTRA project on conservation of indigenous rice varieties is developedbased on the learning from the pioneering efforts of GREEN Foundation, Bangalore, Centrefor Indian Knowledge System (CIKS), Chennai, and Deccan Development Society, Hyderabad.The major thrust of the work with the tribal communities in the area has been to identifythe local landraces in paddy, tubers and other millets. This project focuses on sustainableagriculture with low cost techniques to reap the yields.Rice is the second most widely consumed cereal in the world next to wheat. It is thestaple food for two-thirds of the world’s population. It is also an integral part of social rites,rituals and festivals in almost all Asian countries. India is traditionally famous for its

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indigenous rice biodiversity. It has been home to a phenomenal diversify of both wild andcultivated crops. However, recent years have witnessed a marked decline in the variety anddiversity of cultivated crops such as rice and other cereals.Thane is one of the northern districts of the Konkan region in the state of Maharashtra.It includes part of the Western Ghats region which is considered to be a biodiversity hotspot. The area is host to an amazing diversity of rice and other food plants. The typicallateritic soils are poor, and agriculture is largely rainfed (only 5% to 7% of the Konkanregion is irrigated).The modern ‘high yielding varieties’ did not make significant incursions into theseregions during the first 2-3 decades of the Green Revolution (1960-1980). Hence, geneticdiversity remained surprisingly high in some tribal areas. However, since the last 2 decades,there has been a gradual erosion of the indigenous biodiversity. Most indigenous ricevarieties have been replaced by highly-yielding varieties such as Ratna and Jaya, consideredas the most responsive varieties in this area. The promise of the high yielding varieties hasnot been borne out in this region. The majority of farmers, especially the resource-poortribal farmers could not afford to buy the fertilizers that are normally recommended alongwith these varieties.Thane district has a fairly large tribal population. The tribal people have traditionallycultivated over 300 diverse rice varieties with specific attributes such as hunger satiation,instant energy provision during peak workloads and for medicinal use. This wonderfuldiversity of rice has formed the basis of a nutritious and secure diet for the tribal population.However, the erosion of rice diversity, as in many other regions, has taken place at anaccelerated pace over of the past 15 to 20 years. During this study, 61 varieties out of the300 rice varieties of the region were available with the farmers. However, only 4 of themare regularly sown, namely, Kolpi (Early), Dangi White, Dangi Red and Rajghudya. All othersare rare or extinct. Although some of these 300 varieties are stored as a part of breedingprogramme of agricultural university, their outreach to the farmers is minimal. Hence, mostfarmers are ignorant about the existence of such gene banks, thereby hampering theiraccess to these precious seeds and genetic resources.In some of the remote areas, a few farmers have continued to cultivate the traditionalvarieties on a small portion of their and, mainly for their consumption. Thus, many of thesecrops still have their presence despite the negligence of the last 2 decades. This is indicative oftheir potential role in the cropping systems of India, especially in small land holdings.2. BAIF Study on Indigenous Paddy LandracesBAIF started its work on indigenous rice varieties in the tribal parts of Thane district ona pilot scale. It initiated a survey under the CBM South Asia India programme from January2009 to September 2009. The scope of its work as to understand the occurrence ofindigenous rice genetic resources, characterize them on the basis of food security, yieldpest and disease resistance, fragrance and try to understand peoples’ perceptions for thecontinued cultivation of such varieties. Efforts were also made to know the traditionalcultivation practices associated with such varieties.

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2.1 Specific ObjectivesThe specific objectives of the BAIF study on indigenous paddy landraces are to study thefollowing:The traditional practices associated with paddy cultivation and pilot test a few of them;The status of indigenous rice genetic diversity in 5 tribal blocks and 25 villages in all;The agronomical and morphological characteristics and other useful traits andperformance of paddy landraces;The farmers’ perceptions about existing genetic resources, their use and continuedcultivation;The reasons for the disappearance of the paddy genetic resources.2.2 Study DesignDistrict: Thane, Maharashtra.Talukas: Five talukas - Jawhar, Palghar, Mokhada, Shahapur, MurbadNumber of villages under baseline survey: 25 villages – 5/talukaNumber of farmers under baseline survey: 625 farmers – 25/villageNumber of indigenous seed savers under study: 61 farmers out of the 625 contractedfor the specific survey were identified as indigenous seed savers cultivating theindigenous paddy landracesNumber of landraces under baseline survey: 61 landracesNumber of landraces under experimentation: 46 landracesField experimentation centre: Jawhar taluka, Thane districtTime period: January to September 2009Type of interactions: Personal interviews, group discussions, field visits to farmers’field, interactions with the Agriculture Department, Agriculture University, literaturesurvey, seed exhibition/mela (fair), etc.2.3 Baseline SurveyBAIF – MITTRA selected interior villages for the baseline survey as preliminary visitsrevealed the presence of paddy landraces in these villages. They conducted primary meetingswith knowledgeable persons in the villagers to document the farmers’ knowledge aboutseed storage, traditional cultivation practices, local pest and disease management techniques,their perceptions of the need and importance of the indigenous landraces vis-à-vis themodern varieties, etc. They engaged in general and group discussions with the farmers.They involved 365 ashram school students to collect data on the village-wise existence ofindigenous paddy landraces. This study enabled interaction with 1,856 farmers – men andwomen through seed exhibitions/seed mela (refer Box 1: Survey form).

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2.3.1 Secondary Data CollectionForty-five representatives from NGOs agricultural universities and research institutions, andgovernment departments were involved in the data collection on rice varieties from secondarysources. BAIF– MITTRA officers also visited the Rice Research Station, Karjat, Maharashtra,B.S.K.K.V. (Agriculture University) Dapoli, and M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Chennai.2.3.2 Awareness ProgrammesBAIF conducted seed mela (fair)/exhibitions in 5 blocks of Thane district to documentpeople’s knowledge about indigenous paddy landraces – their yield, specific traits andcharacteristics. It was an attempt to document the present status as well as the farmers’perceptions of rice biodiversity. They informed the farmers about the need and importanceof crop genetic resource conservation through video CD and posters.2.3.3 DisseminationBAIF has shared the data and its analysis with the Agriculture Department, school teachers,NGOs, and scientists through a one-day workshop. They analyzed the data collected on thebasis of water requirement, cultural aspects, crop period, yield, lodging and non-lodgingcharacteristics, medicinal importance and special traits, if any.2.4 Specific SurveyBAIF – MITTRA identified 61 farmers who are cultivating indigenous paddy landraces fora specific survey (refer Box 1: Survey form). They undertook on-farm seed sample selectionand collection of 46 landraces from the farmers’ seed stock and from other organizations.They documented the traditional practices associated with paddy cultivation throughpersonal interviews, group discussions and field visits.

Box. 1 Survey forml Crop l Fragrance, threshabilityl Common name, local name l Grain yield (q/ha), straw yield (q/ha)l Scientific name l Cooking quality, pest resistancel Variety (local name) l Disease resistance, end usel Climate of area/region l Special characteristicsl Growing habitat, soil type l Present status of spread(villages/talukas)l Land type l Trend in cultivation during last 10 yearsl Method of seedling preparation l Reasons for disappearancel Maturity period (sowing to l Name of farmer/communityharvesting), plant height (cm) seed saversl Culm strength, panicle length (cm) l Information collected byl Panicle shattering, grain typel Grain colour, seed coat (bran colour)

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2.4.1 ExperimentationOn farm and laboratory experiments were planned to evaluate 46 of the selected paddy landraceson the basis of morphological and agronomic characteristics as per the guidelines of theProtection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act (PPVFRA). The characteristics namely,the grain length and the grain width were measured with a micrometer in the laboratory.Primary data collected from the baseline survey and the specific survey provided in-depth information about the indigenous paddy landraces and the seed sample gatheredfrom seed savers who have been cultivating these landraces.The experimentation entailed seed treatment with cow urine, wood ash and neemleaves prior to storage, and storage of seed samples in mud pots, cloth bags and envelopes.Seedling preparation entailed raising seedlings of 46 paddy landraces at Chowk villagein Jawhar taluk. For seed treatment, the seed were mixed with 100 g of Azospirillum andshade dried. The seedling preparation beds were 25 ft x 3 ft. The material used for theraised bed preparation was 10 kg vermicompost 10 kg neem cake and 500 g Azospirillum.The distance maintained between the two landraces was 25 cm.a. Onfarm ExperimentationPot experiments were planned at Chowk village in Jawhar taluka to study the morphologicaland agronomic characterization. The pot mixture was prepared by mixing 250 kg of farmyardmanure, 250 kg of red soil, 100 kg of neem cake, 2 kg of blue green algae, 2 kg of Azospirillum.Earthen pots were filled with the pot mixture and watered, 13 day old paddy seedlings(3 plants/pot) were transplanted. On the same day 3 paddy seedlings of each variety wereplanted in each earthen pot 3 days after transplantation, the pots were drenched with jeevamrut(5 ml/pot) made with the excretions and secretions of the cow. Soil fertility, pest/diseasemanagement practices were carried out according to the organic cultivation methods.Block Design Experimentationl Location: Jawharl Number of paddy landraces under experimentation: 46l Plot size/landrace: 2 x 2 sq ml Spacing between two seedlings: 25 cml Spacing between two lines: 25 cml Cultivation: Cultivated as per maturity period (Early, Mid Late, Late)l Fertilizer application: Organic fertilizer (5:10:5) Neem cake, Azospirilluml Transplantation of seedlings: After 16-22 daysl Method of cultivation: Organic (seed to harvest)l Parameters under study: Agronomic and morphological characterizationb. Laboratory ExperimentationIn the laboratory, the paddy characteristics, namely, grain length and width were measuredwith a micrometer.

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2.5 Traditional Practices Associated with Indigenous Paddy CultivationThe survey yields some important findings on seedling preparation and transplantation asimportant steps in the cultivation. There are 4 traditional methods of seedling preparation– rabb, utta, sprouted seeds and raised bed. The seedlings then undergo single or doubletransplantation.2.5.1 Seedling Preparationa. Rabb MethodIn February, farming household members collect biomass, namely, dried grasses, leaf litter,shrub, tree branches. These are spread over the field, covered with dried cow dung and alayer of soil and burnt. From the farmers’ point of view, this method burns the seeds of theweeds thereby facilitating weed control. It also enables easy picking of seedlings fortransplanting. From a scientific point of view, the ash provides important nutrients such asnitrogen and phosphorus for the seedlings.b. Utta MethodDry and wet utta methods are adopted not as a regular practice, but in case of a shortageof seedlings during transplantation. The resultant plants are not healthy and more prone topest and disease attacks. But it is better than keeping the land uncultivated.Dry utta method: The land is ploughed and the seeds are broadcasted without puddling.Wet utta method: The land is ploughed, puddling is done, the water is drained and theseeds are broadcasted.c. Sprouted SeedsThe seeds are moistened and sprouted in a gunny sack for 2-3 days. The sprouted seedsare broadcast on puddled land. This method is important for the emergency preparation ofseedlings. But the seedlings prepared are not thick.d. Raised Bed MethodIn the raised bed method, a bed of 12 ft. x 3.5 ft. x 0.5 ft is prepared by mixing compost,neem cake, vermicompost, Azospirillum, etc. and the seed is sown on it.2.5.2 Double TransplantationSeedlings prepared through the rabb or utta methods are transplanted. The doubletransplantation of seedlings in the field itself offers several advantages despite a higherlabour requirement:l Increased shoot thicknessl Reduction in seed ratel Increment in productivityl Healthy and hardy plant vigourl Absence of non-effective tillers

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l Long paniclel More filled grain percentagel Less pest and disease probleml Varieties: Kasbai, Rajghudya2.5.3 Seed ConservationInstitutional level trials were conducted on seed treatment and seed storage practice basedon the samples collected from the seed savers:Seed treatment with cow urine, wood ash, neem leaves before storage;Storage of seed samples in clay pots, cloth bags and envelopes.Experiments were conducted to assess the best method to store seed samples withoutdecreasing seed germination capacity. Clay pots and cloth bags or gunny sacks were usefulto keep and store seeds for the next sowing season, which is about 6 months after theharvest, but not for much longer than that.3. Status of Indigenous Rice Genetic BiodiversitySpecific participatory surveys in the field enabled an understanding of the maturity period,tillering ability, yield and specific traits, and facilitated the collection of good quality seedsamples. A total of 61 farmers who continue to cultivate indigenous paddy landraces for avariety of reasons were identified and contacted. Yield is not the prime determinant togauge the worth of a variety for these seed saver farmers (refer Box 2: Varietal selectioncriteria of farmers).3.1 Diminishing Number of LandracesThe majority of the indigenous varieties are either rare or extinct. Of the 61 varietiesavailable with the farmers, they sow 4 varieties regularly. These are:a. Kolpi (Early) is valued for its fine grain, market value, resistance to stem borer andblast, good fodder value, excellent cooking rice.b. Dangi (Red) and White are dry upland varieties that are valued for their ability towithstand harsh weather conditions where other varieties wither away. They requireno external inputs, hence are important from the point of view of food security ratherthan yield. They have a bold grain that is suitable for gruel, roti preparation, as wellas medicinal use.c. Rajghudya is valued for its non-lodging character, medicinal properties, good foddervalue. Its slender and long grain is ideal for cooked rice.

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Box 2 Varietal selection criteria of farmersl Yield (grain and straw) l Suitability of landl Fodder value l Drought resistancel Roofing material l Pest and disease resistancel Food security l Strong stemsl Nutritional aspects l Good tillering abilityl Cultural aspects (ritual use) l Grain sizel Marker value l Non-shattering

3.2 Perceptions of Farmers and Seed Keepers3.2.1 Local VarietiesLocal varieties give stable yields and require lower external inputs that the high yieldingvarieties. They are more suitable to local farming conditions such as dry land rainfedcultivation and cope better with the vagaries of nature, disease and pests. Yet, but theselocal varieties are presently endangered.Local genetic resources are in urgent need of conservation for some of the additionalgains that they provide such as varieties that are short duration, pest resistant and suitablefor dry land rainfed cultivation. Indigenous varieties provide a higher straw yield which isvaluable to farmers as cattle feed and roofing material. The provide food security in times ofdistress (when other crops have failed). They also taste better in comparison to the hybridvarieties. Many indigenous varieties fulfill specific nutritional and dietary needs, as well ashave medicinal and ritual importance that the farmers perceive as valuable (refer Table 1:Character-wise varietal analysis).3.2.2 High-yielding VarietiesHigh-yielding varieties (HYVs) give a bumper yield for the first year but the seeds cannotbe used for cultivation in the second year. HYVs have a better appearance, especially sincethe application of urea gives quick results in terms of vegetative growth. They do not givethe promised yield without the use of chemical fertilizers, resulting in increased expenditureto the farmers; HYVs are not suitable for all farming conditions. They have compromisedon the nutritional value of food.3.2.3 Impact of Modern Farming PracticesThe continuous use of chemical fertilizers has reduced soil fertility. The water holdingcapacity and porosity of soil has decreased. It is difficult to replenish the loss of soil nutrientswith farm yard manure since reduction in livestock has led to poor dung availability. Pestand disease attacks have increased tremendously.3.3 Characteristics of Paddy LandracesLarge numbers of paddy landraces are grown by the farmers of Jawhar and Mokhada talukasof Thane district for various reasons as is evident from the character-wise and maturity-wise varietal analysis presented in Tables 1 and 2. In recent decades, these have receivedstiff competition from the HYVs introduced in Thane district, namely, Ratna, Jaya, Sahyadri,MT-1010, Gujarat -2, Karjat 2,3,11 and Rupali due to their non-lodging, pest resistance, high-yielding character (refer Table 4)

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Table. 1: Character-wise varietal analysis

No. Character List of varieties1. Food security Dangi (Red), Dangi (White), Dhaval, Dhundune, Dula, Hari, KaliKhadsi, Kali Kudai, Masala2. Market value Banglya, Dhaval Bhat, Kasbai, Kavla, Kolam, Kolpi (Early),Rajghudya, Surti Kolam, Zini (Wada)3. Fodder value Banglya, Dangi, Dula, Kasbai, Kolam, Kolpi (Early), Kolpi (l),Malghudya, Rajghudya, Vakvel, Zini.4. Medicinal value Weakness: Dangi (Red), Dangi (White), Kali Khadsi Kali KudaiIncreased lactation for nursing mothers: Dangi (Red) Weakness,wound recovery, fracture: MahadiWeakness from delivery: Dangi (Red), Dangi (White), Malghudya5. Disease resistant Blast resistant: Banglya, Dev Bhat, Dhaval, Hari, Juna Kolam,Kalbhat, Kali Khadsi, Kali Kudai, Kasbai, Kolpi, Lalya, Malghudya,Masala Kolpi (Mid late), Najar Bhat, Varangal Black.5 a. Moderately blast resistant: Dangi White and Red, Dhundune, Dodgi,Karjat, Kasvel, Kolpi ((Early), Masuri, Rajghudya, Varangal (Late), Zini.5 b. Brown spot resistant: Banglya, Juna Kolam, Kasbai, Kavla, Lalya,Masala, Rajghudya.6 a. Pest resistant Case worm resistant: Banglya, Dev Bhat, Dhaval, Dhuyndune, Dula,Hari, Jua Kolam, Kasbai, Kasvel, Kolpi (E), Kolpi (late), Kali Kudai,Lalya, Mahadi, Rajghudya, Sagg, Tamkudai.6 b. Stem bore resistant: Dangi Red, Dangi White, Dhaval, Dula-1, Dula2, Hari, Kali Kudai, Kasba, Kolpi (E), Masala, Sagg, (Jawhar),Mahadi (Mid late), Varangal (Late), Rajghudya.6 c. Brown plant hopper resistant: Banglya, Dangi Red, Dangi White,Kalbhat, Kasbai, Kolpi (E), Lalya, Rajghudya.7. Non-lodging Dodgi, Juna Kolam, Kasbai, Kolpi (Mid Late), Lalya Sagg8. Deep water Kasvel, Dev Bhat9. Roof thatching Banglya, Dangi, Kasba, Packeki, Rajghudya, Sagg Bhat10. Red rice Dangi, Mahadi (Late), Devbhat, Kali Khadsi, Kali Kudai, Mahadi(Mid Late), Ratt Bhat, Varangal Black.11. Scented rice Banglya, Devbhat, Dhaval, Dhuyndune, Dula 1, Dula 2, Kasbai,Kasvel, Masala, Sagg JWR, Sagg Wada, Sal Bhat, Tulshya, Vakvel,Varangal Black.12. Fragrant landraces Banglya, Dula 1, Dula 2, Kalbhat, Kasbai, Masala, Sagg, Vakvel,Varangal (awned)13. End use Biryani, pulav, special dishes, Banglya, Kasbai, Kolpi, Masuri,Rajghudya, Surti Kolam.Cooked rice for daily use – Kolpi, RajghudyaGruel (kanji) – Dangi Red and White, Mahadi, Rajghudya, Malghudya.Papad – DhunduneBeaten rice (poha), puffed rice (kurmura) – Dula 1, Sagg,Roti – Dangi Red, Mahadi

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Most of the tall landraces cause lodging at a later stage of growth and maturity butthere are some tall, non-lodging landraces listed in S. No. 7 above.Since grain yield is the sole criteria in the development of HYVs’ a majority of themare dwarf causing fodder shortage for the farmers’ livestock. However, the paddy landraceslisted in No. 3 above provide long and durable straw.3.3.1 Grain and Straw Yield Data of LandracesThe grain and straw yield data of the paddy landraces under experimentation as wellas their characteristics such as the number of tillers, grains/panicle have been recordedin the course of the specific survey (refer Table 3).

List of HYVsList of LandracesTypeNo. PeriodDays

Table. 2: Maturity-wise varietal analysis

Dhaval, Dhundune, Dula 1,Dula 2, Hari Bhat, Javarya,Kali Khadsi, Kali Kudai,Masala Bhat, Sagg Bhat1. Very early < 101

Dangi (Red), Dangi (White),Dodgi, Kalbhat,Malkolambya, Tamkudai,Maljavarya, Kavala, Kolpi (E),Lalya, Malghudya,Malkolambya, Vakvel, Zini(Early), Varangal (black)

2. Early 101-120 Karjat 3 – Bold grain, good forroti.MT 1010 – Dwarf, fine grain,non-lodging;Ratna – Good yield, earlyshort fine grain, smooth rice,resistant to blast3. Mid-late 121-140 Devbhat, Dhavul, Karjat Zini,Kasvel, Kolpi (ML), Mahadi(ML) Pacheki, Rajghudya,Varangal (awned), Zini (ML)Gujart 4 – Small plant, longand fine grain, market value.Gujarat 11 – Bold grain, dailyuse.Rupali – Single seedlingtransplantation, short, fine,dwarf varietySahyadri – 50-60 q/ha, tillers.Jaya – Bold and Dwarf (3-3.5ft)4. Late 141-160 Banglya, Juna Kolam, Kasbai,Kasve, Kolpi (L), Masuri,Najar Bhat, Varangal (L)Ratna – 110-120 days, other HYVs 120-130 days

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Table. 3 Grain and straw yield data of landraces

No. Landrace No.of No.of No.of Grain Strawtiller/plant effective grains/ yield q/ha yield q/ha

tiller/plant panicle1. Malghudya 27.5 24.5 172 24.0 31.02. Kolpi (Early) 15 14 267 43.4 83.53. Dangi (White) 12 12 253 43.0 89.04. Kavla 28 26 212 62.0 89.05 Lalya 43 38 210 63.0 87.06. Juna Kolam 22 20 215 45.0 65.07. Rajghudya 22 20 260 65.0 95.08. Kasbai 14 13 257 57.5 87.59. Banglya, 16 15 258 65.0 95.010. Gujrat Zini 14 13 152 63.5 95.011. Sagg (J) 16.7 15 189 34.0 53.012. Sagg (Wada) 16.3 15 206 36.0 55.013. Dodgi 17 16 178 51.0 85.014. Kasvel 13 11 109 38.0 62.515. Varangal (awned) 23 20 135 41.0 84.016. Tamkudai 44.1 40 210 34.0 80.017. Zini (Early) 18.6 17 210 34.2 73.518. Dula 1 15 14 130 35.8 84.019. Kali Kudai 29.4 25 138 37.0 40.020. Varangal (black) 27.2 25 130 32.8 83.021. Pacheki 17.5 15 208 53.8 86.022. Najar Bhat 12 12 158 32.8 92.023. Dhaval 19.1 18 130 43.0 90.024. Dangi (Red), 11.1 10 138 45.0 98.025. Kal bhat 29.3 25 250 47.0 97.026. Dhaval, 29 25 189 45.0 94.027. Vakvel 20 18 108 41.0 80.028. Dula 2 17 15 212 43.0 89.029. Kolpi (ML) 30.3 28 223 53.0 77.030. Kolpi (L) 20 18 260 63.5 85.0Grain and straw yield data are taken from the block design experiment carried out in Jawhartaluka and yield data of 1 sq.m. areaIn the case of landraces like Dhaval, Kal Bhat, Kali Kudai, Kavla, Kolpi (Mid late), Lalya,Malghudya, Tamkudai, Varangal (Black) the number of tillers/seedlings are more than 25,which shows that the local paddy landraces have an ability to produce more than 25 tillersalso. Similarly, the number of effective tillers is linked directly to the final yield.

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Table 3 illustrates that paddy landraces like Banglya, Dodgi, Gujarat Zini, Kolam, Kolpi(ML), Kolpi (L), Lalya are good yielding landraces in particular situations and have thepotential to give better yields of grain and straw.Table. 4 Average grain yield of paddy varieties

No. Varieties Average yield31. Jaya Ratna and Improved Varieties 35 – 45 q/ha2. Sahyadri (hybrid) 65 – 70 q/ha3Source: Kharif crop general information, Commissioner of Agriculture, Govt.of Maharashtra.3.4 Factors Threatening Indigenous Paddy Biodiversity

3.4.1 Government PolicySince late 1960’s the government’s policy has been to promote high yielding varietiesunder the Green Revolution so as to increase food production at any cost. Market orientedcultivation has taken precedence over food security for increasing numbers of farmers whohave bought into the government’s promotion of yield as the sole criteria for crop cultivationas per the modern agricultural system. Thus early maturing and dwarf varieties have beenpromoted, which perforce require the use of HYV seeds and higher inputs.The seed admixture that occurs in the process of threshing, harvesting and seedstorage has resulted in the loss of seed purity in the indigenous rice varieties. The indigenousknowledge and practice to remove off-types from standing crops is no longer operational.This is one of the major reasons why seed purity is no longer maintained.3.4.2 Pest and Disease AttacksSome of the landrace are susceptible to pest and disease or they have lodging problems dueto their greater height. For example, cultivation of the Surti Kolam landrace has reducedbecause of stem borer as well as lodging. The challenge is to identify and perpetuate thoselandraces that are disease resistant and can provide some yield even in adverse conditionswhich is not the case with hybrids.3.4.3 Farmers’ Habit of Changing Varieties Every 2-3 YearsIf the farmer has sown a particular variety in his/her land, he/she will continue to grow iton that land for 2-3 years and then change it. If this variety is not conserved on any otherland, it becomes extinct. The farmers’ perception is that the continued cultivation of thesame variety on the same land for a few years lowers the yield of that variety on that land.3.4.4 Increasing Fragmentation of Land HoldingsFarmers find it difficult to maintain the paddy landraces on their limited land holdings.3.4.5 Long Duration of Indigenous VarietiesFarmers are willing to maintain the genetic diversity of paddy if they have access to pure

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seeds of indigenous varieties. There are some indigenous varieties such as Bangly, Kasbai,Kolpi (Early), which have yields comparable to the high yielding varieties.4.1 In-situ ConservationOn-farm in-situ conservation is based on the proper documentation of indigenous varieties,morphological and agronomic characterization of the promising landraces, participatoryvarietal selection and that organic paddy cultivation method (seed to harvest).BAIF has raised the community awareness through farmers’ exposure to fieldexperimentation centers. BAIF and the farmers are now engaged in continuous on-farmstudy of 115 paddy varieties at different locations.

Seed of Hope – Seeds of FutureMr. Shankar Pawar, a tribal farmer in Valvenda village in Jawhar taluk has takenactive part in the demonstration and experimentation of paddy landraces.In the month of February 2009, BAIF officers had given information about theimportance and the need for conservation of the local paddy landraces, as well as theeffect of chemical pesticides on the soil and humans. They had exhibited about 125samples of paddy landraces which are very rare or extinct now. At that time, I decidedto take part in the paddy germplasm conservation programme. But a lot of questionsarose in my mind.What is the reason behind experimenting on paddy landraces at one place?Why single seedling transplantation?Why focus on local landraces when a lot of hydride varieties are available?Will the local varieties give yield like the hybrids through the organiccultivation method?Theoretically BAIF officers responded to my queries,. Although I was not fully satisfiedby their responses, I agreed to give half an acre of my land for this work.During the transplantation process, I was very unhappy because we had transplantedsingle seedlings that were 15 days old. My field was looking empty. The people withme during the transplantation said you are mad, whatever we are doing is in vain andof no use.But now my field is fully grown having 47 different landraces. I am happy that I cameto know which varieties are suitable for my land, which are pest and disease resistant,which have good fodder value. About 350 farmers from the different paddy growingareas in Maharashtra visited my farm.The BAIF scientists give us training about participatory varietal selection, puritymaintenance, and organic paddy cultivation so that we can prepare our own seeds.We need not waste money for seeds and fertilizers. I am planning paddy cultivationfrom the market point of view also.Farmers in Chowk, Jangalpada, Tople pada, which are near my village, have nowselected 15 landraces for large scale multiplication. This programme is self-replicating.

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4.2 Marketing strategiesThe marketing strategies are developed to raise the demand for select indigenous varieties.For example, the promotion of aromatic and specialty rice, medicinal rice and nutritionalvarieties as holistic good items. Farmers are being trained in the organic cultivation ofthese varieties to fetch better market prices. They are being engaged in value addition torice through processing it for a variety of end uses.4.3 Seed ConservationBAIF initiated programmes for seed selection and seed production through thedissemination of germplasm at the farmers’ level and later through community seed banks.During the phase of study and experimentation of indigenous paddy landraces, aparticipatory community-based programme was launched for the dissemination ofgermplasm for which 275 farmers were selected. They experimented upon 14 of the 46landraces. The selected farmers were supplied with 1110 kg seed for seed multiplication.During the Kharif 2009, 375 farmers have been involved in the seed multiplicationprogramme. They have selected 20 varieties for large-scale multiplication out of 115 varietieswhich are available with BAIF-MITTRA. The varietal selection criteria of farmers in choosinglandraces for cultivation are land type crop period, yield (grain and fodder), market value,lodging and non-lodging properties, number of tillers per seedling, end use and pest diseaseresistance (refer Table 1). The landraces selected by farmers are Banglya, Dangi (White),Kasbai, Kolpi (Early), Kal Bhat, Lalya, Masala, Mulleri, Rajghudya, Sagg Bhat, Sharbati, SurtiKolam, Wada Kolam, Zini (Early).The organization has undertaken agronomical and morphological characterization ofthe paddy landraces at 9 field centers in 7 villages.4.4 Seed BankBAIF-MITTRA has initiated community-based conservation of the crop genetic resourcesince December 2007. Two types of seed banks have been established at the institutionaland community levels.A central seed bank has been established at the Jawhar campus with crop varietiescollected from the tribal blocks of Thane district. The institutional level seed banks are forexperimentation and cataloguing.4.4.1 Purpose of the Central Seed BankStudy of agronomic and morphological characteristics;Easy access of seeds to farmers, researchers and students;Development of demonstration plots;Maintaining purity of the variety;Study of germination percentage.The central seed bank has been established for storage, cataloguing and maintaining a databaseat the institutional level. A permanent accession code will be given to each landrace collected.

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The samples collected in the central seed bank have gone through a series ofexperiments to check morphological, agronomical characteristics for scientific validationand preparing an in-depth database of individual paddy landraces.The seed purification and seed production programme has been initiated to maintainseed purity and large scale multiplication of promising landraces.4.4.2 Purpose of Community Seed BankThe community level seed banks facilitate germplasm conservation and maintenance, seedexchange, participatory varietal selection, on farm seed conservation and multiplication.The terms of borrowing for the community seed bank are as follows: if a farmer takes 1 kgof seed from the community seed bank, she has to return 2 kg after harvest while maintainingthe line of purity of the seed. The local seed saver committee is empowered to assessexchange and accept the seed.The community seed bank is rooted in the view that the community can select, produceand exchange seeds among themselves and establish an independent seed security systemat the village level. A seed savers committee has been formed to keep checks on seed purity,manage seed exchange and establish market linkages.The next steps, planned are nutritional analysis of some to the promising landraceswhich have nutritional and medicinal potential. Registration of farmers’ varieties is anothermajor area of concern.4.5 Important steps for the conservation and revival of local landracesAwareness programmes such as seed exhibition and melawa (gathering) for thecollection and display of seed samples and data on paddy landracesPRA for specific data collection with selection from seed saversEstablishment of central seed bankMorphological and agronomic characterization of landracesSeed distribution at the community level for conservation, multiplication andproductionSeed selection and seed collectionEstablishment of community seed bank and seed savers committeeMarketing and value additionNutritional analysis of food crop/grainRegistration of farmers varietiesRice is an integral part of the culture, tradition and staple diet of millions; Medicinalrice and specialty rice varieties are a unique genetic resource. These cultivars are mainlyconserved by local farmers because of their use in the preparation of speciality foods.However, indigenous paddy varieties are now available with very few farmers and arereducing at a rapid rate. Climate change, ecosystem disturbances and population increasealso pose threat to biodiversity conservation.

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There is an urgent need to take immediate action for the conservation of ricebiodiversity. Characterization of these paddy cultivars and documentation of the associatedknowledge will enhance claims to the intellectual property rights on these unique rice geneticresources. With knowledge comes the scope for registering these indigenous cultivars underthe aegis of the new legislation intended for the protection of farmer’s varieties and newplant varieties.References :Asian Agri-History Foundation, Asian Agri-History: international Journal of History of AsianAgriculture including Environment, quarterly publication, Secunderabad.Deb, Debal, 2005, Seed of Tradition, Seeds of Future, Research Foundation for ScienceTechnology and Ecology, New Delhi.GREEN Foundation, 2008, Seed to Food: From Subsistence to Surplus, Bangalore.Patil, Sanjay. 2009. Study of threatened indigenous rice biodiversity in Thane district ofMaharashtra, Presentation of BAIF-MITTRA at the CBM-SA India Proposal Development,Hyderabad.Richharia, R.H. and S. Govindaswami, 1966, Rices of India, Patna.Vijaylakshmi, K. and A.V. Balasubraminian, 2006, Seeds of Plenty, Seeds of Hope: On farmconservation of indigenous genetic resources: The Asian experience, Centre for IndianKnowledge Systems, Chennai.Sources of Information1. Study tour to Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (CIKS), Chennai, DeccanDevelopment Society (DDS), Hyderabad; GREEN Foundation, Bangalore; MSSwaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF), Chennai.2. Discussion with organizational members from Rice Research Station, Karjat;Agriculture University, Dapoli; Lokpanchayat, Sangamner.3. Web-searcha. www.greenconserve.comb. www.navdanya.orgc. www.ciks.com

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Hegde N.G., 2010. Promotion of Underutilized Crops for Income Generation and EnvironmentalSustainability. Journal of Agriculture Science and Technology, USA.Vol.4, No. 6:(Serial no. 36).

Promotion of Underutilized Crops for Income Generation and EnvironmentalSustainability

Abstract

More than 30% rural families in India live in poverty due to small holdings and low soilproductivity. As many underutilised tree species are tolerant to harsh agro-climatic conditions,BAIF promoted agri-horti-forestry on degraded lands inhabited by tribals. Traditionallydependent on non-timber forest products, they selected tamarind (Tamarindus indica), jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus), Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) and ber (Zizyphusmauritiana), apart from mango and cashew for their livelihood. Oilseed trees like neem(Azadirachta indica), mahua (Madhuca indica) and jatropha (Jatropha curcas) were introducedon field borders, while the interspace was utilized for cultivating food crops. To ensure higheryield and superior quality of the produce, selection of elite germplasm, domestication throughstandardization of cultivation practices and facilitation for supply of planting material areessential, apart from increasing the demand by exploring their uses, creating awareness amongconsumers and establishing a good distribution network. Intercrops like food grains, vegetablesand medicinal herbs generated additional income and reduced risk in case of failure ofunderutilised crops. Introduction of underutilized crops on a small scale with local crops andexpansion of their cultivation with the demand is recommended.Keywords: underutilized fruits, oilseed trees, agri-horti-forestry, tribal rehabilitation1. IntroductionOut of the 0.27 million plant species on earth, over 17,000 species are found in India and65 plant species have good demand in world trade, although about 9500 plant species havepotential use in the pharmaceutical industry. However, most of these species are in a stateof neglect, while a small number of them are under cultivation in their native tracts by thelocal communities for specific household uses. In spite of their well proven uses andeconomic returns over generations, such species are not being cultivated on a large scale,due to lack of awareness about the utility, economics and adaptability. Many of theunderutilized species having survived under harsh agro-climatic conditions can beestablished on degraded lands, which are presently being underutilized either due to poorsoil fertility or moisture scarcity.

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1.1 Indian AgricultureIn India, agriculture is the major source of livelihood for over 85% of the 650 million ruralpopulations. However, over 60% of these families are not assured of food security due tosmall land holdings and low soil productivity. Out of 89.4 million land holders, over 75%families own less than 2 ha land, most of which are degraded, resulting in low cropproductivity. Lack of irrigation facilities is another serious problem, responsible for lowercrop yield. Only about 30% of the 147 million ha agricultural lands have assured irrigationand the remaining 100 million ha are dependent on rainfall for crop production. Out of thisarea, about 60 million ha are located in semiarid and arid regions, where the crop yield issignificantly lower than the average national yields. Farmers deprived of irrigation facilitiesgenerally grow one crop during the year. As they hesitate to apply the requisite inputs, thecrop yields are low and agriculture on such lands can provide employment for hardly twoto three months in a year. Due to these problems of small holdings, underemployment andlower productivity, over 35% of the rural families are living in poverty with their annualincome less than USD 500/family [1].1.2 Problems of TribalsAbout 9% of the Indian population is represented by tribal communities, who have beentraditionally living in the forests, collecting minor forest products for their livelihood.However, with the depletion of forest resources during the last 5-6 decades, the income ofthese families has been sharply declining and this has forced them to cultivate crops ondegraded hilly terrains and to migrate seasonally to urban areas in search of employment.Distress migration has been affecting their quality of life, particularly, the health andeducation of their children. Considering the plight of these poor who are dependent onagriculture and deprived of employment opportunities, the Government of India has beenfocusing on promotion of special agricultural development packages to promote sustainablelivelihood for these small holders [2].1.3 Tribal Rehabilitation through Agri-Horti-ForestryWith a view to rehabilitate and provide sustainable livelihood to over 25,000 tribal familiesspread over 500 villages in the hilly terrains of the Western Ghats in the districts of Valsad,Navsari and Dangs in Gujarat State and Thane and Nasik districts of Maharashtra State,BAIF Development Research Foundation, a Civil Society Organization committed to helpingsmall farmers to earn their livelihood, promoted an agri-horti-forestry developmentprogramme in the early 1980’s. This region receives a rainfall of over 2500 mm spreadover a period of five months from June to October. However, due to shallow lateritic soils,undulating topography and lack of ground water, the crop production is confined to therainy season and these villages face serious crisis of drinking water for two to three monthsin summer. The temperature in these districts ranges from 400C in May to 80C in January.Looking to the average size of the land holding, development of orchard on 0.4 haland was promoted. Preference was given to fruit trees tolerant to drought, with shortgestation, having local acceptance. Mango being popular in the region, participants selectedit as the main crop. Subsequently, after carrying out multi-location performance studies,cashew was also introduced on a large scale. As the growers had to wait for four to fiveyears before the mango and cashew trees started bearing fruits, it was necessary to introduce

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various income generation activities to sustain the livelihood during this gestation periodand to discourage the participant families from migrating to cities. One such opportunitywas to promote various food crops such as sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, maize,green gram, horse gram and pigeon pea as intercrops between the fruit trees. This ensuredfood security and generated additional income. Establishment of fruit and forest nurseriesand cultivation of seasonal vegetables and mushroom were also attractive. Live fencing ofthe orchards was promoted by using fodder, fuel, timber and minor fruit species to ensureprotection from domestic and wild animals. Thus, the agri-horti-forestry system was designedtaking into consideration the agro-ecological conditions and local needs. With good seeds,improved agricultural practices and water conservation measures, the crop yields went upby 50% to 100%, although about 20% land was covered under fruit plants. Encouraged bythe success in increasing the crop yields, the participants cultivated vegetables, flowers andother cash crops and earned about `12,000 to `15,000 (USD1 = `40) annually, right fromthe first year. With gainful employment on their own farms, migration of women andchildren was almost discontinued. Subsequently, with the production of fruits, the net annualincome of these families increased to USD 800-1000 annually. With plenty of biomassgenerated on the farms, the local families stopped going to the forests to collect wood andfodder, which resulted in the regeneration of natural forests. This programme, which hasdemonstrated the conservation of eco-system and biodiversity while providing sustainablelivelihood, has now been recognized by the Government of India for wider replication [3].As the income from fruits, vegetables and cash crops is higher than that from foodcrops, farmers prefer to grow such high value crops, although there is a risk of pricefluctuation. However, it is extremely difficult for small farmers to compete with large farmerswhose cost of production is significantly lower due to superior quality land and wellestablished infrastructure. Therefore, there is good opportunity for small farmers to takeup cultivation of new and underutilized crops which can be sold easily, while generatingadditional income. With small scale production, it is also easy to find good market for lesserknown products. With this background, BAIF initiated the promotion of underutilized fruitcrops through small farmers.1.4 Potential Underutilized Trees in IndiaThere are many tree species having significant economic uses, which are either undersevere neglect or the cultivation is restricted to a small region. Realizing the advantages ofthese species, serious attempts have been made during the last five decades to popularizethe cultivation of underutilized plants by several international and national organizations.Among them, a few species have performed exceedingly well by competing even withtraditionally grown local crops and have provided sustainable income to farmers. Manyother species, in spite of their adaptability, economic potentials and initial acceptance,were ultimately rejected by farmers, while some others had problems of adaptability outsidetheir native tracts. Among these species, trees bearing fruits and nuts are more popularcompared to the species providing non-timber forest produce and various forms of biomass.Some of the underutilized fruit trees which have gained prominence in recent years inIndia are tamarind (Tamarindus indica), custard apple (Annona squamosa), Pummelo (Citrusgrandis), Indian goose-berry (Emblica officinalis), ber (Zizyphus mauritiana), jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus), blueberry (Syzygium cumini) and kokum (Garcinia indica).Tamarind which originated from South America has been introduced in India since several

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centuries and is now extensively used in Indian cooking. However, tamarind has not beencultivated as a regular crop. The trees are established through natural seeding on communitylands and farmers generally establish a few trees in their backyards or field bunds forhousehold use. The State Forest Departments have been raising seedlings for establishmenton roadside as avenue trees and for distribution to farmers, but the response from farmershas been poor due to the long gestation and lack of clarity about its yield and economics.The harvested fruits are sun dried for a few days and the pulpy fruits are separated fromthe outer brittle shell, deseeded and mixed with a small quantity of salt (1-2%) beforestoring or selling in the local market. During the last 2-3 decades, the demand for tamarindhas increased significantly because of the use of modern technologies for processing thepulp into ready-to-use cubes and powder. However, the farmers were still reluctant to takeup the cultivation due to poor returns. To overcome this problem, various researchinstitutions have identified superior germplasm having high acid content and yield. Vegetativepropagation techniques were developed to produce elite planting materials, which havespreading growth habit and short gestation period. The tamarind plantations establishedfrom grafted plants could come into production at the age of four to five years and generateas much substantial income as from traditional fruit crops like mango. With such improvedproduction practices, farmers in semiarid region are motivated to establish tamarindplantations on a large scale.Custard apple (Annona squamosa) is a popular fruit across the country, found naturallyon degraded lands in arid and semiarid regions. The plants are non-browsable and droughttolerant. The local people harvest the fruits for home consumption. However, during the last2-3 decades, special efforts were made to select superior germplasm and to developtechniques for vegetative propagation, to enable farmers to cultivate this species on acommercial scale. Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is a native fruit crop growing inhumid and semiarid tropics. The plants either grow naturally or are planted by farmers intheir backyards in small number. There is wide variation in the size, form and quality offruits and it is difficult to predict them without sampling the fruits. As the trees startfruiting at the age of 8-10 years and only the fruits having firm and sweet fruitlets fetchbetter price, farmers are reluctant to cultivate this plant on a commercial scale. Unfortunately,no systematic work has been undertaken to select elite germplasm and to develop efficienttechniques for vegetative propagation.Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), locally known as Anola, is used extensively formedicinal purposes. It not only grows naturally in village forests but is also cultivated onsodic lands of Uttar Pradesh State, because of its economic viability. However, during the last2-3 decades, with the domination of modern medicine, the demand for herbal medicinesreduced drastically resulting in poor price realization for Indian gooseberry. Thus, farmersfrom other regions were not interested in cultivating Indian gooseberry, while the existinggrowers developed products such as pickle, jam, juice, squash, candy, etc. and marketedthem as vitamin C rich health food. In the 1990’s with greater awareness on the use ofherbal medicines, Indian gooseberry regained its importance and the demand for its fruitsincreased substantially. During this period, scientists developed superior varieties, techniquesfor vegetative propagation and improved cultivation practices, which helped in extendingits cultivation to many other states, particularly in arid and semiarid regions across India[4]. Ber (Zizyphus mauritiana) which bears small sour fruits was domesticated in the 1950sfor cultivation in arid regions. With the application of modern technology and selection of

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superior table varieties, good quality fruits are now available in the market. The fruits canalso be utilized for production of candy, jam, squash, etc. Presently, ber is being cultivatedon degraded lands which otherwise were not suitable for cultivation. Kokum (Garcinia indica)is another fruit grown in the Western Ghats region of Western India, with food and nutritionalvalue. The trees grow naturally in the tropical humid forests and their cultivation inhomesteads is to a limited extent. Like mangosteen fruits, the seeds are covered with sweetjuicy pulp. The thick, waxy fat extracted from kokum seeds is used in Ayurvedic medicinesand cosmetics. The outer shell is soft, acidic and red in color. Fresh shells are either driedwith salt for using as spice or processed into syrup for preparing a refreshing drink, havingneutraceutical value. The demand for kokum products has been increasing in recent yearsand with easy availability of good planting materials, the farmers in Western Ghats regionhave started planting kokum as a plantation crop [5].Neem (Azadirachta indica) is an indigenous tree species known for its oil, pesticideand medicinal uses, grown naturally on barren lands. However, in the absence of selectedelite germplasm, standard silvicultural practices and information on income, no seriousattempts have been made to promote this species. Jatropha (Jatropha curcus) is anotheroilseed bearing shrub, planted across the country as a fence plant, which is gaining importanceas a biodiesel crop in India, although there are doubts about its tolerance to drought, yieldand profitability. Mahua (Madhuca indica) is an oilseed tree which grows naturally on villagecommon lands in Central India. Its flower consists of a sweet and juicy corolla which dropsa few days after flowering. The local people, particularly the tribals, collect the fallen corollaand consume it in the fresh or dehydrated form. The seeds contain 30% edible oil. Longgestation period and poor income are major constraints for cultivation of mahua and manyother underutilized tree crops. Techniques have now been developed to produce graftedplants of mahua which start bearing in the third year. Looking to the economics and shortgestation period, farmers are now keen to establish plantation of mahua on their degradedlands as a commercial crop [6].In a study undertaken by BAIF to popularize underutilized fruit crops, it was observedthat the farmers were hesitant to take up the cultivation due to lack of awareness of economicbenefits, availability of good quality planting materials, poor marketing network and lack oftechnology available for post harvest processing and value addition [4]. Based on theseconstraints, BAIF initiated the promotion of less known fruit trees by setting up fielddemonstrations, developing field manuals for best practices, training field extension workersand farmers and distributing posters and handouts. Decentralized nurseries were establishedto produce and supply better quality grafted plants. Farmers’ Organizations were promotedfor forward and backward linkages. These efforts made a significant contribution inpopularizing several underutilized fruit crops [7]. Looking to the potentials of underutilizedspecies for contributing to the income of small farmers, selected species were introducedunder the agri-horti-forestry system along with other fruit crops, as a part of this study.With this background, this study was undertaken with the objective of enhancingincome of small tribal farmers through introduction of underutilized tree species havinggood income potential in their farming systems.The specific objectives of the study were: (1) To study the techno-economic feasibility ofcultivating underutilized trees species having economic uses; (2) To study the factors affectingtheir adaptation; (3) To popularize the cultivation of promising underutilized species.

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2. Materials and MethodsThe strategy was to introduce various less known fruit species, instead of promoting onlymango and cashew as the main crops in the agri-horti-forestry system which was intendedto promote sustainable livelihood for the tribal families. The fruit species included in thestudy were tamarind (Tamarindus indica), Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis), ber(Zizyphus mauritiana) and jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus). Although, the farmers wereaware of the benefits of these crops, none of these were cultivated on a large scale in thesedistricts. Oilseed bearing tree species such as neem (Azadirachta indica), mahua (Madhucaindica) and jatropha (Jatropha curcas) were introduced on field borders and several food,vegetable and cash crops were introduced in the interspace. It was difficult to persuade thefarmers to cultivate the less known crops as mono crops, in the absence of reliableinformation on the profitability and demand for the produce. Thus, the farmers werepersuaded to set aside an area of 0.1 to 0.2 ha for new fruit crops, while planting mangoand cashew on the remaining area. This was acceptable to them as the income from mango,cashew and intercrops was assured, and there was no risk of total failure. Observations ongrowth, yield and income from fruit trees needed five to six years.The fruit crops under the study were cultivated by over 200 farmers, with more than20 farmers for each species, during the years 1995-97. While there was no hesitation toestablish tamarind, Indian gooseberry and ber, it was difficult to persuade the farmers toestablish a plantation of jackfruit even on 0.2 ha land. Hence, the planting was restricted tofield bunds and borders. Grafted plants of elite selections of tamarind, Indian gooseberryand ber and seedlings of jackfruit, neem,Table 1. Performance of various underutilized tree species.

Species Survival Growth Tolerance to Age at Yield*** Demand Rankrate* rate drought** fruitingFruit sspeciesTamarind Medium Medium High 3 Medium Medium 2Indian gooseberry High High High 2 High High 1Ber High High Medium 2 High Low 3Jackfruit Medium Medium Medium 7-8 Low Medium 4Oilseed treesNeem High Medium High 5 High High 2Mahua Medium Low Medium 10 Low Medium 3Jatropha High High Medium 2 Medium High 1*Survival rate: High: above 80%, Medium: 60-80%, Low: below 60%;**Drought tolerance is based on days of irrigation interval for plants below 3 years of age.High-3 weeks, Medium-2 weeks, Low-1 week;***Yield per ha: Exact data could not be collected as newly established plants of some speciesneed some more time to reach the stage of optimum yielding.mahua and jatropha were used for planting. The plantations were given spot irrigationduring the initial three years. Various interventions such as water conservation through

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contour bunding, establishment of wind breaks, application of nutrients and plant protectionusing integrated pest management were carried out to improve the crop productivity. Theintercrops were cultivated under rain fed conditions. The observations made under differentfield conditions were analysed. Based on the profitability and marketability of the producers,some of these species are being promoted for cultivation on a wider scale. The aboveinformation was collected from other farmers as well who had established these tree speciesearlier and it was too early to gather data on yield and economics from newly establishedplantations under this study.3. Results and DiscussionThe results on survival, growth rate, tolerance to drought of various underutilized treespecies and the preference of farmers are presented in Table 1.All the newly introduced fruit and oil seed species could be established on degradedlands with low rate of mortality and good growth. Among fruit species, Indian gooseberrywas found to be the most accepted species because of early bearing, high yield, better pricerealization and good demand for the fruit in the local market. The trees established wellwith low mortality even on shallow soils and the trees did not need any special care.Tamarind was the next choice, which was also drought tolerant. The trees started bearingin the third year and the yield in the initial years was low. As there was no ready marketfor freshly harvested fruits, growers were compelled to sell the fruits to local traders at alow price. Hence, farmers’ preference for tamarind is low as compared to Indian gooseberry.This may change with the increasing yield of growing trees and development of processingfacilities, which in turn can increase the demand.

Ber is also tolerant to drought but responds well to irrigation. Grafted plants startedbearing from the second year and yielded profusely from the third year. Ber fruit is not asdelicious as other fruits for table purpose, although children like it. So the demand for fruitis limited and the price falls drastically during the peak season. Technology has beendeveloped recently for processing of ber fruits into jam, squash and dehydrated fruits, butlarge scale cultivation of ber is risky, until these processed products become popular. Jackfruitplants also established well under semi-arid and humid conditions and their growth wassatisfactory. Trees started bearing fruits after 7-8 years and are expected to reach theoptimum stage of bearing at the age of 12-15 years. The market for jackfruit is very limiteddue to large sized fruits, wide variation in the quality and lack of facilities for processing offruits. In the absence of elite germplasm and superior quality planting material, estimationof yield and income was difficult and hence, the farmers were reluctant to cultivate thisspecies on a large scale.Trees of tamarind and Indian gooseberry are highly drought tolerant and hence,more suitable for semiarid regions where other fruit crops cannot establish well. Thesecrops have good potentials in the future particularly in the semiarid region which is notsuitable for mango, cashew and other fruit crops. In the absence of proven technologies forprocessing, it is difficult for jackfruit to compete with other fruit crops which are presentlycultivated by farmers. Hence, farmers may be encouraged to grow jackfruit on field bundsor boundaries, till processing facilities are developed on a large scale or alternate market

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outlets are established. Selection of superior germ-plasm and development of vegetativepropagation techniques are also essential for popularization of its cultivation.With regard to oilseed species, trees start bearing fruits from the second, fifth andtenth year in jatropha, neem and mahua respectively. Jatropha being a shrub, it can bemaintained as a fence crop without suppressing the growth of fruit trees, while neem andmahua grow into large trees and affect the growth and yield of fruit trees. Lopping of sidebranches would affect the yield of seeds. Hence, farmers are reluctant to cultivate neem andmahua under the agri-horti-forestry system. As a fence plant, average yield of jatropha hasbeen 350-400 g/plant during the third year, which further increased with the age. As thisis an additional source of cash income without any extra effort, farmers are happy toestablish jatropha on their farm fence. Jatropha seed has good demand for biodiesel andthe price offered is remunerative.Based on this study, BAIF is now popularizing mango and cashew in high rainfallareas and Indian gooseberry and tamarind in semiarid areas. Jatropha is now beingpromoted by replacing other species such as euphorbia, prosopis, acacia, etc. for fencing.To ensure better price for the produce, small-scale cooperative processing units have beenestablished in the project areas. Although such units do not have the capacity to process theentire quantity of fruits grown by the members, the procurement price fixed by thecooperatives can prevent the traders from exploiting the growers. These processing unitsare generating additional employment for local youth, preferably those from landless families.The study provided an opportunity to explore the potentials of several tree species,without causing any concern or loss to the participant farmers, as their major income wasassured from commercial fruit crops like mango and cashew. It also enabled selection ofseveral underutilized species, which can be planted on barren lands as an income generationactivity. Cultivation of new crops would not only enable the farmers to enhance their income,but also improve the bio-diversity and ecosystem.It was observed that the following are critical factors which influence the acceptance ofunderutilized species by farmers for cultivation:(1) The produce should have good demand and ready market for direct consumption orprocessing(2) The crop should have short gestation and high returns, to attract farmers to shiftover from their traditional crops(3) It is necessary to select elite germplasm to ensure the production of superior qualityproduce and develop technology for production of superior quality planting material(4) Suitable cultivation practices should be developed to improve the yield and quality ofthe produce(5) Timely support for forward and backward linkagesand technical guidance should be readily available for farmers. This should also includedevelopment of new products, exploration of new uses and consumer awareness about thespecialties of new products.4 Conclusions

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There are many underutilized food and non-food plant species, having good potentials tocontribute to the income of farmers. However, it is essential to validate their adaptability,demand for the produce and profitability in comparison to the alternative crops grown inthe region. While promoting underutilized fruit trees and oilseed tree species in the WesternGhats region of Gujarat and Maharashtra States, it was observed that the success inpromotion of underutilized crops was dependent on the crop yields, price for the produceand marketability either in fresh or processed form. It is easier to promote food cropsbecause of the local market but difficult to promote non-food crops without prior marketlinkage. Promotion of underutilized crops without marketing back-up being risky, it isadvisable to introduce such crops on a small scale, without seriously affecting the assuredsource of income. This will also give time to expand the market in the future. Subsequently,successful species can be replicated on a large scale. Many underutilized species tolerant todrought and other stress conditions can be cultivated on degraded and barren lands as anincome generation activity while improving the biodiversity and ecosystem.References[1] N.G. Hegde, 2004 Management of natural resources for sustainable livelihood-BAIF’sapproach, in: K.V. Sundaram, M. Moni, M.M. Jha (Eds.), Proceedings of Workshop onNatural Resources Management and Livelihood Security: Survival Strategies andSustainable Policies, Bhoovigyan Vikas Foundation, New Delhi, pp. 1-17.[2] N.G. Hegde, 1991 Impact of afforestation programme on socio-economictransformation of the rural poor, Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Poona, Pune, India.[3] N.G. Hegde, 2003 Agri-horti-forestry for rehabilitation of tribals and small farmers:BAIF’s approach, in: P.S. Pathak, Ram Newaj (Eds.), Proceedings of Workshop onAgroforestry: Potentials and Opportunities, Agrobios (India) and Indian Society ofAgroforestry, Jodhpur, pp. 319-328.[4] J.N. Daniel and P.A. Dudhade, 2007 Analysis of economic characteristics of value chainsof three underutilised fruits of India, Research Report No. 3, The International Centrefor Underutilised Crops, Colombo, Sri Lanka.[5] A. Sawant, 2005 Commercialisation of Kokum (Garcinia indica), in: Proceedings ofthe National Consultation Meet on Underutilised Fruits, Pune, India, National Bankfor Agriculture and Rural Development, Maharashtra Regional Office, Pune, pp. 3-6.[6] J.N. Daniel and N.G. Hegde, 2007 Tree-borne oilseeds in agroforestry, in: D.M. Hegde(Ed.), Proceedings of the National Seminar on Changing Global Vegetable Oils Scenario:Issues and Challenges before India, Indian Society of Oilseeds Research, Hyderabad,India, pp. 263-276.[7] N.G. Hegde, 2002 Promotion of underutilised fruit crops, in: N. Haq, A. Hughes (Eds.),Fruits for the future in Asia. International Centre for Underutilised Crops, Universityof Southampton, Southampton, UK, Proceedings of the Regional Consultation Meeting,Bangkok, Thailand, pp. 45-53.

THEMATIC PAPERS

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Thematic Papers

l Climate Change Impacts on Livestock Production and Adaptation Strategies: A GlobalScenariol Indigenous Crop Genetic Resources and Traditional Practices Associated with CropCultivation in Tribal Blocks of Maharashtral Scope for Reducing Ill-Effects of Livestock Husbandry on Global Warmingl Tree Planting on Private Landsl Forage Resource Development in Indial Milk - A Life Line of Indial Eco-friendly Goat Husbandry for Sustainable Livelihood of Small Farmersl Development of Value Chain for Sustainable Agriculturel Towards Market Orientation of Underutilised Horticultural Crops: Experiences withRural Initiatives in Indial Watershed Development Can Change the Rural Map of Indial Livelihood Techno-bank for Sustainable Development of Backward Districts inMaharashtra, Indial Mitigating Global Warming While Providing Sustainable Livelihoodsl Livelihood Enhancement Strategies for Tribal Regions of Maharashtral Small Holders and Role of NGOs in Improving their Livelihoodl Traditional Seed Conservation Practices of Small Farmers in India

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Blümmel M.1, Wright A.I.2, Hegde N. G.3, 2010. Climate Change Impacts on Livestock Production andAdaptation Strategies: A Global Scenario. Paper presented at the National Symposium on ClimateChange and Rainfed Agriculture, Feb. 18-20, 2010, CRIDA, Hyderabad, India. Pages 136 – 145.1International Livestock Research Institute, c/o ICRISAT, Patancheru 502324, AP, India2International Livestock Research Institute, National Agricultural Science Centre, New Delhi 110012,India3BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune 411058, IndiaClimate Change Impacts on Livestock Production and AdaptationStrategies: A Global Scenario

Importance of livestock in present and future and how climate change can affect itGlobally livestock contributes 40% to agricultural GDP, employs more than a billion peopleand creates livelihoods for more than 1 billion poor (Steinfeld et al. 2006). From a nutritionalstandpoint, livestock contributes about 30% of the protein in human diets globally, and morethan 50% in developed countries. In many developing countries, livestock was also consideredto be the backbone of agriculture, as they provided draught power and farmyard manure,often the sole source of crop nutrition, before promotion of modern agriculture in the middleof the 20th century. As outlined in the livestock revolution scenario (Delgado et al. 1999)consumption of animal products will rise particularly in so called developing countries inresponse to urbanization and rising incomes. While the increasing demand for livestockproducts offers market opportunities and income for small holder producers and evenlandless, thereby providing pathways out of poverty (Kristjianson 2009) livestock productionglobally faces increasing pressure because of negative environmental implications particularlybecause of greenhouse gas emissions (Steinfeld et al. 2006). Besides green house gases, highwater requirement in livestock production systems is a major concern.The relationships between livestock and the environment are complex and appear tobe viewed very differently from developed and developing country perspectives. The FAOreport, Livestock’s long shadow, focused on the effects of livestock on the environment(Steinfeld et al. 2006). The climate change impacts of livestock production (calculated inSteinfeld et al. 2006) at 18% of the total global greenhouse gas emissions from humansources) have been widely highlighted, particularly those associated with rapidly expandingindustrial livestock operations in Asia. Yet, in smallholder crop-livestock and agro-pastoraland pastoral livestock systems, livestock are one of a limited number of broad-based optionsto increase incomes and sustain the livelihoods of an estimated 1 billion people globally,who have a limited environmental footprint. Livestock are particularly important forincreasing the resilience of vulnerable poor people, subject to climatic, market and diseaseshocks through diversifying risk and increasing assets. Given that almost all human activitiesare associated with GHG emissions, those from livestock in these systems are relativelymodest when compared to the contribution that livestock make to the livelihoods of thishuge number of people. This complex balancing act of resource use, GHG emissions and

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livelihoods is almost certain to get more rather than less complicated. The demand forenergy supply through biofuels is yet another factor that is putting increased pressure onthe natural resource base and the balance between different natural resource uses, especiallyin mixed crop-livestock systems.Unfortunately, in the past most of the livestock owners in India as well as thedevelopment agencies engaged in livestock development, were not aware of the extent ofpotential damage caused by livestock through emission of greenhouse gases. In the absenceof efficient livestock extension and veterinary services, there has been severe geneticerosion, resulting in low productivity. This compelled small farmers to expand their herdsize, resulting in shortage of fodder and feed. As it was not economically viable to feed lowproductive livestock, farmers facing shortage of fodder, let them out for free grazing oncommon lands and forests which suppressed the productivity further, while acceleratingthe pressure on bio-diversity. In the absence of a national policy on control of livestockpopulation, there has not been any pressure on the livestock owners either to cull theiruneconomic animals or to control their herd size. With the growing threat on food securityarising due to global warming, small farmers dependent on rainfed agriculture are likely tobe affected more severely, which may compel them to shift over to livestock husbandry fortheir livelihood. Therefore, the development strategy should be to promote the productivityof livestock, while reducing the population and conserving water and fodder resources.As livestock is an important source of livelihood, it is necessary to find suitablesolutions to convert this industry into an economically viable enterprise, while reducing theill-effects of global warming. In relation to climate change, livestock will have to play a dualrole: one of mitigation and one of adaptation.Adaptation of livestock systems to climate changeFeeds and waterWater scarcity has become globally significant over the last 40 years or so, and is anaccelerating condition for 1-2 billion people worldwide (MEA 2005). The ComprehensiveAssessment of Water Management in Agriculture (CA 2007) states that if today’s foodproduction and environmental trends continue into the future, they will lead to crises inmany parts of the world. The CA calls for concerted action to improve water use in agriculture,if the freshwater challenges of future decades are to be overcome. The localized impacts ofglobal change on water resources are starting to receive attention, but in the same way asfor localized agricultural impacts, there is a great deal of work that needs to be done. Theresponse of increased temperatures on water demand by livestock is well-known. For Bosindicus, for example, water intake increases from about 3 kg/kg DM intake at 10°C ambienttemperature, to 5 kg at 30°C, and to about 10 kg at 35°C (NRC 1981). The impacts ofclimate change on water supply changes in livestock systems, however, are not well-studied.The key contribution of groundwater to extensive grazing systems will probably becomeeven more important in the future in the face of climate change, although the impacts onrecharge rates of the aquifers involved are essentially unknown (Masike 2007).However, one of the most evident and important effects of climate change on livestockproduction is mediated through changes in feed resources. Although indirect, effects onfeed resources can have a significant impact on livestock productivity, the carrying capacity

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of rangelands, the buffering ability of ecosystems and their sustainability, prices of stoversand grains, trade in feeds, changes in feeding options, greenhouse gas emissions, and grazingmanagement. The main pathways in which climate change can affect the availability of feedresources for livestock are as follows1. Land use and systems changesAs temperature increases and rainfall increases or decreases (depending on location) andbecomes more variable, the niches for different crops and grassland species change. Forexample, in parts of East Africa, reductions in the length of growing period are likely to leadto maize being substituted by crop species more suited to drier environments such assorghum and millet (Thornton and Herrero 2008). These land-use changes can lead to adifferent composition of animal diets and to a change in the ability of smallholders tomanage feed deficits in the dry season. These two effects can have substantial effects onanimal productivity and on the maintenance of livestock assets.2. Changes in the primary productivity of crops, forages and rangelandsThis is probably the most visible effect of climate change on feed resources for ruminants.However, the effects are different depending on location, production system and on cropand pasture species. In C4 plant species, increases in temperature up to 30-35°C will ingeneral increase the productivity of crops, fodders and pastures, as long as the ratio ofevaporation to potential evapotranspiration and nutrient availability do not significantlylimit plant growth. In C3 plants such as rice and wheat, temperature effects have a similareffect but increases in CO2 levels will also have a significant (positive) impact on theproductivity of these types of crops (IPCC 2007). For food-feed crops, since harvest indexeschange with the amount of biomass produced, the end result for livestock production is achange in the quantity of grains and stovers and availability of metabolisable energy for dryseason feeding.3. Changes in species compositionSpecies composition in rangelands and some managed grasslands is an important determinantof livestock productivity. As temperature and CO2 levels change, the optimal growth ranges fordifferent species also change; species alter their competition dynamics, and the compositionof mixed grasslands changes. For example, in the temperate regions and subtropics, wheregrasslands often contain C3 and C4 species, some species are more prominent than others inthe summer, while the balance of the mix reverts in winter. Small changes in temperature alterthis balance significantly and often result in changes in livestock productivity. The proportionof browse in rangelands may increase in the future as a result of increased growth andcompetition of browse species due to increased CO2 levels (Morgan et al. 2007).4. Quality of plant materialHigher temperatures increase signification of plant tissues and therefore reduce thedigestibility and the rates of degradation of plant species (Minson 1990). This leads toreduced nutrient availability for animals and ultimately to a reduction in livestock production,which may have impacts on food security and incomes through reductions in the productionof milk and meat for smallholders.

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Livestock Genetics and BreedingTraditionally, the selection of animals in tropical breeds has been an adaptive one, but inrecent times, market pull has stimulated a rapidly changing demand for higher productionthat could not be met quickly enough by breed improvement of indigenous animals.Widespread cross-breeding of animals, mostly with ‘improved’ breeds from temperateregions, crossed with local animals, has occurred – often with poor results. Little systematicstudy has been conducted on matching genetic resources to different farming and marketchain systems from already adapted and higher producing tropical breeds. However, giventhe even greater climatic variability and stresses anticipated, this is a logical response tothe adaptive challenges that will be faced. The greatest role for using adaptive traits ofindigenous animal genetic resources will be in more marginal systems in which climaticand other shocks are more common. Indigenous breeds, which have co-evolved in thesesystems over millennia and have adapted to the prevalent climatic and disease environments,will be essential (Baker and Rege 1994). These systems are under substantial pressurearising from the need for increased production as well as land-use changes. Under thesecircumstances, ensuring continuing availability of these adapted animal breeds to meet theneeds of an uncertain future is crucial. The adaptive challenge will be to improve productivitytraits while maintaining adaptive traits. This co-evolution will take place at different speedswithin different systems. Within this context, there will be a constant need to improveproductivity since increasing demand will need to be supplied from a relatively constantland and water resource base. Current animal breeding systems are not sufficient to meetthis need and the improvement of breeding programs under different livestock productionand marketing contexts is a critical area for new research.The preservation of existing animal genetic diversity as a global insurance measureagainst unanticipated change has not been as well appreciated as has that for plants, althoughthe recent report on the state of the world’s animal genetic resources (FAO 2007) and theaccompanying Interlaken Declaration have highlighted this important issue. When conservationthrough use is insufficient (as is the widespread situation with indiscriminant cross-breeding),ex-situ, especially in vitro, conservation needs to be considered as an important component ofa broad-based strategy to conserve critical adaptive genes and genetic traits.Livestock and Human HealthThe major impacts of climate change on livestock and human diseases have been on diseasesthat are vector-borne. Increasing temperatures have supported the expansion of vectorpopulations into cooler areas, either into higher altitude systems (for example, malaria andlivestock tick-borne diseases) or into more temperate zones (for example, the spread ofbluetongue disease in Northern Europe). Changes in rainfall pattern can also influence anexpansion of vectors during wetter years. This may lead to large outbreaks of disease, suchas those seen in East Africa due to Rift Valley Fever virus, which is transmitted by a widevariety of biting insects.An example is the complexity of climate change influences with other factors associatedwith vector populations of tsetse flies in sub-Saharan Africa (McDermott et al. 2001). Tsetseflies transmit African trypanosomes widely in livestock (ruminants, equids, and pigs).

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Predictions of climate and population change on tsetse density indicates that tsetsepopulations and animal trypanosomosis will decrease most in semi-arid and sub-humidzones of West Africa and in many but not all areas of Ethiopia and eastern and southernAfrica through a combination of population pressure on savannah species and climatechange pressure on riverine species. Helminth infections, particularly of small ruminantswill be greatly influenced by changes in temperature and humidity. Climate changes couldalso influence disease distribution indirectly through changes in the distribution of livestock.Areas becoming more arid would only be suitable for camels and small ruminants. If thesespecies are forced to aggregate around water points, the incidence of parasitic diseasescould increase.Changes in Cropping Patterns and Livestock SystemsWith changes in climate there is likely to be a shift if cropping patterns. Jones and Thornton(2003) have suggested that in areas of Africa where cropping is marginal, changes inclimate by 2050 may result in increased probability of crop failure and an increased relianceon livestock farming. Many of these areas are already characterized by high levels of povertyand vulnerability.Livestock Contribution to Climate Change and Strategies for Counteracting NegativeEnvironmental Effect Caused by LivestockWhile climate change will affect the way livestock is produced and will also decrease andincrease the role and importance of livestock for livelihoods depending on localities, livestockdoes also contribute to climate change. As cited by Gill and Smith (2008), in 2005 agriculturein general contributed about 10 to 12% or between 5.1 and 6.1 gigatons (Gt) of CO2 equivalentsto human-induced GHG emissions globally. Enteric CH4 production, that is the CH4 releasedmainly from the digestive tract of ruminants, was estimated at 1.9 Gt of CO2 equivalents,representing about 37% of agriculture contribution to GHG. However, these estimates did notinclude carbon emissions from fossil fuel used in cropping, animal housing and land changeuse. Considering carbon emissions along the entire commodity chains, Steinfeld et al. (2006)estimated that livestock contribute about 18% to the global warming effect. These contributionsare of course significant, and require urgent attention.Feed Mitigation Options for Reducing Carbon EmissionConsiderable efforts have been expended in reducing carbon emission from livestock, evenbefore the awareness of climate change took hold, simply because feed carbon losses to theenvironment reduce feed conversion efficiency. The mechanisms that result in enteric carbonemissions are, therefore, quite well understood. Digestion in the rumen is characterized byfeed conversion to short chain fatty acids (SCFA), the 2, 3 and 4-carbon acids, acetate,propionate and butyrate which provide the primary energy source for ruminants, microbialbiomass (MBP) which is the major or even only source of protein and finally the gases,mainly CO2 and CH4 which are digestive waste products and obviously of majorenvironmental concern. Since diversion of feed carbon away from gaseous losses haslivestock nutritional and environmental benefits, considerable research was invested indevising feeding strategies that achieve this, and our knowledge about the underlying causesis expansive (Van Soest 1994). Briefly, high proportional feed conversion into MBP, that is

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a high efficiency of microbial production (EMP), and high proportion of propionate in theSCFA, reduce digestive carbon losses (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: Partitioning of one kg of organic matter truly degraded in the rumen (OMTDR)under varying efficiencies of microbial production (EMP) and acetate (a), propionate (p)and butyrate (b) proportions (from Blümmel et al. 2001)Thus total feed loss into gases (including fermentative H2O) under high EMP and highproportional propionate production per kg feed digested in the rumen is only 193 gcompared to 338 g under low EMP and proportional high acetate production (Figure 1).Increasing EMP and proportional propionate concomitantly has very substantial effect onenteric carbon emission (see also Figure 2).

Figure 2: Methane production from 1 kg of feed digested in the rumen in relation to SCFAproportion and EMP (modified from Blümmel and Krishna 2003)Clearly, increasing proportional propionate production will have the most substantialeffect on methane emission relative to feed digested. While under proportional high acetateproduction methane emission could range from about 45 to 70 L/ kg digested feed depending

LEGENDSMBPGasesSCFA1 kg OM TDR

SCFA: 0.65 a: 0.25 p : 0.10b SCFA: 0.50 a: 0.40 p : 0.10b

EMP = 0.1 EMP = 0.1

MBPGasesSCFA

MBPGasesSCFA

100 g338 g562 g

100 g289 g611 g

400 g225 g375 g

400 g193 g407 g

EMP = 0.4 EMP = 0.4

17.5100 150 200 250 300 250 400

22.5

27.5

32.5

37.5

42.5

47.5

52.5

57.5

62.5

67.5

high propionate

high acetate

CH

4 (

I) p

rod

uce

d p

er

kg

fe

ed

dig

est

ed

Microbial biomass produced per kg feed digested (g/kg)

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on EMP, only about 20 to 30 L of methane are produced under high proportional propionateproduction (Figure 2). In other words methane emissions could be halved. From a meretechnical feed perspective, high proportional propionate production can be ‘simply’ achievedby increasing the proportion of concentrate in the diets. In fact this approach is frequentlyrecommended for reduction of methane emissions from livestock (for review see Martinet al. 2008). There are, however, severe draw backs associated with increased concentratefeeding to ruminants, particularly in developing countries (see also below). First, food securitymight be in jeopardy and food prices might increase, further burdening poor people. Also,natural resource usage of land, water and biomass is more efficient where livestockproduction (mainly from ruminants but not only) is based on by-products such as cropresidues that do not contain human edible nutrients or on biomass harvest through grazingand otherwise from areas not suitable for arable land.Besides shifting from acetate to propionate production through increase feeding ofconcentrate, a range of interventions have been proposed to alter the fermentation productsoutlined in Figure 1 for reduced carbon losses for example through use of synthetic andnatural feed additives (Martin et al. 2008). There might be also scope for introducing newspecies of anaerobic bacteria, capable of breaking fiber, without or with low emission ofCH4. This calls for a search of such bacteria and to introduce it in the digestive system ofruminants. A similar strategy was adopted for eliminating the ill-effects of feeding leucaena,where mimosine was converted into DHP (3,4 – Dihydroxy pyridone) which is a goitrogen.However, anaerobic bacteria found in ruminants of certain countries could convert DHPinto harmless compounds. Subsequently, this bacteria was isolated and introduced in thedigestive system of ruminants in these countries, particularly, Australia (Hegde and Gupta1994; Jones and Lowry 1984).Effect of Increasing Milk Production/Animal on Feed Resource Requirements andGreenhouse Gas Emissions‘Environment-Friendly’ development of livestock production systems demands that the increasedproduction be met by increased efficiency of production and not through increased animalnumbers (Leng 1993). Feeding strategies that increase the efficiency of production by producingmore from fewer animals and less feed will result in reduced green house gas emissions. Thiscan be demonstrated by analyzing livestock population in India and their respective level ofproductivity. Thus, in India in 2005/2006 the proportion of milch animals relative to totallivestock numbers was less than 0.25. In addition, the daily milk yield of cross bred, local cowsand buffalo was low, averaging on a 365 days lactation basis 6.44, 1.97 and 4.3 L respectively.The mixed herd mean milk yield can be calculated as 3.61 L. This low productivity resultedacross the three types of livestock in a ratio of feed metabolizable energy (ME) for maintenanceand production of 1.9:1, see Table 1.

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Nu

mb

er

of

mil

ch a

nim

als

(x

10

)0

Me

tha

ne

pro

eu

ced

(Tg

)

Daily milk production per animal (liter) Daily milk production per animal (liter)

Figure 3: Relations between average daily milk productionand livestock numbers

Figure 4: Relations between average daily milk productionand methane emissions

10000

0 0

0.5

1.0

1.5

2.0

2.5

20000

30000

40000

50000

60000

70000

80000

0 03 36 69 912 1215 1518 18

Table 1: Summary of total livestock population, milch animal and their production and feedrequirements for maintenance and production in India in 2005/2006Particulars Cross Bred Cows Local Cows Buffalos TotalMilch animals 8 216 000 28 370 000 33 137 000 69 759 000Total animals 28 391 000 155 805 000 101 253 000 285 449 000Milk yield (kg/d) 6.44 1.97 4.4 3.6 (mean)ME required(MJ 109)Maintenance 148.0 423.3 601.2 1172.5Production 122.6 136.4 370.8 629.8Adopted from Blümmel et al. (2009)By increasing daily milk production in a herd model (of a mixed cross-bred, local cow,buffalo population) from 3.61 to 6, 9, 12 and 15 L/day energy expended for maintenancebecomes less than energy expended for production, see Table 1. As a result the same amountof milk can be produced by less numbers of livestock leading to drastically reduced emissionsof methane (see Figure 3 and 4).

Adopted from Blümmel et al. (2009)Increasing milk productivity can be accomplished by improving the intake of feed, nutrientdensity of the diet (quality) or a combination of both. In the Indian context the option ofimproving the intake of feed (DMI > 3% of body weight) is limited due to the nature of thediet where crop residues are predominant feed resources and greens and concentratesconstitute a minor proportion (Ramachandra et al. 2007). Assuming that there would not beany import of feed ingredients, the second option of improving the quality of diets is verylimited due to limited availability of concentrate ingredients and preferential use of concentrateingredients in the poultry sector. Allocation of additional land and water for feed/foddercultivation is also ruled out due to competition from the food and commercial crops. In viewof the above, improving the average productivity of animals from the present level to 6 L/dayappears to be more feasible while achieving 9 L/day would be difficult due to shortage ofconcentrates (Ramachandra et al. 2007). For achieving an average productivity level of 9 L/

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day with a diet of metabolizable energy content of the diet of 7.36 ME, the dry matter intake(DMI) should be around 3.6% of the body weight. Achieving a DMI of 3.6% in milch animalswith a metabolizable energy content of the diet of 7.36 ME would be difficult and the dietquality would need to be improved by increasing the proportion of concentrates. Achievinghigh DMI is possible with an increase in the proportion of the concentrate in the diet as inthe case of feed blocks where concentrate constitutes around 50% of the diet. The total feedrequirement for achieving 9 L/day on diets with a metabolizable energy content of 7.36 and8.50 MJ works out to be 146 and 126 million tons corresponding to 3.6 and 3.1% DMI ofbody weight respectively. While achieving a DMI of 3.1% with better quality diet (8.5MJ ME)is feasible the, concentrate requirement would work out to be 63 million tons and concentrateavailability would be a constraint. Looking into the potential availability of total concentratesat the national level, the available concentrate of 35 million tons (Ramachandra et al. 2007)will not be sufficient to achieve the average productivity level of 9 L/day. Limited concentrateavailability will further constraint options of mitigating CH4 emissions by shifting fromacetate to propionate production.With current feed resources and no changes in the ratio of milk to no-milk producersthe achievable level of milk production appears therefore to be between 6 and 9 L/day (formore detailed reasoning see Blümmel et al. 2009). In fact long term field studies from 1997to 2001 of BAIF (Gokhale et al. 2007) show average milk yields (converted to 365 dayslactation) in cross-bred cows of 7.7 (on irrigated area) to 8.5 (irrigated area) L/day. Thiswas achieved by providing critical breeding and health care services coupled with regularguidance on feeding and culling of animals. The experience of BAIF, a leading NGO engagedin promoting dairy husbandry, has confirmed that with ownership of high yielding cattleand buffaloes, farmers prefer to adopt stall feeding, maintain a smaller herd and try to meetthe fodder shortage by bringing marginal lands under drought-prone fodder crops. Thisexperience can be widely replicated across the developing countries for providing livelihoodto small farmers (Hegde 2006). Thus an effective extension network will have to beestablished to create greater awareness among small farmers to adopt best practices inlivestock husbandry to increase the production, without increasing the population.ConclusionAs livestock is, and will remain, an important source of livelihood, it is necessary to findsuitable solutions to convert this industry into an economically viable enterprise, whilereducing the ill-effects of global warming. In relation to climate change, livestock is part ofthe problem but also part of the solution where cropping becomes too risky and wherelivestock will serve as an important tool for risk mitigation and diversification. Increasingthe efficiency of livestock production that is harvesting higher productivity from fewernumbers of livestock will play a key role in mitigating environmentally adverse effects fromlivestock. There are, however, ceilings to this approach mainly defined by feed resources.Feeding of livestock should not lead to competition for human food sources and should bebased on converting non-human edible feed sources into human edible ones. Some trade-offs between positive and negative effects of livestock have to be accepted

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ReferencesBaker L. R. and Rege J. E. O. 1994 Genetic resistance to diseases and other stresses in theimprovement of ruminant livestock in the tropics. Proceedings of the 5th World Congressof Genetic and Applied Livestock Production. University of Guelph, 7-12 August, 405-412.Blümmel M., Anandan S. and Prasad C. S. 2009. Potential and limitations of byproductbased feeding systems to mitigate green house gases for improved livestock productivityp. 68-74, In (Eds Gowda, N. K. S., Senani, S., Raghavendra Bhatta and Pal, D. T.) Diversificationof Anima Nutrition Research in the Changing Scenario, Volume 1 (Lead papers) 13th BiennialConference of Animal Nutrition Society of India, 17-19 December 2009, Bangalore, India,pp 168Blümmel M. and Krishna N. (2003). Evaluation of feedstuffs – alternative methods p. 67-74.Feed Technologies: Present Status and Future Strategies Acharya NG Ranga AgriculturalUniversity, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030 India. ISBN No: 81-865121-10-1Blümmel M., Krishna N. and Ørskov E. R. (2001). Supplementation strategies for optimizingruminal carbon and nitrogen utilization: concepts and approaches. Proccedings of the 10thAnimal Nutrition Conference: Review Papers, November 9th to 11th Karnal, India 2001,pp. 10 – 23.Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture, 2007. Water for Food,Water for Life: A Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture. Earthscanand International Water Management Institute, London and Colombo.Delgado C., Rosegrant M., Steinfeld H., Ehui S., Courbois C. 1999. Livestock to 2020: Thenext food revolution. International Food Policy Research Institute, Food and AgricultureOrganization of the United Nations, and International Livestock Research Institute. IFPRIFood, Agriculture and the Evironment Discussion Paper 28, Washington, D.C., 72 pFAO 2007. The State of the World’s Animal Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.Rome, 2007, 550 pp.Gill M. and Smith P. 2008. Mitigating climate change: the role of livestock in agriculture, p.29-30. Livestock and Global Climate Change. Cambridge University PressGokhale S. B., Bhagat R. L., Gokhale R. B. And Pande A. B. 2007. Farmer attributes affectingcrossbred cows production performance in rural areas of Western Maharashtra,International J. Tropical Agriculture. Vol 25: 3, p 605-608.Hegde N. G., 2006. Livestock Development for Sustainable Livelihood of Small Farmers. InSouvenir of the 39th Annual General Meeting and 48th National Symposium on “EnergisingRural India – A Challenge to Livestock Industry. Compound Livestock Feed ManufacturesAssociation of India (CLFMA), Manesar, Haryana. August 26: 50-63.Hegde N.G. and Gupta, V.K. 1994. Leucaena in India. Leucaena - Opportunities and Limitations,ACIAR Proceedings No.57, 182-185.IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts,Adaptation and Vulnerability. Summary for policy makers. Online at http:/ /www.ipcc.cg/SPM13apr07.pdf

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Jones P. G. and Thornton P. K., 2003. The potential impacts of climate change in tropicalagriculture: the case of maize in Africa and Latin America in 2055. Global Environmental Change13, 51-59.Jones R. J. and Lowry J.B. 1984. Australian goats detoxify the goitrogen 3-hydroxy-4(1H)pyridone (DHP) after rumen infusion from an Indonesian goat. Experientia, 40, 1435-1436.Kristjanson P. 2009. The role of livestock in poverty pathways. Proceedings of AnimalNutrition Association World Conference, 14-17 February 2009, New Delhi, India. Pp 37-40.Leng R. A. 1993. Quantitative ruminant nutrition - A green science. Australian Journal ofAgricultural Research 44: 363-80.Martin C., Doreau M. and Morgavi D. P. 2008. Methane mitigation in ruminants: frommicrobes to the animal p.130 - 133. Livestock and Global Climate Change. CambridgeUniversity PressMasike S., 2007. The impacts of climate change on cattle water demand and supply inKhurutshe, Botswana. PhD thesis, University of Waikato, New Zealand.McDermott J.J., Kristjanson P.M., Kruska R.L., Reid R.S., Robinson T.P., Coleman P.G., Jones P.G.,Thornton P.K., 2001. Effects of climate, human population and socio-economic changes ontsetse-transmitted trypanosomiasis to 2050. In R. Seed, S. Black (eds). World Class Parasites –Vol. 1. The African Trypanosomes, Kluwer, Boston, 25-38. ISBN 0-7923-7512-2.MEA 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Our Human Planet. Summary for DecisionMakers. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, online athttp://www.millenniumassessment. orgMinson D. J. 1990 . Forage in Ruminant Nutrition. Academic Press, San Diego.Morgan J. A., Milchunas D. G., LeCain D. R., West M. and Mosier A. R., 2007. Carbon dioxideenrichment alters plant community structure and accelerates shrub growth in the shortgrasssteppe. PNAS 104, 14724-14729.NRC 1981. Effect of Environment on Nutrient Requirements of Domestic Animals.Subcommittee on Environmental Stress, National Research Council. National Academy Press,Washington DC.Ramachandra K.S., Taneja R.P., Sampath K.T., Angadi U. B. and Anandan S. 2007. Availabilityand requirement of feeds and fodders in India. Published by National Institute of AnimalNutrition and Physiology, Bangalore.Steinfeld. H., Gerber P., Wassenaar T., Castel V., Rosales, M., De Haan, C. 2006. Livestock’sLong Shadow: environmental issues and options. FAO, Rome, Italy.Thornton P. K. and Herrero M. 2008. Climate change, vulnerability and livestock keepers:challenges for poverty alleviation. p 21 – 24. Livestock and Global Climate Change. CambridgeUniversity Press.

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Patil Sanjay and Joshi Rajeshree. 2010. Indigenous Crop Genetic Resources and Traditional PracticesAssociated with Crop Cultivation in Tribal Blocks of Maharashtra. Paper presented at the InternationalConference on Traditional Practices in Conservation Agriculture. Udaipur, Rajasthan. Pages 205-218.

Indigenous Crop Genetic Resources and Traditional Practices Associatedwith Crop Cultivation in Tribal Blocks of MaharashtraThe traditional practices associated with crop cultivation, biodiversity conservation etc hasgreat value in changing climate, environmental problems, food and nutritional security sothere is urgent need to focus on such promising practices, techniques and tribal wisdom.Communities here also acted as a custodian of useful knowledge associated with thecultivation and trait aspect of diverse crop varieties.This paper throws light on some of traditional practices associated with cropcultivation, Seed storage, pest and disease management practices, soil fertility management,perennial kitchen gardens (as nutritional garden) in backyards, underutilized crops as sourceof food, diverse crops on Rabb systems, diversion channel based irrigation system whichare of great importance in conservation agriculture. Also traditional wisdom associatedwith keeping diverse germplasm since years which has great value from food security,nutritional security, and self sufficiency for food. Tribal communities have their own criteria’sfor selection of landraces as modern agriculture has not focused on such systems.Contentsl Agro-biodiversity centric agricultural systems of tribal communities in Thane district.l Multipurpose backyard garden: food and nutritional security in tribal communities ofThane and Gadchiroli districtl Diverse cropping system on Rabb system in Konkan regionl Underutilized crops as source of livelihood and food security in tribal areasl Traditional seed storage systems in Thane, Nandurbar and Gadchirolil Effective use of moisture for crop cultivation in rural areas of Konkan regionl Diversion based irrigation channel system for agriculture in Remote areasl Effective use of biomass (weeds, crop residues) in crop cultivationThis can be achieved by following ways1. Revisiting this crop based useful traditions and traditional agricultural systems aspractised by communities in order to facilitate designing of sustainable agriculture models.2. Conserve and generate genetic diversity responding to the prevailing environments,ensuring its availability for present agriculture.3. Conserve crop biodiversity to ensure livelihood of the local people, realizing that theyare dependent upon some specific species/crop level diversity for their various needs.

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Scope for Reducing Ill-Effects of Livestock Husbandry on Global Warming. In Proceedingsof the 52nd National Symposium on Energising Rural India - A Challenge to Livestock Industry. CompoundLivestock Feed Manufactures Association of India Manesar, Haryana. Pages 138-142.

Scope for Reducing Ill-Effects of Livestock Husbandry on Global Warming

Increasing Global WarmingWe have already started experiencing the ill-effects of global warming all over the world.This is just the beginning and the gravity of the situation will be realised very soon, as theenvironmental pollution is rising rapidly. The major causes of global warming are increasein green house gases (GHG), over exploitation of natural resources and increase inatmospheric humidity. Increasing concentration of GHG in the atmosphere is prominentamong them, which is closely correlated with the rise in atmospheric temperature. Importantgreen house gases are Carbon dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous oxide (N2O) andHydrofluoro carbons (HFCs). While CO2 represents 73.5% of the total GHGs, CH4, N2O andHFCs represent 16.8%, 8.7% and 0.7% respectively.The major volume of carbon dioxide released in the atmosphere is caused by burningof fossil fuel. Methane emission takes place in the atmosphere through human relatedactivities as well as through natural activities. Livestock is an important source of methaneemission. Nitrous oxide is released from livestock (65% of the total, mostly from dung) andindustries, and Hydrofluoro carbon is mostly released from chemical industries.Impact of Livestock on EnvironmentLivestock has an adverse impact on environment. Firstly, livestock demands huge fodderand feed. As there is a severe shortage of cultivated fodder and feed resources, farmers lettheir livestock for free grazing on community lands and forests. Such stray livestock notonly denude vegetation but also accelerate soil erosion. Secondly, livestock, ruminants inparticular, produce methane and carbon dioxide while digesting feed in their rumen.Livestock dung also releases methane and nitrous oxide during anerobic decomposition. Itis estimated that livestock contributes 18% of the CO2 equivalent to green house gases,which is a serious concern. However, livestock being a major source of livelihood and foodsecurity for small and marginal farmers in most of the developing countries, it is necessaryto find solutions to reduce their ill-effects on global warming and ensure sustainable futurefor poor farmers. With careful planning, it is possible to reduce the ill-effects of globalwarming at an affordable cost.

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Emission of MethaneWhile increase in CO2 concentration is a serious problem, release of methane is equally amajor concern, as methane absorbs 23 times more heat than CO2 and its concentration issteeply rising in the atmosphere. The global methane production in 1988 was in the rangeof 400 - 600 million tons/annum. About 60% methane is emitted through human relatedactivities such as fossil fuel production, enteric fermentation in ruminants, rice cultivation,biomass burning, manure and waste management. Methane is also naturally released dueto biological activities in wet lands, permafrost, oceans, fresh water bodies and by termitesand wild fire.Out of the total methane emitted, livestock contributes about 37% amounting to 80million tons/annum. When the feed reaches the rumen, it is converted into short chainfatty acids, microbial biomass and fermentative gases, mainly carbon dioxide and methane,through microbial degradation, known as enteric fermentation. The proportion of thesecomponents produced in rumen varies to a great extent, with the type of feed and microbes(Blummel, et al 2001). The variation in digested outputs occurs due to the type of feed, levelof intake, retention time in rumen and type of microbes present. On an average, each adultcow emits about 80-110 kg methane in a year. With about 100 million livestock, USA emits5.5 million tons of methane/year. India has 485 million livestock and these are likely torelease proportionately higher quantity of methane due to consumption of inferior qualityfibrous fodder.Scope for Reducing Methane ProductionDepending on different species of microbes, nutrients and other chemical substances presentin the feed, the degree of fermentation will vary and the volume of gases released will alsochange. Thus, there is scope for reducing the production of gases by proper manipulationof these factors.1. Balanced FeedingEfficiency of microbe has a significant impact on production of various products,particularly gases. While the short chain fatty acids provide 70-85% of energyrequirement, microbial biomass provide 70-100% amino acid requirements ofruminants. With proper feed selection, supplementation and balancing of variousingredients, it is possible to maximise feed conversion into microbial biomass andshort chain amino acids, while reducing gases. With high protein diet, formation ofgases can be reduced significantly, while high fibre content in diet can increase theproduction of gases. These gases are released in the atmosphere through digestiveand respiratory systems.2. Improving Feed QualityUnfortunately, in many developing counties, particularly in India, a majority of thelivestock are low productive. They are under-nourished and surviving on open grazingor on poor quality, high fibre roughages. These animals release more methane thanhigh yielding animals, who consume better quality feed. To reduce the ill-effects ofpoor quality feed, breaking of lignin in roughages before feeding to livestock through

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various methods should be explored. Steam treatment of sugarcane bagasse and urea- molasses treatment of paddy straw are some good examples. Conversion of highfibre grasses into silage may be easy and beneficial. Even simple chopping of fodderbefore feeding livestock can reduce methane production.3. Improved Health StatusAnimals suffering from diseases also release higher volume of methane compared tohealthy animals. As most of the farmers are unaware of the threat posed by theirlivestock to global warming, no efforts are being made either to reduce the herd sizeor to control methane emission. These animals further demand fodder, feed and water,thereby creating pressure on the natural resources which are already scarce (Hegde,2010). Therefore, regular preventive and timely curative veterinary health care willhelp to reduce the emission of green house gases.4. Efficiency of MicrobesIt is presumed that there are a wide range of microbes involved in degeneration ofbiomass. The efficiency of different species and strains is likely to vary widely. Thus,there is scope to identify different species and their strains of micro-organisms presentin rumen which are efficient convertors of feed into amino acids and microbialbiomass. Such microbes even found outside rumen, can be introduced in rumen toimprove digestion in ruminants.Similar effort was successfully made in the past to solve the problem of mimosinetoxicity in Australia. Leucaena fodder when fed to cattle in Australia, showed toxicity,but cattle and goats in Indonesia and India did not show any toxicity after consumingleuceana foliage. After close follow up, an anerobic bacteria was isolated from goatrumen in Indonesia, which was capable of breaking DHP (3,4-Dihydroxy-pyridone)into harmless compounds. In the absence of such anerobic bacteria, ruminantsbrowsing on leucaena foliage containing mimosine, suffered from goitrogen. With theintroduction of this bacteria named as Synergistes jonesii in rumen, mimosine toxicityis no longer a problem in Australia and other countries (Jones and Lowry, 1984).5. Methane absorbing MicrobesThere are also microbes which have the capacity to absorb methane and convert itinto other products. Such selected anerobic micro-organisms capable of feeding onmethane, can also be incorporated in rumen flora for reducing the emission of methanewhile improving the productivity and profitability of livestock husbandry.6. Methane TrapsMost of the low productive livestock generally go out for grazing during the day andreturn to the shed in the evening. They release significant volume of methane andcarbon dioxide during the night when housed in cattle shed. Trapping these gasesfrom the barn by fixing efficient filters, is probably possible by using moderntechnologies.7. Dung ManagementAnimal dung and urine also release methane and nitrous oxide. Methane is generally

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released through anerobic decomposition, when dung is heaped as manure for alonger period. In countries like India, farmers have been following the practice ofdumping dung in manure pit for 3-6 months for better decomposition, thuscontributing substantially to emission of methane. Better management of farm yardmanure and compost pits can also reduce emission of methane in the atmosphere toa great extent.Use of dung for production of biogas is the best option to convert this threatinto an opportunity. As the present models of biogas plants are not user friendly andare inconvenient to manage in congested residential areas, new compact models areessential to popularize this technology.8. Control of LivestockPopulation8.1 Breed Conservation PolicyControl of livestock population is an important measure, not only to reduce the volumeof GHGs but also to meet the growing shortage of feeds. With population control,there can be a significant reduction in pressure on natural resources such as land,water and forests. Presently, except about 15-20% of the total livestock population,the remaining are not making significant contribution to rural economy. Among cattle,except about 5% population of indigenous milch breeds, the rest are either geneticallyeroded or represent native draft breeds whose milk production is less than 500 kg/lactation.With small holdings, most of the small and marginal farmers representing over75% of rural families are not interested in maintaining bullock power for carryingout farming operations. Large farmers on the contrary prefer mechanised farming.Hence, utility of males, particularly of draft breeds is posing a big question. Thus, itis necessary to revisit the present livestock conservation and breeding policies.8.2 Breed ImprovementBreed improvement is another important step to reduce methane emission. Generally,high productive animals are fed with superior quality balanced ration, when methaneproduction is also reduced. Therefore, livestock breed improvement can be promotedto produce high quality progeny which are stall-fed and nurtured well. Subsequently,farmers will also realise the need for reducing the herd size.Economic and technical feasibility of using sexed semen under dairydevelopment programme should also be studied as this strategy would controlunwanted male population in the future and enable farmers to have only female calves,for expanding their dairy husbandry.8.3 Selection and CullingRigorous and periodic selection of superior animals and culling inferior animals isessential to control the herd size. In this process, farmers can get rid of poor qualityanimals. However, culling of unwanted cattle is not very easy as there are no takers

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for such poor quality animals and most of the farmers do not wish to sell their cattleto butchers. So, there is a need for an intervention from the Government and Non-Government Organizations to facilitate the procurement of such culled animals andmaintain them till their natural death. Common facilities for housing sick animals arealso needed as unproductive sick animals are generally not well looked after by theirowners and these animals release more GHGs than normal animals.8.4 Export of LivestockThere is good export demand for Indian cattle but the Government of India haspresently banned the export of cattle. This policy may be carefully studied and scopefor relaxing export of cattle and other livestock should be explored.9. Production of Superior Quality ForageMost of the common properties earmarked for community pastures are heavilydenuded and devoid of vegetation. Development of community pastures through soiland water conservation, introduction of fodder herbs, shrubs and trees and protectionfrom stray grazing, will not only enhance the supply of superior quality fodder butalso improve the ground water table and micro-climate. Early harvesting of foddercan reduce fibre content in feed and thus improve the nutritive value. This needs tobe further studied and best practices for pasture management should be established.Through efficient roof water harvesting, watershed development, contourcultivation and tree-based farming, it is possible to conserve additional quantity ofwater and recharge the ground water for overcoming water shortage in the future,while enhancing fodder production.There is also scope for improving the quality of crop residues through earlyharvesting and breeding of low fibre stover varieties. Feeding of such fodder canfurther reduce methane production. More research is needed to tap this potential.Research and Development for Reducing Methane ProductionThere is need for further research and technology development to reduce methane andother GHG production in livestock management system, in the following areas1. Balanced feeding with low fiber diet2. Supplementation of various minerals and nutrients which can reduce gas productionduring enteric fermentation and utilize gas to convert it into useful nutrients3. Selection of rumen microbes having higher efficiency in converting feed into nutrients,while reducing the production of gases, for introduction in digestive system ofruminants4. Chemical, physical and microbial treatment of high fibre fodder to break lignin/fibrebefore feeding ruminants5. Introduction of methane absorbing microbes in digestive system for converting intoharmless or nutritious compounds

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6. Development of compact models of biogas plants for efficient use of dung and urinefor production of biogas, while reducing emission of methane and nitrous oxide7. Feasibility of covering FYM pits to reduce production and release of methane8. Scope for collection of methane from cattle sheds may be explored9. Breeding of food-cum-fodder crops with low fibre stover should be encouragedConcluding RemarksWith various initiatives suggested above, it is possible to develop best practices to reducethe ill-effects of livestock on global warming. Many of these initiatives can be taken up ona experimental or pilot scale to validate their impact and develop good farmer friendlypractices to ensure higher productivity and profitability.There is need for organizing brainstorming meetings and expert consultations ofrumen microbiologists, nutritionists, forage breeders and silvipasture experts to prioritiesimportant areas of research to find solutions to mitigate global warming. Livestockhusbandry and Extension specialists should also meet and finalise their strategy to improvelivestock management practices, which in turn can transform this sector into an eco-friendlyenterprise. Greater awareness should be created at various levels from farmers to policymakers about the ill-effects of unproductive livestock and necessary policies and practicesto control them.Finally, it should be clear that the survival and food security of millions of smallfarmers and landless, who are exclusively dependent on livestock for their livelihood, aremore important than prevention of global warming. Therefore, the challenge for scientistsand policy makers is to find suitable solutions where livestock can live in harmony withfarmers with least adverse impact on the environment and global warming.References1. Blummel, M., Krishna, N. and Orskov, E.R. 2001. Supplementation strategies foroptimizing ruminal carbon and nitrogen utilization: Concepts and approaches.Proceedings of the 10th Animal Nutrition Conference: Karnal, India. Review Papers,November 9-11: 10-23.2. Hegde, N.G. 2010. Mitigating Global Warming while providing Sustainable Livelihoodthrough Integrated Farming Systems: Experiences of BAIF. International Conferenceon Global Warming: Agriculture, Sustainable Development and Public Leadership.Ahmedabad, India. Mar 11-13: 16 pp.3. Jones, R.J. and Lowry, J.B. 1984. Australian goats detoxify the goitrogen 3,4-Dihydroxy-pyridone (DHP) after rumen infusion from an Indonesian goat. Experientia, 40: 1435-1436.

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Tree Planting on Private Lands. Paper presented at the Western Ghats EcologyExpert Panel (WGEEP), Constituted by the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government ofIndia, New Delhi.

Tree Planting on Private Lands

Need for AfforestationWith increasing population and growing consumerism, there has been severe pressure onfood production and employment generation, particularly in agro-based developmentcountries like India. This has had a direct impact on deforestation, increase in soil erosionand run off of rain water, resulting in depletion of natural resources and environmentalpollution. Simultaneously, increasing use of fossil fuel for industrial production, powergeneration and automobiles has accelerated the emission of green house gases (GHGs)which are responsible for global warming and climate change. The negative impacts ofglobal warming are far more serious in India due to prolonged droughts, rising sea leveland melting of snow caps of the Himalayas thereby affecting steady supply of water tomajor rivers of North India and our food security. To reverse this trend, it is necessary toreduce the emission of GHGs, while taking up massive afforestation to serve as carbondioxide sink and for supporting rural livelihood.Trees have a significant role in keeping the environment clean, while supporting thelivelihood. Over 43% of the cooking energy in the world is met from biomass. In ruralareas, where 65% of the population lives, biomass is the only accessible and affordablesource of energy. In the developing countries, the average per capita consumption of biomassin rural areas is equivalent to a ton of wood per annum and 50% of the wood cut in theworld is used for fuel (Hall and de Groot, 1985). More than 2 billion people in the ThirdWorld are dependent on biomass to meet their energy needs which is equivalent to 22million barrels of oil every day. In 1979, about 68.5% of the total rural energy was metfrom wood in India. In 2000, the annual demand for wood in the Indian rural sector was192.6 million tons while it was difficult to meet even 50% of it from the available sources.This indicates the extent of damage caused to the natural forests. Most of the rural peoplehave been dependent on Government-owned forests and community woodlots, which areunder severe pressure and vanishing rapidly. Thus, deforestation has been severely affectingthe ecosystem and economy in India as well.Presently, only about 12% of the geographical area in the country is under closeforests as against the stipulated forest cover of 33% required for maintaining an ecologicalbalance (Anonymous 1989). To solve the energy crisis, the strategy is to promote production,and ensure judicious use of wood energy which will indirectly conserve our forests. These

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calls for improving the existing forests through people’s participation and increasing thearea under forest cover even on non-forest lands, by bringing available barren and wastelandsunder afforestation. It is estimated that India has about 80-100 million ha of denudedforests and wastelands, which are neither put to any productive use nor considered forconservation. As such, these denuded lands have been accelerating soil erosion, wastage ofrainwater and loss of bio-diversity, contributing to global warming.Social Forestry – A Drive for People’s ParticipationWith the background of developing private and non-forest public wastelands underafforestation while protecting the natural forests, the Government of India introduced severalpeople-oriented afforestation schemes in the early 1950s. However, the activity gainedsignificance only during the Sixth Five Year Plan (1980-85) under social forestry, as apowerful tool to generate sustainable livelihood for rural people. To support this programme,afforestation was introduced under various development schemes such as Rural LandlessEmployment Guarantee Scheme (RLEGS), National Rural Employment Programme (NREP),Employment Guarantee Scheme (EGS), Drought Prone Programme (DPAP), Western GhatsDevelopment Scheme, etc. In the 1980s, all the State Governments had set up a separatewing either in the Forest Department or in the Department of Social Forestry to operatesocial forestry schemes. Various schemes such as development of community woodlots onpublic lands, establishment of decentralized kisan nurseries for free distribution of seedlingsand promotion of tree plantations on marginal agricultural lands were launched with hugefinancial support. The objective was to increase the supply of fuelwood, bamboo, smalltimbers and fodder, while generating rural employment and maintaining environmentalstability. The strategy was to grow fuelwood closer to the consumption points. Amongvarious afforestation activities under social forestry, raising block plantations in the form ofvillage woodlots on community lands, degraded forests and wastelands was the majorprogramme. Such plantations aimed at reducing the hardship of women and children, whotravel long distances in search of fuelwood. The remaining 30% of the programme includedraising of seedlings for free distribution to farmers and schools. The focus was on fodderand fuelwood production.Based on the recommendations of the National Commission on Agriculture (1976),the Sixth Five Year Plan focused on the production of fodder, fuel, small timber, minorforests produce and industrial raw materials under the social forestry programme. Thetheme was ‘Development without destruction’. The overall target of the Sixth Plan was tobring 1.65 million ha under tree cover. In addition to afforestation on community wastelands,37.25 million seedlings were distributed free for establishing farm forestry. Simultaneously,production forestry was also given a boost to bring 0.62 million ha under industrial woodplantations. Except for farm forestry, the other programmes could not make a significantimpact because the objective of meeting the basic needs of fodder, fuel and timber of thelocal participants could not be fulfilled.Looking at the drawbacks of the Sixth Plan, the Seventh Plan (1985-89) introduced anew programme with the theme “Forest for Survival” for expanding rural fuel woodplantations with the involvement of NGOs. In 1985, the National Wastelands DevelopmentBoard (NWDB) was established to increase tree and other green cover on wastelands with

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a target of 5 million ha coverage every year, while promoting fuel and fodder plantation tomeet local needs. NWDB intended to coordinate soil and water conservation, dryland farming,fodder development and conservation of land resources to prevent desertification as well.To popularize afforestation, various innovative schemes were also launched and significantamong them were decentralized plant nurseries for distributing among small farmers,cultivation of fodder, fuelwood and round timber species through Forest DevelopmentCorporations, fuelwood plantation on urban wastelands, production of industrial rawmaterials on Government-owned wastelands and leasing revenue wastelands to poor forgrowing trees, etc. In 1988-89, after observing the performance for 4 years, the programmewas restructured to cover activities such as reclamation of wastelands through agro-forestry,silvipasture and farm forestry, involving small farmers.Under NWDB, 7.18 million ha wastelands were brought under afforestation duringthe first 4 years of the Seventh Plan with a survival rate ranging from 43.6 to 70.4% (GoI,1989). Many NGOs, public sector undertakings and cooperatives such as NDDB and IFFCOinitiated various innovative schemes to promote afforestation on degraded lands. All theseprogrammes heavily depended on People’s Participation for their success. Apart fromplanting and maintenance, cooperation from local people was also expected for protectionof plantations from stray animals and illicit felling, until harvesting for ensuring equaldistribution among the participant families. However, the outcome was not very encouraging.Only 9% villages were covered under the programme. Community wastelands were noteasily available in many villages because either the Panchayats were not prepared to sparethe lands or there were many encroachments. The outputs from fodder and fuel were verylow as compared to the local needs. Hence, the benefits were not significant (NCAER, 1988).Poor rate of survival of saplings, poor growth, poor protection from livestock and trespasserswere other factors which contributed to the failure. In many States, the focus was shiftedfrom fodder and fuelwood species to species such as eucalyptus because of local demand,fast growth and protection from stray animals. With regard to employment generation,fodder and fuelwood plantations generated only 60-80 mandays/ha while farm forestrygenerated 600-800 days/ha. The wage rate under these schemes being low compared tothe local wage rate, there was no enthusiasm among the poor to take active part in thefuelwood production programme (Saxena, 1988; 1989; Sathe, 1990).To enhance people’s participation in tree planting programme, the schemes weremodified to integrate livestock with forage production and shift from fuelwood productionto income generation by introducing short rotation species with long rotation trees andtimber species with fuelwood. Emphasis was laid on extension programmes to motivatelocal families to take active part in afforestation (Shingi, 1988, Deshpande et al, 1990, Singh,1990). During 1980-88, the State Forest Departments across the country claimed that 20billion seedlings were distributed for planting. This meant an average of 35,000 plants/village but there were hardly any villages with such significant number of trees in thecountry. This reflected the poor performance of social forestry schemes in the country. Thisfailure could have been avoided if suitable tree species had been selected. Most of the farmerswould have taken good care if species of their choice had been provided (Hegde, 1987).Lack of marketing arrangements was another weakness of the social forestry programme.

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Interestingly, farm forestry scheme which was promoted by Forest DevelopmentCorporations and private paper and pulp mills by distributing seedlings of eucalyptus andother commercial species, had exceeded the target as the participants were motivated bythe prospects of economic gains. Fast growth, high value for the produce, sustained demandfrom industries and existence of an easily accessible market were the reasons for thepopularity of eucalyptus plantation (NCAER, 1988). Higher profitability due to higher rateof survival, short gestation period, higher yield, ready market, high value products like roundwood, remunerative price, negligible impact on seasonal crops, easy management of labor,ease in protection and favorable Tax and Land Ceiling Acts were the other reasons foracceptance of eucalyptus by farmers (Gupta, 1990). Farm forestry introduced on agriculturallands as a substitute for low yielding food crops with species such as eucalyptus was alsosuccessful (Muranjan, 1988). Farmers also preferred farm forestry as it demanded only120-140 mandays of labor ha/year while bajra, gram and other rainfed crops demandedabout 120-130 mandays/ha crop in 3-4 months (Singh, 1985).Choice of Tree Species for Private LandsBased on various social forestry projects implemented over the last 2-3 decades, it is clearthat choice of species is the key to the success of any afforestation programme. When itcomes to tree plantation on private lands, profitability is the main factor followed by otherminor factors such as gestation period, demand for produce, level of investment, access tomarket, availability of planting material and specific local uses, which influence the farmersto select tree species for planting on their lands.Selection of suitable species is the most important motivating factor for people’sparticipation as it influences the profitability. Tree planting on private lands is being carriedout by the land owners either because they are convinced or motivated by some of theagencies engaged in promoting afforestation. There are very few farmers who take initiativein establishing plantations of new species, based on the information they have gatheredabout the utility and profitability of these species. However, most of the small farmers aredriven by the publicity and attractive benefits as highlighted by the promoters, while selectingtree species for planting on their lands. The popularity of the species also varied fromregion to region, based on the demand for produce, marketing infrastructure, agro-climaticconditions, available inputs and the extent of awareness and publicity created by theprogramme implementing agencies.Tree Species for Income GenerationIn a study conducted in Pune and Nasik districts of Maharashtra, where multiple agencies wereindependently promoting tree planting, a majority of the farmers preferred growing fruit treeson their marginal and wastelands. This was followed by timber and round wood species.Among 35 most popular tree species promoted in the state, 18 species were grown for food,8 for timber, 3 for fuelwood, 2 each for oil and ornamental purpose and 1 each for fodder andfibre. The most preferred among them were eucalyptus (Eucalyptus hybrid), mango (Mangiferaindica), teak (Tectona grandis), custard apple (Annona squamosa) and jujubee (Zizyphusmauritiana). The list of these species with their popularity rank is presented in Table 1 (Hegde,1991). This preference is based on the profitability as well as market demand for the produce

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and field publicity. However, eucalyptus was the most popular species because of reasons otherthan high returns. First of all, eucalyptus had good demand as round wood in the local market.Any wood that was not sold as pole was purchased by paper and pulp mills at the site. Inaddition to assured demand, easy marketability and an attractive price, eucalyptus is a fastgrowing, non-browsing, coppicing species with a short harvesting cycle and well adapted toadverse agro-climatic conditions. Being one of the few species promoted by the wood-basedindustries, it has received wide publicity. Other tree species cultivated in India on a commercialscale under farm forestry by farmers are casuarina in coastal areas and poplar (Populus deltoides)which is confined to Northern India, beyond latitude 28o N.In interior areas, where marketing facilities for wood were inadequate, farmerspreferred to grow fruit crops and used existing market outlets for selling their produce.Thus, about 50% of tree selected were fruit species. Among fruit trees, seedlings of custardapple, jujubee (ber), tamarind, jambolina, drumstick, jackfruit, cashew, Indian gooseberry,wood apple and bullock’s heart (Annona reticulata) were raised by farmers in decentralizedrural nurseries while other species such as mango, guava, pomegranate, coconut, mandarin,orange and sapota were raised in commercial nurseries promoted by the HorticultureDepartment. Most of the farmers did not mention any other species although there weremany with high income potential because there was neither any publicity nor availabilityof the planting materials locally.The farmers were also confident of selling timber of eight species, namely eucalyptus,teak, chinaberry (melia), leucaena (subabul), portia (bhindi), casuarina, bamboo andshishum in local markets. Three fuelwood species preferred by the farmers were Ramkathiacacia (Acacia nilotica var. cupressiformis), Gum acacia (Acacia nilotica var. telia) andAustralian acacia (Acacia auriculiformis). The former two species are native to Maharashtraand used as fuel and timber, while the latter has been introduced only recently. Five otherspecies selected by the respondents were gulmohar (Delonix regia), Ashoka (Polyalthiapendula), neem (Azadirachta indica), sandalwood (Santalum album) and agave (Agavesisalana). Of these, the former two were planted as ornamental, the other two for oil andagave shrub for fibre. Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) is the only fodder species, although othermultipurpose species like subabul, and Shisham could yield fodder to some extent. Neem isan excellent species as a source of oilseed and biopesticide and drought tolerant. However,farmers did not prefer neem as there was no attractive market for selling the seeds andthey also lacked awareness about its yield and profitability.

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Table 1. Choice of Tree Species by Land holders of Different Categories

No. Name of the Species Common Name *Use TotalResponses1. Eucalyptus spp. Eucalyptus T 1432. Mangifera indica Mango F 1293 Tectona grandis Teak T 1094. Annona squamosa Custard apple F 1025. Zizyphus mauritiana Jujubee F 716. Melia azedarach Chinaberry T 527. Tamarindus indica Tamarind F 418. Psidium guajava Guava F 419. Leucaena leucocephala Leucaena, Subabul T, Fo 3910. Punica granatum Pomegranate F 2811. Syzygium cumini Jambolina F 2212. Moringa oleifera Drumstick F 1913. Thespesia populnea Portia T 1814. Azadirachta indica Neem Oi 1515. Artocarpus heterophyllus Jackfruit F 1316. Acacia nilotica var.telia Gum acacia Fu 1117. Cocos nucifera Coconut F 1118. Manilkara zapota Sapota F 1119. Citrus medica Sweet lime F 920. Casuarina equisetifolia Casuarina T 621. Anacardium occidentale Cashew F 522. Dendrocalamus strictus Bamboo T 523. Acacia auriculiformis Australian acacia Fu 324. Citrus reticulata Mandarin F 325. Agave sisalana Agave Fi 326. Polyalthia pendula Ashok O 227. Delonix regia Gulmohar O 228. Citrus sinensis Sweet orange F 229. Acacia nilotica var. Ramakathi acacia Fu 2

cupressiformis30. Sesbania sesban Sesbania Fo 231. Emblica officinalis Indian gooseberry F 332. Annona reticulate Ramphal F 133. Dalbergia sissoo Shishum T 134. Santalum album Sandalwood Oi 135 Feronia limonia Wood apple F 1No. of Respondents 296

* T -Timber, F-Food, Fo-Fodder, Fu-Fuel, Fi-Fibre, Oi-Oil, O-Ornamental

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The small holders had shown preference for fruit species, while the medium andlarge holders preferred timber species. Inspite of its popularity among farmers, it wassurprising to observe that eucalyptus was not the most profitable species promoted undersocial forestry in India. This indicated that with wider publicity and market linkages andin the absence of knowledge on better alternatives, farmers are often influenced in makingwrong judgments (Hegde, 1991).Profitability of Tree SpeciesThe benefit-cost analysis of 14 important fruit and timber species based on the data collectedfrom farmers is presented in Table 2. While pole timber such as melia, eucalyptus, leucaena,bamboo and portia start generating income from the third year, sesbania starts generatingincome through fodder during the first year itself and completes its economic life in 2-3years. Melia, leucaena and eucalyptus coppice well and thus, the plantations can bemaintained to harvest 3-4 crops. Portia trees are pollarded at an interval of three years andmaintained for 20-25 years. Harvesting of bamboo starts in the third year and continuesevery year for about 20-25 years. While leucaena and eucalyptus have good demand aspulpwood, melia and portia are used as poles for housing and agricultural implements withlimited demand.Drumstick starts fruiting from the second year and continues to provide income for10-15 years. Fruit trees like jujubee, custard apple, mango and cashew start fruiting fromthird year while tamarind starts producing fruits after 7-8 years. Neem starts fruiting after7-8 years and continues for 75-100 years, yielding 50-100 kg seeds every year. As thesespecies have different gestation period and various uses, it is extremely difficult for commonfarmers to take a quick decision about planting them. However, as all these species exceptneem, mango, cashew and tamarind, can be planted on field bunds without affecting arablecrops, farmers do not mind planting these species if some support is given in the form offree seedlings and inputs. If they have to establish a sole plantation on good lands usingtheir own resources, then they will certainly explore more about investment and profitabilitybefore taking a final decision.Among the above species, portia was the most profitable (`52,000), followed by teak,drumstick, leucaena, melia, sesbania, eucalyptus, bamboo, custard apple, mango and neem.It is interesting to observe that except in certain districts of Maharashtra, by and large,farmers are not aware about the management of portia to induce poles and the use of polesas light wood for agricultural implements.All the 14 tree species listed in Table 2 were most popular because of easymarketability of the produce and higher return. The popularity among these species variedfrom district to district based on local use, availability of planting material and extensionefforts. There are many other species which can produce timber (White siris, siris, shisham,White teak), fruits (citrus, guava, sapota, coconut, jackfruit, jamun, kokum, oil seeds(pongamia and mahua) and other non-wood produce (Indian gooseberry, myrobalan, andsoap nut) which can be promoted for cultivation, if cost-benefit analysis is carried out andsilvicultural practices are standardized. Even neem can be profitable, if plants of elitegenotypes, multiplied vegetatively are used for planting and the seeds are processed for

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bio-pesticide production. Likewise, many non-wood product species having different usessuch as edible products, oil, gum, resin, wax, pesticides, tan, dyes, fibre, soap and medicinescan be profitable, if plants produced through vegetative propagation are used forestablishment and the produce is processed for value addition.Table 2: Analysis of Income (in `̀̀̀̀) from different Species

Name of the Species Common Duration No. of Net/Tree/ Net/ha/Name trees/ha year year

Sesbania sesban Sesbania 2 5000 4.80 24000Melia azedarach Chinaberry 9. 974 24350 2500Leucaena leucocephala Subabul 9 2500 13.88 34575Eucalyptus Hybrid Eucalyptus 9 2500 9.24 23100Dendrocalamus strictus Bamboo 10 625 23.33 14581Thespesia populnea Portia 10 625 83.93 52456Tectona grandis Teak 20 625 80.00 50000Azadirachta indica Neem 75 200 50.00 10000 *Moringa oleifera Drumstick 10 400 124.00 49600 *Annona squamosa Custard apple 10 400 29.69 11876 *Zizyphus mauritiana Jujubee 10 400 48.52 19568 *Mangifera indica Mango 50 100 100.00 10000 *Anacardium occidentale Cashew 50 156 125.00 19500 *Tamarindus indica Tamarind 50 45 463.00 20835 ** Income from wood not included ** According to prices of 1989-90As compared to the economics of fruit and timber species, production of fuelwood is leastattractive because the net annual income per ha is only about `347/-. Thus, it is notattractive for farmers to grow fuelwood species in spite of intensive programme promotionand heavy incentives. If a ton of wood is sold for fuel, it would fetch only `1000/-. The samewood when sold as pulpwood would fetch 50% more and as round timber, 200% more.When the wood is used as timber either for construction or furniture, it would fetch 400-500% higher price. In such a situation, naturally farmers would prefer species with higherreturns. Under Social Forestry Programme, the poor farmers were persuaded to plantfuelwood and fodder, while large farmers had the option to grow wood for round timber,paper and pulp. Thus, unknowingly, there was discrimination and the poor were left out ofan excellent opportunity to earn more from the programme. This was the major reason forlack of people’s participation and failure of many projects, which were intended for thebenefit of the poor.

Preference for different Tree SpeciesWhile calculating the profitability of different tree species, it is necessary to take their entirelife cycle and convert into annual returns. For instance, teak and many timber trees matureafter 60-100 years, while the round timber species are ready for harvest at the age of 15to 30 years. Pulpwood will be ready in 4-6 years and fuelwood can be harvested in 2-5

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years. In case of fruit trees, tamarind has a productive life of over 80 years, while mangoand cashew have a productive life of 40-50 years. However, fruit trees start generatingincome from an early age and contribute to profit every year. In case of timber species,income is generated after a long gestation and only when trees are cut. Thus, fruit and non-wood tree species deserve to be promoted on a wider scale.Even for expansion of various fruit crops, there are limitations of labor, resourcesand market beyond certain scales of operation. For instance, the area under fruit crops suchas ber and amla could be expanded well during the last two decades. However, with largervolume of these fruits arriving in the market, which is more than the existing demand, theprices have started falling down. Unless efforts are made to process these fruits for valueaddition and preservation, farmers are not likely to cultivate these species on a large scalein the future. For crops like mango, in the absence of cold storage and processing, glutduring a particular period in the year may affect the price realization. Similarly, for cropslike grapes which are highly labor intensive, farmers may not expand the area due toshortage and inefficiency of labor. In such a situation, farmers are likely to select the nextbest crops for cultivation. Looking to the present status of tree planting on private lands, itcan be concluded that private land owners opt for different types of tree species in thefollowing order of priority:Preference for tree species in the order of priority:1. Fruits and nuts2. Round wood species and plywood3. Non-timber forest products and oil seeds4. Paper and pulpwood5. Forage and fuelwoodThe above preference is based on current profitability and subject to availability ofgood soil, assured soil moisture and easy availability of inputs. The priority may change fordifferent sites, based on adaptability of the species to local agro-climatic conditions,infrastructure for backward and forward integration, investment capabilities, etc. In areasprone to natural calamities, it is better to select hardier species even if the returns are lowinstead of growing sensitive crops capable of higher returns. There are many useful andvaluable species like sandalwood, teak and red shisham, which are highly priced but thegestation period is very long. Farmers may plant these species on a small scale but not forincome generation in the short run. The species covered in this paper are suitable fortropical regions and there are different species suited for sub-tropical and temperate regions.To ensure selection of suitable species, it is better to prepare a land use plan, basedon the soil productivity of the site earmarked for tree planting. Fertile soil with assured soilmoisture is highly productive, where fruit trees grow well and give high returns. Hence,such lands can be reserved for establishing fruit orchards, if farmers are not intending togrow arable crops of high value. Medium quality soils with moisture stress, not suitable forfruit crops can be used for growing round wood, soft wood or ply wood. Soils of slightlyinferior quality can be used for pulp and paper wood. Soils of low fertility with moisturestress, not suitable for above types of species can be used for establishing fuelwood plantation.

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There are shallow soils with moisture stress, where it is extremely difficult for tree speciesto survive. Such soils can be used for growing fodder shrubs and grasses. Thus, soilproductivity and profitability of different tree species should be taken into consideration,while making final selection of tree species for growing on private lands.Strategy for Solving Fuelwood CrisisFrom various studies, it is clear that establishment of tree plantations for fuelwood andfodder is neither economically viable nor attractive to farmers for cultivation, particularlywhen they have other options. Further, there is no scope for selling fuelwood at a higherprice, firstly, because most of the poor who are dependent on fuelwood for cooking, try tofetch it from public properties, free of cost. Secondly, they do not have the purchasingpower to buy at higher prices. Therefore, in the absence of easy supply of fuelwood at anaffordable price, pressure on community lands and forests will further increase, resultingin further denudation of the natural resources. To reduce this problem, the followingalternatives need to be considered.Promotion of Commercial PlantationIn a forestry plantation for industrial raw materials and round timber, only about 40-50%wood is used for timber or industrial raw material and the rest is used as fuelwood. If thecommunity forestry programme can promote commercial plantations to meet the annualdemand of 65-70 m3 of wood, these plantations can also meet 25% of the demand forfuelwood. As the returns from commercial wood are very attractive, tree growers can affordto sell the leftover fuelwood as by-product at a lower price. Thus, the poor can be benefitted.Local grasses which grow in abundance in a well managed plantation can be cut and carriedto feed the stall-fed livestock.Mixed PlantationsIntroduction of fuelwood species in a mixed stand with fruit, timber and commercial treespecies is feasible. Species like teak, mango, cashew, neem, etc. need wider spacing but theinterspace remains idle for about 8-10 years, till trees attain normal size. It is possible toestablish fuelwood species of short gestation between these trees and harvest them in 3-5 years. Selection of nitrogen-fixing tree species which are known for high calorific valuecan further benefit farmers by nursing the main tree species through soil enrichment. Thisstrategy can further boost the fuelwood production. Fodder cum fuelwood species likeleucaenea, gliricidia, sesbania, acacia and albizia are ideal for establishing a mixed stand.Non-browsing tree species such as Australian acacia, kashid and casuarina are also usefulas fuelwood species for planting on bunds and borders in fruit orchards.Simultaneously, wood saving devices and alternate energy sources such as biogasplants, improved wood stoves, processing of biomass to improve the burning efficiencyand solar cookers should be promoted.Trees under Agroforestry SystemWith depletion of agricultural lands and lack of irrigation facilities, agriculture in arid andsemiarid regions is becoming uneconomical. Agroforestry provides a viable solution for

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such problems. Under this system, woody perennials are introduced in the agricultural fieldwithout hampering arable crop production. Trees serve as wind breaks, source of organicmatter, shade and soil binder to prevent soil erosion while generating additional income.Depending on the fertility and depth of soil and moisture availability, different tree speciescan be introduced. In areas receiving more than 800 mm annual rainfall, it is possible tointroduce various fruit crops while planting multipurpose tree species on field bunds andborders. The interspace can be used for cultivation of food crops for 8-10 years, till thetrees spread widely in the field.Establishing shelterbelts by planting tall growing trees on field bunds is very popularin India. Popular species used under shelterbelt planting are eucalyptus, poplars, casuarina,bamboo, acacia, dalbergia, leucaena, Silver oak, sesbania, gliricidia, melia, etc. To avoidadverse effects of these trees on agricultural crops, regular pruning of side branches andlateral roots will be helpful. These trees will be ready for harvest as poles, while contributingfoliage and twigs for fodder, fuel and green manure. Shelterbelt plantations are profitablewhere farmers have fertile lands with irrigation facilities, with 200-300% cropping intensitylike in Punjab, Haryana and Terai regions of Northern India.Many farmers, particularly large land holders and absentee landlords, have beencultivating eucalyptus as a monocrop in non-irrigated areas, where very little care is neededafter establishment. In a few districts of Andhra Pradesh, leucaena is cultivated as a solecrop and harvested at an interval of 3-5 years for pulp wood. This system is becomingpopular as the local paper mills are offering a remunerative price, apart from arranging toharvest and transport wood from the field. Such buy back support is needed to expand treeplantations on a large scale.The Wadi programme promoted by BAIF Development Research Foundation isanother good model for promoting trees on degraded private lands particularly in hillyterrains. Under this programme, 0.4 ha land owned by each family is being developed underagri-horti-forestry system. The agricultural crops grown as intercrops between the fruittrees start generating income from the first year itself, while fruit trees start bearing fruitsafter 4-6 years. Large numbers of less known species of fruits, nuts and multipurposeplants are planted on the boundary and bunds to meet various household needs, whileprotecting the orchard. These orchards provide gainful employment all round the year,while improving the ecosystem of the location and income of the land owners.Bio-diesel Plantation is a wave to promote non-edible oil tree plantations in the country.Major oil seed trees in the country are neem, mahua (Madhuca indica and Madhucalongifolia), pongamia (Derris indica), undi (Calophyllum inophyllum) and jatropha (Jatrophacurcus). Among these, jatropha and pongamia have received wider publicity. The Governmentof India has launched a massive extension programme to promote jatropha cultivation, byprojecting very high returns and providing partial financial support for establishing theplantation. The programme with good publicity, was launched to cover a larger area. However,the programme faded away as the farmers realized that they were not receiving theanticipated returns. This is an excellent example of how the programme can receive asevere setback if the anticipated benefits are not accrued. Pongamia cultivation is also notwell accepted by farmers due to lack of precise information about the yield and incomes,

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although it has several other benefits such as tolerance to drought, ability to prevent soilerosion, source of woody biomass, green manure, bio-pesticides and better micro-climate.Species such as mahua, neem and pongamia are excellent for planting on community lands,village forest lands and along roads.Trees with Religious SentimentsTrees have religious and sentimental values. In ancient Hindu scriptures, uses of manytrees for different purposes and their placement in home gardens have been very welldescribed. Establishment of tree groves around the community temples with a wide rangeof tree species is also a traditional custom. These groves known as sacred groves, with awide range of naturally grown and introduced trees and shrubs, are protected with respectby the community. Many species of ficus and acacia are also considered holy trees andpeople generally do not cut them. However, they do not want to plant a large number ofsuch species unless they find some tangible benefits.Trees for BeautificationEconomics and tangible benefits are the primary considerations for selecting tree speciesby farmers. Trees are also planted for beautification, to improve the micro-climate, arrestsoil erosion and many other functions. Trees provide an excellent ambience to the site,either residential or work areas. Trees absorb carbon dioxide, thereby reducing the harmfuleffects of air pollution. Thus, trees act as lungs of our cities to purify air and keep thesurroundings cool, healthy and beautiful. Selection of suitable tree species will enhance theaesthetic value and beauty of the surroundings. The selection of species for various locationsdepends on the size, height and root system. A strong and deep root system ensures betterestablishment and prevents uprooting by wind.Tall growing trees with wide branches to provide shade, such as mahogany, rain tree,ficus and rubber tree can be planted to bring the open area under tree groves. For the outerborder of the campus, tall growing tree species may be planted. Along the internal roads onthe campus, trees of small size, preferably with colorful and fragrant flowers may be planted.There are smaller flowering herbs which do not cause any damage to the buildings whenplanted close to the buildings. Plants like bamboo, bottle brush and weeping willow can beplanted along lakes and canals. Apart from plants of small and large size trees, a wide rangeof creepers with colorful and fragrant flowers can also be introduced. Thorny hedges maybe avoided, except for fencing as they require regular pruning.Different tree species which can be selected for planting in Tropical gardens arepresented in Annexure I.ConclusionWhile promoting tree planting on private lands, the preference of farmers should beconsidered. Tree species to be selected should be based on the quality of land, availabilityof moisture, suitability of climate, growth rate, gestation period, profitability and for fulfillingother specific objectives. While most of the farmers consider profitability as the primaryconsideration, beautification, conservation and improving micro-climatic are the otherconsiderations. For the success of any afforestation programme on private lands, income

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being the primary consideration, arrangements should be made for backward and forwardlinkages. The extension programme to promote afforestation should be based on well testedtechnical and economic data to guide the farmers and general public in the right direction.ReferencesAnonymous. 1989. Indigenous greens become active again. Hindu, Madras. SeptemberDeshpande, R.S.V. Ratna Reddy and P. Borse. 1990. Resurrection of Institutionalism: A tradeoff between social and farm forestry. Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Pune(Unpublished) 17 pp.GOI. 1989 B. Developing India’s Wastelands. Ministry of Environment and Forests, NewDelhi: 82 pp.Gupta, J. 1990. Some socio-economic and management aspects of farm forestry. In Studieson Social Forestry in India. Edited by P.M. Shingi. RAPA Publication 199/1. FAO, Bangkokand IIM, Ahmedabad: 97–103.Hall, D.O. and P.J. de Groot. 1985. Biomass for fuel and food. Paper presented at the WorldResources Institute Symposium on Biomass Energy System Building blocks for sustainableagriculture, Virginia, USA: 158 pp.Hegde, N.G. 1987. Scope for increasing the profitability of social forestry programme. InSocial Forestry for Rural Development. Ed. By P.K. Khosala and R.K. Kohli. Indian Society ofTree Scientists, Solan: 68-85.Hegde, N.G. 1991. Impact of Afforestation Programme on Socio-economic transformation ofthe Rural Poor. Ph.D. Thesis, Pune University, Pune: 299 pp.Muranjan, S.W. 1987. Management of Social Forestry in Maharashtra. Gokhale Institute ofPolitics and Economics, Pune: 199 pp.NCAER. 1988. A review of social forestry projects and programmes in selected states inIndia. National Council of Applied Eco. Research. New Delhi: 71 pp. Sathe, P.G. 1990. Asystem research approach for social forestry in Maharashtra. Report prepared for USAIDand Government of Maharashtra, Pune: 98 pp.Saxena, N.C. 1988. Wastelands development for rural needs. Some policy issues. InWastelands development for fuelwood and other rural needs. Regional Wood EnergyDevelopment Programme in Asia. Field Document No. 19. FAO, Bangkok: 149 – 166.Saxena, N.C. 1989. Development of degraded village lands in India. Experiences and Prospects.GCP/RAS/111/NET. Field Document No.15. FAO, RWEDP, Bangkok : 55 pp.Shingi, P.M. 1988. Status and prospects for forestry extension in India: An introduction topapers. In Planning Forestry Extension Programmes – India. Edited by P.M. Shingi and C.P.Veer. IIM, Ahmedabad, RWEDP, FAO, Bangkok: 1-8.Singh, G. 1985. Impact of social forestry project on locals – A Case study in Badaun DivisionU.P. Centre for Management in Agriculture, Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.Singh, G. 1990. Impact of social forestry project – A case study in Badaun Division. InStudies on Social Forestry in India. RAPA Publication 1990/1. Edited: P.M. Shingi. FAO,Bangkok and IIM, Ahmedabad: 195-208.

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Annexure ITree Species of Gardens1. For Outer Border

l Silver Oak (Grevillea robusta)l Ashoka, drooping variety (Polyalthia pendula)l Cork tree (Millingtonia hortensis)l Copper pod (Peltophorum pterocarpum)l Spethodia (Spathodea companulata)l Bamboos (Dendrocalamus strictus)l African Mahogany (Khaya senegalensis) / Indian Mahogany (Swietenia mahagoni)l Shishum (Dalbergia sissoo)l White siris (Albizia procera)l Casuarina (Casuarina equisetifolia)l Bengali babul (Acacia arabica) or Australian babul (Acacia auriculiformis)2. Along Road sidesl Pink cassia (Cassia javanica)l Amaltas, local name - Bahava (Cassia fistula)l Gulmohar (Delonix regia)l Champa (Michelia champaca)l Bakul (Mimusops elengi)l Jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia)l Plumeria (Plumeria alba)3. Around Lakes / Canalsl Bottle brush (Callistemon viminalis)l Thin thornless bamboos (Bambusa nutans)l Kanchan (Bauhinia purpurea)4. For Groves in vacant spacel Raintree (Samania saman)l Ficus (Ficus benjamina, Ficus religiosa, Ficus indica)l Mahogany (Swientenia macrophylla)l Fern tree (Filicium decipiens)5. In Front of Buildingsl Hibiscus (Hibiscus sabdariffa)l Plumeria (Plumeria obtuse)l Champa (Michelia champaca)l Bakul (Mimusops elengi)l Kanchan (Bauhinia purpurea))l Powder puff – Calliandra ( Calliandra haematocephala)6. Creepersl Passion flower (Passiflora incarnata)l Wood rose (Merremia tuberosa)l Almondal Ipomia - Magenta flowersl Jasmine (Jasminium officinalis)There are many other species, which fit into these categories. Based on the preference ofindividuals and availability of planting materials, these species can be selected.

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Forage Resource Development in India Paper presented at the IGFRI FoundationDay, November 2010. Pages. 1- 17.

Forage Resource Development in IndiaLivestock in Rural EconomyLivestock is a major source of livelihood security for the poor in most of the developingcountries. Apart from being an important source of human nutrition, livestock is also asource of crop nutrition, power for agricultural tillage and rural transportation and a valuableasset, which can be easily encased during emergencies. Livestock has a direct influence onagricultural production. A wide range of products generated from livestock enable farmersto diversity their sources of income and absorb risk. In arid and semi-arid regions, livestockis the only source of livelihood, particularly when agriculture fails to withstand the drought.In India where over 75% farmers are small and marginal holders, livestock is the mainsource of livelihood for a majority of the rural population. The contribution of livestock tothe National GDP is about 9% and 25%to agricultural GDP. Livestock have been contributingabout 15-20% to the household income of farmers, which has been steadily increasingduring recent years. Among different products, milk is the major output contributing to theGDP as well as to food security. In fact, the contribution of milk to GDP (5.86%) is more thanthe contribution of rice (5.77%). The demand for milk will further increase by 80% by theyear 2022. Demand for meat is also likely to increase by several folds.India has the largest number of livestock, representing over 17% of the worldpopulation. The status of livestock population and their contribution to milk production arepresented in Table 1. Among four important species of livestock, cattle represent over 43%of the population followed by buffaloes (19%), goats (26%) and sheep (10%). While cattleand buffaloes are maintained for milk and animal power, sheep and goat are maintainedmainly for meat, with milk and wool as secondary sources of income. Cattle and buffaloes,which are considered as milch animals, are large in size, partly stall fed and require substantialquantity of feed and fodder for economic management. However, in case of sheep and goats,most of the population is maintained exclusively on free grazing, although supplementaryfeeding can significantly benefit their growth, production and reproduction. Farmers inhumid and irrigated areas prefer cows and buffaloes, while sheep and goats are popular inarid and semi-arid regions. In recent years, with greater awareness about geneticimprovement and good feeding practices, cattle and buffaloes are also becoming popular insemi-arid regions as a primary source of livelihood for small and poor farmers. During thelast two decades, studies in drought prone, distressed districts of Maharashtra, Karnataka

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and Andhra Pradesh have revealed that the incidences of farmers committing suicide weremostly confined to families exclusively dependent on rain fed agriculture, while rural familiesdependent partly or fully on dairy husbandry for their livelihood were able to face the stresssuccessfully. Thus livestock is an important and integral part of Indian agriculture andrural economy.Table 1. Growth of Livestock Population and Milk Yield in India

Year 2006-07 2021-22Type of Population Production Wet Population Production WetAnimals (m) (mt) Average (m) (mt) Average(kg/day) (kg/day)Indigenous 28.158 20.263 1.98 31.264 26.248 2.28Crossbred 7.580 18.682 6.75 12.347 44.703 7.98Buffalo 32.864 53.986 4.50 40.061 97.789 5.94Goat — 4.073 — — 6.512 —Total 68.602 97.004 83.672 175.252Source: Hegde (2006)In spite of the importance of livestock in Indian rural economy in generating sustainablelivelihood for small farmers and meeting the growing demand for milk and meat, theproductivity of our livestock has been extremely poor. While the average milk yield of cattlein the world and Europe is 2038 kg and 4250 kg/lactation respectively, the average milkyield of Indian cattle is only 990 kg. Among the cattle, there are 28 million indigenous cowswhose wet average is only around 2 kg/day whereas there are 7.6 million crossbred cowswhose wet average is 6.75 kg/day (Table 1). Most of the indigenous cattle are non-descriptdue to heavy genetic erosion, resulting in low milk production. Such low yielders beinguneconomical, the owners neither bother to feed them well nor provide necessary healthcare, resulting in further loss of production. This is a vicious cycle and in the absence of anefficient development programme, livestock, an important asset for generation of gainfulself-employment, will continue to serve as a liability.The economic viability of livestock husbandry is dependent on the genetic potentialfor production, good health care, balanced feeding of animals and efficient marketing of theproduce. While genetic improvement and health care are the prerequisites for sustainability,efficient feeding and marketing will help in increasing the profitability. However, theprofitability is directly dependent on the sources of feed and fodder, as about 65-70% of thetotal cost of livestock farming is attributed to feeding. Any saving in feed and fodder costwould directly contribute to increase in profitability. Balanced feeding of milch animals ismore critical, as the results are reflected within a short span, almost immediately, in theform of milk production. In case of growing stock, bullocks, sheep and goats, quality of feedwill reflect on the growth rate, body weight and fertility, which are often unnoticed by theowners. Hence feeding of milch animals has greater significance for farmers, although feedmanagement for other species is equally important.It can be observed from the population growth of different species of livestock thatover the last 3-4 decades, there has been a steady increase in the growth of goat population

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as compared to that of large animals. With the increasing pressure on forage supply, poorbreeding and health care services, small farmers are shifting from large animals to small,hardy species like goats, while intensifying their dependence on community resources forfree grazing. The gradual shift from larger animals to smaller animals is a natural processto overcome the impact of stress and scarcity. Although, the economics of stall feeding ofsheep and goats is negative, farmers continue to expand their herd and exploit communitypastures and forest resources to feed their livestock. As the availability of fodder for theseanimals will have a direct influence on the growth rate and performance, continued neglectof community pastures and development of feed resources will soon reflect on theperformance of these small ruminants as well, while accelerating the pressure on villagecommon property resources. There is no shortcut to sustain livestock husbandry, withoutaddressing the development of fodder and feed resources.Lack of support services to improve the productivity of large animals was also animportant reason for small farmers to opt for small ruminants. However with the scientificbreed improvement of non-descript low yielding cattle, the economics of dairy cattledevelopment could be significantly better. In the semi-arid tracts of Rajasthan, where BAIFpromoted cattle development programme in the early 80’s, a large number of small farmers,owning non-descript cattle were motivated to avail of the breeding services. The initialattraction which motivated farmers to take part in cattle development was the supportreceived from the District Rural Development Agency who diverted the ongoing schemesof the Animal Husbandry Department to support the cattle owners participating in thisprogramme. The families living below the poverty line (BPL) were given concentrate at50% cost to rear newly born female calves for 28 months. Community pastures weredeveloped to enhance fodder production. Fodder minikits were provided to cultivate goodquality fodder on their own lands. Preventive vaccinations and timely veterinary care wereprovided to ensure good health. Thus healthy animals were produced even by the poor,which yielded over 3000-3500 kg milk/lactation. These animals were worth `30,000 to`35,000 and farmers from other regions started coming to buy these premier cows. Thismotivated farmers in the entire region to adopt dairy husbandry as a reliable activity forearning sustainable livelihood. Over the last two decades, dairy husbandry has turned out tobe the most reliable and primary source of livelihood for rural families living in rainedareas. This is a clear indication that we have not made serious efforts to tap the potentialof livestock in the country.In spite of its importance in rural economy, livestock by tradition has been consideredas an integral part of rural livelihood and not as an enterprise to generate income. Livestockwere maintained as a source of nutritional security, both food and manure, but not togenerate cash income. This is the reason why in many parts of North India, farmers wereinitially hesitant to make any investment on their non-descript cattle either on breeding oron feeding. When BAIF promoted cattle development programme in UP in the 80’s, thefarmers were not prepared to avail the services provided at their doorsteps, even free ofcost. When asked about the reasons, they mentioned that ‘selling of cow’s milk was a sin.It is as good as selling children. So what can we do with the surplus milk produced bymaking special efforts?’ This custom was introduced long ago probably to ensure that the

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growing children were fed with milk. It was a custom to ensure nutritional security, butbecame a hurdle while promoting dairy husbandry as an economic development activity. Ittook a few years to understand their mind set and to convince them to change their attitudeto take active part in cattle development. There was a need to create awareness and demystifythe technologies before promoting cattle development as a source of sustainable livelihood.It is only then that the livestock owners could realize the need for producing better qualityforage for enhancing their income.Over the years, particularly during the last two decades, there have been significantchanges in the animal husbandry sector to improve milk production. However the effortswere not adequate to provide the required boost for enhancing the productivity. Therewere many players involved in livestock development in the country. Each of them had aspecific agenda, although the overall goal was to benefit the livestock keepers. In the absenceof effective coordination, there have been duplication and missing gaps, which hamperedthe progress. Among these players, very few were concerned with the development of feedresources, although feed is the most crucial input for enhancing the production. As thevalue of the milk is more than the value of paddy produced in the country, it was expectedthat adequate investments on research and development of forage and feeds were made.However forage research could not attract the attention of the policy makers. In the absenceof good breeding and support services, even the available forage resources could not findremunerative price. Thus forage and feed development should be considered as an integralaspect of the dairy and meat value chain for ensuring success.Forage Production for Improving the ProfitabilityThe economics of milk production is heavily dependent on the quantity of nutritious foragefed to milch animals. With feeding of good quality forage, particularly leguminous fodder,feeding of concentrate can be reduced significantly. Animals yielding up to 5-8 kg milk/daycan be maintained exclusively on 48-55 kg lucerne or berseem greens, as a substitute for4.5 to 5.0 kg concentrate. However, there are not many dairy animals, having genetic potentialto produce high milk yield, by efficiently converting the fodder. With regard to inferiorquality animals, inspite of feeding good quality fodder, the milk yield remains low and thefarmers find it uneconomical to feed such animals. As there are no opportunities to sellsurplus fodder in local markets, farmers are reluctant to cultivate fodder exclusively on fertileagricultural lands, without owning high yielding animals. Therefore it can be said that,although the promotion of forage production is a critical factor, which has a direct influenceon the livestock industry, forage cultivation is closely linked to the productivity of livestockand the available critical veterinary support services.The fodder supply situation in India is extremely precarious and the gap is very wide(Table 2). During the year 2005-06, against the demand for 123 million tons of concentrate,only 45 million tons were available, while the green fodder supply was adequate to meetonly 42% of the demand. Even the dry fodder supply was barely adequate to meet 80% ofthe demand. The chronic shortage of feed and fodder resources during the last few decadesindicates that most of the livestock were underfed. The shortage was severe in the Easternregion, as compared to other regions.

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Table 2: Feed and Fodder Availability and Requirement in India (2005-06)Feed Requirement (mt) Availability (mt) Shortfall (%)Concentrate 123 45 63.41Green Fodder 1025 390 61.95Dry Fodder 570 443 22.28Source: Hegde (2006)Such shortage of feed and fodder resources could be attributed to the growing livestockpopulation, low productivity and less emphasis on forage cultivation by the livestock owners.It is estimated that out of 500 million heads of livestock, 57 million cattle and 39 millionbuffaloes fall in the category of milch animals. Among cows, there are about 7.5 millioncrossbreds with an average milk yield of 6.5 to 7.0 kg/day. The average yield of buffaloesis around 4.0 kg/day, while the indigenous cows yield only about 1.0 kg/day. Because of lowproductivity, the owners are not keen to feed their low productive animals. As a result,there is no demand for fodder, although the present supply is able to meet only about 40%of the actual requirement.Table 3 indicates the sources of fodder for feeding our livestock. It can be observedthat 54% of the total fodder is met from crop residues, while 18% fodder is met fromgrasslands and only 28% fodder is met from cultivated fodder crops. Prominent among thecrop residues were paddy straw, wheat straw, stalks of sorghum, maize, pearl millet,groundnut, beans and grams. Although these crop reduces were considered as very valuableby the livestock keepers, there have been a lot of wastage in different parts of the country.In urban areas, particularly around Hyderabad and Bangalore, dairy animal ownerspurchased chaffed sorghum stalk even at a price of `5500 to `6500/ton. Even wheat strawwas sold in the range of `2000 and `3000/ton, while paddy straw was sold at `1500 to`2000/ton. However in many regions of Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh, farmers havebeen burning these crop residues, because of lack of demand in local markets. Some ofthese crop residues have also been diverted for industrial uses such as paper and particleboards as well as for generation of electricity. Generally, crop residues such as fodder wouldfetch better price than industrial raw material. Nevertheless, if farmers are selling cropresidues at a lower price, it is clear that there is no demand for fodder in certain agriculture-rich areas, while certain other regions are facing fodder shortage. This reflects on the needfor developing necessary infrastructure to make best use of the available fodder resources,while aiming at enhancing the production further.Table 3. Sources of Fodder in India

Sources QuantityCrop Residues 54%Cultivated fodder 28%Grasslands 18%Source: Hegde (2006)

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The studies undertaken to analyse dairy development in India also confirm that breedimprovement is the most critical factor to improve the milk yield of cows and buffaloes inIndia. Same is true for other species of livestock. It is only with improved livestock that theowners will have an urge to feed good quality fodder. The improved animals respond wellto the feeding of better quality feeds and forages, while the benefits of feeding low productivelivestock are marginal. Hence farmers owning inferior quality livestock do not feed themproperly, while letting them out for free grazing. As underfeeding has no immediate impacton the production, most of the livestock owners are not concerned about the shortage offeed resources. This aspect has to be kept in mind while developing a suitable strategy forgiving a boost to livestock husbandry through better forage and feed management.Constraints for Forage ProductionIn the earlier section, the present scenario of severe shortage of fodder on one side andneglect of available resources in the absence of better quality livestock on the other sidewas highlighted. However the time has come to take a close look at the micro level, wherefarmers are making investments in maintaining better quality animals to pursue dairyhusbandry as an income generation activity. For these farmers, procuring good qualityfodder is a major challenge. While majority of them are small holders, who are unable to usetheir holdings for fodder cultivation, for others, cultivation is a loss of opportunity to earnhigher income by cultivating other high value cash crops. Over 90% farmers being marginal(69.4%) and small holders (21.75%) owning over 90-95% livestock, are not able to devotetheir small holdings for cultivation of fodder crops, as their priority is to produce foodgrains. Non-availability of critical inputs such as good quality seeds required for cultivatingtraditional fodder crops is another problem. Thus the area under fodder cultivation hasremained stagnant for a long period. Presently it is estimated that only 4.4% of the totalcropped area is devoted to fodder production. This area has remained almost static since2-3 decades and there is very little scope for increasing the area under fodder productiondue to the pressure on land holding to divert the area for other uses.In a forage production study undertaken in the dairy belt of Western Maharashtra, itwas observed that in rainfed areas, the farmers practiced controlled grazing on communitylands or in the forest areas around their village during the kharif season. After the harvestof the kharif crop, these animals were let out for free grazing on agricultural fields. Howeverhigh yielding crossbred cows and buffaloes were stallfeed by most of the farmers. In irrigatedareas, there were severe restrictions on free grazing and farmers were compelled to stallfeedor get rid of their unproductive animals. Among these livestock owners, only about 2%were cultivating fodder crops. Those who had cultivated fodder had good quality crossbredcows and buffaloes and were engaged in selling surplus milk. Dairy farming was an incomegeneration activity for them and feeding green fodder could enhance milk yield and reducethe cost of milk production, by reducing the quantity of concentrate fed to these animals.The other category of farmers, who cultivated fodder, had good quality bullocks, whichneeded either concentrate or green fodder during their peak working seasons. Farmers ofboth these categories grew fodder to reduce the purchase of concentrate feed withoutaffecting the productivity of their livestock (Hegde, 1991). In the absence of superior quality

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livestock, farmers are reluctant to grow fodder crops as they can divert their precious landresources for cultivating many other cash crops which can provide much higher returns.Thus it is essential to promote fodder development as part of the dairy or meat value chain,to ensure proper forward and backward integration required to optimize the productionand profitability of livestock industry.The major fodder crops cultivated in India are sorghum, maize, bajra, oats, hybridNapier, Guinea grass, paragrass, lucerne, berseem, cowpea, velvet bean and others. Amongthese crops, sorghum, maize, oats, lucerne and berseem are more popular because of easyavailability of seeds of improved varieties and well developed technology to increase theforage yield and quality. However these crops require good quality land, assured source ofwater, higher doses of fertilizers and regular care, apart from good quality seeds fromreliable sources. Cultivation of forage and regular harvesting almost on a daily basis, demandsa large number of workforce which is very expensive. In the absence of efficient preservationand storage techniques, chances of huge wastage of fodder are likely. Hence farmers arereluctant to make heavy investments on fodder production.While fertile lands with assured irrigation are diverted for growing high value crops,large stretches of marginal and wastelands are lying underutilised across the country. Thereare also opportunities to introduce fodder as an intercrop or as a soil binder under thewatershed development programme. Most of the fodder varieties presently released forcultivation, are not the most ideal for cultivation on such low productive lands. Identificationof suitable fodder species for such areas and developing suitable cultivation practices arenecessary to boost fodder production on marginal and wastelands in the future.Strategy for increasing Forage ProductionWhile improving the forage resources, it is necessary to address the opportunities relatedto production and efficient use crop residues, increasing the fodder yield of cultivated foddercrops on agricultural lands as well as on wastelands and community pastures. The strategyshould cover selection and breeding of high yielding and stress tolerant fodder crops andvarieties, improving the yields through sustainable production practices, efficientconservation and strengthening the value chain of dairy and meat producers to providevarious critical services required to optimize the income.Efficient Use of Crop ResiduesAlthough about 54% of the fodder needs are met from various crop residues, no seriousefforts are presently made to either increase the yield or quality of this fodder. During theera of Green Revolution, deliberate attempts were made by plant breeders and agronomiststo release high yielding varieties by reducing the plant height, leafy biomass and stalk yield.Such a plant breeding policy seriously suppressed the fodder yield. However these varietieswere very well accepted as the food grains fetched higher price, while the crop residueshad no significant value, due to low productivity of livestock. Unable to appreciate the value,farmers in many regions have been wasting the crop residues, either by feeding the stalkwithout processing or by burning. Subsequently, with the development of dairy husbandryparticularly in peri-urban areas, crop residues are now in good demand. During the last 5

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years, the retail price of sorghum stalk has been almost 50% of the value of sorghum grain.With such demand, farmers have started shifting back to the old varieties with higher stalkyield. Similar demand for high stalk yielding varieties has now set a new direction forbreeding and selection of new varieties, which have higher fodder quality and yield, withoutany reduction in grain yield. This calls for setting a new mandate for plant breeders as wellas agronomists to popularize forage-rich food crops in the future. Selection of new genotypesand varieties of food crops having high forage value without reduction in food grain yield,is a continuous process which can be a joint mandate for Forage Research Institutions atthe National level in collaboration with plant breeders and agronomists engaged in breedingof food crops. Further efforts are needed for popularization of the selected varieties toreplace the old varieties.Timely harvesting of crop residues, proper processing and storage can also enhancethe quality of the forage and prevent wastage. Harvesting of stalk before it turns fibrous fordirect feeding or converting into silage, can keep the nutritive value high while reducingmethane generation by the ruminants. There are various methods of treating the cropresidues before feeding, to improve its nutritional value. It has been reported that evenchaffing of stalk before feeding, can reduce the emission of methane by 10% while savingthe wastage by 25-30%. Further treatment of crop residues by way of soaking in water andtreating with steam under pressure, can also improve the nutritive value and palatability.There are other methods like urea treatment in addition to molasses and physico-chemicalmethods like urea ammonization, by storing the urea treated straw in anaerobic conditionwhich can further improve the quality.Wastage of crop residues by way of burning and diverting its uses for industrialpurposes or power generation should also be prevented on priority. The important reasonfor such wastage can be attributed to forage surplus conditions in certain pockets, particularlyin areas where green revolution was launched successfully. Farmers in these areas take 2-3 crops in a year and they have very little time available between two crops. Furthermore,the cost of labour being high, these farmers have no interest in diverting their energy toprocess and store the crop residues till they complete the sowing of the next crop. Lack ofspace, hazards of fire and damage caused by rains are other factors influencing the farmersto dispose off the crop residues as early as possible. The easier option for them is to eitherburn or sells it off to local buyer irrespective of any price realization. To avoid such practices,it is necessary to set up fodder banks in fodder surplus areas and process into compact feedblocks either directly or in addition to concentrates and minerals. Such blocks can be easilytransported to different parts of the country which are facing fodder shortage. Shortage offodder is often a temporary problem which is not confined to any particular region. Theshortage arises either due to crop failures or due to natural calamities like floods anddroughts which are unpredictable and not location-specific. Hence fodder banks establishedin fodder surplus areas need to keep a watch and look out for opportunities to supply toregions facing seasonal shortage.Establishment of a complete feed production unit can also enhance the demand forfodder, as assured supply of complete feed at an affordable price can motivate a large numberof small farmers to expand their livestock development activities as a reliable source of

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livelihood. To operationalise such decentralized feed production units on an economicallyviable scale, the units can be operated by local livestock keeper groups who have a majorstake in procurement, distribution and its viability.Fodder Crops for WastelandsConsidering the limitations of traditionally cultivated fodder crops, it is necessary to introducevarious non-traditional fodder crops for growing on marginally productive farms and denudedcommunity lands. There are many hardy grasses and legumes like stylo, seratro, hedgelucerne, etc. which can be grown on wastelands without irrigation. There are many fastgrowing shrubs and trees which can be lopped regularly as fodder. Such tree species can beestablished on field bunds, home gardens and along farm boundaries.There are large stretches of degraded wastelands which are not only lying idle and areunderutilised but are also accelerating soil erosion, surface run off of rain water and hostinga wide range of pests and diseases. It is estimated that over 100 million ha in the countryare presently underutilised. These lands include over 25-30 million ha of degraded forestlands, 45-50 million ha of agricultural lands unsuitable of crop production, 9-10 million hasodic wastelands while the rest are ravines, pasture lands and revenue wastelands.Development of these lands for forage production will not only ensure enhanced supply ofsuperior quality forage but also help in conserving the natural resources and rechargingground water, while improving the bio-diversity.Watershed development programmes in the country can also provide an excellentopportunity for promoting fodder production. In the watershed development programmesimplemented by BAIF in Saurashtra region of Gujarat and several districts in Karnataka, theimmediate impact was the regeneration of various native grass species on field bunds andborders. Neither the implementing field staff nor the farmers anticipated any such increasein the grass production. However after realizing this potential, seeds of hardy legumeswere sown on field bunds, along water channels and on barren lands to enhance forageproduction while promoting soil and water conservation.While developing wastelands through agroforestry, there is scope for promoting foragelegumes and grasses. In the agri-horti-forestry projects promoted by BAIF in South Gujarat,Rajasthan and Karnataka, the fertility of the lands was extremely poor. Such lands weredeveloped for cultivating hardy, drought tolerant horticultural species such as mango, cashew,custard apple, tamarind, Indian gooseberry, etc. The bunds and borders of these plots wereused for growing fodder and fuel tree species like subabul, gliricidia, acacia, sesbania, etc.Most of the farmers found these species to be reliable sources of fodder, particularly duringsummer and monsoon, when other sources of green fodder were absent. The interspacebetween fruit plants was used for either food crop production or forage production,depending on soil productivity and moisture supply. In case the soil productivity was low,farmers preferred to grow fodder instead of growing agricultural crops and maintain somecows or buffaloes to boost their income further.Development of community pastures is another excellent opportunity. Generally, about5% to 10% of the land area in every village is reserved for community pastures. However,a part of this land is encroached or diverted by the local government for other purposes.

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Nevertheless, a significant portion is still available for common grazing. Over the years, inthe absence of controlled grazing and care, the productivity of these community pastureshas been severely eroded. Such lands can be brought under silvipasture development involvinglocal people. In a project initiated by BAIF in Asind taluk of Bhilwara district in Rajasthan,the villagers came together to develop a part of the community land under silvipasturedevelopment. The major activities included the establishment of live hedges, gully plugging,contour bunding, sowing of forage seeds such as Cenchrus setigirus (Dhaman grass) andStylosanthus hamata (Stylo) before the onset of monsoon. Saplings of Acacia and Prosopiscinereria (Khejdi) were also planted and stray grazing was prohibited. Although the rainfallwas only 650 mm, the grass growth was fairly good, right in the first year. Apart fromcutting the grass, there was also an opportunity for farmers to let their animals for grazingfor a period of 15-20 days after cutting the grass. During subsequent years, the grass coverincreased and yielded about 3.5 – 4.0 tons of dry fodder/ha. In addition to increased grassproduction, there was a positive improvement in the micro-climate and bio-diversity.There is a need to develop suitable fodder shrubs, trees and grasses for developmentof pasture lands. Fodder species for introduction under agroforestry need to be shade tolerantand resistant to pests and diseases. Establishment of leguminous shrubs particularly infruit orchards can even enhance the fruit production. It is now time to set priority to breedimproved varieties of various non-traditional fodder crops suitable for watersheds andwastelands. While breeding these varieties, major consideration should be given to toleranceto drought and harsh soil conditions instead of judging on the basis of their yieldperformance. Seed production of elite genotypes should also be taken up on a large scale tomeet the demand.Increasing Forage YieldsDairy farmers who have undertaken forage production are not able to optimize the yieldsand maximise the returns due to several reasons. These include poor quality soils, inadequatefertilizer application, moisture scarcity, improper timing of sowing and inadequate facilitiesto transport and store the forage, till it is fed to livestock. Selection of suitable forage cropsto suit the local agro-climatic conditions, non-availability of good quality certified seeds,lack of knowledge about cultivation practices and lack of marketing opportunities to sellthe surplus forage at remunerative prices are also important problems, contributing to thepoor response to forage production. Except for a few crops like sorghum, maize, lucerneand berseem, which are cultivated in a few isolated pockets in different regions, most ofthe farmers are not aware of other forage crops, which have special advantages underadverse agro-climatic conditions.Resource poor farmers often cultivate forage on low productive soils to make use ofthe idle land and do not apply the required quantity of nutrients. Such farmers have severaloptions to boost crop yields by applying low cost inputs such as soil amendments, organicmanure and biofertilisers. Unfortunately, most of them do not bother to apply biofertilisersand soil amendments due to their ignorance and difficulty in procuring them. This problemcan be attributed to lack of an organized set up for extension, distribution of forage seedsand other inputs in the country. Serious thought should be given for developing a forageseed distribution network, at least in selected pockets where dairy husbandry has developed

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as an economic activity. There has also been a wide communication gap between the foragedevelopment programme and the livestock extension department. As a result, there is nofree flow of information from either side. A well established communication network wouldhelp the forage scientists to understand the problems of the dairy farmers and offer suitableinterventions.Improving ProfitabilityFarmers generally compare the economics of forage with other agricultural crops. Foragecultivation on agricultural lands is least attractive, unless they own superior quality livestock.Hence the return is mainly influenced by the quality of livestock. Thus efforts should bemade to promote fodder production in the areas where livestock husbandry is progressingwell and the productivity of animals is high. There is also a need for developing a foddermarket in the long run, where farmers can sell the surplus forage. A fair market can motivatethe farmers to study the price movement and cultivate fodder, if the prices realized areremunerative.Forage production, particularly the harvesting, requires larger labor force, which isnot available during certain critical seasons and is becoming expensive. It is particularlytrue for organized farms where unionized labors are inefficient and undependable. Henceit is necessary to develop suitable machinery for harvesting fodder, which can be operatedby multipurpose power tillers and tractors which can become popular among dairy farmers.Opportunities for preserving surplus forage into forage pallets, silage and hay, shouldalso be explored by developing suitable technologies. Presently, such processing is not verypopular due to high cost.Special Focus on Feeding of Small RuminantsMost of the sheep and goat keepers are generally small holders or landless, who cannotafford to keep cattle and buffaloes. While keeping small ruminants, the farmers do not planfor mobilizing the required feed resources. Instead, these animals are let out for free grazingor taken out to community pastures and village woodlots by one of the members of thefamily. In most cases, the sheep and goat keepers do not provide supplementary feed totheir livestock after they return from grazing. In areas where tree population on commonlands is dense, goat keepers bring lopped branches for supplementary feeding.To overcome the problem of fodder scarcity likely to be faced by pregnant goats,many goat keepers prefer to breed their goats during April-May to facilitate kidding inSeptember-October when adequate fodder is available for the lactating goats. However suchplans make no significant effect on the growth and productivity. Furthermore, duringsummer, when availability of forage is at the lowest level on community lands, the rate ofconception is also observed to be lower, due to nutritional deficiency. Small ruminant owners,particularly the goat keepers generally sell these animals as and when they need cash,except in case of a few special occasions such as Bakri Id and Durga Puja festivals, whenthe male goats are in demand for sacrifice. While goat keepers do take special efforts to feedtheir animals before these festival seasons, no efforts are made to fatten the goats intendedfor selling during other times. Some efforts to provide supplementary feeding to small

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ruminants during critical stages such as prior to breeding, during pregnancy, lactation andbefore selling would certainly help the goat keepers to realise better price. This can bedone through awareness about nutrition and balanced feeding, promotion of foragecultivation, particularly woody perennials around their houses, farm bunds and wastelands,collection of foliage and pods of different tree species from community lands, etc. Pods ofAcacia, Prosopis, Sesbania, Bahunia, Samania and Albizia are very nutritious and palatable.However it is better to collect and crush them before feeding. It is also possible to mix thecrushed pods with locally available biomass to process into complete feed. There are differenttypes of industrial by-products, particularly from the food and beverage industrieslocated in urban and peri-urban areas. Groups of goat keepers can tie up with theseindustries to collect the by-products for processing and feeding their animals. Such effortsto produce complete feed at the village level, preferably by the livestock owners, wouldgreatly help in enhancing their profitability.Need for Forage Based Development ResearchNo doubt, significant research has been carried out by the IGFRI, NDRI, AgriculturalUniversities, Forestry Research Institutions and Non-Government Organizations to identifysuitable forage crops, domesticate them, breed new varieties, develop cultivation practicesand develop facilities for large scale seed production. However there has not been anysignificant change in the status of forage supply in the country mainly because these researchfinding are applicable to only a few regions particularly for humid arid and sub humidconditions.Indeed, it is a matter of serious concern that forage production has not been pickingup on a massive scale, inspite of significant progress in dairy development. This calls for anin depth study, particularly in newly emerging milk sheds, to understand the mechanism tomeet the nutritional needs of milch animals. There is good scope to analyse current feedingpractices and help them to introduce balanced feeding, using the available fodder resources.As the supply of forage and feeds determine the profitability of livestock husbandryand livestock being the major source of livelihood for the rural poor, we need to set ourpriority to address the needs of small farmers by developing various forage productionsystems, suitable for arid lands. Unfortunately these target groups who own a major portionof the livestock are neither literate nor resourceful to demand new technologies. Keepingthis in mind, we need to interact with them to appraise their needs and develop suitabletechnologies and systems which can benefit them.So far, the research institutions have been involved in research and developmentwithout having direct linkage with the target communities. As a result, the scientists arenot able to understand the problems of the farmers and the farmers are not able to learnabout technologies available to them. The time has now come to take a fresh look at thepolicy to establish a vibrant communication between scientists and the target communitiesthrough the following initiatives:

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1. Establishment of field research units to promote on-farm studies and test thetechnologies under field conditions;2. Carrying out joint research studies in association with farmers’ organizations,voluntary agencies, State Agriculture and Animal Husbandry Developments and KrishiVigyan Kendras;3. Establishment of an Extension Division to collaborate with various farmers’organizations, VOs and Agricultural Training centers and participation in Kisan Melasand seminars to disseminate the technologies, while receiving their feedback regularly;4. Encourage forage scientists to participate in the value chain of dairy husbandry andmeat production to promote forage production for increasing the profitability.References1) Anonymous. 1997. Dairy India, Fifth Edition. New Delhi.2) Hegde N.G., 1991. Fodder Production: A case study. Yojana, Sept. 15: 27 – 29.3) Hegde N.G., 1998. Dairy Development for Poverty alleviation and Environmental protection.Integrated Rural Development for Sustainable Livelihood. BAIF, Pune: 33-39.4) Hegde N.G., 2006. Livestock Development for Sustainable Livelihood of Small Farmers.CLFMA Souvenir: 50-63.

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Gokhale S. B., 2010. Milk- A Life Line of India. Paper Presented at the International Conference onWorld Milk Culture, Paris, 6-7 may, 2010.

Milk - A Life Line of IndiaMilk is the normal mammary secretion derived from complete milking of healthy lactatingmammal without either addition thereto or extraction there from. Although milk is knownfrom the period when first mammal was born on the earth, awareness of its utilization bythe mankind grew as the domestication progressed and association between human andanimals became stronger. Milk occupies a special position among foods in being an animalfood that has a vegetarian connotation. Economically poorer countries in the world aremainly dependant on agriculture and the farming families solely deriving their living fromagriculture have their major share of income from animal maintenance and milk production.In India milk production has been known to be a stable income resource and thereforetraditionally milk and milk producing animals have been an integrated component of familywith small land holding. In the light of meagre income earned by these families, high fatmilk produced from buffaloes is often preferred to fulfill nutritional needs of the diet. Percapita milk availability presently is around 250 g/person/day; this, compared to otherdairy developed countries is low. Per capita milk availability among the states in the countryis found varying, lowest (less than 100 g/day/person) being in eastern states of the country(Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Assam, Tripura) while highest (more than 500 g/day/person) in Haryana and Punjab. The country being geographically very large, societies atvarying degree of development and recently many changes are being seen occurring in thescope and multiplicity of milk utility and its effect on the society. The subject of milk is verywide and all relevant deliberations are difficult to be dealt in one paper; an attempt thereforeis made in this paper to limit the discussion on some aspects of historical, socio-cultural,commercial and biodiversity aspects under Indian conditions.Historical aspectsAs in other parts of the world, milk integration in Indian subcontinent grew as humanculture developed along the rivers. One of the two old Indian epics, Mahabharata, mentionscattle-centric communities and kingdoms depending on animal and milk economy. LordKrishna belonging to this era-still worshipped and valued - represented community raisingcattle for milk production. Vedic literature classified milk giving cows, based on their natureand the type of milk they gave, in six categories (named Wilipti, Sutvasha, Vasha, Avasha,Bheema and Vashanaam Vashatama) and the distribution of milking animals to the membersin the society were done using this classification. The literature of the contemporary period

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mentions use of product called ‘Panchagavya’ incorporating different proportions of cowdung, milk, curd, ghee and water or cow urine and was advocated for health and well being.During the period of 3,000 year B.C. archeological evidence at Mohenjadaro and Hadappademonstrates Indus Valley civilizations and presence of cows as an important aspect in lifeof the society. During the period of 500 years BC, Charaka a well-known practitioner ofindigenous medicine recorded importance of milk and its products in human life; he hasadvocated that for human beings, besides mother’s milk, that from other mammalian specieslike cow, buffalo, sheep, goat, camel, elephant and horse can routinely consume for meetingdaily needs of milk, Medicinal use of milk from other mammalian species (like donkey,tiger etc.) was also advocated by him in correcting specific ailments. It appears that duringthis period, extensive study on varying uses of milk, specific products derived from milkfermentation and those heat-based products seem to have been made and their use inpromoting well-being of human was demonstrated and advocated. Kautilya, an eminenteconomist of the contemporary period has described the pattern of economic cost sharingof milk and milk products between the king, local village community and the migratingcommunity that maintained cows and buffaloes and produced milk and milk products, eventhe procedure for the pattern of disposal of animal body parts after death (like skin, horns,bones etc) was also lead down by him. Tradition of milk production and its family use doesnot seem to have been affected over a period of time in spite of many kingdoms comingand going. What has happened over a period of time that the patterns of region/religionrestricted utilization of milk and some milk products because of fast communication andawareness facilities have now been nearly globalized.Even presently, old people in Kerala (southern most state of the country) say that therenowned Vaidya family called ‘Chavarcode’of Travancore (prominent during 1820 – 1980)and a few other such families in the ‘Malabar belt’ used to use elephant milk for Dhara, atraditional treatment method in which the patient is made to lie on a special wooden droniwith his/her neck and head comfortably placed. Then a non-stop continuous stream of theprescribed liquid medicine is gently poured on the forehead from a prescribed heightthrough a specially devised apparatus called Dhara Chatti for a period of one to one and ahalf hours. In the light of adoption of present modern medicinal methods, continuation ofthis practice needs to be confirmed.Socio-cultural AspectsUse of milk in India crosses all barriers of religions, castes, and socio-cultural and economicclasses in the society. It is still a common practice to find people of certain communitiesleading migratory life with milking and growing animals affecting availability and supply ofmilk and milking animals at a given time in an area.In any part of India and among various communities living together, it is notuncommon to find any day starting with hot tea or coffee using milk and then the morningbreakfast incorporating use of either milk or its product. The variation among variousstates of the country can be realized by the fact that for example in southern Indian statelike Kerala, it could be with coconut milk or with curd and/or butter milk in Karanatakastate, in Central and northern states of the country, it could be milk with the sweets eitherprepared out of milk or from the grain floors. Inclusion of milk and/or its products is a

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necessity in the dishes prepared for either lunch and/or dinner. Products like Rabdi(prepared from Corn floor like Maize, Sorghum, Millet, wheat etc and butter milk, salt) isoften offered for breakfast in some parts of Rajasthan while the product of the same namein Uttar Pradesh prepared differently as a concentrated milk in semi solid form is offeredas sweet during or after food. In Uttar Pradesh, the products like Maheri (strategiccombination of Sorghum and butter milk), Rasveer (combination of sugar cane juice, milkand cooked cold rice), while in Bihar state of the country Chiwra (prepared from fried rice,milk and sugar) is usually served for break fast.Traditionally although milk, curd and similar milk products are used all over thecountry, in good old days, traditional types of milk products produced and consumeddepended on the agro-ecological conditions in the regions although with improvement incommunication and transport this trend has disappeared and all the products are availablethroughout the country. It is estimated that almost half of the milk produced in the countryis converted into a variety of traditional milk products using processes such as coagulation(heat and/or acid), desiccation and fermentation. Over the millennia, these processes havelargely been in the hands of ‘halwais’ – traditional sweetmeat makers, who form the coreof this cottage industry.One of the aspects of socio-cultural richness of a country is evident from the festivitiespeople celebrate. Such occasions help achieve societal integration besides maintaining culturalidentity. In many states of India, certain festivals are celebrated for a common cause but themode and the timings could be different. Following are some of the examplesFarming community in the country traditionally celebrate the arrival of freshlyharvested agricultural crops (like wheat, sorghum gram etc) and before it is either sold orconsumed at home routinely, an event is organized (for example in Maharashtra such anevent is called Irjeek ) and the guests, friends, relatives are invited and served with theproducts prepared from harvested crop along with a special drinks (in Maharashtra sucha drink is locally called Aambil – it is prepared from fermented wheat/sorghum, buttermilk and added spices). This practice is followed in many states although the name of thedrink, the type and variety of milk/milk product they contain may vary according to regionseason and the community.The festival of Makar Sankranti (celebrated on 14th January) also symbolizes the useof milk and milk products for example in Tamilnadu/Kerala, on this festival day (which iscalled ‘Pongal’) a customary dish both in urban and rural areas is prepared as a sweet dish,called ‘Sharkara Pongal’ and it is a ‘must’ to use milk as a main ingredient, although it canalso be prepared without milk and can be salty. In Rajasthan a product called as Olia(prepared from Curd Rice Sugar and dry fruit) is offered on this festival.In order to express the gratitude to animals working in agriculture and giving milksociety celebrates a festival of one day in a year this is named differently in different states(for example it is called ‘Pola’ in Maharashtra, ‘Uzhavar Dinam’ in Tamilnadu etc). On thisday no work is taken from animals, they are decorated with colorful clothes and otherdecorative items, are worshiped and are fed with the special food of the day. ‘Sarkarapongal’ prepared with fresh rice harvested that year along with milk and other dishesbased on milk are the main ‘menu’ of the day.

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Since serpents are useful for agriculture, a day’s festival of protection of serpents iscelebrated during rainy season and on this day, milk is offered to serpents. Many of house-holds especially that of Brahmin community in Kerala and coastal Karnataka prepare varietiesof milk based sweet dishes and are offered to the serpents on this day.In reminiscence for earlier milk producing community (Krishna, who was fond ofmilk and milk products), men and women compete for breaking the earthen pots containingmilk products that is traditionally kept hanging from the roofs. Similar ritual is also practicedin the Dakshina Kannada and Udupi districts wherein the hanging pots contain yoghurt(called as ‘Mosaru kuduke’/‘Vitla pondi’).On the full moon day in rainy season, the fisher community across the coastal belt ofIndia practice worshipping sea (also called as ‘Samudra Pooja’) by offering pots of milk tothe sea. The milk is carried in a number of pots by boat to about 4 kms distance from thebeach toward the deeper sea and offered with a prayer to enable them for fishing maintainitself calm.Holi is another festival which marks the end of winter and starting of summer, InRajasthan, khinch (a product prepared from wheat, milk, sugar and dry fruits) is offered torelatives and friends on this day. Khir (prepared from rice, milk sugar and dry fruits) isoffered during many festivals and special functions. The composition of these productsvaries according to region and season, are prepared and used fresh.In Northern states of the country, raita (prepared from butter milk, salt, roastedcumin seed and boiled vegetables) forms a component item in the daily dish served foreither lunch or dinner, while Dalia (prepared from wheat, milk and sugar) is served asdelicacy during the festivals.There is a custom in Tamil Brahmin families where during the marriage ceremony,the bride’s side has to give a minimum of 8 varieties sweets to the grooms families earlyin the morning of the wedding day i.e. before other rituals start. Out of these 8 varieties ofsweets, at least 3 have to be milk based. The rich land lords in Kerala and Dakshin kannada(where the weather is humid most of the time) used to keep a big pot full of butter milkoutside their house with a glass which is for the use of any passerby.A fast is a regular part of religion-cultural activity in most parts of the country andmilk or milk products are important food items consumed at the occasion. to meet theenergy requirement in fast sugar often is used as a source of energy, for example in northernpart of the country, the products like Ganji (prepared using sweet potato, milk and sugar),Aaloo (prepared from Potato plus milk plus sugar), Ramdana (prepared from Ramdana,milk and sugar), Sabudana (prepared from Tapioca, milk and sugar) are consumed routinely.In fact the social life in the desert region of Rajasthan where major part of dailylivelihood depends on milk or the products derived from milk, leaving aside the economicsurvival of the society, it is not uncommon to find remarkable emotional bondage betweenanimals and human beings. In most interior part of desert of this state, the absence of rainand hence agriculture, non availability of communication, the livelihood of the communityis mostly dependant on animal maintenance and consumption/sale of milk and its products.In absence of the fodder and feed, animals also have to wander a long distance for getting

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what ever they get as grazing for survival, under such conditions, as one of such village chiefremarked ‘Our life is linked with animals. The cow when leaves house in the morning leavingher calf in care of the family and not knowing whether she will come back again, whenreturns in the evening finding her calf in good health, gives milk to the family as a gratitudefor taking care of her calf. This feeling of ours, make us emotionally attached to them’.According to Hindu mythology, a milking cow symbolized as ‘Kamdhenu’ (one whofulfills all desires) still occupies an emotionally important place in the heart of Indians. Inthe light of generalized advocation of vegetarianism way of life in Hindu religion, milk (andits products) traditionally was/is considered as an only animal protein source and in thelight of variable utility of cattle in country’s agro-based economy, cattle slaughter was/isprevented. Cattle of various ages thus were/are sheltered at various locations earlier by thekings in kingdoms and now through 4,000 Gaushalas distributed all over the country, partlyfinanced by Government and partly by the societal contributions.Commercial aspectDuring the initial two decades after independence, farmer door milk production was mainlya family produce meant for home consumption and marketing of milk was not considereddesirable; in interior village areas even selling of milk or butter milk was considered as sinand in such areas it was common practice to share milk with other members of the society.Poor nutritional status of agricultural families, low per capita income and unequaldistribution of milk availability during this period, communities were required to bemotivated to think of optimal utilization of their farm resources and potential of earninglivelihood through production and sale of milk. Government and non-government agenciesput forth their efforts to motivate farming community to realize the value of milk productionand its value to combat hunger. Various projects were launched which created someawareness, besides this, the factors like increasing village size, improving literacy andcommunication, increasing nutritional awareness and diversification in livelihood systemsin the societies leading to increased demands of facilities contributed to realization ofincreasing market potential of milk amongst the milk producers. In absence of organizedmilk marketing structure the actual milk production and quantum utilization during thisperiod was not formally known. The efforts from the governmental as well as initiation ofco-operative movement and beginning of private players getting involved in milkdistribution, processing and marketing, things started changing. Establishment of IndianDairy Corporation and its arm National Dairy Board gave a boost to efforts of collectingmilk procurement, promoting processing and tabulating relevant data to make globally realizethe amount of progress achieved. Unprecedented growth in milk production there fore hasbeen thus recorded from about 59 million tonnes in 1992 to about 106 million tonnes in2005 – 06 and is expected to reach 220 million tonnes in year 2020. The overall estimatedgrowth rate being 4%.The commercial potential of the milk produced in the country can be realized by thefact that the market for traditional dairy products in India exceeds US$10 billion, being thelargest and fastest growing segment of the Indian dairy industry. For example, theconsumption of ‘dahi’, plain yogurt-like traditional product, exceeds 5 million tonnes. Thisquantity is 50 times the amount of all types of yogurts consumed in the United States. A

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flourishing market for Indian ethnic milk products is expanding overseas. In North Americaalone, its value is estimated at US $500 million among four million South Asians. In Canada,a dairy farmer cooperative has recently set up a pilot plant in New Brunswick for productionand marketing of traditional Indian milk delicacies.Presently, there are two major channels for milk marketing in India, the Traditionalor Un-organized sector and the Co-operative or Organized sector (which also includes theprivate sector). Emergence of major players like commercial milk processors, dairy co-operatives and individual entrepreneurs has strengthened diversification in use of milkbesides creating necessary awareness amongst the consumers.Presently 37% of milk produced in India is being used for processing, of this theorganized dairy industry accounts for 15% and unorganized sector accounts for 22%. Todaydairy cooperative touches lives of 11 million farms households in 100 thousand villages inIndia. Since individual farmer has one or two milking animals, fresh milk produced isbrought to the milk collection center in the village where the milk is collected by thecooperative society in milk cans of 40 L capacity and then transported to the milk-chillingcenter. Depending on season density and the number of members, the cooperative societycan decide to collect milk either once or twice a day and the milking times by the farmersare decided accordingly. The chilled milk is either further transported for milk productprocessing or is pasteurized and distributed back to consumers. The milk processing unitsin the organized sector process few or many products depending upon the scale of operationand the market approach.There are close to 68 popular milk products that are processed by the milk processingunits and are marketed. These products can be classified in to seven major kinds based ondifferent processing technologies i) Heat Concentrated ii) heat and acid coagulated productsiii) Fermented products iv) Fat enriched products v) Frozen products vi) Cereal milk mixedproducts vii) Milk sweets, confections and novelties. The indigenous products are nameddifferently for example contemporary to western evaporated or sweetened milk we haveKhoa, Basundi, Rabdi, Khurchan, Malai, contemporary to cheese we have Chhana or Paneer,contemporary to plain or sweetened yogurt we have Dahi, Payodhi, Chakka, Srikhand, Lassietc., contemporary to butter, butter oil, ice cream and other frozen food we have Makkhan,Malailoni, Ghee, Kulfi, Malaibarfi etc. There are number of milk based delicacies preparedout of the base products mentioned above and have local as well as national name. Sincesome of the indigenous products involve local processing methodology, the factors likescale of operation, quality of milk, varying preparation methodology does not yield theuniform product quality.In this emerging scenario, one success story has come from India. It is thetransformation of production of traditional milk-based sweets, puddings and desserts froman age-old art to an exact science. Some 20 years ago, India’s first plant was set up toenmass produce some of these milk specialties, using modern technology. These productsbecame a hit with consumers and are now also being exported.

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Nearly two third of milk produced is not being processed and is either consumed atfarm level or is sold as fresh, non- pasteurized milk through unorganized channel(Doodhwala person who delivers fresh milk at doorsteps). Interestingly, if the milk consumeris doubtful about the quality of milk and any adulteration in it, it is not uncommon to findmilk producers taking their milking animal to the door of consumer, milk the animal infront of them and deliver required quantity of pure milk This traditional sector servesapproximately 46 million small milk producer households, 111 million consumer householdsand a few million agents/vendors. In spite of intensive efforts to establishing and organizingeither milk cooperatives or other organized forms of milk collection, processing andmarketing, market access to small holder livestock producers still remains a major constraintin many parts of India.Biodiversity aspectsThe biodiversity aspect of the milk in the present discussions refers to the animals thoseproduce it, particularly large dairy farming animals like cows and buffaloes. Although it istrue that the traditional integrated use of large and small farm animals for milk and meatproduction for family consumption has helped to preserve animal breeds which other wisecould have been extinct because of their low milk producing capacity, it is also true thatfactors like changing socio-cultural systems, increasing economic pressure on the famingfamilies, reduction in average family size, declining desire to stick to agriculture as a wayof life, etc are some of the factors forcing farming structure to change thus making themto maintain only those animals which are economically viable.Taking in to consideration the qualities of the local animals like surviving andproducing under low cost maintenance, their undergoing selection for specific charactersfor generations together (for example the frequency of letting down of milk mentionedabove), disease resistance and adaptability to tropical climate besides their environmentalfriendly management, needs appreciated by these families and even by the society. Thediscussions with the representatives of previous generation (aged above 75 years) bringsout very clearly that the size of the milking animal and their number with the owner theyhave seen in their childhood have drastically gone down due to reduction in grazing areaand economic considerations, they express fear that if the existing pattern of life style andeconomic pressure continues, the existing animal type could be speedily replaced and thelocal indigenous types will totally disappear; further we are not sure how long new type ofanimals introduced will survive and stand to the test of adversities at village level.A human animal relationship is demonstrated in hilly part of the country (HimachalPradesh state) where traditionally, human beings do not consume milk from freshly calvedcow till its calf reaches to one month of age. Since the calf gets entire milk from the mother,its healthy growth is ensured. With the changing time, this practice is slowly being doneaway with under the pretext of religious madness; this is affecting the size and type of theanimals coming up.

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There is a small fraction of society believing that milk is harmful and should not beused. It is feared that milk utilization leads to cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and canceretc. More concrete data for implicating milk in these diseases is needed before the restrictionof use is advocated.It is concluded that under Indian conditions, milk occupies a special position amongfoods in being an animal food that has a vegetarian connotation. The milk production hasbeen known to be a stable income resource and therefore traditionally milk and milkproducing animals have been an integrated component of family with small land holding.Per capita milk availability presently is around 250 g/person/day; Use of milk in Indiacrosses all barriers of religions, castes, and socio-cultural and economic classes in thesociety. The festivals related to acknowledging of god given natural resources (like animals,serpents, sea nature etc) and the efforts contributed by these to welfare of mankind arenecessarily celebrated with dishes containing milk or milk products. The milk and milkproducts besides playing an important role in nutritional and good health of community areimportant from commercial, religious, social and political spheres point of view. Milk beingimportant instrument of sustainable livelihood amongst the lower income group of therural society, it is recommended that further research on lesser known milk products usedin socio-cultural events be carried out and ways adopted to strengthen their integrated useto promote healthy global life defined in the world millennium goals.

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Hegde N. G. and Mahuli R. K., 2010. Eco-friendly Goat Husbandry for Sustainable Livelihood of SmallFarmers. Paper published in LEISA INDIA. March 2010. Pages 21-22.

Eco-friendly Goat Husbandry for Sustainable Livelihood of Small FarmersGoat keeping is an important activity for the people in Burdwan and Bankura districtsin West Bengal. Most of the goat keepers are landless or own small pieces of land, living inpoverty. Some of the villages are surrounded by forests which provide adequate fodder tothe livestock. However, lack of awareness among goat keepers on aspects like breeding,health, marketing etc., has resulted in high rate of mortality. Goat keepers have beenstruggling hard to maintain a decent living with goat rearing.The InitiativeBAIF, a development organization, studied the existing goat rearing practices across thestates of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka and West Bengal to understand and improve theexisting situation. Based on the study, it initiated the sustainable goat rearing programmefocusing on breed improvement, feeding, health care and marketing. Over 135 villagescovering 10,000 goat keeping families from Raina II and Kanksha blocks of Burdwan districtand Ranibandh and Raipur blocks of Bankura district were covered.The project was implemented jointly bylocal voluntary organisations namely the DeepanYuba Goshti in Burdwan and Socio-EconomicDevelopment Programme in Bankura, BAIF andthe Animal Resources Development Department(ARD). The ARD provided the technical supportfor selection of breeding bucks, training of fieldfunctionaries to be engaged in the project,critical health care services such as vaccinationagainst important diseases and veterinaryservices wherever needed. The local NGOs wereresponsible for implementing the project.Field Guides, experienced in goathusbandry, were identified to motivate goat keepers to adopt best practices which canenhance the growth and health conditions. Field guides were selected from the same villageso that in the long run they could promote various development activities as well. EachField Guide was responsible for 1-2 villages depending on the number of goat keepers. Theywere trained on a number of aspects like breeding, feeds, health and marketing. Trainingof Field Guides every month was a strong aspect of the project.

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Organizing Goat Keepers’ GroupsGoat keepers were organized in to groups consisting of 5-7 members. SHG women who hadprior experience in goat rearing were selected. Also those living close by were preferred tofacilitate regular interaction. Each goat group has a leader known as Mukhia. The memberswere trained on best goat husbandry practices such as feeding of goats, forage production,feeding of mineral mixtures and concentrates, housing and health care. Each goat keeper isresponsible for taking care of her/his herd.Group meetings are held every month. During these meetings, members discuss ongoat maintenance, health care, castrations carried out, causes of mortality, number of goatssold, realisation of price, etc. The members were encouraged to adopt improved rearingpractices. They organised micro-credit, input procurement, sharing of technical knowledgeand collective marketing to increase their earning.Demonstrations on Feeding and Fodder ProductionField demonstrations on feeding of concentrates, mineral mixtures and green fodder wereorganised by providing critical inputs and technical advice to selected goat keepers. Fieldguides regularly advised them to provide supplementary feeding, using locally available feeds.Goat keepers were encouraged to weigh the goats maintained under these trials to recordthe benefits of various feeding practices.Improving BreedsThe goat rearers had little knowledge about goat breeds and good practices to improvetheir productivity. Black Bengal, a breed well known for its superior quality meat and skin,originated in West Bengal and is found in Bankura, Murshidabad, Purulia and Burdwandistricts. There has been indiscriminate natural breeding, owing to prevalence of differentstrains of Black Bengal breed. Each group was provided elite bucks for providing breedingservice to does owned by the members. These bucks have typical Black Bengal breedcharacters, selected on the basis of their superior genetic characters.Maintaining healthThe goat keepers were not aware of vaccinations and deworming. As a result, many familieslost goats and had given up goat rearing. Deworming medicine which cost less than `1/dose was procured by the project and supplied by the Field Guides for treating the goats.With the introduction of vaccination and deworming, the mortality rate decreased steeplyto below 5%. Village wise camps are regularly organised with the help of the Prani Bandhusas well as the local ARD Department staff.Goat rallies are organised regularly in lean farming season with the objective ofsharing the outstanding goat keepers’ experiences and to demonstrate the best animalslocally by the participants. It also provides a platform to get higher price for superior qualitygoats. Farmers from non-project villages also attend the goat rallies.Economics of goat keepingAverage goat keepers have 6-8 breed size with a composition of 3 does, 2 male kids and 2female kids. With this stock, the goat keeping family will have 9 new born kids per annum.With good health status, there will be 8 surviving which will be available for sale (4F + 4M),

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which fetch about `6800 to `7000/year. Male kids of 10-12 months will fetch `1200 to`1500 while the females fetch `1000 to `1200. Deducting the expenses on service charges,deworming, vaccination and treatment at the rate of `200, the net annual income will be`7000 to `8000/family, giving a boost to the income by over 100%. The factors contributingto increased income are increase in weight of new born kids, number of kids, improvedgrowth rate, reduced mortality and higher price realisation due to better marketingnegotiations. The goat keepers in general, do not spend anything on the feed and fodderinputs, mainly due to small herd size and availability of plenty of green fodder on commonlands as well as private lands.MarketingMost of the goat keepers sell their goats to local traders or middlemen in their villagewhenever they are in need of cash. In the absence of weighing practice and awarenessabout the price for goat meat, the goat keepers are being heavily exploited by the traders.The goat keepers were exposed to market information on price of live goats and goatmeat in local and larger markets in the nearby towns. Further, to enable them to assess thevalue of their goats, a spring balance was provided at each village for weighing of the goatby the participants. The Field Guides visit each household and weigh the goats periodicallyand estimate the price.The sale of goats is usually well planned in advance by the villagers. The bucks areinsured against death. During cultivation season, whenever there is shortfall of money,castrated goats are sold for purchasing agri-inputs. During festivals, there is a huge demandfor the Black Bengal goats. Price varies on the basis of skin texture and color. The price maygo up to 120-125/kg live weight. Breeding buck fetches around `2000 to `3000 andsometimes, even more.To prevent distress sale of goats, microcredit is being arranged through SHGs. Generally,selling of goats either directly to a butcher or in a large urban market will fetch higherprice. However, most of the women goat keepers find it difficult to organise such sellingdirectly. They are also often reluctant to entrust this work to their husbands because of fearof not getting the entire sale proceeds. The goat keepers are therefore encouraged toorganise collective sale in large markets.ConclusionGoat keeping is particularly important for resource poor people to improve their livelihoodconditions. Both rural men and women can effectively manage this activity. Theircontribution in enriching the grazing lands through manure is grossly neglected. Improvedproductivity will motivate the goat keepers to reduce their herd size and ease the bioticpressure on the ecosystem, which has direct impact on ecological restoration. Closeinteraction among SHG members will help them to build their capabilities and initiateother socio-economic development activities. Goat development should be given priority,primarily to assist the small farmers and poor families who are dependent on goat husbandryfor their livelihood. Simultaneously, atmost care should be taken to avoid ill-effects on thebio-diversity and the environment.

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Development of Value Chain for Sustainable Agriculture. Background paper presentedfor First Round Table Discussion on Farmers Producer Organization, New Delhi. April 16. AgriculturalFinance Corporation Ltd. Pages 29-35.

Development of Value Chain for Sustainable Agriculture

Problems of Small FarmersValue addition and efficient marketing determine the success of most of the production-oriented development programmes. Therefore, in most of the rural development projects,particularly in the farming sector where farmers are dependent on many external agenciesand marketing of the produce is not well planned, the profit margins are under severepressure, often resulting in failures. It is indeed efficient backward and forward linkages,which play a significant role in lowering the cost of production and higher price realisation,resulting in higher returns.The problems of small farmers are lower scale of operation, outdated technologies,lack of financial support, poor information and communication linkages with the marketand exploitation by the middlemen. Small farmers are heavily exploited by series ofintermediate traders, while procuring agricultural inputs as well as while marketing theirfresh produce. The agricultural inputs required by small farmers being small in quantity,they tend to procure from local traders, which is about 20-30% higher than the price paidby large farmers, who procure larger quantities. They further suffer due to inferior qualityof the inputs and delay in procurement. High cost of borrowing may further increase thecost of these inputs.Lack of appropriate technology is another major problem of small farmers. Firstly, ittakes a longer time for small farmers to collect information on new technologies and inputswhich have the potential to increase production. Secondly, small farmers being poor and semi-literate, they are very hesitant to invest in new technologies, which are expensive and uncertain.There are many examples of new varieties which promise very high yield but fail to meet theexpectation either due to uncertain weather conditions or newly emergent pests and diseases.Often, small farmers are not able to procure critical inputs well in time, resulting in significantdrop in the yield.Lack of post-harvest management is another serious problem, which affects theprofitability of small farmers to a great extent. Small farmers in general, produce a smallquantity of agricultural produce and it is not practical to transport this produce to the urbanmarket. Thus, they end up selling the produce to local traders at a substantially lower price.Many of them would even have entered into informal agreements to sell to local money

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lenders to settle their loans. By and large, in the absence of storage facilities and capacity tohold the produce, small farmers are compelled to sell their produce immediately after theharvest, when the prices fall due to glut of produce in the market. It is particularly true forperishable commodities like fruits, vegetable and dairy products, where about 25-30% ofthe produce is wasted due to poor post-harvest management. As small farmers are compelledto sell their produce in distress, their net income is far low as compared to large holders.Therefore, to improve the profitability of small holders, it is necessary to strengthen theirvalue chain, which can reduce the cost of production and realise better value for the produce.Mobilisation of Small Farmers to Strengthen the Value ChainAn ideal value chain should bring all the stakeholders engaged in the production system ona common platform to contribute their best, while ensuring fair deal and transparency. Thevalue chain will include all the input suppliers, technology delivering agencies, scientistsindirectly engaged in developing appropriate technologies and extension officers who areinvolved in capacity building and providing various services to farmers. The stakeholdersinvolved in post-production activities are the agencies organising collection, grading, storage,transportation, processing and marketing of the produce. Agencies like financial institutionsand market information centres are also part of the value chain. Efficient linkage of variousstakeholders improves production, price realisation and profitability.Value Chain for Dairy HusbandryDairy husbandry is one of the most potential tools for employment generation and forensuring sustainable livelihood to small farmers in rural India. BAIF Development ResearchFoundation, a Civil Society Organisation, started promoting dairy husbandry way back in1970s through efficient delivery of breeding and minor health care services at the doorstepsof farmers. Efficient technical services followed by good extension work, helped the farmersto rear high yielding cows and buffaloes and to come out of poverty. BAIF demonstratedthat each cow can generate a net income of `7000 to `8000/annum through sale of milkand with 2-3 cows; a BPL family could come out of poverty. This was possible only becauseof a systematic effort to develop and operationalise the value chain.It can be seen from Figure 1 that for the success of dairy husbandry, critical componentsof the value chain are the Organisation of livestock owners, milk collection centres, milkprocessing units and milk distribution network to reach the consumers. These organizationsneed various services for performing their best. Important services required for the farmersare breeding, health care, production and supply of good quality fodder and feeds, financeand timely technical guidance. BAIF provided these services at the doorsteps of the farmers,which could also motivate and mentor them to manage their enterprises efficiently. Manysimilar programmes implemented by various other agencies could not make similar progressdue to missing links in the value chain. For instance, in some regions such as Vidarbha inMaharashtra, diary husbandry has not prospered mainly due to lack of efficient breedingand extension services. In several districts of Uttar Pradesh, cattle development was promotedby BAIF successfully, where farmers maintain cows yielding 3000-4000 kg milk/lactation.However, as the dairy co-operatives started incurring losses, the milk procurement activitycome to a standstill and farmers were compelled to sell milk to local traders and sweet

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makers at substantially lower price. This being uneconomical, farmers started selling cowsand started looking for alternate ways of income generation. In fact, an initiative to procuremilk by a local NGO on instant pricing of milk based on the quality assessed by automaticbulk coolers and marketing tie-up with a private dairy could increase the milk collection by30%, while the farmers received 20-25% higher price for the milk.The advantage of the \value chain is transparency, coordination and networking ofvarious stakeholders, which has been the secret of success of dairy husbandry in selectedpockets in India.Value Chain Development for Fruits and VegetablesWith regard to marketing of fruits and vegetables, small farmers are heavily exploited bylocal traders. For instance, many traders offer lump sum money for standing crop at thestage of flowering and fruitlet of crops like mango, cashew, orange, sapota, etc. In the absenceof local demand and facilities for transportation and storage, it is extremely difficult forsmall farmers to sell their produce in nearby urban markets. Therefore, farmers are happywith smaller profits rather than taking many risks. Such a marketing system proved to bea negative incentive, when BAIF promoted agri-horti-forestry for rehabilitation of tribals inGujarat and Maharashtra.

On the other hand, in the absence of good demand in local markets and poorconnectivity with urban markets, farmers have to literally struggle to dispose off theirperishable commodities when the market is in glut. In such a situation, the exploitation hasbeen more serious. Therefore, BAIF decided to enter into procurement of raw mangoesthrough the Growers’ Cooperatives. Initially, it was decided to provide atleast 5-10% higherprice over the prevailing price in the marketyard of the nearby town. This provided excellent

Small holder/ Dairy cattle Hub/

Local org.

Milk collection

Milk processing/ marketing

Breeding services Vaccinations Deworming

Disease Investigation Veterinary services

Breed selection Superior germplasm

Performance evaluation

Lab services Input supply

Paravet Veterinarian

Seeds Fertilizers

Feed/Minerals Micro-finance Crop residues

Fodder production

Pasture development

Water conservation/ supply

Fodder producers / Traders

Plant breeders Soil scientists

Fig. 1: Value Chain for Dairy

Wider Replication

National/ Regional Players Private Entrepreneurs

Training / Capacity building

Monitoring / Evaluation

Consumer

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support for the farmers as they did not have to sell in distress. Once the price was declaredby BAIF, which served as a bench mark, it was difficult for other local traders to buy rawmangoes at lower price. Hence, they also had to fix more or less the same price. Thisproved to be very effective. However, it was necessary to increase the volume of procurementto ensure fair price for all the growers and market at a remunerative price. It was essentialto manage this business without incurring any los to ensure its sustainability. Thus, variousinnovative approaches were adopted. These included packing superior quality gradedmangoes in cardboard boxes and supplying to employees to various industrial houses inMumbai and Pune who had placed order earlier. However, it was not possible to increasesale beyond a certain level. Thus, it was decided to set-up a processing unit in the projectarea itself, for producing a wide range of products using raw as well as ripe mangoes. Thesales agreement with selected super markets before the processing helped the cooperativeto produce products of certain specifications, which ensured better price realisation. Thisnot only gave a boost to the confidence of the growers, but also created additional jobs,particularly for the local landless families.With regard to cashew processing, BAIF was the pioneer in introducing commercialcashew plantations in Gujarat. Hence, the tribal farmers had no clue about the processingand use of cashew nuts as well as cashew apple. Nevertheless, it was decided to set updecentralised processing and centralised grading units and marketing unit which could beimplemented very efficiently. A similar strategy was adopted for processing and marketingof Indian Gooseberry and other minor fruits grown locally. Subsequently, BAIF alsoestablished linkage with retail marketing agencies to supply fresh unripe mangoes in largebulk, while ensuring 10-15% higher price. Last year, more than 1200 tons of Keshar mangoeswere supplied to one of the leading agencies. Looking to various options and risks involved,coordinating the producers to collect, grade and pack fresh fruits at the village level andsupplying to retailers for direct marketing seems to be the best option, which is low capitalintensive and remunerative.Even with regard to marketing of vegetable grown as intercrops in fruit orchards,BAIF’s role in organising the small growers to come together, grade and supply to retailmarketers in bulk quantity proved to be the best option. In the absence of such anarrangement, it is extremely difficult for small farmers and even large farmers to dependon unpredictable fluctuating market. There are instances where farmers have spent moreon transportation and handling, than realised by them for the produce in the urban market.With effective market linkages, such failures can be avoided to a great extent.Marketing of Other ProductsMost of the small farmers are involved in producing a wide range of foodgrains and variousnon-farm products. The problem of marketing these commodities is difficult as experiencedin selling perishable commodities. In such a situation, Farmers Organisations and localNGOs need to play a critical role in organising effective marketing. The success of developingeffective value chain depends on the strength of the local organisations to coordinate all thestakeholders and explore opportunities for all players to perform their best.

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While organising marketing of various products, it is helpful to know the traditionallocal uses of these commodities and identify niche markets where these products are ingreater demand. Local organisations can also play a critical role in assessing local demandfor various products and focus on the production of such commodities which can be soldlocally. While organizing sales in local market, it is beneficial to network with local SHGs andFarmers’ Cooperatives and use them as distributors to supply their members. This way,the local agencies take special interest in marketing produce while generating good businessfor themselves. For instance, a Self Help Group producing soap powder can sell to all thelocal families through their SHG or Co-operatives. As the marketing cost is significantlylow, the consumers can purchase the product at 25-30% lower price, while theirorganisations earn 8-12% commission. Such an arrangement can sustain the business inthe long run. However, care should also be taken to ensure high quality and present theproduct in an attractive package so that the local consumers are happy to buy the produce,not to support fellow families but to enjoy benefits of low price and superior quality.While organising local processing and marketing of agriculture products, it is alsoimportant to keep a close watch on the competitors who often indulge in spurious activitiesof adulteration and avoid prescribed quality standards and taxes to sell their product cheaper.This can be undertaken through regular consumer awareness. Finally, as the customersexpect varieties and superior quality products, processing and marketing should beinnovative. Exploring wider and new opportunities to produce new products of superiorquality should be an integral part of the value chain development.

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Daniel J. N., Bhosale B., Ksheerasagar D., Sapate M., Relan A. 2010. Towards Market Orientation ofUnderutilised Horticultural Crops: Experiences with Rural Initiatives in India. Paper presented at the28th International Horticulture Congress,Lisbon, Portugal, August 2010.

Towards Market Orientation of Underutilised Horticultural Crops:Experiences with Rural Initiatives in India

AbstractDependence of rural communities in India on too few crops for their livelihood makes themvulnerable to changes in climatic as well as market conditions. On the other hand, there are alarge number of crop species that remain underutilised despite their potential to succeed underdifficult growing conditions. Some of them are fruit and vegetable species found in the wildwhile others have attained a higher level of domestication. A project, supported by the UnitedKingdom Department for International Development through the Research Into Use Programme,aims to increase the use of these species to diversify the sources of rural income. The projectincludes production-related activities such as establishment of germplasm orchards anddistribution of superior planting material to post-harvest aspects like processing support andcreation of market linkages. Implemented by a coalition of organisations, four out of eightlocations of this innovation project are in India. Learning experiences of the Indian locations,presented as case studies in the present paper, analyse the prospects of these species and thestrategies to be adopted to promote them as livelihood opportunities. Project experience showsthat substantial income generation is possible by value addition to fruits of Feronia limonia,Carissa congesta and Syzygium cumini if facilities, knowledge and linkages are made available.These initiatives have to depend on existing wild trees at present. In future, however, thesespecies can be incorporated as components of tree-based farming systems with elite germplasmand grafted saplings, which together will result in early bearing and larger fruits. Additionally,underutilised vegetables like Momordica indica can be grown on less fertile land under limitedinputs and provided market orientation with the necessary consumer sensitisation. Whileexperiences from project locations are promising, they also bring to light the requirement ofsustained efforts to link the producer communities with markets.

IntroductionA key initiative under rural development programmes in India has been to introduceimproved agricultural technologies. The central focus of this effort, primarily through thenational research and extension systems, has been on major grain and fruit species. Thishas resulted in increased food output as well as farm income. A not so desirable outcomeof this success is the dependence of farmers on only a few crops. Popular varieties of these

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crops have been bred to produce high yields under ideal soil fertility and rainfall conditions.As small farmers cannot ensure these requirements for every cropping season, they arehighly vulnerable to sensitivity of crops to fluctuations in climate. Moreover, their returnsfrom these crops are also subject to demand-supply conditions for farm produce. Thus, itis clear that availability of improved technologies of select crops alone cannot readily translateinto an assurance for better livelihood.The CoDI ProjectActivitiesThe Coalition to Diversify Income through Underused Crops (CoDI) is a Research-Into-Useproject implemented in India and Vietnam by a group of organisations. The overall objectiveof CoDI is to enhance production, post-harvest handling and marketing opportunities forunderused crops. This is aimed to be achieved through a set of activities that will helpincrease crop options and thereby diversify the income sources of small farmers.Project LocationsThe CoDI project is implemented in four locations each in India and Vietnam. In India, theproject is implemented by BAIF Development Research Foundation, a non-governmentorganisation based in Pune in Maharashtra state. The four project locations (districts andstates) are: Valsad in Gujarat, Dharwad in Karnataka, Thane in Maharashtra and Hoshangabadin Madhya Pradesh.Underutilised CropsThe uncertainty arising from the dependence of small farmers on a few crops can beminimised by crop diversification. There are a large number of underutilised fruit andvegetable species that can help diversify not only the income options, but also add ecologicalstability to farm production systems. Some of the benefits of these crops are given below.Unlike the established commercial species, underutilised crops have greater tolerance tobiotic and abiotic stresses. For example, mango (Mangifera indica) yields may be affectedby unseasonal rains, but that of species like Indian gooseberry (Emblica officinalis) tend tobe more stable.Many underutilised crops withstand pest and disease incidence to produce a reasonablysatisfactory yield. Many lesser known yams (e.g. Dioscorea species) and vegetables can begrown when others fail due to scanty rains or during the post-rainy season. Fruits likewood apple (Feronia limonia) and black berry (Carissa carandus) can be collected fromcommunity land and forest as non-wood forest produce. This is an income-generationavenue for landless rural people.Learnings1. The perils of over-dependence on fewer crops do not seem to bother farmers who alreadyhave market orientation. Underutilised crops are not new to them, but a reason for notgrowing them is the absence of organised markets. On the other hand, marginal farmerswho face greater uncertainty because of their dependence on seasonal rains are moreinclined to include underutilised crops in their production systems.

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2. The small volumes of produce, relatively low prices they garner and the limited optionsfor value addition are major constraints, at least during the initial years. Therefore,project activities such as germplasm orchards and processing parks have to bedecentralised for the activities to reach out to a larger number of participants.3. The inherent benefits such as the high nutritive value of underutilised crops likeIndian gooseberry and kokum are not well known or appreciated by those who havethe purchasing power. More organised efforts are needed to reach out to them.AcknowledgementsThis document is an output from a project funded by the UK Department for InternationalDevelopment (DFID) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are notnecessarily those of DFID. The authors also acknowledge the support of Dr. Hannah Jaenicke(leader) and rural communities participating in the project.

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Kakade B. K. and Patil P. G., 2010. Watershed Development Can Change the Rural Map of India.Environment Green Interpreters Vol. I, Issue II. Pages 45 – 49.

Watershed Development can Change the Rural Map of IndiaAll about food security - where is water?In India, where a lot of water goes waste, it is important to apply the technology of watershedmanagement to solve its annual problems of droughts and floods. The demand for waterexceeds its supply. Conflicts in sharing water resources are on the rise. Planning anddevelopment of watersheds calls for a rigorous understanding of the occurrence andmovement of water in the surface and subsurface systems along with soil and nutrientlosses in a watershed as the need arises for a proper watershed management of that area.In a country like India, where a lot of running water goes waste, it becomes very importantto apply the technology of watershed management to solve its annual problems of droughtsand floods.India is an agrarian economy with over 70% of the population depending on agriculture.Nearly three fourths of the cultivable land in India is dependent on monsoon, whichcontributes nearly 42% of the total production. The productivity of any crop mainly dependson two natural resources, land and water in addition to management practices. Thereforethe conservation of these two natural resources is essential for the sustainability of rainfedagriculture. It has been widely appreciated that land and water resources can be bestdeveloped through watershed based approach. Hence watershed development has startedgaining importance over the years.With watershed poor can make a way under the sun. Watershed management is a landscape-based strategy that aims to implement improved natural resource management systemsfor improving livelihoods and promoting beneficial conservation, sustainable use, andmanagement of natural resources. Integrated watershed management (IWM) has beenpromoted in many countries as a suitable strategy for improving productivity and sustainableintensification of agriculture. The government of India, in particular, accords high priorityto watershed programs as a strategy for integrated development of rural communities,especially in rainfed and drought-prone areas. It goes beyond conservation technologiesand emphasizes the importance of the human dimension and the need to integratetechnological tools with broad-ranging social, political and economic changes.

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Striking Action in Watershed Management - the BAIF ExperienceA watershed is a catchment area from which all water drains into a common point, makingit suitable for technical efforts to manage water and soil resources. It is a spatially definedunit that includes diverse natural resources that are unevenly distributed within a givengeographical area. Due to this spatial aspect of the watersheds, resources as well as resourceusers become interdependent over time and space. Watersheds connect differentcommunities that are spatially separated, exploiting watershed resources depending ontheir specific position within the catchments. This creates interdependence in both thewatershed resources and, some of the investments activities of watershed managementinclude construction of checkdams for infiltrating surface water, terraces for soil and waterconservation, and tree planting. The return to such investments is not often realized in ashort period of time. The costs are incurred at the time of the investment while economicreturns are often delayed and accrue in small quantities over a long period of time. Hence,the resource improving watershed interventions require a relatively larger planning horizoncompared to short duration agricultural technologies like new varieties. Because of theproblems of exclusion and the high initial costs, such projects that generate long termpositive externalities are less likely to be undertaken by individual households, indicatingthe need for collective decisions among potential beneficiaries.BAIF Development Research Foundation, one of the largest NGOs in India, is engagedin watershed development (WSD) and water resource development (WRD) in selected villageclusters of ten states of India namely Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan, Bihar, Uttarakhand, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa since 1967 to conservethe accessible water resources, promote equitable distribution and its use for the benefitof local communities.BAIF has been working in 5908 villages for revival of rural water resources throughvarious programmes of watershed and WRD. The programmes have improved thelivelihoods of 0.23 million families through revival of water resources. Suitable technologieshave been adopted based on local conditions, traditional knowledge and scientific skills. Inthis process, many innovative approaches have been evolved to ensure equitable distribution,effective use of water and improved agriculture production.Regional Innovative ApproachesDifferent programmes implemented in the country have laid down their own guidelines,norms, funding pattern and technical components based on their respective and specificaims. While Desert Development Programme focused on reforestation to arrest the growthof hot and cold deserts, Drought Prone Area Programme concentrated on non-arable landsand drainage lines for in-situ soil and moisture conservation, agro forestry, pasturedevelopment, horticulture and alternate land uses. The IWDP on the other hand, madesilvipasture, soil and moisture conservation on wastelands under government andcommunity or private control as their predominant activity. The NWDPRA combines thefeatures of all these three programmes with the additional dimension of improving arablelands through better crop management technologies. Hariyali and the new Neeranchalprogramme is more comprehensive.

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BAIFs projects have been designed based on the region specific problems withintegrated approach and having a major aim to enhance the livelihood of resource poor.Key features of BAIF’s watershed programme includes1. Participation of people in planning, implementation, monitoring and management ofcommon assets2. Integration of technical and local knowledge for designing of the project3. Developing and strengthening of community organizations4. Blending community and family based programme approach5. Establishment of linkages of the community with govt., panchayats and other sources6. Use of advanced technologies like geohydrology and remote sensing in project planning7. Developing an area specific strategyAs a result of very professional approach in planning and implementation, differentwatershed approaches to tackle the specific problems of the area have been developed,which are highly replicable. The main programmes are given below:Ravine Land Reclamation (Uttar Pradesh Ravines)About 14.5% area of Uttar Pradesh falls under the ravine land. Rapid rate of land degradationand poverty are the ill effects of ravine. To address the problems a project with a keyapproach to build the capacities of people, reclaim the ravine lands, recharge water andutilize it for irrigation on an equitable basis was implemented at Nayapurva and five othervillages located in the flood plains of Yamuna river in Kanpur (Rural) district. Due to projectmeasures the process of formation of ravines has been stopped and measures for insitumoisture conservation and soil fertility improvement have resulted in improving the fertilityof the land and yield of crops. The group irrigation has proved to be most suitableintervention to address the issues of irrigation water supply, equitable distribution of groundwater to all land holding classes and multiplication of the agricultural production.The project is highly replicable in ravine areas for conservation, recharge and balancedwater utilization. This approach can work very well in the ravines in the flood plains ofmajor river systems in Northern India facing similar problems.

Combating Droughts (Drought-Prone Areas of Rajasthan)Most parts of Rajasthan fall under hot, semi-arid agro climatic zone. With 5.017 million haof cultivable wasteland, the state bears the largest share of a total of 13.879 million ha forIndia. Further, the yield of food grains in the state is just 803 kg/ha lowest yield recordedfor the state in the country (Kakade 2002). Droughts are ubiquitous to Rajasthan, witherratic rainfall and extreme temperatures being common features in many region of thestate. To combat this situation a project at Gowardhanpura and Gokulpura villages fromBundi district was implemented, which has evolved as a typical drought proofing approachin the dry region of Rajasthan.Innovative Recharge Measures in the Catchment AreaDevelopment and management of common and private wastelands, recharge measures inthe catchment area with conventional and innovative measures have transformed the

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ecosystem and improved the socio economic conditions of the people. Wells have abundantwater for two crops. Land which produced `3000 to `4000/acre, for the very first time,produced over `25000 worth/acre. In the year 2000-01, and even a year before, this regionwas declared as drought affected except for the project villages. The common wastelandshave been converted into productive pasturelands and are managed by silvipasturecommittees. After satisfying the local fodder requirement, the committee sells the surplusgrass and earns profit every year. The approach has high replicability value in the state ofRajasthan and is being adopted in the state by many agencies including Government.Networked PondsThis approach has been implemented at Adihalli-Mylanhalli area in Hassan district ofKarnataka, which receives medium to scanty rainfall (average 650 mm a year) and has noaccess to any irrigation projects. Before the project interventions crop yields were low andnearly half the population did not enjoy yearlong food security. For the first time in this region,a system of networking dug out farm ponds was used to improve the groundwater table.

The Adihalli-Mylanhalli farm pond-networking project, implemented by BAIF hasbecome the model in the state of Karnataka. Its chief attractions are that it involves relativelylow investment, does not require high technology, can be implemented in less than twoyears, and very importantly, it is likely to work in virtually all dryland areas of India excepthilly regions and deserts. This approach has been implemented in most of the areas ofKarnataka. Also the project approach has been exposed at international level.Ground Water Recharging for Improved Irrigation in GujaratDroughts in Gujarat state are a recurring phenomenon, every alternate year about 37 talukasof the state experience drought conditions. Of the remaining talukas, 55 talukas experiencebelow normal rainfall during 40-50% years, while 91 talukas are likely to have inadequaterainfall once in four years. Looking at such a scenario and dependence on rainfed agricultureit has always been an issue of concern for many.

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To tackle the above situation, BAIF has introduced intensive ground water rechargingthrough recharge ponds, check dams, farm ponds, well recharging, insitu soil and waterconservation treatments. As a result, water resources especially dug wells and borewells inthe watershed have been increased. Earlier defunct borewells have also been revived.Intensive recharge mechanism followed with efficient management practices resulted tooverflow of few borewells during Monsoon and also for 10-15 days after monsoon. Thecropping intensity and farm productivity has been enhanced substantially.Conjunctive Use of Water Resources in Deccan TrapA pilot project was undertaken in Western Ghats part of the Deccan Trap to develop anappropriate technology to make maximum use of available water resources and alleviatethe scarcity problem as area receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon and faces acutewater scarcity in summer. This area located in Akole taluka of Ahmedanagar district inMaharashtra. Strong technological inputs, durable conservative measures and localinstitutional mechanism has shown sharp rise in all round development of the area. Theprogramme developed a methodology of integrating wasteland development throughhorticulture and forestry and water resource development, which has shown a way ofdeveloping the watersheds in Western Ghats for sustainable livelihood.The programme has been highly recognized at state level as well as national level.Village Watershed Committees have won three state level awards so far after 10 years ofwithdrawal of BAIF from the project.Pre and Post-Watershed Analysis: Impacts on Water ResourcesTo analyze the impact of watershed activities on water resources, the changes in watertable and area under irrigation and green cover has been compared.Change in Ground Water TableAs a consequence of conservation measures generally there is rise in groundwater level inopen and bore wells. Reported values on rise in water table under BAIF implementedwatershed programs are shown in Figure-1.

Figure -1 Rise in Ground Water Table

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Overall improvement in water table was reported from all states. In fact water tableis highly governed by the geohydrological conditions of the area. Hence it always needs tobe dealt along with yield of the wells and area under irrigation to understand the realimpact of recharge.Area under IrrigationRainwater conservation measures and rain water harvesting structures enhances theavailability of water for irrigation and ultimately motivates the farmer to bring more areaunder irrigation. Figure –2 shows percentage of area increased under irrigation.

Figure 2: Percentage increase in area under Iffigation.There is substantial increase in area under irrigation across all the states. This increase inirrigation has led to increased crop production. The graph shows that highest area increasedunder irrigation is in Karnataka and lowest in Maharashtra.Overall Impacts on environmentWith improved soil and water conservation and enhanced green cover, there is animprovement in micro-environment and eco-system, leading to sustainable development ofrural India.l Control of soil and water erosion in 574 watershed projects covering 341559 ha areain watershed development projects across 8 states.74 water projects are completed.l Plantation of orchards in six states on 56565 ha waste lands .This programme hasbrought most of the waste lands under green cover.l There is Av. 41.67% increase in green cover, highest increase of 50% in Karnatakaand 35% in Maharashtra.l Change in ground water table-There is av. rise of 2.67 m in water table, highest of 4.3m is observed in Gujarat and lowest of 1.5 m in Uttar Pradesh.

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Farmer, water and soil - there is no wrenching of this grandest unionThrough the impact analysis of watershed programmes being implemented by BAIF andother organizations including Government following conclusions are drawn:It reveals that watershed development is most relevant in addressing the issues oflivelihood, water and food security, minimization of risk of crop failure, empowering peoplefor sustainability development. When compared to conventional measures for ensuring thelivelihood and employment generation in dry land areas of country, the investment requiredis very less. There is remarkable enhancement of family income in BAIF programme, whichis `23344.6/-. Community participation at all stages of the project and strong institutionalmechanism developed in BAIF programme has increased the probability of the long termsustainability of programme. The village watershed committees are still managing theprojects very well even after ten years of project completion. The community managedpasturelands in Rajasthan and other common asset management of BAIF led projects havebecome role models for the respective states and many funding agencies. The recognitionof BAIF, its associate organizations and the village committees by the State and CentralGovernment and international agencies shows the importance and scalability of programme.The scalability of the projects has already been observed at all key programme stakeholderlevel. The role of BAIF as Resource Support Organization (RSO) has also made it possible toinfluence the policies of important programmes being implemented in India.

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Kakade B. K., Karmarkar Preeti, Patil Sushama, Kulkarni Prasad, and Patil Nitin. 2010. LivelihoodTechnobank for Sustainable Development of Backward Districts in Maharashtra, India. Proceedings ofthe World Aqua Congress, Volume I. Pages 178-185.

Livelihood Techno-bank for Sustainable Development of BackwardDistricts in Maharashtra, IndiaAbstractBAIF Development Research Foundation is working as a consortia leader for National AgriculturalInnovation Project (NAIP) which aimed at development of replicable and sustainable livelihoodopportunities through developing strong people’s institutions in backward districts ofMaharashtra. In Maharashtra, 11 districts have been classified as backward districts by NAIP.BAIF is implementing the project in 76 villages spread over 10 clusters in 5 districts ofMaharashtra viz., Nandurbar, Ahmednagar, Yeotmal, Chandrapur and Gadchiroli. The localrural population of this region depends heavily on agriculture and farm wages. In the absenceof assured irrigation and rainfall, the agricultural productivity is significantly low as comparedto the average crop yields in the state. Hence, it is found to be an excellent opportunity to developa replicable model for promoting sustainable livelihood for the small and marginal farmersliving in such a distress condition. The overall programme design is innovative and based on asolid foundation of people’s participation and developing vibrant people’s organizations. Sincethe project period is of five years i.e. 2007-2012, following sustainability initiatives have beentaken up for continuation of development process even after the project period.(1) Planning with participation of farmers(2) Community empowerment through knowledge bank and institution building(3) Tapering support to participants(4) Sustainability fund creation(5) Synergy development with Government organizations(6) Establishment of Technology Transfer Centers

Innovative interventions have been taken up with family focused approach and withparticipation of farmers providing tapering support to develop ownership amongst participants.Community empowerment process is being done through institutional set up and trainingsand exposure visits as a knowledge bank. Sustainability fund creation through contribution byparticipants is important for post project management and continued development of village.Linkage and synergy with different organizations will assure long term association with thecommunity after the project period. Technology Transfer Centers have been established atcluster level which envisages all project activities as demonstration centre for all projectinterventions, training centre for capacity building of people organization and extension centreto reach out farmers through different extension programmes.

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IntroductionNational Agricultural Innovation .Project (NAIP) is a major initiative of Indian Council forAgricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi which emerged with the mission of establishinga system and action-based research consortium for improvement in livelihood in 150backward districts of country. Under which BAIF Development Research Foundation, Punehas been working as a Consortium Leader to implement the Sustainable Rural LivelihoodSecurity Project (SRLS) in five backward districts of Maharashtra viz., Yeotmal, Gadchiroli,Chandrapur, Nandurbar and Ahmednagar. The project coverage is 76 villages divided in 10clusters from five districts of Maharashtra. The overall objective of the project is to developreplicable and holistic approach for promoting sustainable livelihood for tribal and remoteareas of Maharashtra through integration and blending of tested technologies and strategiesof family focused and area based programmes. Project implementation period is five yearsi.e. from 2007-2012. Project activities and expected outputs are as below (Table.1)Table.1 Project Activities and Expected Outputs

Project Activities Expected OutputsImproved cultivation practices (INM, Increase in agricultural yield on the farm ofIPM, seeds) participant familiesWater resource development Help for protective irrigation as well asincrease in cropping intensityTasar Additional employment generation throughagriculture, value addition and allied activitiesWadi / Orchard Improved health of cattle and goatsImproved breeding efficiency of cowsLivestock development and buffaloesImproved milk productionSustainability StrategyProject design is based on a solid foundation of people’s participation and developing stronginstitutions of people for ensuring the sustainability. Project sustainability here meanscontinuity as well as escalation of development process initiated through projectinterventions even after exit of the implementing organization. Initially, during the projectperiod, BAIF is playing the role of facilitator and later entire responsibility will be handedover to the People’s institutions. Most significantly, efforts to improve self- esteem, technicalcapacities, and socio-economic status of community inculcated during the project will ensuresustainability of development.Sustainability InitiativesPlanning with Participation of FarmersThe project has been implemented using a family focused and area based intervention approach.After studying the baseline information of the participating farmers, basic and proven technologybased possible interventions, comprising of soil and water conservation, water resource

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development, water management techniques and improved agriculture inputs were discussedwith farmers. A basket of innovative interventions, comprising of new technologies wereexplained to the farmers and individual family based planning was done in participatory manner.The farmers who volunteered for this process were offered the interventions. Thus, planningof every intervention has been done with the participation of farmers. This participatory processhas been instrumental in developing ownership of the participants.Community EmpowermentPeople’s participation and their ownership of development initiatives are keys tosustainability. The People’s institutions operate as an intermediate structure to reach outto masses and carries out various functions simultaneously at the community level. Withthe presence of strong people’s institutions at the village level, it is easy to communicateand transfer modern technologies for improving agricultural production and profitability.Knowledge BankExposure visits and trainings on improved agriculture practices, water resource development,horticulture plantations, wadi development, women empowerment, livestock caps etc havebeen conducted successfully which will act as a enduring knowledge bank. So far 224trainings have been conducted for more than five thousand participants. Also linkage withKVKs, PRIs, line departments, Agricultural Universities has been developed with POs forlong term association with the community.Institution BuildingBAIF has been working with a three tier model of people’s institutions (Fig.1).

Fig. 1. Three Tier Model of People’s InstitutionIt has been thought of formalizing one central management committee for all 10clusters. Formalizing three instead of 10 cluster committees will be representatives ofcluster committees and these committees would work as branches of central committee.The central committee would closely work with cluster committees to enhance theircapacities for post project management of the programme as well in successful running of

Primary GroupsVillage Committee

ClusterConstitutes representatives from villagecommittees in a cluster, form a body thatshould work towards continuation of project.Constitutes representatives from primarygroups; coordination of interventions in villagebetween primary group and cluster committee.Common interventions groups; members helpeach other to implement project activities.

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enterprises established through project contribution (Fig. 2). From sustainability point ofview, small scale enterprises have been planned at clusters. Scoping exercises with clustercommittee members were done and accordingly necessary equipments are installed throughproject support such as decentralized feed mix units, urea-DAP briquetting machines, bulkmilk coolers, poly houses etc. Technical capacity building of people to utilize these assetsas enterprises is being done. Along with technical trainings, inputs for overall management,establishing linkages with government agencies are being given to the committee members.Village committees have been linked to NABARD’s programme of Farmers’ Clubs. Alongwith coordination of project activities in their village, they can work for overall awarenessenhancement of villagers on the issues of development.

Fig. 2. Institutional SetupTapering of Support to ParticipantsProject support for inputs has been provided to participants to carry out the recommendedactivities in their field for improving farm production. The support strategy has been decidedas, during the first year of project 75% support has been given to farmers, onwards 50%and 25% for second and third years respectively and later they have to continue the activitieson their own. This will lead to continuation of the improved practices and inputs beyondproject period.Sustainability Fund (Money Bank)Creation of sustainability fund is important for continued development even after exit of theorganization. It has been decided to create a fund through contribution of participating farmersfor post project management of the initiatives of sustainable livelihood. Contribution amountsto 10% cost of each intervention wherever possible. This leads to feeling of ownership of theparticipant. This fund will be used for sustaining and carry-over of project Activities aftercompletion of the project so far the total contribution at project level is `10,00,000/-.

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Synergy DevelopmentLinkage of village committees with NABARD through Farmers’ Clubs will prove as apersistent activity because of significant benefits offered through it. It increases the creditflow and creates diversification of lending in addition to socioeconomic development ofvillage. Farmers club helps to organize joint activities like value addition, processing, andcollective farm produce and products marketing, etc. for the benefit of members. Hence,new business avenues can be generated by establishing farmer’s club in the village.Establishment of Technology Transfer CentersTechnology Transfer Centers have been established at cluster level through project support.Eventually, these centers will be managed by cluster level committees. The programmeinitiated will be managed in future through these centers. All project activities are nowlinked to the center. Accordingly capacity building of the members has been undertaken.Community centers will serve three major objectives as demonstration of all relevantactivities, training center for farmers and extension centre to reach out more and morefarmers through effective extension programme. Activities under Technology Transfer Centrecan be classified in three categories.Technology DemonstrationsSeed ProductionSeed production programme has been undertaken at village level so as to make assuredavailability of quality seed at local level. Initially, seed production activity has been undertakenin Ralegaon cluster of Yeotmal district for Soybean in kharif and for Wheat and Gram inrabi season. Most preferred variety of Soybean-JH 335, wheat-HD 2189 and Gram-Vijayhave been cultivated. After harvesting, grading has been done and higher grade seed hadreimbursed 20% extra price for the beneficiary.The activity has been carried out with recommended package of practices on participant’sfield and on 10 acre of area in every season and supposed to opt for near about 50 acrearea in next year.Seed BankSeed bank concept came forward to conserve and store the seed for further utilization. Ithas been decided as the improved seed when given to participant for demonstration on hisown field, the same quantity of seed should be stored and used in next year by otherparticipant. Thus activity has been initiated in Khandbara cluster of Nandurbar district.Organic Farming DemonstrationsTo facilitate farmers for adoption of organic farming for better crop production, demonstrationson organic manure like vermicompost, vermiwash and organic pesticides like dashparni extract,neem extract, neem oil etc. can be taken up at Technology Transfer Centre.Poly House as a Seedling BankIt is planned that need of saplings will be met through the community centers. Communitycentre will act as a nursery bank for different vegetable, floriculture, medicinal and foddercrops. Shade nets have been established at Community Centers of Mandane, Deothan,Ghatanji, Pombhurna and Aheri. They have started producing nurseries. Saplings of different

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varieties of vegetables, flowers, fodder can be supplied as per season and demand. Thisactivity will be undertaken by women, which will also enhance women’s participation inthe project activities. This will also enable the cluster farmers to see live demonstrations.Livestock Development CentreTo improve livestock production, introduction of improved cattle breeds is necessary. In thiscontext, artificial insemination activity has been initiated and carried out at TechnologyTransfer Centre with the help of efficient AI workers. Revenue generation for the center isthrough levying service charges for AI services offered by the center. This figure of revenuethus generated is variable and is directly proportional to no. of AI performed at the centerand will of course be decided by the rate of service charges. Increase in centre wise AIservices can be done through improving and maintaining the efficiency of the AI servicesthrough regular supervision and monitoring of the center activities. To run the centresmoothly it is necessary to undergo at least 100 AIs in a month. Eventually the activity willlend a hand to promote improved cattle population in the village for increased milk production.Goat BankGoat rearing proved to be economical venture in rural area. Hence, bucks of improvedbreed have been provided to participants for production of improved goat population incluster. In order to continue the activity, a goat bank concept has been promoted in whicha beneficiary after producing new goat reared for 4 months and hand it over to the nextnew participant for further rearing. In such way, new participants are getting involved inthe process and the activity will be continued in chain manner towards sustainability.Fodder DemonstrationsTo meet the fodder demand and overcome fodder scarcity fodder demonstrations of improvedfodder varieties are being carried out at Samsherpur, Ralegaon and Deothan clusters. Seasonwise different fodder crops have been demonstrated as below (Table.2)

Table 2. Fodder speciesNo. Season Fodder Crop1 Perennial Lucerne (Medicago sativa)Napier2 Kharif Cowpea (Vigna sinensis)Maize (Zea mays)3 Rabi Oat (Avena sativa)Beseem (Trifolium alexandrinum)4 Summer Bajra (Pennisetum typhoides)Cowpea (Vigna sinensis)

Input ServicesFeed Mix UnitEstablishment of feed mix units will help to provide proper feed to the livestock populationas well as an income source. Formulation of feed mix will be given to farmers and accordinglythey will be able to prepare a feed mix and make available at cluster level to improve healthof livestock population. The unit will be managed by cluster committee.

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Urea-DAP Briquette UnitApplication of Urea-DAP briquette in paddy cultivation has been introduced and adopted byfarmers in paddy growing clusters viz., Samsherpur, Pombhurna, Indaram and Etapalli.Thus, to make available the briquettes at cluster level and to reduce cost of production theUrea-DAP briquette machines have been installed in Samsherpur, Pombhurna and Indaramclusters. To produce the briquettes, urea and DAP need to be added in the proportion of40:60 respectively. The management and operation of the machine will be carried out bycluster committee.Value AdditionLinseed Processing UnitLinseed processing unit has been established at Sangamner in Ahmednagar district. Thecapacity of the unit is 1 ton linseed per day. So far 1507 kg oil has been sold at the rate of`225/- per kg. Also poultry feed of 6000 kg has been distributed at the rate of `45/-.Revenue generated from sale of linseed oil and poultry feed is `3,39,075/- and `2,70,000/- respectively.Bulk Milk CoolerBulk milk coolers (Direct Expansion Closed Type 2000 LPD) have been established at Keliand Hiwargaon, Tal Akole, District Ahmednagar, with an aim of making available milk collectionfacilities for its programme participants in the Shamsherpur and Devthan clusters. Initially,the operationalisation of bulk milk cooler will be done by regional co-operative society, viz.Amrutsagar Sahakari Dudh Vyavsaik and Prakriya Sangh Maryadit, Akole, Dist- Ahmednagar(M.S) and after capacity building of people it will be entrusted to people’s institution.Forest Based InterventionsTasar culture, sericulture and lac cultivation proved to be good approaches to involvemarginal farmers and landless particularly women, as it can be a source of assured incomeyear around. As on, 104 families are engaged with tasar culture with average yield of 4000cocoons/family. So far 4 lakh cocoons have been harvested which incurred `3 lakh cultivationhas been undertaken on 243 trees successfully. However, it found important to standardizethe technologies and initiate value addition to silk rearing. Hence, silk reeling and marketlinkage has been established.Innovative InterventionsIntegrated Fish FarmingThis innovative activity encompasses many subactivities like water harvesting, fish farming,irrigation, crop cultivation, sericulture, etc. entrenched within it. The pond mainly constructedfor fish farming will harvest the rain water and store it for fish cultivation. Water storedin the pond can be used for mulberry cultivation and other crop within the coverage ofpond. Silk worms can be reared through mulberry cultivation and droppings and otherwaste of silk worms will be utilized as a fish feed. Also after silk rearing, for value additionsilk reeling will be initiated (Fig. 3).

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Fig. 3: Integrated Fish Farming

Network of BodiesNetwork of bodies (local name for an irrigation pond) is in progress in Jivti cluster. Small pondprovides access to water for the farmer to develop orchard as well as it will improve the waterlevel of entire aquifer. This will prove effective in improving the overall agricultural productivity.ConclusionImproved and innovative technologies have been introduced in the project area and adoptedby the farmers which become manifested with encouraging results. The technologies havebeen disseminated through different trainings and exposure visits for empowerment ofindividuals and people’s organization. The empowered people’s organizations and cadre offield guides and their strong linkage with the resource organizations (KVKs, AgriculturalUniversities, Government departments, private sector companies for marketing the products)will ensure the continuity as well as the intensification of project activities. Thus the People’sOrganizations (POs) have been formed and empowered to take forward the developmentprocess initiated during project.Technology Transfer Centers (TTCs) at cluster level are visualizing the successfultechnologies and different enterprises within the project area which further will act asinstitute for knowledge bank and a media for organizing value chain. After exit of theorganization smooth running of the project activities is required and this can be possiblethrough development of TTCs. Also value chain concept has been established as a postharvest processing and marketing of the agricultural products. This will ensure longer-termassociation of community with the market. It is planned that the organizational linkage forall clusters will be carried out through central committee for better management in future.

Irrigation

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Mitigating Global Warming while Providing Sustainable Livelihoods. LEISA INDIA.March 2010. Pages 16-17.

Mitigating Global Warming While Providing Sustainable LivelihoodsAnimal husbandry is an important and integral part of agriculture, which has been undersevere neglect and totally disconnected from the agricultural sector. The livestock sector ischaracterized by low production, poor contribution to rural economy and suppression oflivelihood of small farmers. India hosts over 17% of the world’s livestock but theirperformance is only to the extent of 25-30% of their counterparts in developed countries.With the growing livestock population, without any serious effort for genetic improvementand increasing fodder production, there has been a severe shortage of feed and fodderresources which have been affecting their productivity further.Livestock is being considered as a threat to eco-system and environment in manydeveloped countries. Climate change will further impose new challenges and uncertainties.India stands third among the highest releasers of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere becauseof large population. India has also been contributing substantial quantity of methane, anothergreen house gas which is released from livestock and their dung. Methane poses a moreserious threat compared to carbon dioxide as it can absorb 23 times more heat. Thereforeemission of methane can be a serious concern as India owns the largest livestock populationin the world. However, for over 75% of the small farmers in India, livestock is an importantsource of income for livelihood. For these farmers, immediate food security from livestockis the primary concern, inspite of their ill-effects on the environment.Over the years, cattle have made a significant contribution to rural economy in theform of nutritious milk, bullock power and manure. In the absence of adequate technicalservices for genetic improvement, timely health care and feeding of balanced ration, theproductivity of cattle and buffalo has decreased significantly over the years. Thus, the smallfarmers have developed a tendency to increase their herd size to generate additional income,which has been increasing the pressure on the supply of fodder and feed resources. BAIFsexperience has shown that dairy husbandry can generate gainful self employment even forlandless and women-headed families, who could purchase crop residues and fodder fromother farmers. Sustainable income from crossbred cows, has weaned them from workingfor wages. This way, genetic improvement of cattle as well as buffaloes helped small farmersto come out of poverty, keeping a small number of animals, while significantly contributingto environmental conservation and reduction of global warming. This programme today isspread over 55,000 villages in 12 states benefitting over 3 million BPL families. With an

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annual budget of `30 crores, the BAIF Programme is able to promote production of milkworth `2500 crores (USD520 million)/annum through small farmers. Upgradation of localnon-descript cattle through crossbreeding has now been adopted by most of the StateGovernments in the country placing India on the top slot in milk production in the world.Similarly goat rearing which is considered as a threat to the ecosystem could be handledcarefully to help small farmers make a living. BAIFs experience in Rajasthan, Gujarat, WestBengal and Gujarat has proved that goat rearing could be promoted among small farmerswithout being harmful to the Environment.Scope for Reducing Green House GasesFurther efforts can be made to reduce emission of greenhouse gases through livestock bypromoting special programmes in the sector. These include reduction of livestock population,reduction in methane production by livestock and recycling of methane generated to meetthe energy needs.Reduction of unproductive livestock should be taken seriously as they are draining ourprecious feed resources which are in short supply, while exerting pressure on biodiversityand environment. Awareness needs to be generated among farmers about the opportunitylosses by keeping low yielding animals. This is a serious problem in cattle as farmers areunable to dispose off their unproductive cattle, both female and male. While cows can beused at least for producing crossbreeds, managing bullocks is becoming a major problem,as tractors and power tillers have replaced bullock in the farming sector, turning bullocksuneconomical even for small holders. Therefore, a serious review of the livestock policyshould be taken to deal with conservation of a large number of native draft breeds, theireconomics and utility for our farmers.It is necessary to explore economic use of bullock power as an alternate source of energy,by designing new bullock-powered machines and tools. Development of single bullock drawnimplements, water pumping system and power generation device for lighting houses mayturn these bullocks economical.The other area for mitigating global warming in livestock sector is by reducing methaneemission in the atmosphere. Livestock produce methane while digesting various types offeed. Studies have confirmed that some of the feeds rich in fibre content accelerate methaneemission. Thus, further techniques should be developed to process fibrous feed to breakdown lignin before feeding to livestock for reducing methane generation. There aretechniques to degenerate fibre through physical, biochemical and microbial processes whichcan probably be perfected and popularized among dairy farmers.Capturing methane gas from cattle sheds before escaping into the atmosphere can also beexplored. Methane released from dung can be easily prevented by generation of biogas, byevery livestock owner. Presently, this aspect has been almost neglected, inspite of shortageof other sources of energy for domestic cooking and lighting. Major reasons for poorpopularity of biogas plants, which have been promoted by Khadi and Village Industries andvarious Ministries ever since our independence are poor design of the plant needing largespace, high capital cost, poor post installation services and attractive subsidy offered forother fuels such as kerosene, electricity and biomass. Further R and D efforts are needed to

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develop compact biogas plants which can be installed even on roof top and operated byusing biodegradable domestic wastes as well with dung.Production of fodder to meet shortage of feed should also be taken up on priority, to producesuperior quality, easily digestible fodder, instead of feeding highly fibrous roughages.Development of fodder tree plantations on degraded and dry lands and reclamation of ravineand saline lands will not only meet fodder needs but also enhance green cover and rechargingof ground water table. Presently, farmers are totally ignorant of the ill-effects of livestock onglobal warming. Hence, a serious awareness campaign should be organised to involve themto adopt eco-friendly practices to reduce the ill-effects.Indeed, the strategy for India should be to promote such eco-friendly activities which willhelp in mitigating climate change while supporting sustainable livelihoods for the poor.Development programmes should motivate common people to take active role by showingimmediate benefits for them. While involving the poor in development programmes, it isnecessary to ensure that the participants have opportunities to earn their livelihood, whilecontributing to the cause of development.

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Petwal Aditya1, Kakade Bharat2, Petare Kiran3, Jamshed Bamji3 and Neelam Ganesh4. 2010. LivelihoodEnhancement Strategies for Tribal Regions of Maharashtra. Paper published in Kurukshetra, Nov.2010. Pages 34 - 40.1 Cinl, Ahmedabad2BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune 411058, India3 Sir Ratan Tata Trust, Mumbai4 Cinl, TatanagarLivelihood Enhancement Strategies for Tribal Regions of MaharashtraMaharashtra, the third largest state of India, with an area of 307,713 kilometers is locatedin the south western part of the Central Indian tribal belt. Tropical conditions prevail allover the state with temperatures ranging between 22oC – 39oC. Spatially, rainfall is unevenlydistributed, wherein districts of Thane, Raigad, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg district receivesan annual rainfall of 2,000 mm, whereas districts of Pune, parts of Ahmednagar, Dhule,Jalgaon, Satara, Sangli, Solapur and parts of Kolhapur get 600 mm or lesser annual rainfall.The state reports high Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of approx `20,600 but stands relativelylow within the Human Development Index (HDI), ranking 8th in the list. The agriculturedevelopment is low and only 15% of Net Sown Area is under irrigation. The state’s HumanDevelopment Report (2002) indicates that about 57% of rural and 54% of urban householdsconsume less than the required standard daily intake of 2,700 calories. Nutritional deficienciesare more prevalent among women, children and tribal population. For NRM based livelihoodinterventions, out of 35 districts, 17 districts have been identified by the Central IndianInitiative, Clnl1 as tribal districts, based on high concentration of tribal population. Thesedistricts cover 80% of the total tribal population of Maharashtra.StrategiesFor strategy formulation, the tribal areas in Maharashtra have been categorized into fiveregions, based on respective agro-climatic features. On the basis of local geo-hydrogeology,agro climatic conditions and existing livelihood system, region specific water centric NRMbased livelihood strategies have been suggested. As food insecurity is the larger concern intribal villages, emphasis in on augmenting the Net Sown Area and Net Irrigated Area throughwater resource development. Depending on local conditions, models of agro-forestry andmicro enterprises (livestock development) can also be promoted in different zones. Theseactivities need to be based on household level and village level micro plants, which takecognizance of the local agro geo hydro socio economic conditions. Based on the resourcesowned by households and the available water resources in the area (not only with theparticular household), members of the local community, together with the programmeimplementers, should identify suitable interventions for sustaining their livelihoods.Rain Rich Western GhatsThis area gets mean annual rainfall in the range of 800 to 3300 mm. Presence of Basalticrocks with very low porosity and permeability allows limited scope for ground water

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development. In absence of irrigation support (21%) the net sown area is only 51%.Productivity of dominant crops is also less.To develop irrigation support, surface water potential can be tapped, through creation ofsmall water bodies like farm ponds in the catchments and pick-up weirs in the streams. Indegraded areas, regeneration of vegetative cover is important to maximize the wateravailability to streams and springs. Presence of numerous fractures and dykes can beexplored for recharging the up-stream area, which then could be extracted in downstreamareas. A series of recharge pits and small ponds can be used for augmenting the water inthese features. To augment the yield and flow of existing large number of springs, whichmostly go dry in summers, recharge measures in catchments can be undertaken. Additionally,by developing storage facilities like ponds or tanks, water stored can be utilized for drinkingof irrigation purposes. Due to rugged nature of the topography, gravity flow based watersupply for irrigation is restricted only in the nalla /river bank areas.WADI Program of MITTRAPromotion of tree based farming on private wastelands for foodsecurity and income generation is a major programme of MITTRA, agrassroots organization having its operations spread major acrossparts of tribal Maharashtra.The poor families participating in this programme, popularly knownas Wadi (Orchard Development), cultivate drought tolerant fruit cropssuch as mango, cashew, Indian gooseberry, tamarind, custard apple,ber, etc. on their marginal or wastelands covering one acre. The inter-space is used for cultivating arable crops, which they have beengrowing earlier, while the field bunds and borders are used to establishhardy shrubs and trees useful for fodder, fuel, timber and herbalmedicines. Formation of Self Help Groups (SHG) of women and men,establishing village level planning committees to organize essentialsupport service and linkages of these groups with financialinstitutions were the other components to implement the programmemore efficiently. Each Wadi owner can earn `20,000 to `25,000annually from his small plot of land, once the trees start bearing fruits.Providing means of livelihood during the gestation period was verycritical. This was provided through promotion of agriculture in theinter-space, introduction of short gestation cash crops, processing offood and herbal medicines, livestock and poultry husbandry, etc.Micro-credit was organized through SHG’s and their linkage withfinancial institutions to take up these activities.Wadi orchards can be definitely seen as a long term natural capital baseto support tribal livelihoods. This model can therefore be replicated onlarge scales in other parts of country for tribal development.

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Hence, extensive use of lift irrigation schemes needs to be promoted to supply waterfrom low level valleys to plateaus. Another option is roof rainwater harvesting, which canbe used both, for consumptive and productive purposes – mainly for small-scale vegetablecultivation. For enhancing the people’s livelihoods, immense potential of orchard farmingneeds to be exploited. Mango and cashew orchards under the Wadi program can be highlyrewarding to tribal households. The water resources development strategy has to becomplimented with promoting cultivation of short duration and low water demandingcrops, whereby both, area under cultivation and yield under Rabi crop can be enhanced.Moderate Rains Western GhatsMost of the physiographical and geo-hydrological features in this region are similar to therain rich region. However, in this area, there is alluvial cover in Tapi river basin (Shirpur).This needs to be explored for deeper aquifers. The ground water potential also exists injoint plains and vesicles. Unconfined aquifers are at depth of 15-20 meters and deeperaquifers at 50 meters. Consequently, a water budgeting exercise is recommended in thisregion to access the water availability in selected aquifers. In this region there are twoextreme situations: (1) Agricultural land is in upper reaches of the plateau, far from drainagecourse where stream water is not accessible, and (2) Agricultural areas are around theseasonal streams along the drainage courses (perennial or seasonal) where stream wateris also accessible. In the first case, tree based farming needs to be promoted, which alsoutilizes the surface water sources such as small to medium size farm ponds, lined orunlined, depending on nature of strata. In the relatively better areas of the second case, acombination of tree based farming, crops for consumptive purpose and cash crops can bepromoted. Improvement and promotion of traditional phad systems and constructing seriesof water harvesting structures in the steams will make the water available for direct useand will also improve the ground water. This will result in assured irrigation during theRabi season and increase the second crop area. Temporary gunny bag structures are veryuseful for using the water stored from ephemeral flow of seasonal rivers for protectiveirrigation to the second crop, cultivating the vegetables and also for the livestock. Bypromoting grassland development programmes in catchment areas, livestock developmentactivity can get a boost.Undulating Hilly Mountainous Moderate RainsThough this region receives over 1,000 mm rainfall annually, it has faced consecutive droughtsituations. In Yavatmal and Amravati areas, ground water occurrence is restricted to theweathered zone controlled by fractures and joints (in Yavatmal – South East portion). Groundwater recharging through existing open wells will enhance the ground water in the area.General water table is at a depth of 10-15 meters (Yavatmal) and 15-20 meters (Amravati),which is seasonal and wells have tapped unconfined aquifer. In Yaotmal and Wardha,emphasis should be given on development of dug wells in South-East areas and bore wellsand dug wells in other areas. Both surface water and ground water availability is greaterin the low-lying areas and consequently, elevated areas have no access to the assuredwater. Concept of community wells can be introduced in this area to tap ground wateravailable in the potential aquifers. Water tapped in the aquifer can be shared by the group

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of farmers owning the land in the aquifer – both in upper reaches and lower reaches. It ismost important to ensure that the water extracted is replenished through recharge measures.In Amravati, surface water harvesting structures should be in the areas of ‘Dharni’ and‘Chikaldhara’ and in case of ‘Warud’, ground water development based on recharge measuresshould be undertaken. The recharge measures could be based on a Watershed Approach. InNagpur area, aquifers are unconfined and seasonal water table is at a depth of 10-15 meters.Bore wells tap deeper aquifers at a depth of 50-60 meters, thus wherever there is potentialfor ground water development, aquifer based water resource development can be doneeffectively. In eastern side of Nagpur district, i.e. Ramtek, Umred Taluka side, farm pondbased decentralized water harvesting measures are proposed. In the western part of thisdistrict, in Katol taluka side, well recharging, farm ponds, field bunding and drainagetreatments can be promoted. Water budgeting exercise is recommended in these regions toassess the water availability in the selected aquifers and accordingly crop planning needsto be undertaken. Broadly, in this region, a combination of horticulture, field crops forhousehold consumption and cash crops and vegetable cultivation may be planned.Rain Rich Eastern VidharbhaIn the tribal blocks of this region, the rainfall varies between 1,200 mm to 1,400 mm, butits pattern is highly erratic. Paddy which is the main Kharif and staple food crop of this areagets severely affected due to erratic rain and consequently has a negative effect on the foodsecurity in the region. Thus, enhancement of food security in tribal villages through provisionof supportive irrigation by field level water conservation during dry spells needs to bepromoted in this region. Especially in Chandrapur district, farm level conservation or smallercatchments management approach seems to be best suitable. Bodi (a traditional waterharvesting structure) needs to be strengthened and revived, by enlarging the existing onesand developing new ones. It also enhances the groundwater around, which can be tappedthrough open wells. Recharge measures, especially bunding, can be adopted in theentychment of bodi tanks. The bodi/ponds also can also be networked for efficient waterharvesting. A cropping pattern with silvipasture in the uplands, dryland farming in thecultivated area of catchment and irrigated crops (field crops and horticulture) in thecommands of bodi bandh can then be promoted in this region. This would tend to mitigatethe risks associated with an erratic monsoon and would also increase the existing croppingarea through promotion of a second crop. In Gadchiroli area, the study of geo-hydrologyindicates that area has good potential for ground water development and utilization throughopen wells. In this region a combination of watershed based resource management, mainlywater in the streams and groundwater development, will substantially enhance the irrigatedare and allow second crop cultivation. Malgujari tanks, a dying traditional water conservationand utilization system in Vidarbha region, also needs to be revived to harvest maximumamount of rainwater.Through increase in the irrigation coverage in the region, the agricultural productioncan be enhanced and micro-enterprises, including fishery, can be promoted thereby creatingemployment for the community, including landless. Through development of pasture landby involving people, livestock development and livestock based enterprises can also bepromoted successfully in this area.

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Phad Irrigation: A case of Yaotmal districtThe community-managed phad irrigation system, prevalent in northwesternMaharashtra, probably came into existence some 300-400 years agro. Thesystem operated on three rivers in the Tapi basin – Panjhra, Mosam and Aram– in Dhule and Nasik district. The size of a phad can vary from 10-200 hectares.Length of canal varies from 2-12 km, with a discharge capacity of 450 L/second. The excess flow reaches the low-lying farms, once the upper area isirrigated. The farmers at the head region are not allowed a second irrigationuntil all the farmers at the lower end receive the irrigation water. Theuniqueness of the system lies in regular maintenance by the committee throughcollection of water charges; equitable sharing of available water by the membersand pre decided cropping pattern based on water availability. However, withconsistent deterioration in management system, traditional systems aregradually dying.Dilasa, a civil society organization working in Yaotmal for development of neglectedtribes, came across an indigenous practice similar to the phad system beingundertaken by Dhangars of Dhangarwadi. However, the Dhangars, who had triedto revive the traditional Phad system, had to construct, on a regular basis, atemporary dam and the phad channels, which used to get washed away due to therains. To revive the system, a planning exercise was carried out along with Dhangars,concentrating mainly on the construction of the masonry structures and the phadchannels to take water to the agriculture fields. The technical experts dovetailingthe indigenous knowledge of the Dhangars designed the construction of twostructures; one immediately beneath the body wall of the minor irrigation tankand the other abouyt 200 meters downstream. Apart from theser physicalinterventions, inputs in terms of the crop management, soil conservation,horticulture promotion and capacity building have been provided to the Dhangars.Having studied the pasty management systems and the discussions with theDhangars, a strong and robust management system was developed. The farmerwho had initially undertaken the revival work is the President of the use groupformed for the Operations and Maintenance (OandM) of the project. All the familiesbenefiting from the irrigation are members of the group and pay the water chargesfor the management purposes. The user group presently is at a nascent stage, buthas developed all the norms for the sustainable management of the system. Thekey output has been the large scale increase in land under irrigation from theprevious 9 acres to presently 72 acres, which has become the base for cultivatingdiverse crops.

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The Other Drought Prone Areas in MaharashtraExcept for the tribal blocks of Nanded, other blocks of drought prone tribal areas receiveless than 800 mm of annual rainfall. Although agriculture land is of relatively better qualityhere than the other tribal areas, rainfall quantity, pattern and dependability are unfavorable.Hence, agriculture based livelihoods are always at stake. Consequently, development of adrought proofing approach in the drought prone areas is the need of the hour. In the areaswhere there is constraint of substantial improvement of groundwater, tree based farming(wadi approach), silvipasture and livestock development should be the priority. In areaslike Jalgaon, due to good groundwater potential, groundwater development should be theMalgujari tanksIn Vidharbha region of Maharashtra, about 10,000 Malgujari tankswere constructed over 300-350 years agro. However, thesetraditional systems have either completely become defunct or areon the verge of becoming so. The structures are located in a mannerso as to create decentralized water bodies around the village andensure access to most of the population in the area. The tanks arealso interconnected to harvest maximum amount of rainwater.Surplus water of upstream tank goes to the downstream one. Tankswere constructed and managed by the local communities. Theywere supposed to be the lifeline of the village. Unfortunately,unscrupulous interventions from outsiders led to a collapse oftraditional management mechanisms.

priority, whilst ensuring its balanced use. In case of Nanded district, surface water resourcedevelopment can have more potential for irrigation purposes as groundwater is restrictedto weathered zones. Revival of traditional Malgujari tanks can positively change the socio-economic conditions of people in the command areas. Water harvesting and rechargethrough farm ponds can be also adopted, mainly in Kinwat and Dharmabad. Jalgaon, on theother hand, has better potential for ground water, development in both, alluvium and Deccantrap formations. Here, the area between Chopda and Yaval has been identified as exhibitingpotential for shallow tube well development (GSI). As the ground water is already beingoverexploited in this area, it needs to be recharged through in-situ measures in thecatchments and well recharging in the down slope areas. Wherever there are silty or sandybeds in the streams, Underground Bandharas could be constructed. In such areas, fieldcrops for consumptive purposes, besides cash crops can be promoted for agriculture basedlivelihood enhancement.

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Some of the proven drought proofing approaches are

l Reserved aquifer: Identification of potential aquifers, enriching the waterreserves through intensive recharge measures, saving them for the dryperiod and then if required for next year.l Development of forest cover: Developing the forest cover (emphasizingon indigenous species) on private waste lands, bunds of agriculturallands and common lands. This resource so developed is available in futurefor sustaining the livelihoods of the community and the requirement oflivestock during periods of drought.l Silvipasture development: Developing silvipasture on common landsensures the availability of fodder for livestock, fuel wood, and surpluscan be sold. This also helps recharge the groundwater.l Emphasis on tree based farming: Normally, the water demand for tree-based farming (wadi approach) is less than the conventional field crops.Any deficiency in rains, which normally the drought prone areas face,does not significantly affect the production of tree crops.l Cropping pattern with minimum water demand: Cropping pattern shouldbe devised on the basis of minimum water availability. Detailed studieson water budgeting are necessary for assessing the water availabilityand demand in different seasons.

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Small Holders and Role of NGOs in Improving their Livelihood. Paper presented atthe NAARM workshop Sept. 2010.

Small Holders and Role of NGOs in Improving their Livelihood

Poverty in Rural IndiaWith the increasing population, demand for basic needs has been steeply rising during thepast five decades in most of the developing countries. The growing population needs food,clothing and shelter for themselves and fuel and fodder for their livestock. In India, over60-70% of the people living in rural areas neither has adequate land holdings nor alternateemployment to meet their basic needs. Among them, 35-40% families earning less than`36,000/annum are living in poverty. The poor are also adversely affected by shortage ofclean drinking water, poor health and illiteracy, leading to poor quality of life. Presently,about 25% villagers do not have assured source of drinking water all round the year and75% of the drinking water does not meet the standard prescribed by WHO.Traditional Indian society being male dominated; women have not been receiving equalopportunities for their development. While the average literacy rate in rural areas is around50-65%, it is as low as 20-25% among women in backward areas. Education for girls whichwas considered unnecessary in the past, has suppressed their development and quality oflife. Lack of communication and social taboos have also hindered their progress. Severalvested interests both local and outsiders, have exploited this situation. The local moneylendersdid not want alternate financial institutions to provide cheaper credit needed by the poor.Thus, the poor continued to live in the clutches of the powerful. Tolerating the worst andhoping for better days has been their way of life. To address these problems, it is necessaryto promote various development programmes ensuring their food security and empoweringthem to tackle their problems.Problems of Small HoldersWhile striving to improve their crop production, small farmers in India have been sufferingdue to the following constraints:Scarcity of LandIn India, although the contribution of agriculture to the Gross National Product (GNP) isaround 35%, in the absence of employment opportunities in industrial and service sectors,over 80% of the rural income is generated from agriculture and the rural poor spend about70% of their earnings on food. Over 12-15% rural families are landless and among the land

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holders, 69% are marginal farmers with less than 1 ha holding (17% of the total land) andabout 21% are small farmers with 1-2 ha (34% of land). Thus, about 90% families ownless than 51% lands, with a per capita holding of 0.19 ha. They had been treating agricultureas a family tradition, following age old practices until they saw the success of newtechnologies on the farms of their neighbours. Although agriculture is the major source oflivelihood, most of the small farmers are unable meet their needs from farming.Low Agricultural ProductivityOut of the 147 million ha agricultural lands, 60 million ha are located in arid zones andmostly owned by the poor families. As crop yields under rainfed conditions are generally lowand chances of crop failure are very high, a majority of the small farmers generally do notinvest in external inputs like improved seeds, fertilisers and plant protection measures andfurther end up with lower crop yields, even during normal years. Even if they are preparedto invest in required external agricultural inputs, in the absence of proper technical guidanceand timely supply of good quality inputs, small farmers have been failing to enhance theircrop production. Even with good technical support, it is extremely difficult for small farmers,dependent on rainfed farming to earn their livelihood from traditional farming systems. Inthe absence of irrigation and modern technologies, it is difficult to attract the youth toengage themselves in agriculture. This has been the reason for increasing unemploymentamong rural youth, who are passing through tension and frustration. Rainfed agriculture isalso a cause of seasonal employment. While the rainfall is distributed for over 150-175 days,most of the farmers deprived of irrigation will have no work for more than six months ontheir farms. As the income from one crop is not adequate to ensure food security, they arecompelled to migrate to urban areas in search of wages during lean seasons which arefurther affecting their agricultural production as well as their quality of life.Idle WastelandsApart from lands owned by small farmers, common lands and community pastures reservedfor fuel and fodder collection are also under neglect. The ownership of these lands is with theVillage Panchayat and all the members of the community have free access to these lands.The Panchayat has no control over the use while the community does not consider it theirresponsibility to manage these pastures. This has resulted in over-exploitation and denudationof the pastures. A similar situation prevailed in village woodlots and community forests.Thus, in spite of land scarcity, over 30% of the total area is either idle or under-utilised. Suchwastelands and denuded forests, unable to retain the rainwater, are promoting soil erosion,while hosting a wide range of pests and diseases. Improving the productivity of thesewastelands to revive the supply of fodder and fuelwood can help the poor to some extent.Neglect of Water ResourcesWater is a critical input for human consumption as well as for crop production but grosslyneglected by the community. Rivers and rainfall are the main sources of water for agriculturalproduction in India. However, in the absence of adequate soil and water conservationpractices, it is estimated that over 65% rainwater runs off, flooding the rivers and siltingthe water reservoirs. About 28% of the total cropping area in the country is under irrigation,

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where farmers have a tendency to use excessive water. In the absence of adequate trainingand demonstration, they believe that excess water can enhance their crop yields. As thewater charges are based on the area covered under irrigation instead of the quantity ofwater supplied, farmers do not want to restrict the use of water. With excessive use ofwater, precious nutrients are wasted while salts from lower profiles come up, adverselyaffecting soil productivity. Due to such inefficient use of water and nutrients, the averagecrop yield in India is only 1.9 tons/ha as compared to 4.5 tons/ha in China. Due to excessiveuse of water for irrigation, over 9.0 million ha fertile lands have turned into sodic andsaline wastelands, thereby posing a serious threat not only to food security and employmentgeneration but also to community health, biodiversity and the environment.Low Investment in InputsLack of investment in dry farming and rainfed agriculture has been a significant problem.Presently, about 80% of the chemical fertilisers and other agro-chemicals are being usedfor hardly 4-5 crops such as paddy, wheat, sugarcane and cotton, while there has not beensignificant use of improved seeds and agro-chemicals for crops grown under rainfedconditions. Practicing traditional farming without any serious effort for soil and waterconservation has resulted in poor yields and lower income. Small farmers have also beenfacing a problem of finance to ensure timely investment in agricultural inputs. Many of themare defaulters with local financial institutions either due to diversion of loans for consumptivepurposes or due to crop failures. Apart from this problem, the other problems are inadequatefinancing and delayed releases resulting in delay in farming operations and crop failures.Proper need assessment for consumptive and productive loans, fair rate of interest andtimely disbursement of money can help small farmers to enhance their production.Poor Post-harvest ManagementPost harvest handing of crops has been almost neglected by small farmers. Generally, thesmall farmers grow local food crops and do not have marketable surplus of produce. Hence,marketing aspect is generally ignored while promoting agricultural development projects.Small farmers in backward areas have been facing serious problems of harvesting, threshing,cleaning, drying and storing due to lack of infrastructure. This has resulted in delay and highcost of processing, apart from huge damage and wastage. They are unable to grow highvalue cash crops as it is difficult to organise market for smaller volumes.Lack of storage facilities in rural areas has been causing huge losses to farmers.Many small farmers who have 1 - 2 ha holdings produce surplus quantity of foodgrains.However, in the absence of adequate storage facilities, both in terms of safety and security,they have to dispose off a part of the produce immediately after the harvest and purchaselater from the market. Such farmers are at a double disadvantage because of wide variationin foodgrain prices, which range from 50-100%. The prices are generally the lowest duringthe harvesting season and become maximum before the harvesting period. In the absenceof storage facilities, these farmers end up spending twice the value of the foodgrain andoften face food shortage.

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Adverse Impact of DeforestationForests have been providing many direct and indirect benefits to rural communities. Asagainst the recommended 33% of the total geographical area to be placed under forestcover, only 22% land is under the Forest Department in India. Out of this area, over 50%land is devoid of vegetation due to over-exploitation and biotic pressure. As a result, theexistence of over 80 million tribals, who were dependent on forest products, has beenthreatened. Ill-effects of deforestation are evident in the form of shortage of fodder, fuel,timber, non-wood forest products and medicinal herbs. The indirect losses in the form ofsoil erosion, deepening of ground water table and reduction in green cover are far moresevere. Deforestation has been directly suppressing agricultural production, which is yet tobe realised by a major section of the rural society. Like community wastelands, the forestsare under the ownership of the Government but these precious resources cannot beprotected unless the local communities come forward for conservation.Low Productivity of LivestockLivestock is an important source of supplementary income. Mixed farming has been servingas an insurance against natural calamities, while supporting food security and nutrientrecycling. India has over 500 million livestock, which include cattle, buffaloes, sheep andgoats. Among them, cattle and buffaloes are popular for milk production. As milk is animportant part of the Indian diet and bullock power is essential for farming and ruraltransportation, rural families have been maintaining 2-3 animals but over 70% areuneconomical due to low genetic base and poor management. The average milk yield ofcows in India is 987 kg/lactation as compared to 4233 kg in Europe. This is because outof the 100 million cattle, over 80% are indigenous nondescript animals, which yield lessthan 250 kg milk/lactation and 10% cattle of elite nature breeds yield 800-1000 kg whileabout 10% of the crossbreds yield about 2000-3000 kg milk/lactation. India has the largestbuffalo population and the demand for buffalo milk is high due to high fat content. However,due to heavy genetic erosion, the average milk production is around 800 kg/ lactation witha long dry and intercalving period. Buffaloes will not be economical unless these problemsare addressed. The poor and landless prefer to maintain sheep or goats and let them loosefor grazing on community pastures. Such animals are a liability.Gender InequityGender inequity is another serious problem, particularly among the poor. In most parts ofIndia, men have been dominating women in the society as well as in the family, leading tosevere neglect of women development. Generally, depriving girls of schooling has resultedin increase in female illiteracy. Whenever, there was scarcity of food, males were fed wellby depriving females. Whenever there was sickness in the family, men took timely medicaltreatment; while there have been long delays in providing medical facilities to women. Lackof family planning affected women’s health significantly. Nevertheless, women had to sharelarger burden of the family, with respect to procuring the basic family needs such as water,fuel, fodder and even food. They also had to look after the livestock and work in agriculturalfields. This has been the tradition since long. Today, over 65% of the agricultural operationsin small farms are managed by women and with regard to livestock management, more

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than 85% labour is contributed by women. The future of food security in our country isdependent on the capabilities of our rural women, but they have not been receiving necessaryencouragement and training to adopt modern farming.Weak Extension and CommunicationThe agricultural extension has been weak due to poor transportation and communicationnetwork. Most of the farmers particularly in interior rural areas have no access to newtechnologies and market information. In the absence of committed extension officers, smallholders continue to live in poverty.Strategy for Sustainable DevelopmentDue to poor productivity of land, water resources and livestock and inefficient use of forestsalong with lack of capabilities and inadequate resources, it is difficult for small farmers toearn their livelihood. Realizing this serious situation, poverty alleviation has been the majoragenda of the Government of India. Thus, various community development programmeswere initiated to build the capabilities of the poor. These programmes provided skill-orientedtraining and supplied critical agricultural inputs either free or at subsided cost. However,most of these programmes did not succeed due to lack of people’s participation. Whilethere are plenty of opportunities for small farmers to improve their livelihood throughvarious on-farm and non-farm activities making use of appropriate technologies, it isnecessary to establish backward and forward integration to develop series of value chainsinvolving all the stakeholders on a common platform. This can bring down the cost ofproduction and value addition for the commodities produced by small farmers. It is alsonecessary to build the confidence and capabilities of these farmers to take active part inagricultural development and sustain the operation beyond the project period.Agriculture being the main source of rural employment for small and marginalfarmers, it is necessary to develop a suitable farming system which can generate year-round employment and substantial income to sustain their livelihood. However, increasingagricultural production on small farms is a challenge because even under well establishedirrigated conditions, the growth of the agriculture sector itself has been almost stagnant forthe last 8-10 years. Therefore, we need to take a fresh look at the present scenario and planfor another Green Revolution with a new focus.Second Green Revolution with a New FocusIn the 70’s, India was successful in creating a Green Revolution which gave a boost to theagriculture sector across the country. Green Revolution accelerated the yields of major foodcrops such as paddy, wheat, millets and oil seeds, particularly in the states of Punjab, Haryana,parts of Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. The success was due to introduction of high yieldingvarieties, use of effective agro-chemicals, introduction of mechanisation and infrastructure forstorage, processing and marketing. We need to create a similar revolution in the near futurebut with a focus on new areas where benefits of the first Green Revolution could not beharnessed earlier.The first Green Revolution was launched to ensure food security as there was severescarcity of food in the country. Today, our food supply is well secure. Meeting the growing

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needs is within reach. Therefore, the second Green Revolution should aim at promotingsustainable livelihood, while enabling the poor and small farmers to enhance theiragricultural production. While the first Green Revolution aimed at undertaking massagricultural production, the second Green Revolution should be to promote agriculturalproduction by the masses. This is the Gandhian approach to equitable sharing of prosperityby involving the poor in development. For achieving this goal, we need to search fortechnologies which can be adopted by small farmers in arid and semi-arid regions andthose who are dependent on rainfall for crop production.Scope for Enhancing Agricultural Production by Small FarmersWhile rich farmers in progressive areas will continue to make efforts to increase agriculturalproduction through modern technologies and innovative inputs developed in the privatesector, farmers in the rain-fed areas and backward regions will depend on the public sectorresearch and development institutions to help them to improve agricultural productivity ondegraded lands, with low investment in agricultural inputs. Hence, it is necessary to identifysuitable technologies and interventions to address specific local problems in the target areasfor improving agricultural production. The following activities can be given priority whiledeveloping small farmers.Agroforestry on Degraded LandsSustainable livelihood being the major concern, the focus of development should be ongeneration of employment for small and marginal farmers who are dependent on agriculturalproduction on degraded lands without irrigation. Presently, these lands are not being usedintensively for high value crops. Such lands can be profitably used for establishment ofdrought tolerant fruit crops and agri-horti-pastures, particularly when the annual rainfallis above 700-800 mm. Tree crops have the ability to withstand the vagaries of naturewithout sustaining heavy losses. Tree-based farming can also provide year-roundemployment while preventing soil erosion and runoff of rain water. Promotion oftree-based farming will also enrich soil fertility and increase the water table while absorbingatmospheric carbon dioxide all round the year. Farmers can easily earn a net income of`45,000 to `60,000/ha from crops like mango, cashew, custard apple, Indian gooseberryand tamarind once the orchards start bearing fruits. The interspace in the orchard can beused for growing food crops to ensure income right from first year.In addition to foodgrains and vegetables, there are many under-utilised plant specieshaving food, medicinal and nutraceutical uses which can be planted as inter-crops to fetchpremium price even in local markets. A wide range of multipurpose tree species can beplanted on farm bunds and borders to improve the micro-climate, while taking additionalbenefits. Therefore, tree-based farming can improve the quality of life and protect theenvironment. Promotion of horticulture can further open up opportunities for post-harvestprocessing and marketing opportunities not only to add value to the produce but also togenerate additional employment in rural areas.While promoting agri-horti-forestry, several new business opportunities can emergeto improve the profitability of the farming system and to provide additional employmentopportunities for small farmers and the landless. This is because agroforestry needs critical

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backward and forward integration to optimise the returns. Some of the following activitiescan be promoted under tree-based farming.1 VermicompostingIt is an income generation activity without any investment even for the landless. They cancollect organic matter from community lands and forests, procure inferior quality cropresidues and weeds and use dung to initiate vermicomposting on a commercial scale. Thisis a popular activity preferred by women in many states. There is good demand for theproduce even by local agriculturists because of its beneficial effects.2 Fruit NurseriesIn the regions where fruit production is popular, local Self Help Groups and individualfamilies can raise grafted fruit plants as an important income generation activity. In Gujarat,the tribal families are easily maintaining 1000-2000 grafted mango plants for 6-8 monthsand earning a net income of `12-15/plants. Availability of assured source of water and easymarketability are the pre-requisites for raising fruit nurseries on a large scale.

3 SericultureIt has good potential to provide substantial income within a short gestation of 4-6 months.However, assured supply of Disease Free Layings (DFLs), water for mulberry cultivationand assured market for cocoon are critical for the success. Mulberry can be grown as a solecrop or inter crop between fruit trees, along water channels, road sides and filed bunds.4 Mushroom CultivationCultivation of Oyster mushroom (Dhingri) can be promoted on a large scale. A family with a space of 3x 3 m to grow mushroom can earn a net income of `5000–`8000 annually through 6-8 cycles. Assuredmarket is needed for the success.5 Cultivation of Medicinal herbsThere are several medicinal herbs which have good demand in local markets. Some of themcan be cultivated as inter-crops in fruit orchards. Certain species perform well under partialshade. Such species can be cultivated to generate immediate income.6 Food ProcessingIt is estimated that about 10-30% of the agricultural produce, particularly fruits andvegetables are lost due to poor handling. Exploitation by traders further affects the profit.Hence, processing of horticultural produce is not only essential but also provides anopportunity to earn additional income.Development of WastelandsThere are over 40-50 million ha of wastelands, of which 9 million ha are sodic wastelands.Most of these were fertile irrigated fields which have turned sodic due to excessive irrigationand poor drainage facilities. With such misuse of rich natural resources, agriculturalproduction has been seriously affected while causing unemployment for small land holders.

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With reclamation of sodic lands, it is possible to enhance food production by 50-75 milliontons/annum while creating employment for 8-10 million people. Similarly, 2-3 million haof ravine lands remaining idle for decades can be brought under agri-silvi-pasture systemwhile improving the local economy and the biodiversity.Selection of Suitable CropsIn the absence of a proper land use plan, farmers try to grow high value crops on poorquality soils and end up in failure. Thus, selection of suitable crops is beneficial to optimiseproduction, avoiding failure. If the land is not economical even for cultivating normal foodcrops, drought tolerant forage species can be introduced while taking up livestockdevelopment as a major income generation activity. Among drought prone forage crops,there are perennials as well as self seeding seasonal species which germinate or sproutfrom the root stock soon after the onset of monsoon. Such forage crops can supportremunerative dairy husbandry for small farmers.Selection of suitable crop varieties has an added advantage in case of cereals andmillets, which are most commonly grown in arid regions. For instance, sorghum and pearlmillet are not only sources of foodgrains, but also important sources of fodder. Traditionally,farmers had selected such varieties which yielded 25-35% grain and 65-75% stalks, usedas forage. However during the era of the Green Revolution, hybrid varieties yielding 40-50% grain with inferior quality stalk were promoted, ignoring the fodder value of thesecrops. Now with significant development of the dairy farming sector, livestock owners inmany urban areas are buying chaffed sorghum stalks even at `5000 to `6000/ton. Withsuch high value forage, shifting back to old varieties or breeding new varieties with highfodder quality and yield without significant reduction in grain yield, needs to be taken onpriority.Promotion of eco-friendly low external input technologies will also play a very significantrole in improving the profitability of rain-fed crops. Technologies such as establishment ofshelter belts to prevent wind velocity, green manuring, mulching, use of vermicompost, farmyard manures, biofertilisers, biopesticides, fungicides and use of drought tolerant cropvarieties can reduce the requirement of inorganic nutrients and help in moisture conservation.In such a situation, the cost of inputs being significantly low, farmers will not incur heavylosses even in case of crop failures and the residual effects of organic nutrients will benefitthe subsequent crops.Efficient Management of Water ResourcesWater is a crucial input required to enhance agricultural production. As most of the smallfarmers living in arid and semi arid regions are deprived of irrigation facilities, promotionof watershed development and sustainable use of available water resources should be ensuredto improve the crop yields. In the absence of efficient rain water harvesting and adequatewater conservation measures, water scarcity is likely to be a serious bottleneck in the future.Water crisis can be a serious problem with the anticipated global warming and climatechange. With increasing exploitation of natural resources and environmental pollution, theatmospheric temperature is expected to rise by 3-50C in the next 75-100 years. If it happens,

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most of the rivers originating from the Himalayas may dry up and cause severe shortageof water for irrigation, suppressing agricultural production by 40-50%. Rainfall is expectedto be erratic and the water requirement for crops is likely to increase due to a significantincrease in evaporation and transpiration losses. Therefore, greater awareness needs to becreated to make efficient use of water resources and to prevent global warming throughenvironmental protection as an integral part of Green Revolution.There are various methods to tap the available water resources and use for sustainableagriculture. These include:lllll Watershed development including catchment area treatment through contour bunding,livehedge and shelterbelt plantation, gully plugging, nalha bunding, establishment ofpercolation tanks, digging and recharging of open wells and borewells and liftingwater from resources and rivers;lllll Afforestation drive along river banks, water bodies, contour bunds and wastelands, topromote soil and water conservation;lllll Conservation and efficient use of water through drip and sprinkler irrigation replacingage old flood irrigation method, green manuring, mulching and organic farming;lllll Selection of such varieties and crops known for efficient water use and droughttolerance, and timely tillage operations, can also facilitate efficient water use;lllll In areas where the rainfall is low and erratic, where tree crops are not desirable,intensive rain-fed farming can be undertaken to make best use of the available water,particularly during rainy season. With sound watershed development, farm pondscan be created at least 1-2 per ha to retain rainwater during the monsoon season.With ponds of 10 m x 10 m x 3-4 m, about 3-4 lakh litres of water can be stored perpond and such ponds generally overflow 3-4 times in every season, where the rainfallis above 700 mm. It is possible to cultivate vegetables, flowers and fruits of high valueon a smaller area using water from farm ponds and earn substantially higher income.With various water resource development measures, it is possible to enhance the croppingintensity by 20-80% and crop productivity by 30-100%.Livestock HusbandryLivestock development is another important opportunity to provide gainful self-employmentand food security for the poor. A majority of the small farmers in India, who do not havegood quality land for agriculture, are dependent on livestock for supplementary income.Small farmers consider livestock as an important asset for earning their livelihood. Therefore,livestock is well distributed among weaker sections of the community unlike land holdings.Among different species of livestock, cattle and buffaloes are widely maintained because ofsocial acceptability and potential for generating substantial income from milk. Promotionof dairy husbandry along with agri-horti-pasture traditionally known as mixed farming cangenerate remunerative employment for small farmers throughout the year.India has the largest population of livestock in the world, but its production potentialhas not been optimally tapped so far. It is only during the last 2-3 decades that the dairysector has made significant progress to increase milk production to meet the domestic

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demand of 105 million tons/year. However, the demand for milk is steeply rising and isexpected to reach 180 million tons/year by the year 2022. The demand for meat is alsoexpected to increase by 3-4 folds by this period. This can provide greater opportunity forsmall farmers to expand their dairy husbandry programme. To encash this goldenopportunity to meet the demand for milk while generating gainful employment for smallfarmers, it is necessary to address various problems faced by them.The major hurdles in promoting livestock husbandry are presented below:lllll Poor quality animals requiring genetic upgradation and severe culling;lllll Poor breeding services at their doorsteps;lllll Nutritional deficiency, shortage of feed and fodder;lllll Lack of preventive vaccinations, timely diagnosis and veterinary care;lllll Lack of coordinated efforts to eradicate common diseases and high cost of veterinaryservices leading to neglect of sick animals;lllll Poor linkage between research institutions and farmers resulting in use of outdatedtechnologies;lllll Lack of technical guidance to improve animal husbandry practices and absence ofwomen extension workers to interact with women livestock keepers;lllll Poor control on private paravets, who exploit farmers and cause breeding problems;lllll Poor milk processing and marketing facilities;It has been very well demonstrated by BAIF and many Dairy Federations that thereis scope for increasing milk production without increasing livestock population. Probably,dairy husbandry is the only programme where poor families are able to build new assetsevery year in the form of crossbred cows, each worth over `25,000. Many proventechnologies have been developed to improve the supply of superior quality feeds andfodder. Strengthening veterinary health care through an extensive network of vets and para-vets can make a direct impact on the cost of milk production and the quality of milk.The following activities can boost livestock husbandry, to compete in the global marketand attract the landless and small farmers to take advantage of this sector for sustainingtheir livelihood.1. Genetic Improvement: Production of superior quality bulls, superior quality semen,and conservation of genetic resources;2. Breeding services and Health care: Training and monitoring of AI technicians,providing minor veterinary services;3. Feed Management: Increasing forage yield and quality, development of communitywastelands, improving nutritional quality of crop residues, decentralised productionof complete feed, establishment of fodder banks, introduction of by-pass protein inthe feed, reduction of herd size;4. Micro-finance support to small farmers;5. Processing and marketing of produce to ensure decentralised processing, transparencyand efficiency in procurement and marketing.

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There is also scope for promoting sheep and goat husbandry, piggery and poultry for farmerswho are unable to adopt dairy husbandry. Livestock being the major source of organicmanure, animal husbandry should be an integral part of agriculture. With the introductionof agricultural implements to improve the efficiency, preferably operated by a single animal,bullock power can become an ideal farm power for small farmers. Thus, tree-based farming,particularly agri-horti-pastoral system linked with livestock development, can help in boostingthe agricultural production while providing gainful self-employment to small farmers.For improving the productivity of the livestock industry, further research and technologydevelopment need to be undertaken in the following areas:1. Genetic improvement for enhancing production and quality by identifying genesresponsible for various economic traits;2. Sexing of semen and embryos, which can enable farmers to get 100% female calvesneeded for milk production;3. Diagnostic kit for detecting heat, pregnancy and diseases;4. Improving digestibility of inferior quality fodder by physical and biological methods;5. Development of protein rich animal feeds through microbial digestion of wastes andproduction of Spirulina, Azolla, etc. for feeding livestock;6. Timely diagnosis and treatment of infertility problems;7. Low cost cooling and processing of dairy and meat products;8. Efficient production of biogas from animal wastes and efficient use of dead animalsRural Non-Farm ActivitiesAs agriculture alone cannot fulfill the needs of small farmers and landless, it is necessaryto tap rural non-farm sector for additional employment generation.While some of theseactivities are linked to local agricultural production, others are independent of agriculturalactivities. Some of the major areas of employment are presented below:Agricultural Sectorlllll Operating agro-service centres;lllll Production of agricultural inputs such as biofertilisers, vermicompost, biopesticides,biofungicides, mushroom spawn, fruit and forestry plants in nurseries, seed production,processing and marketing, production of concentrate feed, complete feed, mineralmixture for livestock silk worm eggs and promotion of silk reeling and spinning;lllll Collection of non-timber forest products;lllll Processing of food and forestry products;lllll Installation and servicing of irrigation units, tubewells, hand pumps and biogas plants;lllll Use of natural fibre and grasses for rope making.Employment in Non-farm Sectorl Training of youth in masonry, carpentry, smithy, repairs of cycles and motor cycles,tractors, pumpsets, solar energy appliances, electrification and winding of motors,driving of automobiles, hospitality management, nursing, etc.

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l Production and marketing of construction materials and bamboo utility articles;l Embroidery and tailoring;l Establishment of grocery shops and flour mills;lllll Cottage Industries - Pottery, textile, agricultural tools and implements;Women Empowerment and Capacity BuildingTo ensure agricultural prosperity involving rural masses particularly those at the bottomof the pyramid, it is necessary to build the capabilities of the participant families, particularlythe women. Status of rural women has a direct influence on the agricultural production inIndia. Thus, women empowerment is the pre-requisite for giving a boost to agriculturalproduction and to promote micro-enterprises. Unless we undertake drudgery reduction,community health care, nutritional and educational programmes for children and trainingin various skills, women will not be able to contribute to agricultural improvement. As theyare semi-literate and often lack confidence, it is necessary to provide various essentialservices at their doorsteps by posting well-trained para-extension workers selected withinthe community. They need mentors at the grassroot level, who can be approached any timeto seek solutions for their problems.Formation of Self Help Groups of farmers having common interests and user groupscan be encouraged for awareness and motivation of fellow farmers. Generally, the poorfarmers who have been experiencing failures are likely to develop a dependency syndrome.These families need regular support and peer group pressure to take active part in variousdevelopment initiatives. Such support can be provided by members of the user groups toone another. It is also easy and effective to communicate with the members through theirgroup leaders.While there are solutions to address the anticipated technical problems, it is essentialto re-build the infrastructure to establish backward and forward linkages while launchingvarious programmes. Presently, the organisations which deal with agricultural extension,input supply, credit and marketing at the village level are extremely weak. It is necessaryto strengthen them. Many of these functions can be taken over easily by the People’sOrganisations. To ensure timely availability of finance, promotion of micro-finance activitiescan also be promoted through Self Help groups.For successful implementation of various programmes to increase agriculturalproductivity, small farmers need support from time to time to mobilise resources,technologies and to monitor the programmes regularly. Presently, there are several playerswho have been ensuring this role in the field. Some of the major agencies facilitatingsustainable development of small farmers are various Development Departments of theGovernment, Panchayati Raj Institutions, Farmers’ Cooperatives and Federations, Voluntaryagencies, Private Sectors and Traders. Among these organisations, committed voluntaryorganisations are superior to others in implementing these programmes.Role of Non-Government AgenciesFor promotion of agricultural production through small farmers and empowering them toearn sustainable livelihood, there are many good opportunities as highlighted earlier. For

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successful launching of these programmes, there are certain constraints related to forwardand backward linkages and building of local capabilities which need to be addressed. It isdifficult for the Government organisations to be flexible in their programmes, while thereis a fear of private agencies ignoring the interest of small farmers. Farmers’ cooperativesno doubt are supposed to safeguard the interest of small farmers. However, performanceof the cooperatives is largely dependent on the efficiency and integrity of the leaders and amajority of them have been misusing their position for their personal benefits. On thecontrary, there are many voluntary organisations working at regional and national levelswho have dedicated their services for the welfare and development of the community.These voluntary agencies have necessary skills and capable human resources to assess theproblems of the poor and identify suitable interventions to solve their problems. Thededicated members of these organisations can interact closely with the poor and mentorthem to gain confidence and take active part in the development programme. They canidentify the priorities of the poor and coordinate among various stakeholders regularly forefficient planning and implementation of various development activities. Such intensiveinvolvement, commitment and flexibility can be exercised only by voluntary agenciesdedicated to the upliftment of the poor. Therefore under the present scenario, NGOs havingproven track record are even better than the Farmers’ Cooperatives for effective inclusionof the poor in various development programmes. Good models developed by NGOs can bewidely replicated through various development schemes of the Government using theagricultural extension network.NGOs like BAIF who are working closely with small farmers, have developed suitableapproaches to address the problems through location-specific tailor-made multidisciplinaryprogrammes. Such programmes have helped most of the participant farmers to enhancetheir income and improve their quality of life. BAIF’s approach to work with the rural poorwith a specific goal and methodology has been presented in Annexure I. Such an approach tohelp the target groups to plan their programme to achieve sustainable livelihood can enablesmall farmers to contribute national food security while improving their quality of life.ReferencesHegde, N.G. 2006. Livestock Development for Sustainable Livelihood of Small Farmers. In Souvenirof the 39th Annual General Meeting and 48th National Symposium on “Energising Rural India– A Challenge to Livestock Industry. Compound Livestock Feed Manufactures Association ofIndia (CLFMA), Manesar, Haryana. August 26: 50-63.Hegde, N.G. 2002. Challenges of Rural Development and Opportunities for providing SustainableLivelihood: BAIF’s Approach. International Forum on Frontier Technology for the 21st Centuryand Potential Collaboration with Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand. May 30-31.Hegde, N.G. 2001. Role of Non-governmental Organisations (NGOs) in fighting Hunger andreducing Poverty. Indian Farming. Oct.: 60-62.

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Annexure IBAIF’s Approach to Sustainable Livelihood for the Rural PoorBAIF Development Research Foundation (formerly registered as the Bharatiya Agro IndustriesFoundation) is a voluntary organisation established in 1967 as a Public Charitable Trust.Considering the challenges in rural areas, BAIF has set its mission to create opportunities ofgainful self-employment for the rural families, especially disadvantaged sections, ensuringsustainable livelihood, enriched environment, improved quality of life and good human values.This is being achieved through development research, effective use of local resources, extensionof appropriate technologies and upgradation of skills and capabilities with communityparticipation. BAIF is a non-political, secular and professionally managed organisation, presentlyoperating in 69,000 villages in India. While conceiving any development programme, consideringthe weakness of small farmers, BAIF takes the following factors into consideration.Family as a Unit for DevelopmentIt is necessary to consider each poor rural family as the basic unit of development. Thisprovides an opportunity to identify the target families who require different types of supportto come out of poverty. Generally most of the community development programmes considervillage as the unit of development where the well to do and influential sections of thesociety are likely to dominate over the poor and exploit the benefits to the maximum extent.Thus, such development projects may often create a wider gap between the rich and poorwithin the community.Focus on Quality of LifeThe overall goal should be to ensure better quality of life through promotion of variousdevelopment activities related to livelihood, health, literacy and moral development. Foodsecurity being the most serious concern of poverty, livelihood programme should be givenpriority. However, good health and education are also the basic needs even for taking uplivelihood activities. With increase on income, good moral values should also be imbibedfor ensuring happiness. Excess money without strong moral education has been distractingthe youth towards unproductive and unethical activities. Hence, it is necessary to blendlivelihood programmes with education, health care and moral development activities. Theessential components of moral development are concern for fellow members in thecommunity, willingness to take part in community development, non-violence, de-addictionfrom alcohol, drugs, narcotics and gambling, respect for women and concern forenvironmental protection. These components are generally acceptable to all the membersof the community, irrespective of their religious and ethnic backgrounds which can bringsignificant change in the attitude of the target communities.Assured LivelihoodDevelopment programmes should have a primary goal of helping the poor families to comeout of poverty within the shortest period. The dairy development programme has a gestationperiod of 3-4 years till the newly born calf comes into milk production. In land-baseddevelopment programmes, the gestation period may vary from 2 to 6 years, depending onthe type of farming systems practiced by the farmers. In case of arable crop production, the

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gestation period is small due to short rotation crops while the fruit and tree crops take 5-6 years to generate income. While promoting these income generation activities, there aretwo critical factors which affect the success of the programmes. Firstly, the programmeshould be well planned to generate substantial income to enable the participating familiesto come out poverty. Generally small farmers having poor quality land and livestock maynot be able to earn substantial income with only one intervention. Hence multi-disciplinaryprogrammes have the advantage. Similarly, small interventions such as kitchen garden,vermicomposting and homestead horticulture in isolation may not help the poor. Theseinterventions can be helpful as part of an integrated programme.The other important aspect is to provide support during the gestation period. Manyof the poor who do not have any resources even to procure their daily ration, are likely toneglect their development work, if no support is available in the form of assistance or wagesto ensure their food security. Hence, different short term income generation activities needto be incorporated to ensure that farmers are able to generate some income from othersources till the income starts from the major interventions.Women EmpowermentInvolvement of women in all the development programmes right from the stage of projectplanning is essential. Although women represent 50% of the population, their contributionto the development of the nation is even more significant as they also have the importantresponsibility of grooming children and procuring the basic needs required for food, fueland fodder securities. Active participation of women in development programmes will helpto identify their problems and reduce their drudgery. It is difficult to make progress inagriculture without empowering women.Environmental ProtectionIn all the development programmes, conservation of the natural resources and protection ofthe environment are essentially built in, as these are critical for sustainable development.This is particularly important while dealing with the poor as their primary objective is to earntheir livelihood and the development organisations have the obligation of carefully designingthe programme to ensure environmental protection along with income generation activities.Blending Development with Research and TrainingFor effective implementation of various development programmes, the developmentprogrammes are supported by applied research and training activities. It has been realisedthat any development programme without research back up is outdated and any researchprogramme without development and extension outlets is academic. Training of the fieldfunctionaries and farmers is essential for effective transferring of technologies fromlaboratories to the field.People’s OrganizationsTo sustain the benefits of various projects particularly after the completion of the project,strong infrastructure at the grassroot level is essential. Therefore, development of grassrootlevel People’s Organisations, right at the initiation of the project will be helpful. Several types

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of local People’s Organisations such Self Help Groups (SHGs), Village Level PlanningCommittees, Users’ Groups of various goods and services, Networks and Federations of SHGs,Village Level Organisations and processing and marketing Cooperatives are some of theorganisations which can be promoted in the field. These organisations are helpful in motivatingthe members of the community, particularly the backward and shy members to sustain theirinterest and to take active involvement in various development initiatives. These organizationscan also be useful for establishing backward and forward linkages. Subsequently, they canwork closely with the Panchayat Raj Institutions to participate in various state-sponsoreddevelopment activities as well as to ensure the welfare of their community.Holistic Cluster Development – A Unique ApproachOver the long field experience, BAIF has realised that the development organisations approachthe rural communities with specific activities which benefit only a few sections of thecommunity, while the others are left out due to lack of resources or skills. In this process, itis often the poor who are left out of these development programmes. Therefore to ensuresustainable development, a new approach known as ‘Cluster Development Approach’ hasbeen evolved. Under this approach, the Extension Workers interact with the local communitywith an open mind and bring them together to identify the local problems. The communityis then encouraged to interact closely and organise the members into 3-4 socio-economiccategories based on their income and access to various resources. Then these groupsidentify the resources and opportunities for the individual families with the objective ofbringing all the sections above poverty. In this process, while the marginally poor get smallersupport through 1 or 2 development interventions to come out of poverty, the poorestfamilies having limited resources are given additional support to participate in multipleactivities. Thus, the poor can earn their income from several sources of their choice and thechances of failure are low. This approach is helpful to maintain transparency of the programmeand promote harmony among the members of different economic categories.The Cluster Development Approach also poses a challenge to the development agenciesto find suitable solutions to the problems of the landless and resource poor families. Thiscalls for the search for suitable off-farm production and service activities to be undertakenby the poor, particularly the landless.On the part of the project implementing agency, it is necessary to approach thecommunity with an open idea and introduce suitable interventions depending on the localneeds. This is helpful to cover all the needy families in the development programme. Thechances of success of such programmes are also very high because of proper planning andactive involvement of the participants.SustainabilityProper planning is essential right from the inception of the programme to build stronggrassroot level people’s organisations to manage the programme with least dependence onoutsiders. The next step is to shift from the role of a development organisation to a serviceprovider, where the participants demand various services on payment of reasonable fees,instead of accepting whatever is given to them. This helps in sustainability of the programme,beyond the project period.

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Daniel, J. N., Ahire, U. U., Chauhan, M. S., Andhale, K. D. and Kusugal, S. N. 2010. Traditional SeedConservation Practices of Small Farmers in India. Paper presented at the 28th InternationalHorticultural Congress, Lisbon, Portugal, August 2010. Pages 22-27

Traditional Seed Conservation Practices of Small Farmers in IndiaAbstractIn the face of continuous introduction of improved varieties and new crops, farmingcommunities in India have been successful to some extent in conserving their traditionalgermplasm. This is mainly achieved through storage of seed and planting material besidesregular cultivation of crops that are conserved. The love for native germplasm among ruralcommunities is so high that they have preserved them for posterity without the help of modernmethods of storage and advanced scientific knowledge. Methods used for the conservation ofmany horticultural crops show how traditional practices incorporate the principles of plantmaterial storage. Many of these practices are aimed at preventing loss of moisture andmaintaining internal temperature, the primary requirements under tropical conditions. Forexample, farmers of the Konkan region of Maharashtra separate the seed of jackfruit(Artocarpus heterophyllus) from the pulp and dry them under shade. Upon drying, they arecoated with red soil, dried and stored in air tight containers in a cool place. Seeds stored inthis manner retain viability until the next planting season. Similarly, custard apple (Annonasquamosa) and jamun (Syzygium cumini) seeds are depulped and coated with cowdung slurryand dried. Further, these seeds are stored in airtight containers having wood ash and neemleaves. The storage practice for yam of Dioscorea alata is to clean the surface of soil anddebris, coat with cowdung slurry and store in a vertical position in a container having woodash with neem leaves. Another practice is seen in Momordica dioica where the entire fruit isallowed to dry before harvesting and storage. These are examples of methods adopted byfarmers to conserve their indigenous genetic resources. The paper is a documentation ofstorage methods and the scientific basis of a collection of horticultural species.

Keywords: seed, conservation, germplasm

CASE STUDIES

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Case Studies

l BAIF: Transforming Dreams into Reality for Rural Indial Exploring Livelihood Avenues in Distressed Vidarbha, Indial Mitigating Global Warming While Providing Sustainable Livelihood Through IntegratedFarming Systems

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Ajwani R. M1. and Sawant Yogesh2. 2010. BAIF: Transforming Dreams into Reality for Rural India.Paper presented at the Subsistence to sustainable- The power of aggregation in Agriculture- SitaramRao Livelihood India Case Study Competition. This Case was awarded the first prize in the Competition2010. Pages 1-24.1 Faculty of Human Resource Development, Symbiosis, Pune, India.2 BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune 411058, India

BAIF: Transforming Dreams into Reality for Rural India“India needs production by the masses, not mass production”– GandhijiIntroductionGandhiji did not receive any formal training in economics. However his teachings havebeen acknowledged world over for their simplicity and generic relevance. He propagatedthe doctrine of fortifying the village economy. He felt that villages were the roots thatnourished the moral and social fabric of any country. BAIF’s founder Dr Manibhai Desai, adisciple of Mahatma implemented that vision. The ‘Wadi Program’ germinated from an ideaof trying to find a permanent solution for the tribals of Vansda. This idea evolved throughdiscussions with the community and was nurtured and brought to life after seeking andconvincing the locals of its benefits. Their interest, cultural beliefs and well being formedthe building blocks on which the foundation of this concept was laid.Community participation coupled with regular interaction and the use of situationspecific modern scientific techniques were the inputs that helped nurse the drought proneand poverty stricken area of Vansda back to life. The success of the Wadi Program (Wadi1means fruit orchard in Gujarati) came after traversing a long journey covering difficultterrain, vagaries of nature and vested interests. It represents the success of team spirit andconviction to provide a sedge way of financial and economic independence to the localcommunity. It not only represents the power of aggregation but also symbolizes theimportance of synthesizing public and industry partnership.BAIF brought to the partnership its expertise in the field of horticulture, access to structuredfinance and knowledge of modern supply chain techniques. The local tribal communitycontributed by accepting the concept, investing their only assets i.e. land and labour. Thecommunity came together to plant common tree species on underutilized lands so as toproduce large volumes followed by aggregation of the produce for organized forward linkages.The unique aspects of Wadi Program are (see Illustration # 1):l It creates sustainable sources of livelihoods on underutilized lands for the poorestsections of the societyl Enriches environment while promoting livelihoodsl Creates opportunities of direct and indirect local employmentl Drastically reduces forced out-migration of tribal’s reducing the pressures on cities

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The core program focussed on plantation of a combination of fruit and forest treeson underutilized lands, value added layers such as food processing and co-operativemarketing (Vasundhara Co-operative). Bank linkages were introduced to multiply thebenefits. In order to ensure appropriate price for the produce the co-operatives undertookprocessing of mango pickle, pulp, jam and cashew. It was a landmark achievement whenthe tribal wadi farmers co-operative tied up with ITC for supply of certified organic mangoes.In this symbiotic arrangement, ITC helped to sponsor the costs related to obtaining organiccertification and paid a premium price for organic mangoes. BAIF played a crucial role ofmoulding the concept and facilitating processes from plantation to marketing of theprocessed products. While doing this BAIF built the capabilities of locals and promotedvarious peoples organizations to take charge of the development process. The Wadisgenerated incomes from underutilized lands while the forward linkages helped in generatingadditional value for their produce.

Relevance of the Wadi Program

Situation in the Indian Villages: Alarming and UrgentThe following five factors indicate a trend that needs reversing and gives greater relevanceto the Wadi Program as explained below. The factors below reflect the situation of thefarmers at large and tribal’s engaged in agriculture in particular.

SustainableLivelihood

EnvironmentSustainability

CommunityWellbeing

InstitutionBuilding

l

l

l

l

Tree based farming on under utilizedlands

Sustainable farming techniques

Diversification in livelihoods

Reduction in forced migration

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Organizing community intoPeoples Organisation(Village Level)Federation of village Pos tocooperativesTra in ing and capac i tyBuildingCollective production andmarketingAccess to banks

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Production green cover est

Fuel/Fodder/Timber

available in Wadis

Optimize use of critical resources

R e d u c e d p r e s s u r e o nForests/common lands

Soil & moisture conserved

l

l

l

l

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Involving the entire “familyunit”Gender integrationDrudgery reduction ofwomenTraining on health &hygieneAccess to heal thcarefacilities

Illustration # 1The Essence of the Wadi ProgramSource: Authors

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A. Distribution of Landholdings: Small and Marginal Holdings on the RiseAbout 86% of the marginal and small farmers operate around 43 % of agricultural landwhile 14% of medium and large farmers operate around 37 % of the land (Source: Reporton Conditions of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganized Sector published byNational Commission for Enterprises in the Unorganized Sector (NCEUS) in August 2007).There is a slow but definite shift out of agriculture. The trend has been disturbing as thechasm between the affluent and those barely surviving is widening. This phenomenon haseven penetrated traditional agrarian states like Punjab and Maharashtra.Table 1. Distribution of Operational Holdings and Area by Size: All India

Operated Area 1953-54 1961-62 1971-72 1981-82 1991-92 2002-03Operational Holdings as per cent to Total Rural HoldingsMarginal 39.2 39.1 45.8 55.5 62.8 69.7 70.0Small 20.9 22.6 22.4 19.5 17.8 16.3 15.9Mediumand Large 40.0 33.3 31.9 25.0 19.5 14.0 14.1Operational Holdings as per cent to Total AreaMarginal 4.4 6.9 9.2 11.5 15.6 22.6 21.7Small 10.0 12.3 14.8 16.6 18.7 20.9 20.3Mediumand Large 84.6 80.8 76.0 71.9 65.7 56.5 57.9

Note: Marginal (Less than 1.00), Small (1.01-2.00), Medium-Large (>2.00) Hectares.Source: NSSO Survey on Land Holdings, Various Rounds

B. Poor Education LevelsTable 2 summarizes the education level attainment for rural farm workers in India. Legacyas well as contemporary reality has contributed to a situation of low level of education ofagricultural workers. The situation of women is even worse than the men folk.Lack of education leads to exploitation of farmers by middlemen and landlords. Hence theyare unable to overcome the barriers which allow them access to fair alternatives. Educationis a key ingredient required by the farmers to keep up with commercialization of agriculture,introduction of new techniques and technology.Table 2. Percentage of Educational Attainment of Rural Agricultural Workers 2004-2005

Education Male Female Total Male Female TotalAgricultural Laborers FarmersIlliterate andBelow Primary 65.9 85.5 74.1 45.7 74.0 57.5Primary 15.7 7.5 12.3 16.2 10.8 14.0Middle 13.3 5.3 10.0 18.9 9.5 15.0Secondary 3.7 1.2 2.6 10.3 3.9 7.6HS and Above 1.5 0.4 1.0 8.9 1.9 6.0Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

Source: NSS 61st Round 2004-2005, Employment-Unemployment Survey

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C. Cultivation is still Predominant ActivityThe table below shows that more than 96% of the total land possessed by farming householdsis devoted to cultivation. Only among the near landless (less than 0.01 ha of land) dairyingand other farming activity such as poultry is a major activity. Orchards and plantations arelow at 3%.There is minimum diversification of activities among the farmers. The lack ofdiversification further adds to woes of farmers during adverse times.Table 3. Cultivation: Predominant Activity across land holdings

Land Cultivation Orchards and Dairy Fishery Other activitiesSize (Hectares) Allied Plantations (Animals, bees,

Agriculture poultry etc.)<0.01 14.3 1.7 68.8 0.0 15.20.01-0.40 93.3 5.3 0.8 0.4 0.30.4-1.00 95.9 3.2 0.4 0.4 0.11.01-2.00 96.5 2.9 0.3 0.2 0.22.01-4.00 96.1 3.3 0.3 0.2 0.14.01-10.00 96.7 2.7 0.3 0.1 0.2>10.10 97.5 2.0 0.2 0.1 0.2All 96.2 3.1 0.4 0.2 0.1

Note: Sub-Marginal (<0.4), Marginal (0.40-1.00), Small (1.01-2.00), Semi-Medium (2.00-4.00),Large (>4.00) Hectares.Source: NSS 59th Round 2002-2003.

D. Problem of Seasonal MigrationMigration typically takes place when workers in the source area are unable to find suitableemployment options. As per NCRL there are more than 10 million seasonal/circular workers.Growth of input intensive agriculture and commercialization of agriculture since the late1960s has led to peak periods of labour demand often coinciding with a decline in the locallabour deployment (Srivastava and Sasikumar 2005).The workers often have to work in difficult circumstances. They are often exploitedby middlemen, live and work in deplorable conditions and lack access to medical facilities.Ineffective laws and regulations make their situation (especially women) very difficult.E. IndebtednessLack of awareness and inability to access formal credit channels are some of the reasonscomplicating this problem. Small and marginal farmers require credit for cultivation. Postthe green revolution factors such as liberalization, competition has meant a shift fromcultivation of staple crops to cash crops. Cash crops require high investment in inputmaterials and labour. Many states like Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka recordeda spurt in distress induced suicides among farmers from Behere (2008). The commonthread was the failure of cash crops and lack of formal credit channels. Unlike corporateentities that use the legal system to declare bankruptcy, the small farmers have no meansto repay the loans when crop fails. Nor do they have access to any kind of social supportsystem or relief. Desperate and burdened with social pressure, the farmers in troubledregions take the final extreme step.

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Genesis and the Raison D’êtreThe need to find a permanent and people centric solution for the tribal’s was at the rootof the Wadi Program. It was launched in interior villages of Vansda block, Navsari districtof South Gujarat by BAIF in1982. This area was representative of the typical problemsaffecting most tribal areas/communities viz: The livelihood of the tribal community wasseverely affected due to indiscriminate destruction of forests, scarcity of food and drinkingwater. The tribal’s were practicing rainfed agriculture hence cultivation was only duringkharif. Production was poor due to lack of improved cultivation practices. After harvest ofkharif crop the families had no option but to migrate to adjacent areas (Vapi, Valsad, andNasik) in search of livelihood. Migration was characterised with exploitation anddiscontinued education of children. Lack of health care options, weak communication, poorhousing and sanitation added to the problems.The attachment of the tribal’s to their land was central to the design of the Wadiprogram. In addition to cultivated lands the tribal families owned some arid land alongslopes. It was decided to put these underutilized lands to use through plantation of fruittrees. However plantation of fruit trees by thousands of families would lead to hugeproduction leading to market glut. This threat was later converted into an opportunitythrough organized collection and forward linkages. The general objective of this novelapproach was to rehabilitate the tribal’s in their natural environment by promotingsustainable livelihood programs.The impact on quality of life of the beneficiaries is shown in Illustrations # 2. It isevident that some key factors like food security, reduction in alcohol consumption; spiritualactivities had a positive influence. However this information was taken from over ninebatches of wadis, only two (planted 1995-97) had reached full maturity.Illustration 2Impact on Quality of Life (Beneficiaries)Figures in Per CentSource: IRMA Evaluation III ADP

Positive Impact

Little Impact

Pe

rce

nta

ge

90.00%

80.00%

70.00%

60.00%

50.00%

40.00%

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20.00%

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Nutritious FoodConsump

Consump ofAlchohol

Worries Spiritual Act CommunityAct

StressReduction

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The Objectives of the Wadi ProgramPromote livelihoods and generate self-employment for poor tribal families in their ownlocalities with parallel improvement in their quality of life.These objectives are met through the following interventions:l Promotion of fruit and forestry plantations on underutilized land.l Promote improved agriculture techniques and practices.l Undertake water resource development and soil conservation to support plantationsl Encourage and develop infrastructure, capable human resource and systems foraggregate plantation, processing and marketing of producel Assure better prices for produce through organized production and marketing activitiesl Assure food security, improved nutrition and improved health care services toparticipating members.l Integrate and involve women in development processl Development of local capabilities and strong people’s organizations to sustain thedevelopment processStrategy: The Wadi Pyramid1A holistic approach was adopted such that it addressed the hierarchical needs of the targetpopulation (tribal’s) as illustrated below:Illustration3The Wadi PyramidSource: Authors adaptation of Maslow’s Hierarchy mapped to the Wadi Concept(2 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology, proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943paper A Theory of Human Motivation. He had proposed that there exists a hierarchy of needs withthe basic needs (viz food, clothing, shelter etc) at the bottom of the pyramid. An individual needsmoves upward the hierarchy level as soon as the previous level of need is satisfied)

The physiological needsThe need for food, water, shelter and clothing

Love and belonging needsThe need for belonging, to receive and

give love, appreciation, friendship

Esteem NeedThe need to be a unique individual

self-respect and to enjoy generalesteem from others.

with

The needfor

self-actualisation

Experience purpose,meaning and realising

all inner potentials.

Security NeedThe basic need for social security in a family and asociety that protects against hunger and violence.

Flexible nature of the Wadi ProgramPermitted forward linkages and scalingup of the core design

“Vasundhara” Co-OperativeSocietyITC Tie-Up

Branding/Marketing of the Wadi Produce

Local Customs respected : “Wavli”

Bank Linkages: BOB/HDFC

StrategicCultivation

Soil Conservation Water Conservation Skill BuildingTraining

Local leadership and participationencouraged and welcomed

Wadi’s: Despelled seasonal migration“Landless” became “Landstakeholders”

Addressed by BAIF support

Design and planning of Wadis: FruitForestry species helped tribalsSecure Income necessary tosustain these needs

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The components of the Wadi Pyramid strategy are as follows

1. Design of the Wadi: Selection of Fruit/ Forestry SpeciesA typical orchard, promoted under this scheme covering 0.4 ha, involved plantation of 40-60fruit plants and 300-400 forestry species along the border. Mangos, Cashew were selected asmain fruit crops. A line diagram of a typical Wadi is presented below:Illustration 3

Line Diagram of a Typical Wadi

Rationale for Selection: The plant species were selected based upon various factors listed below.l Agro-climatic suitabilityl Relatively sturdy plants (can grow on arid land)l Raw cashew nuts have a good shelf lifel Both Mango and Cashew can be processed for value additionl Mango (fresh and processed products) have good demand in Gujarat and adjoiningmarketsl Cashew has good international marketl Farmers showed inclination for mango cultivationThe participating families were encouraged to establish live fence on the field boundary byplanting useful thorny plants like agave, jatropha, sagargota, cacti etc. for protecting thefruit plants from stray cattle. The fence plants also earned additional incomes. Farmerswere advised to adopt green manuring, composting, vermi-composting and mulching toimprove soil productivity.

# ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## * 0 0 0 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * ## * 0 0 0 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * ## * 0 0 0 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * ## * 0 0 0 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * ## * 0 0 0 0 ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ * ## * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## ## Fencing * Forrestry 0 Mango ^ CashewComposition:Mango: 20, Cashew: 40, Forestry: 400Source: BAIF-Pune

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This program was launched in 1982. In a few years time, the number of families grewfrom 42 to 5000. In view of the positive effects, German Development Bank (KfW) and NABARDsupported a full fledged program namely the Adivasi Development Program (ADPG) in theadjoining areas of (Kaprada and Dharampur) of Vansda. The impact of these programs prompteda wider replication leading to the coverage of nearly 2 lac families in 15 states of India. Theimportant milestones and progression of the project are shown in Illustration # 5

Illustration 5The Wadi Program MilestonesSource: Authors

The year wise coverage of Wadis under ADPG is presented in Table 5 below. Batch I toBatch VIII have been covered under the main program of ADPG, while Batch VIII and IXhave been covered through Special Program Gujarat. The cumulative coverage under ADPGis 13,663 families with Wadis established over 12,732.5 acres. In addition to this nearly5000 families had established Wadis on 5000 Acres during 1982 to 1989.

1995-2000Success of Vansda isapplied to Dharampur/Kaprada blocks ofGujaratGerman DevelopmentBank (KfW)/NABARDsupport for replicatingWadi Programme13,600 families covered19855000 families joined theprogramme.Wadi Farmers Co-operative:“Vasundhara” established forcollective procurement andprocessing

1982:1st Wadi ProgramLaunched in Vansda:Gujarat.42 families joined theProgramme(Warli/Kokana Tribals)

1990VasundharaCo-operativeinitiated processing ofmango to pickle and pulp2000-2010Program extended toMaharashtraTribal developmentprogramme based onthe Wadi conceptreplicated in 5 statesby BAIF.Assistance fromEuropean Union/KfW/NABARDin 2005Programme replicatedin 15 states2 lack familiescovered till 2010

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Table 5. Batch Wise Wadi Development (Source: BAIF Pune)Batch no and No. of Villages No. of New No. of WadiYear of Joining in Batches Villages Families AcreageBatch-I (1995-1996) 40 40 1143 1073.00Batch-II (1996-1997) 85 49 2841 2442.00Batch-III (1997-1998) 72 25 2441 2373.00Batch-IV (1998-1999) 52 19 1522 1449.00Batch-V (1999-2000) 114 3 3532 3311.50Batch-VI (2000-2001) 10 8 643 643.00Batch-VII (2001-2002) 18 18 705 604.50Batch –VIII (2002-2003) 2 - 69 69.00Batch-IX (2003-2004) 21 - 767 767.00Total - 162 1,3663 12,732.5The Wadi Program is executed through a five tier structure which is illustrated below:

Illustration 6The Wadi Program – Five tier structureSource: Authors

FundingAgencyCanalisingAgency

Recipment ofthe Grant

Local clusters/GramVikas Mandalis andAyojan SamitisLegal Entity drivingthe Project

Driving the project atthe Grassroot levelDhruva Based in GujaratPromoted by BAIF

BAIF: Pune BasedOrganizationEg. NABARD

Eg. KfW: German Bank

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2. Soil ConservationThe Wadis were established on marginal lands on hill slopes which were not very productive.The soil quality was very poor. The survival of trees was impossible. Hence soil and moistureconservation was very essential. This was undertaken through land treatments like trenchcum bund and tree platforms. The benefits of soil conservation are as under:l Better survival and growth of plants due to extended period of water availability.l Increased area under cultivation3. Water ConservationThe area receives good rainfall (nearly 2000 mm/annum), however due to the hilly terrainmost of the water is lost. Hence the need to harvest and conserve water is necessary.Decentralized sources were developed for wells, springs, small check dams, micro-liftirrigation systems, etc. Each source met the need of 5 to 10 Wadis. The farmers wereoriented in collective use and maintenance of water resources.The benefits of water resources development were realized throughl Water available in close vicinity – therefore reduced drudgery for irrigationl Ensure better survival in dry conditions during summerl Better growth and yieldsl Additional crop cultivation4. Involvement of the Family Unit using Local CustomsApart from income generation activities, it was equally important to ensure good health andwell being of the community Activities were undertaken for ensuring maternal and childhealth care. Immunization of children and distribution of feed supplements to malnourishedchildren were priorities. Assurance of clean drinking water through chlorination of openwells and installation of borewells with hand pumps and construction of washing platformswas introduced as a part of the program. Women empowerment was focused on drudgeryreduction, gender sensitization and capacity building. In all 410 SHGs have been promotedunder the program (Source: BAIF Pune). This helped improve quality of life.5. Peoples OrganizationIn order to promote active participation of the community and ensure capacity building thetribals were organized into groups at various levels. All the participating members in avillage form a Gram Vikas Mandali. At primary level they were organized into groups ofseven to ten members each. These groups select a leader to represent themselves in theexecutive committee i.e. the Ayojan Samiti at the village level. The Ayojan Samitis are criticalchannels of communication and they perform important functions such as planning andreview of activities to be undertaken in Wadi. Further a co-operative has been promotedin a group of 10 to 15 villages. Two members from each Ayojan Samiti are selected by theparticipants to represent them in the co-operative.

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The Ayojan Samitis are actively involved in collection/ procurement of produce (mangoand cashew) on the behalf of the co-operatives and are paid for the same. The co-operativesare involved in commercial activities especially pertaining to processing of fruits and forwardlinkages. At present 12 co-operatives are operating under the program one of which wasestablished in 1989 while the other 11 around 2000-2001. The 11 new co-operatives areinvolved in primary processing of mango and cashew (which is brought to Vasundhara).The oldest co-operative (Vasundhara) functions as a mother co-operative, mainly involvedin packing and marketing of the processed products under the Vrindavan brand.There is active participation of women in Ayojan Samiti as well as co-operatives.This has helped in identifying and grooming local talent who have assumed importantpositions at the cooperative level and have become catalysts of change. Illustration # 9highlights the structure of various peoples organizations promoted under the program.Illustration 9:

Wadi : People’s Organization

Role of BAIF (Dhruva)Maintaining optimal contact withall peoples bodies

MonitoringProviding technical assistance

Conduction training programmesand workshops

Providing managerial guidance

Co-operatives(Representation by membersof Ayojan Samiti)

Ayojan Samiti

(Representative Body-Participants)

Other VillageInstitutions

Barefoot AccountantField GuideVillage Health Guide

Gram Vikas Mandali(All Wadi participants)

SHG SHGP P P

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Table 6. Status of the Gram Vikas Mandalis promoted under the program are (as onMarch 31st 2010-Source BAIF)

Particulars StatusTotal number of villages 162Ayojan Samiti 184Members of Ayojan Samiti 2523Field Guide 130Village Health Guides 120InnovationsThe program was faced with several obstacles during various stages. Innovative approacheswere adopted to overcome these obstacles. A few examples are:1. Cashew in GujaratCashew can grow on poor soils, while the cashew nuts fetch good value in national as wellas international markets. Cashew was a new crop in Gujarat introduced through this program.A few cashew trees were growing in the wild however it was introduced as a plantation cropfor the first time through the project. This was done through rigorous study of the agro-climatic, soil and water studies involving scientists from national level research institutes.The co-operative processing units now collect the produced cashes for processing andmarketing. The yearwise quantity of cashew nut procured and processed is presented below:

Illustration 10:

Wadi: Building Teams and Self Reliance

l Dependancel Role restrictedto Taskcompletionl Dependance onstaff

l Begin to take lead inl Planning/Managing activitiesl Hold meetings in absence of staffl Review and progress throughField Functionaries

l Expanding role of AyojanSamittees

l Build up a corpusl Developing initiatives taken tobenefit larger village communityl Developing linkages with othervillage level agencies

Self Reliance

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Table 7. Raw Cashewnut Procurement and Processing by Co-operativesYear Procurement (t)2008-09 2602009-10 4102010 225Total 895 t

2. Mango ProcessingOnce the mango trees started yielding fruits, huge quantity of mango came into the market. Thetraders started exploiting this situation by reducing the price of mangoes. In order to overcomethis situation the wadi holders (Vasundhara) and BAIF (Dhruva) planned to aggregate theproduce and undertake processing of the fruit in 1989. The processing activity increased theshelf life of the fruits besides generating additional value for it. To start with a cautious experimentwas undertaken in this direction by hiring a manually operated machine. Initially the sweet andjuicy varieties of mangos like kesar, langda and alphonso were selected and approximately 2 tof processed pulp was obtained. The manual method was followed for two years. To improveproductivity, mechanized processing was adopted. Presently the cooperatives are processingmore than 200 t of pulp and 100 t of pickles/annum. In addition to this nearly 1500 t of freshmango is traded at a premium price by the co-operatives.3. Enhancing Water Use EfficiencyWater scarcity is a prominent problem in the area. Pot drips were introduced to address thisproblem. Pot drips are low cost alternatives for drip irrigation systems. In this method, anearthen pot with minute holes at the bottom was placed near each plant in a way that thehole is close to the root system i.e. about 15-30 cm below the ground level. Water from thepitcher is released slowly into the soil around the plant. These pot drips minimize water loss.4. Launch of Sachet Packaging of PickleThis accidental foray into the pickles market happened when a large anticipated order forbrined mangoes did not materialize. The entire team had to think of an innovative andremunerative solution. Marketing the finished product was also an exercise in creativity.About 10-12 tonnes of the pickle were sold to local canteens and restaurants the rest wassold in bottled form (250 g) in the nearby towns. When it was realized that the 250 gmbottle was beyond the reach of the local tribal communities, the Vrindavan co-operativeintroduced small sachet packing priced at `1. The sachets were an instant hit! Today,Vrindavan pulp and Vrindavan pickles dominate the market in South Gujarat.5. Bank LinkageAs the Wadi Program matured, the participants undertook diverse livelihood activities likedairy husbandry, poultry farming, cash crop cultivations, preparing and selling mango graftsetc. In order to meet the aspirations of the community bank loans were made available througha tripartite agreement between BAIF (Dhruva), Vasundhara Co-operative and Bank of Barodain 1996-97. The project also had an in-built provision for loans. The total loan consumed by theWadi participants so far is `5.5 crores. The Wadi Program has been instrumental in increasingthe credit worthiness of the tribal community and their self confidence.

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6. CSNL ProcessingCashewnut shell is a by-product produced from cashew processing. The cooperativeidentified the potential for extracting CNSL from it. One co-operative (Mandava) establishedCNSL processing unit. Cashew nut shell waste from all processing units is aggregated byMandava co-operative and processed to CNSL. The unit was established through partialgrant and partial loan from NABARD. Earlier cashew nut shell was sold at `1.50/kg, nowCNSL is sold at around `20/L. (20% is the recovery). Therefore a value addition of morethan 200% was achieved.7. ITC-BAIF (DHRUVA) Tie Up for Production and Processing of Organic MangoesIn 2005-06 a corporate partnership with ITC was formed. ITC was on the lookout fororganically produced mangoes for its processed foods. BAIF facilitated a mutual agreementbetween Vasundhara and ITC for certification and supply of organic mangoes. ITC extendedfinancial resources for certification of the orchards through SKAL International, a reputedCertifying agency. BAIF trained the village level people’s organizations and Vasundhara inmaintaining records and logistics management. The organically certified mangoes receiveda premium price with an assured market. Several farmers have been attracted by thisconcept leading to rising number of farmers opting for organic certification. The graphbelow indicates the year wise scales of operation.Illustration 12

ITC-BAIF Organic Mango Production

* 2007-08 was a low production year2005-06

0

200

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2006-07 2007-08*

514 492

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196315

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Scale of Organic Mango Trading

No

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. of

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Quantity of Mango (100 kg)

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Table 8 illustrates some of the parameters which were addressed under the aegis of theWadi Program and the impact therein.Table 8

Programs Actual Progress RemarksHorticultural Plantation 13,663 Acres 13,663 H. Holds coveredSoil Conservation 11,990 Acres 12,896 H. Holds coveredIrrigation 2,000 AcresIncome Generating 1,500 families 1050Programs (For Landless)Wadi and Plant Sanitation 9,819 families Target : 12,896Soil Loosening etc. 3,701 families Target : 8,016Organic Manure Production 4,689 Target : 12,896Drip Irrigation 252 Beneficiaries InvolvedVermicomposting 673 Members 117 Groups-Income GeneratingMango Nursery 101 Members 23 Groups-Income GeneratingForest Nursery 72 Members 12 Groups-Income GeneratingVegetable Sale 181 Members 50 Groups-Income GeneratingExtension Meeting 6612 Participants Training and Capacity BuildingSHG Training 10 Groups Training and Capacity BuildingTrainingon Wadi 357 Participants Training and Capacity Building

Impact AnalysisFrom providing a stable livelihood to energizing the village unit, the direct impact of thebenefits of the Wadi Program have been illustrated below:Illustration # 13

Impact of the Wadi ProgramSource, Author1) Stable Livelihoods 2) Positive Impact

on Income Levels3) Distress Migration

Reduced

4) Improvement inQuality of Life

5) Better Access to HealthServices, Education,

Nutrition

6) Improvement inWomen’s Status

7) Improved confidencelevel and

self worth

8) DevelopingEntrepreneurial spirit

9) Result Vibrant VillageEconomy

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1. Impact on IncomeThrough the Wadi programme wastelands were converted into productive assets. The fruits,forestry and agriculture crops contributed to increase in income of the families. The incomeof a typical Wadi family with well established Wadi at various stages is presented inIllustration # 14 below:

All figures in `/annum/family.Source: Authors-Prepared/based on BAIF data.Note: *This information is based on Wadi Program in South Gujarat.The data is based on various studies conducted by external agencies and internallyby BAIF.A complete farming systems approach is followed in the Wadi Program. Hence thesource of income includes orchards and other on-farm enterprises of the family.Other Enterprises: This includes average income from other enterprises promotedthrough the Wadi Program it is observed that about 40% families take-up suchenterprises.What is more important is that this income enhancement has been achieved from theresources within the village itself.2. Distress Migration CheckedSince livelihood requirements are met from their own land and other sources from thelocal area itself, forced migration has been reduced significantly. A few wadi beneficiariescontinue to migrate occasionally but this migration does not involve the entire family andis mainly for earning some surplus income during leisure time. Reduction in migration hasresulted into continued education to their children while they are not forced to live inunhygienic conditions in the towns and cities while they migrate.

Illustration # 14: Annual Income Generated Through Wadi Program at Various Stages*Source of Income

Age of Orchard

6-7 Years 10-12 YearsI Income from Core Wadi activitiesa Fruit Trees (Cashew and Mango) 2,700 18,000b Intercrops in Orchards 5,000 7,000c Forestry 5,000 5,000Sub-Total I 12,700 30,000II a Other Enterprises (Fruit Nursery,Forest Nursery, Vermicompost etc) 1,400 12,000Sub-Total II 1,400 12,000

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3. Benefit of Aggregation: Procurement/Processing/Marketing ChannelsThe aggregation, processing and forward linkages have created major positive impacts as under:Value addition to the Wadi produce1. Cashew sold at `40 in local market. Post processing it was sold between `200to 300/kg.2. Higher price and better end product (as was highlighted in the BAIF-ITC Mangotie up). See Illustration # 15 given belowIllustration # 15ITC-BAIF: Organic Mango Tie Up

Comparative Returns in a Typical Case (Year 2007-08):Source: BAIF-PuneParticulars Traditional Supply Public Private

Chain (`̀̀̀̀/kg.)** Partnership (`̀̀̀̀/kg.)**A) Price of Mango 15 18B) Transport Cost (at farmers end) 0.25 00C) Commission to Traders 1.20 00Net Selling Price of Farmer 13.55 18(A-B-C)On an average a farmer sells approximately 650 kg mangoes. In a typical case, certification ofthe produce will fetch `11,700/- against `8,807/- under the conventional system.**US $ 1 = `40/-l The producers are no longer prey to the dominance of middlemen and traders.l Increased capacities and confidence of the tribal community to take-up marketinterventions.1. Environmental Impactlllll Nearly 17,000 Acres of underutilized land converted to productive assets.lllll Tonnes of soil conserved through soil conservation treatments on 17,000 acres.lllll Plantation and nurturing of more than 9 lac fruit trees and 55 lac forestry trees onpeople owned lands.lllll Biomass recycling through composting techniques – nearly 30,000 tonnes of biomassrecycled.Source: BAIF Pune: Agricultural Finance Corporation Survey2. Improved Status of WomenAs seen in (Illustration #16) Wadi has brought significant impact in the lives of the womenin the area. This impact is visible in the increased contribution in household income,increased mobility, and more girls going to school.

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Illustration # 16Impact on Women - Post WadiSource: IRMA Evaluation III ADP

3. Development of the Bank LinkagesEnhanced incomes have led to increased credit worthiness. Credit access has been facilitatedthrough BAIF supported SHG’s as well as bank linkages.Replication of the Wadi ConceptThe success of the Wadi Program in Gujarat paved the way for it to be extended to otherstates. Since it addressed critical requirements such as food and employment security,increase in income, etc; it was rolled out to the other states (Maharashtra, Rajasthan,Karnataka) through funding support from state Governments and other funding agencies.Presently 1.55 lakh families have directly benefited through Wadi Program implementedby BAIF in seven states. The state wise coverage is presented in the table below.In 2005, NABARD introduced the “Tribal Development Fund” for emulating theprogram in various parts of the country. Through TDF the Wadi Program is being replicatedin 15 states through nearly 75 NGO’s. The cumulative coverage of the Wadi Program so faris around 2 lac families hence nearly 75,000 Ha of underutilized lands have been convertedinto productive assets. In Gujarat alone nearly 400 families have introduced Wadis throughcredit and own contribution.

Impact

Incrsd contri to

households

More leisure time More child going

to school

Better mobility Partic in

community orgnz

Migration

0.00%

Landless Marginal Small Others

10.00%

20.00%

30.00%

40.00%

50.00%

60.00%

70.00%

Pe

rce

nta

ge

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Table 9: State Wise coverage under BAIF ProgramNo. of No. of Area

State Villages Participant covered Major Fruit Cropsfamilies (ha)Maharashtra 2737 81600 31401 Mango, cashew, amla, guava, lemon, citrusGujarat 644 32942 11959 Mango, cashew, sapota, amla, lemon, custard apple,drumstick, coconut, date palmKarnataka 432 15246 5986 Mango, coconut, cashew, tamarind, guava, sapota,custard apple, amla, lemon, jackfruit and coffeeRajasthan 669 18879 5663 Amla, mango, guava, pomegranate, lemon, orangeUttar Pradesh 104 4115 1031 Amla, mango, bel, ber, guavaMadhya Pradesh 84 1981 792 Mango, custard apple and guavaChhattisgarh 16 260 260 Mango, cashew, amla

Total 4686 155023 57092 Source: BAIF-Pune. Data as on July 2010Key InsightsThe resounding success of the Wadi Program is a fitting tribute to an idea that may seemsimple on the surface but embraces and solves key problems in a creative way. The fact thatthis program has grown both in membership and also in its quantitative impact is becauseits principles have always kept the common man at heart. The techniques and innovationslisted above can be successfully applied to various grave situations facing our countrytoday. Some insights gained are as follows:1. A Composite Approach amenable to backward and forward linkages as illustrated bythe Wadi Program is essential for ensuring a positive impact and sustained development.2. Aggregation helps reap the benefits of collective bargaining especially in low income/low education strata of people. It helps minimize direct losses (those associated withhigher procurement costs) and indirect losses ( those associated with cheating,exploitation, unfair trade practices)3. Technology has to be made simple for it to have an impact at grassroots level. Farmerscan be trained in all the aspects of farmland management viz. procurement ofmaterials, plantation, processing and marketing.4. Leadership skills in tribals need to be nurtured and can produce excellent results ifchannelized properly. The leader selection process has to be perceived as democratic,fair and transparent.5. The versatile and eco-friendly program design of the Wadi approach makes it aperfect mitigant of the two main problems affecting India and the world viz foodscarcity and climate change (greenhouse effect).6. One of the major causes of farmers’ suicides is the over reliance on a single crop.The diversified nature of the Wadi Program enhances multiple livelihood opportunitieslike agriculture, tree based farming, dairy husbandry etc. Hence multiple incomestreams are opened up. This acts as a hedge against concentration of too muchreliance/risk on a single survival option.

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7. Extremist activities have been on a rise especially in tribal dominated parts of centralIndia. The main participants are the unengaged rural youth. Lack of employmentopportunities, poverty and lack of hope are some of the main causes that breedextremist activities. The Wadi Program can help channelize the rural youth toundertake constructive work. The result is a win-win situation for the society (at amicro level) and the world (at a macro level).AcknowledgementsLike the intricate work on the Bandhani1 of Gujarat which typifies a fusion of color anddesign, the beauty of the BAIF case is the fact that it symbolizes the synthesis of thetraditional village wisdom with a scientific approach. What emerged from the WadiProgramme was the result of a lot of hardwork, grit and a faith by the tribals. Only 42 tribalfamilies participated in the program when it was first launched in 1982. The road wasarduous and the extreme climate made tending to the saplings a challenging experience. Inareas where irrigation options were not available, members of these tribal families wouldcarry water in pots atop their heads and on mules, walking on dirt roads for hours to beable to water and tend to the saplings. They had to do this daily for nearly 5 years beforethe first crop was realized.Their success acted as a beacon of hope to all the others and there was no looking back afterthat. We would like to dedicate this case to all the tribals of the Vansda, Gujarat who workedvery hard and made it possible for the dreams of thousands to be transformed into reality.Their perseverance and tenacity is an example that will guide many more generations to come.The role played by agencies such as NABARD and KfW Bankengruppe in providing guidanceand funding for such projects is deeply appreciated.We would also like to thank Mr Girish G. Sohoni, President, BAIF and Mr. B. K. Kakade, VicePresident BAIF for their encouragement and guidance, Prof. K.S. Subramanian, Director ofSymbiosis Centre for Management and Human Resource Development (SCMHRD) for hissupport and interest in the project. We would also like to thank our colleagues at BAIFDevelopment Research Foundation, Pune, DHRUVA and SCMHRD, Pune.A big thanks to Access Development for organizing the case study competition and to RaboBank for sponsoring the prize money.Last but not the least; we would like to thank our families (Harish, Amit, Tarini, Komal,Sharayu, Jayesh, Sayali and Rucha) who patiently carried out myriad tasks and made itpossible for us to devote time in writing the case. Their support and encouragement madeit possible for us to piece a two decade timeline and a fantastic reality into a presentationthat was able to capture the essence of the Wadi Program.

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Kakade B. K., Karmarkar P. P., Patil S. M., Kulkarni P. K., Patil N. B., and Hatolkar V. B. 2010. ExploringLivelihood Avenues in Distressed Vidarbha, India. Paper presented at the 8th Annual National Seminaron Social Work Response to HIV Aids.

Exploring Livelihood Avenues in Distressed Vidarbha, IndiaAbstractNational Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) has been initiated for improvement oflivelihood in 150 backward districts of country. BAIF Development Research Foundation,Pune has been working as a Consortium Leader to implement the Sustainable Rural LivelihoodSecurity Project (SRLS) in Maharashtra under NAIP Component 3. In this context, a surveywas conducted in 2008 in three backward districts of Yeotmal, Chandrapur and Gadchiroli ofVidarbha to assess the socioeconomic status and current livelihood pattern. Findings of thesurvey reveal overall profile of the area and baseline situation in the operational area withrespect to population and literacy status, social composition, economic status, occupation,migration status, cropping pattern and livestock position which is very alarming and crucialin planning project interventions. Based on problem analysis, major interventions havebeen introduced to enhance the productivity of natural resources. This has yielded theencouraging results. Based on this experience, present paper explores the possible livelihoodopportunities derived from problem analysis and strategies to be adopted aiming atrevolutionary sustainable livelihood development in the distressed Vidarbha Region.Keywords: livelihood, distress, improved agriculture, livestock, water resources1. IntroductionIndia consisting of 16% of world’s population sustains only on 2.4% of land resource.Agriculture sector is the only livelihood to the two-third of its population which givesemployment to 57% of the work force. (Behere and Behere 2008). In Vidarbha, basicallythe major crops grown are cotton, soybean, jowar and pulses. People rely on rainfed farmingsince irrigated farming is insignificant and is seen only in very few pockets where majorrivers provide water for the whole year. The farmers are facing the problem of lowproductivity of farm produce due to rising cost of cultivation, relative absence of irrigationfacilities, repeated crop failures, fluctuations in market prices and dependence on rainfallfor farming. Consequent to all factors, livelihood status is quite pitiable in Vidarbha.In this context, the National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) is a major initiativeof Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi with the mission ofestablishing a system and action-based research consortium for improvement of livelihoodin 150 backward districts of the country; 11 of these districts are in Maharashtra. Under

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NAIP Component III, BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune has been working asa Consortium Leader to implement the Sustainable Rural Livelihood Security Project (SRLS)in five backward districts of Maharashtra viz., Yeotmal, Gadchiroli, Chandrapur, Ahmednagarand Nandurbar.The overall objective of this project is to develop a replicable and holistic approachfor promoting sustainable livelihood in tribal and remote regions of Maharashtra throughintegration and blend of tested technologies and strategies of household-focused and area-based programmes. Baseline study was conducted in three backward districts of Vidarbhato assess the socioeconomic status and current livelihood pattern of the said region priorto design interventions based on location, available resources, skills and farmers’ priorities.The present paper focuses on three backward districts of Vidarbha viz., Yeotmal, Chandrapurand Gadchiroli.2. MethodologyThe methodical perspective of the study requires thorough qualitative and quantitativeanalysis of socioeconomic status. Hence for the purpose of data collection, questionnairesfor household survey and PRAs were used along with secondary sources of informationsuch as Grampanchayat, Panchayat Samiti, Government departments as well as Governmentwebsites. 250 families per cluster of villages were selected for the survey. The sample wasdistributed in the villages (which ranged from 4 to 8/cluster) of the cluster in proportionto the population of social categories in the villages. Stratified random sampling methodwas adopted to ensure representation of all the social groups and various economiccategories of the population from the cluster.Villages StudiedThirty nine villages from six clusters of three backward districts of Vidarbha, Maharashtrawere studied. (Table 1)Table 1. Villages Studied

District Yeotmal Gadchiroli ChandrapurBlock Ghatanji Ralegaon Etapalli Indaram Jivti PombhurnaBellora Aapati Aalandadi Abanplalli Chikhali AashtaChoramba Bhamb Hedari Bamhane Devalguda Chek ballarpurChorkhund Dongargaon Itulanar Cherpalli Loldoh Chek khapariKumbhari Pimpalkhuti Lanji Chichgude Pataguda ChekthanevasnaVillages Yevati Raveri Mamgera Endaram Pudhiyal DighorimohdaWathoda Parasalgondi Katpele VelwaRekenar KolapalliModumturaPusukapalli

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3. Major FindingsImportant findings of situation analysis are given below.3.1 Socioeconomic profileTotal population of surveyed villages was 8347. Male and female proportion in the populationwas 53 and 47% respectively with average family size 5.5. The overall literacy level was 55and 45% respectively in case of males and females. However, the lowest literacy rate wasreported from Etapalli with 40% for men and 23% for women and the highest was recordedin Ralegaon with 84% for men and 79% for women.The major social groups in the area are Scheduled Caste (SC), Scheduled Tribe (ST),Nomadic Tribe (NT), Other Backward Class (OBC) and General category. (Fig. 1)ScheduledTribe comprises high proportion (36%) of the total population. In Etapalli and Indaramclusters their proportion is within 45 to 100%. Though the other major group in theproject area is OBCs comprising 30% of the population, they mostly exist in Ralegaon(65.59%), Pombhurna (64.66%) and Ghatanji (43.51%) clusters. Nomadic Tribes (NTs)have sizeable existence in Jivati cluster (51.49%).

3.1.1 Economic statusNearly 53% of the families in the project area earn less than `20000/annum. The situationis specifically worst in Etapalli (96%) and Indaram (90%). Though we can see that overall26 % families earn above `35000/annum, its only Ralegaon with maximum (66%) APLfamilies (Fig.2).

Fig. 1. Social Composition

Other

BC, 30.79ST, 36.6

Ge

ne

ral

7.4

8

SC, 11.81

Nomadic

Tribe, 13.24

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3.1.2 OccupationAgriculture is the major occupation of 98% of population and only 1% depends entirely onagriculture labour and remaining 1% reported non-agriculture occupation (Fig.3). Domesticwork is perceived to be the primary responsibility of women who also contributesubstantially on farms for livelihood activities. Men are official owners of the property.

3.1.3 Distressed MigrationThe average proportion of families that migrated temporarily in search of work wasapproximately 15%. Total number of women who migrate was 15 and that of men was225.

Fig. 2. Income Level

Income Level(%

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UPTO 20000

20001 to 25000

25001 to 30000

30001 to 35000

Above 35000

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Fig. 3. Occupation

Not Reported

Labourer

Other thanAgriculture

Agriculture

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Situation is alarming in Jivti with 67%. In the remaining clusters it is moderate.Maximum families migrate for the period of one to three months. In Indaram clustertendency of villagers to migrate has been not reported. It is observed in Gadchiroli that,although income wise affluence level being low, especially in Etapalli cluster in Gadchirolionly 2% migration reported because Tendu leaves (Diospyros melanoxylon) and Mahua(Madhuca indica) are the sources which fetch them some cash every year.3.2 Land and Water Use PatternLandholding pattern of the area shows that majority of the farmers are in the category ofsmall and medium farmers. Average land holding of the farmer is about 5-6 acre. As persoil analysis the pH, Electrical Conductivity, organic carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassiumand micronutrient level is quite indicative. The organic carbon is low in all clusters. Jivatiand Etapalli clusters tend towards salinity.Water scarcity especially for animals and irrigation has been reported at almost allthe locations. In all the villages, the ground water level had gone down in most of thelocations; shortage of drinking water is also faced. Hand pumps and well are the onlysource of water for drinking and irrigation purpose. In most of the villages, sanitation ispoor with open drainage lines.3.3 Cropping Pattern of the AreaCropping pattern in surveyed locations is assorted. Paddy (Gadchiroli), cotton, soybean andpulses (Yeotmal and Chandrapur) in kharif season as well as wheat and gram in rabi seasonare the major crops. At Etapalli cluster in Gadchiroli, people go for only kharif crop (Table 5).Farmers cultivate cotton as a major kharif crop covering 3661 acre (28%) followedby rice on 2771 acre (20%). Soybean is also one of the major kharif crops contributingfarmers’ financial system. In case of rabi crops, wheat is cultivated over 1207 acre area.Around 87% of the total cultivable area is cultivated during kharif while during rabiseason approximately only 13% of the cultivable area is under crops due to lack of irrigation

Not Reported

Other thanAgriculture(% families)

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(% families)

Gh

ata

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Fig. 4 Distressed Migration

010203040506070

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facilities. It has been observed that, farmers use maximum fertilizers and pesticides inCotton and Soybean hence the cost of production is high and farmers get maximum returnsfrom cotton (Net `18917/ha) and Soybean (Net `15983/ha) followed by paddy, gram, andwheat. Average yield of cotton in surveyed area is 605.22 kg/ha whereas state and nationalyield of cotton is 373 kg/ha and 273 kg/ha respectively. In case of paddy growing area1264.64 kg/ha average yield is obtained which is less than the state and the national yield(1897 kg/ha and 2001 kg/ha respectively). Average yield of soybean is 1188.07 kg/hawhich is less than state yield (1493 kg/ha). With regard to rabi crop yield, wheat achievesaverage production of 2158 kg/ha which is more than the state and national yields (1893kg/ha and 2082 kg/ha respectively). (http://www.agricoop.nic.in/)Table 5. Area under Crops

Total Irrigated Non % of % of Total AverageAcerage irrigated Kharif Acerage Yield

acreage (kg/ha)KharifCotton 3661 652 3009 27.9 24.65 605.224Jowar 839 0 839 6.39 5.65 448.94Rice 2717 22 2695 20.71 18.29 1264.64Soybean 1643 301 1342 12.52 11.06 1188.07Tur 823 9 814 6.27 5.54 500Moong 1446 0 1446 11.02 9.74 80Urad 190 0 190 1.45 1.28Total 11319RabiWheat 1207 1066 141 69.65 8.13 2158.78Jowar 358 358 0 20.66 2.41Linseed 10 0 10 0.58 0.07 407.55Gram 158 0 158 9.12 1.06 770.64Total 1733 2408 10644

3.4 LivestockIt has been observed that, the herd composition is large in Etapalli with he-buffaloes andpiggery, still livestock is not a major income generation activity and the PRAs also revealthat there is no practice of housing as well as milking the animals. As per findings, lowestfigures for livestock population have been observed in Jivti cluster.

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The total goat population in the area is around 2100. Out of this, 1300 are located inEtapalli and Indaram clusters. It is revealed that small ruminant holders are in largeproportion only in Etapalli, Pombhurna and Indaram clusters (Fig. 5).

Income generation from animal sale (55%) and milk production (40%) has beenobserved more profitable than other livestock income sources. Milk production gives moreearning in Ralegaon. As reported earlier in Etapalli cluster income through milk productionis very low (Average `250./annum). Overall, contribution of poultry products to income isvery negligible (1%) (Fig.6).

On the whole, 54% farmers use in-farm cattle feed for animals while 81% farmersuse other than farm cattle feed such as cotton seed cakes, rice bran, homemade rachka, etc.Livestock development is not up to the mark due to shortage of fodder and water for animalsand absence of market linkages.

Fig. 5. Livestock composition

0100200300400500600700800900

1000

Cows

Buffalo

Bullocks

He-buffa

lo

Goats/Sheep

Pigs

Poultry

Ghatanji

Ralegaon

Etapalli

Indaram

Jivti

Pombhurna

Fig. 6. % Livestock Income

Animal Sale180386.6667

Bullrenting, 12268.5

Poultryproducts, 4514

MilkProduction, 133946.8333

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Table 6. Problem AnalysisProblem Causes Strategy AdoptedInadequate use of FYM Promotion of INMLack of assured irrigation Water Resource DevelopmentLow Unawareness about plant protectionAgriculture measures Promotion of IPMYieldLow Livestock Lack of input supply such as Seed production at farmer’sYield improved seed fieldNon-descript cattle populationUnawareness about livestock Doorstep service of cattlemanagement development and managementFodder unavailability Promotion of fodder cultivationLack of Forest Unawareness about forest products Introduction of tasar culture,Based sericulture and lac cultureEnterprisesWeak Public Unawareness about management Capacity building of people’sOrganizations institutionsand NoNetwork of PIsAbsence of Promotion of Post harvest Establishment of forwardPHT and technologies linkagesMarketLinkages

4. Proposed Livelihood StrategiesOne of the important reasons for this study was to investigate the nature of currentlivelihoods and plan for different livelihood options based on that. It is very clear that, mostpeople engage in agriculture labor but data also shows that agriculture could not creatework days for more than 92 days in a year which reveals the need for planning of diversifiedsources of income. Within the study problem analysis of surveyed locations have beencarried out and based on that the strategies have been finalized (Table 6).4.1 Farming SystemsThe development of small and marginal farmers would be possible if focus is given onintegrated farming system instead of monocropping year after year. The components coveredunder farming system should be technically appropriate, institutionally feasible, economicallyviable, environmentally sound agriculture, livestock and allied technologies. The impact ofselected technologies will trigger horizontal adoption of technologies and generateemployment in agriculture, livestock, tasar cultivation and allied sectors by generatingopportunities through value addition and market linkages. Besides the direct impact it willhave indirect impact on the socio-economic development of the rural poor.

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4.1.1 Cropping PatternIncrease in agricultural productivity is essential for livelihood security in rural areas.However, agricultural production is seriously constrained by lack of awareness abouttechnologies, low inputs, unreliable weather, and the effects of deforestation on landproductivity. Vidarbha is a home for approximately 3.4 million of cotton farmers and 95%are struggling with massive debt (Behere and Behere 2008). The problems are more seriousin such an interior and backward regions, where the farmers are deprived of the basicamenities and infrastructure for their livelihood. Also very few farmers are availed of soiltesting. Hence, crop diversification through multiple and diversified crops varieties withreference to agro-climatic conditions are necessary to reduce risk of economic loss.In most of the surveyed locations, the soils are clayey, deep and have good water holdingcapacity thereby ensuring the possibility of better crop growth and higher yields in paddy,soybean, cotton and wheat. Also rainfall is sufficient for seasonal crops in almost all the locations.Promotion of indigenous crops such as linseed cultivation also has been promoted for cropdiversification. Introduction of improved, high yielding varieties along with promotion ofIntegrated Nutrient Management (INM) after proper soil testing analysis and Integrated PestManagement (IPM) and biological pest control have been carried out. Hence, to improve cropyield season specific and crop specific inputs have been provided to participants (Table 7).

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Table 7. Inputs to ParticipantsInputs to participantsCrop Fertilizer Pesticides Management Other

practicesKharifPaddy Urea DAP Endosulfan, FYM, Biofertilizerbriquets, Monocrotophos urea briquette Nitrophos10:26:26 and utilization, planting Fermented neemmicronutrient distance, interculture extractspray operations andirrigationSoya Urea, 10:26:26 Endosulfan FYM, interculture Biofertilizerbean and micronutrient operations and Rhizobiumirrigation Fermented neemextractCotton Urea, 10:26:26 Thiamethoxam, FYM application, Fermented neemand micronutrient Acetamiprid, planting distance, extract, pheromoneImidacloprid inter crop, interculture trapsoperations andIrrigationJowar Urea, 10:26:26 FYM, interculture Biofertilizerand micronutrient operations and Nitrophosirrigation Fermented neemextractMaize Urea, 10:26:26 FYM, interculture Biofertilizer Nitrophosand micronutrient operations and Fermented neemirrigation extractRabiGram Urea, DAP and Heliokill FYM, interculture Biofertilizermicronutrient (HaNPV), operations and Rhizobiumirrigation Fermented neemextractWheat Urea, 10:26:26 Thiamethoxam, FYM, interculture Biofertilizer Nitrophosand micronutrient Dithene-M-45 operations and Fermented neemirrigation extractJowar Urea, 10:26:26 FYM, interculture Biofertilizer Nitrophosand micronutrient operations and Fermented neemirrigation extractLinseed Urea, 10:26:26 FYM, interculture Fermented neemand micronutrient operations and extractirrigation

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Different region specific improved crop varieties with disease resistant characters havebeen introduced in the project area. (Table 8)Table 8. Improved Crop Varieties Introduced in Project Area

Crop Varieties Crop VarietiesSeason- Kharif Season- RabiPaddy Shindewahi-2001, Sonam, PKVHMT, Gram DigvijaySahyadri-2, Jaishriram, IndrayaniSoybean JS-335 Wheat HD- 2189, TrimbakCotton Rasi-2, Mallika Jowar MaldandiJowar 296-Mahindra Linseed NL- 97, PadminiMaize 30V92, PayaonearPigeon Pea BSMR-736, Phule VipulAs farmers spend major amount on seed procurement every year, it proved worth toproduce seed of improved varieties at their own farm to reduce cost of production andassured input supply at own for every cropping season. During kharif season seedproduction of soybean (10 acre) and that of wheat (3 acre) and gram (7 acre) in rabbiseason have been taken up and planned to follow the same activity on larger area in future.

4.1.2 Tree-Based FarmingThe existing soil and climatic conditions of surveyed locations are favorable for mangocultivation. However, scientific promotion of these species and farmers’ keen interest willgenerate assured earnings throughout the lifetime. Also it will increase the productivity ofdegraded land by horticulture species plantation also increase productivity of soil by usingINM practices based on soil analysis. It is a sustainable livelihood option which can preventmigration to a great extent. As on 1000 participants are covered under this intervention.Promotion of fuel wood plantation and fodder grasses on the borders of orchards forimproved availability and access to fuel wood and fodder, will lead to reduce the burden ofwomen in fetching these essential and routinely required resources.4.1.3 Livestock ManagementLivestock in this predominantly tribal area is not an income generation activity. Cross bredanimals are not found in this area in significant numbers. Livestock and livelihoods areintimately linked in our country. Among the livestock, cattle and buffaloes play a significantrole because of their contribution to human nutrition, plant nutrition, and energy.Unfortunately, a majority of cattle and buffaloes are low productive, nondescript and are notsupported with adequate feed resource and health cover to enhance the milk yield.In order to create awareness amongst the farmers in this area about livestockmanagement, approach of organizing trainings and exposure visits has been adopted. It hasbeen thought of improving the productivity of the base population through breeding themwith genetically superior animals. For actuation of this plan, Technology Transfer centershave been established in these areas. For genetic improvement of the base cattle and buffalopopulation in this area Artificial Insemination Services with the use of semen of exotic

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cattle breeds, crossbreeds and indigenous cattle buffalo bulls of superior genetic meritshave been provided at the doorsteps of the programme participants. Besides this,management advisory services are also made available to them through these centers. Apartfrom this, other supportive activities such as organization of veterinary health camps,vaccinations, estrus synchronization, mineral mixture supply to animals, fodder seeds anddeworming drugs are also provided through these centers.Shortage for fodder has been observed in surveyed villages. The situation has beenremedied by promoting use of improved fodder varieties. This has helped to overallimprovement of nutrition of the animals in the area resulting into improved health andproductivity of the animals in the area.In respect to small ruminants, there is vast scope for promoting goat rearing as anincome generating activity in this area. Trainings and demonstrations on vaccination,deworming and feed management has been given to goat keepers for effective managementof goats. Also bucks of improved breed viz., Osmanabadi have been provided so as toimprove the breed and kidding rate in the goats and the growth rate of the kids born aswell. In order to continue the activity, a goat bank concept has been promoted in which abeneficiary after producing new goat reared for 4 months and hand it over to the next newparticipant for further rearing. In such way, new participants are getting involved in theprocess and the activity will be continued in chain manner towards sustainability.4.2 Water Resource DevelopmentAs nearly 60% of the surveyed families have reported the access for some kind of waterresources for land irrigation; however it is insufficient and not assured for taking up irrigatedcrops. Water resource development intervention, primarily covers construction of checkdams, construction and/or repairs of wells. The water utilization measures include thepumps, water lift arrangements–pipelines, micro-irrigation systems. ‘Watershed approach’is adopted in implementation of all WRD activities. For achieving the better impact, farmersin contiguous area are selected (for horticulture, agriculture) in the small catchments. Thishas generated employment throughout the year.4.3 Post Harvest Technology, Value Addition and Market LinkagesWith respect to post-harvest activities, farmers undertake drying and cleaning only. Valueaddition activities are not available in the area also the network of peoples’ institutionsinvolved in economical activities such as procurement, processing and marketing of theagriculture produce is awfully underdeveloped. In such case, better realization of price forfarm products through post-harvest management, value addition and market linkages andestablishment of forward linkages are crucial issues to focus on. In this perception,promotion of high yielding disease resistance linseed varieties, its processing and valueaddition have been established as linseed value chain in the project area.4.4 Forest-based LivelihoodsBesides Mahua and Tendu, there are many forest tree species like Palas, Khair, Arjun, Acacia,Ber, etc. which are naturally available and can be used for lac and tasar culture if they aremanaged well. Tasar sericulture and lac cultivation are good approaches to involve marginal

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farmers and landless particularly women, as it is a good source of assured income yeararound. However, it found important to standardize the technologies and initiate valueaddition to silk reeling and value chain has been established (Fig. 6).Fig. 6. Value chain of Tasar

4.5 Support Service-based LivelihoodVarious technologies have been promoted and adopted in the project area and to continuethe same forever different support services have been developed. The practice of cattlebreed improvement is being done by efficient AI technician. Urea DAP briquette machineshave been installed in the community centers which will add support in paddy cultivation.Shade net house will act as an assured source for seedlings of vegetables, fodder andmedicinal plants.Also it is planned to establish outlets of the goods required prior and after cropcultivation such as fertilizer, pesticide shop, farm implements, seed shop, etc. which will notonly create support for the interventions but also will prove as a good livelihood activity.5 Initial ResultsAfter strategic promotion of technologies and interventions in the project area encouragingresults have been achieved in project area.Increase in crop yieldOverall increase in crop productivity is 40%Table 10. Increase in Crop Yield

Cotton 863 1128 1493 73.05 32Soybean 1188 900 1242 4.54 38Paddy 1264 1409 2220 75.63 57Gram 771 596 901 16.87 51Wheat 1189 1127 1616 35.91 43Employment generationInitially, agriculture-based employment in participating farming households was 92days/annum which increased to 119 days/annum. Additional 29% employment generationachieved through agriculture, value addition methods, water resource development andallied activities. In Jivti cluster of Chandrapur district, initially 67% migration was reported,which after introduction of water resource development intervention reduced to 10% asthey got assured income generation.

Silk wormrearing Cocoonharvesting Cocoonprocessing Silk wormReeling Marketing

CropYield (kg/ha)

Baseline RegularPlot Demo Plot

% IncreaseOver Baseline

% IncreaseOver

Regular Plot

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Forest-based InterventionsAs on 150 families are engaged with tasar culture with average yield of 4000 cocoonsper family. So far 11 lakh cocoons have been harvested which realized `8.60 lakh. Laccultivation has been undertaken on 243 trees successfully.Livestock DevelopmentIn Vidarbha 192 villages are covered under cattle development intervention. So far2125 artificial inseminations have been carried out and total 345 calves are born comprising175 male and 170 female calves. In goat development programme Osmanabadi breed hasbeen introduced which showed good results with respect to body weight and market priceas compared to local goat breed.

Case Study of Mr. Thoba Pawra Village-Bhulane, Mandane ClusterTribal family belongs to Bhulane village of Mandane cluster, Dist. Nandurbar. Family has 9members and 7 acres of land.Before intervention (Year 2007)

Name of crop Area (acre) Production (kg) Income (`̀̀̀̀)Jowar 1 200 1000Mung 2 150 1200Udid 1 100 800Cotton 1 200 3000Rabi Jowar 2 200 1600Total 7 850 7600Family members used to undertake wage labour and could earn up to `7000/annum. Totalannual income of the family was in the range of `15000 to `20000/-.

Interventions received through projectProject support extended for well deepening, temporary check dam, improved agriculturepractices and orchard is of `8110/- while his own contribution is `4510/- With hard workand sincere following of improved practices, their income has enhanced to a great extent.Result of Kharif 2010

Name of Crop Area (acre) Production (kg) Income (`̀̀̀̀)Cotton 3 2300 118000Chilli 1 200 7000Maize 1 2000 18000Guava 50 trees 550 5500Total 148500The family is now residing on the farm. Thoba dada has purchased oil engine for irrigation.He works as a chairperson of Gram Vikas Samiti of Bhulane.

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6. Sustainability InitiativesSubsequent to all strategies and activities carried out, sustainable livelihood will begenerated in the area. Sustainability initiatives have been taken up in the project to ensurepost project persistence of the project activities.Sustainability initiatives have been undertaken as follow:6.1 Planning with Participation of FarmersThe project has been implemented using a family and the area-based intervention approach.A basket of innovative interventions, with enriched resource base in the cluster, comprisingof new technologies have been explained to the farmers and individual family-based planninghas been done in participatory manner. The farmers have selected suitable interventionsfrom these, and only willing farmers have been offered with interventions of their choice.Thus, planning of every intervention has been done with the participation of farmers. Thiswill help to develop ownership of the participants over the project.6.2 Community EmpowermentWith the presence of strong People’s Institutions (PI) at the village level, it is easy tocommunicate and transfer modern technologies for improving agricultural production andprofitability. Interactions of the members of these groups with various members of theproject consortium will help them to adopt new technologies and systems not only duringthe project implementation but also beyond the project period. Thus, it is necessary toempower them through exposure visits and trainings for backward linkage with theproducts/participants processing and marketing.Institution BuildingIt is planned to form a committee in which at the apex there will be BAIF-NAIP managementcommittee consisting of representatives of BAIF and NAIP cluster staff. Followed by theapex body there will be cluster committees of all NAIP clusters and after that primarygroups established in every cluster.6.3 Tapering of Support to ParticipantsProject support for inputs has been provided to participants to carry out the recommendedactivities in their field for improving farm production. The support strategy has been decidedas, during the first year of project 75% support has been given to farmers, onwards 50%and 25% for second and third years respectively and later they have to continue the activitieson their own. This will lead to continuation of the improved practices and inputs beyondproject period.6.4 Sustainability Fund (Money Bank)Creation of sustainability fund is important for continued development even after exit of theorganization. The fund is being deposited on the bank account of cluster committee. This fundwill be used for sustaining and carry-over of project activities after completion of the projectfund. So far the total contribution at project level is `30,13,010/-.6.5 Establishment of Technology Transfer CentersTechnology Transfer Centers have been established at cluster level through project support.

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Eventually, these centers will be managed by cluster level committees. The programmeinitiated will be managed in future through these centers. All project activities are nowlinked to the center. Accordingly, capacity building of the members has been undertaken.Community centers will serve three major objectives as demonstration of all relevantactivities, training center for farmers and extension centre to reach out more and morefarmers through effective extension programme. Technology Transfer Centre has beendivided into three functional areas as technology demonstrations, input services and valueaddition (Table 9).Table 9. Activities under Technology Transfer Centers

Technology Demonstration Input Value InnovativeServices Addition InterventionSeed Production Urea-DAP Linseed Network ofSeed Bank Briquette Processing Bodies (LocalOrganic Farming Demonstrations Unit Unit name for storageForest Based Production (Tasar ponds)and Lac culture)Livestock Development CentreFodder DemonstrationsGoat Bank

7. ConclusionBaseline study and problem analysis revealed the need to work for development of multipleoptions of livelihood as extreme reliance on agriculture has worsened the situation inVidarbha. Accordingly interventions covering agriculture, water resource development,livestock development and forest based livelihood options are introduced. Along withlivelihood interventions at household level, few enterprises such as Urea-DAP Briquettingmachines, shade net, seed production have been also introduced to cater local needs andsustain people’s institutions formed under the project.Adoption of integrated approach for enhancement of livelihood resources has yieldedvery good initial results. The extent of adoption of technologies and sustenance of people’sinstitutions will eventually shape this approach as a model of sustainable livelihood fordistressed districts in Vidarbha.AcknowledgementThis project is supported by National Agricultural Innovation Project of Indian Council ofAgriculture Research, New Delhi, India and the World Bank. The project is being implementedin consortium mode. BAIF Development Research Foundation, Pune is a lead centre andconsortium partner institutes are Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola,Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Bharati Vidyapeeth University, Pune, MaharashtraAnimal and Fishery Sciences University, Nagpur and Dr. Hedgewar Sewa Samiti, Nandurbar.References1. Behere, P.B. and Behere, A.P. (2008) Farmers’ suicide in Vidarbha region ofMaharashtra state: A myth or reality?2. Hegde, N.G., Promotion of Dairy Husbandry for Sustainable Livelihood: BAIF’S Approach3. NAIP SRLS-3 Baseline Survey Report http://www.agricoop.nic.in/

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Hegde N. G., 2010. Mitigating Global Warming while Providing Sustainable Livelihood through IntegratedFarming Systems. Paper presented at the International Conference on Global Warming: Agriculture,Sustainable Development and Public Leadership. Gujarat Vidyapith, Ahmedabad. March 11-13, 2010.Pages 1-27.

Mitigating Global Warming While Providing Sustainable LivelihoodThrough Integrated Farming SystemsWith the economic reforms in early 90s, India has been making significant progress,particularly in Industrial and Information Technology sectors. This has resulted in generationof new employment opportunities, easy access to finance and foreign exchange, increasein GDP and per capital income. However, the agriculture sector, which is the backbone ofthe rural economy and which had made significant progress for over a quarter of a centurysince the successful launching of the Green Revolution in the 70s, has been fading graduallycausing lower rate of growth, less than 2%, while the overall growth of GDP has been above6-8%. As the prosperous agricultural regions of North and North-East India, known as thefood baskets of the country have reached a level of stagnation in agricultural production,there has not been any serious effort to develop the other regions, particularly the arid andsemi-arid regions under rain fed agriculture, which are mainly dominated by small holdersand Below Poverty Line (BPL) families.Such neglect has not only failed to boost growth in agriculture but also to reduce theextent of poverty in rural India. A recent economic survey conducted by the PlanningCommission has reported that over 42% of the rural population is presently living inpoverty, whose earning is far less than USD 2/day/family. Presently, 60-65% of the Indianpopulation is living in rural areas and over 90% of them are dependent on agro-basedactivities. In the absence of significant development of industrial and service sectors inrural areas, the rural population has to depend on agriculture or migrate to urban areas insearch of wages.Constraints for Improving Agricultural ProductionThe scope for agricultural development in non-irrigated areas has been heavily restrictedbecause of several factors and prominent among them are the following:Small LandholdingsMore than 75% rural families own less than 2 ha land, which are sub-divided and scatteredin several locations. The productivity of these small holdings is low because of inability ofpoor land holders to carry out required tillage operations on time and invest in necessaryagricultural inputs, while adopting advanced technologies which can boost crop production.It is also not feasible for small holders to introduce new crops and modern farming due tolack of cooperation from adjacent farmers.

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Low ProductivityMost of the small farmers being deprived of irrigation facilities, are compelled to dependon rainfall, which is difficult for optimising crop yields. About 40% of the cropping area inthe country is located in arid regions, where harvesting even a single crop in a year isuncertain. Therefore, farmers do not use required quantity inputs to maximise the cropproduction. As a result, crop yields in rain fed areas are significantly lower than in irrigatedareas. Low productivity of land has been the major reason for poor generation of gainfulself employment in non-irrigated areas, affecting the livelihood of small farmers.In the absence of profitable agricultural production, farmers have not been taking goodcare of their land resources, by way of soil and water conservation, optimum use of farmyardmanure as well as other nutrients and efficient use of rain water. Due to lack of farm bundingand land shaping, heavy rains accelerate soil erosion leading to depletion of soil fertility, floodingof rivers and siltation of water reservoirs. It is reported that only 35% of the rain water is beingeffectively used in the country, while the rest is wasted causing inconvenience and economicloss to the society. Thus, the natural resources are being denuded continuously suppressingagricultural production further, due to neglect and inability of poor farmers.Outdated TechnologiesMost of the research institutions engaged in agricultural research have been focussing onenhancing yields of major food and cash crops in irrigated areas, as the outcome of suchstudies has high commercial value and better visibility. On the contrary, there have notbeen significant efforts made for finding solutions to solve problems of degraded lands andsmall farmers particularly in arid and semi-arid regions who are compelled to cultivatedrought tolerant crops. Even in irrigated areas, farmers ignorant of the importance of water,often make excessive use of water to irrigate their crops, to the extent that they end upwith low crop yields and even damage the land by turning it into sodic-saline wastelands.With efficient use of water by using modern methods of irrigation, they can not only enhancecrop yields but also reduce crop production, while covering a larger area under irrigation.But such damages are not prevented due to poor agricultural extension network andimproper method of charging for water use causing huge loss of precious natural resources,which suppress crop yields.Animal husbandry is an important and integral part of agriculture, which has beenunder severe neglect and totally disconnected from the agricultural sector. The AnimalHusbandry Department responsible for boosting animal production is biased towardsveterinary services while genetic upgradation and preventive health care are almostneglected. Farmers are ignorant about scientific management of livestock which has resultedin low production, poor rural economy and suppression of livelihood of small farmers.India hosts over 17% of the world’s livestock but their performance is only to the extentof 25-30% of their counterparts in developed countries. With the growing livestockpopulation, without any serious effort for genetic improvement and increasing fodderproduction, there has been a severe shortage of feed and fodder resources which have beenaffecting their productivity further. With application of modern technologies for breeding,feeding and health care, farmers could enhance production of milk and meat, while reducingherd size and supporting organic farming. It is only through improved technologies andefficient forward and backward linkages, that the growing demand for milk and meat canbe met, while generating gainful self employment to small farmers.

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Lack of Forward and Backward LinkagesMost of the scientific institutions engaged in agricultural research have been promotingnew technologies, without required support services. In the absence of marketing support,excessive production can also lead to glut in local market and farmers are likely to incurheavy losses, instead of earning higher profits. Apart from inputs and technology, supportis also needed for timely procurement of agricultural inputs and organising processing andmarketing. Presently, farmers are dependent on cooperatives and various developmentdepartments of the Government for procuring inputs and marketing their produce. However,as most of the cooperatives are not efficient, the infrastructure is extremely weak to organisefarmers and to facilitate support services. Therefore, poor farmers are often exploited bymiddlemen. The mechanism for strengthening the linkage between consumers andproducers, avoiding exploitation by middlemen is presently absent.Illiteracy and Lack of CapacityMost of the small farmers are not only poor but also semi-literate or illiterate. They havealso been suffering from lack of connectivity with the external world, choice of crops,technologies and particularly the market. They are also prone to cheating and exploitation.Ill-health is another serious problem which causes mortality, morbidity and keeps themaway from earning wages and attending to their agricultural operations, resulting in lowproduction. After experiencing failure after failure on many fronts, most of the poor havelost confidence in them as well as in outsiders. Therefore, it is necessary to motivate themand build their confidence and capabilities while initiating sustainable development activities.New Challenges of Global WarmingWhile the small farmers are already suffering from low agricultural productivity and lack ofgainful employment throughout the year due to various problems mentioned earlier, theyare now faced with new challenges of global warming which have serious impact on foodsecurity as well as on livelihood. Although global warming is a phenomenon beingexperienced all over the world, the problems are more serious in India as this will pose aserious threat to our food security. As the country may soon experience a rise in atmospherictemperature in the near future, there will be a series of chain reactions. With this rise inatmospheric temperature, the sea level is also likely to rise and result in forced evacuationof people living in more than 20,000 villages along the 7600 km long sea coast in thecountry. An additional 25% rural population will be exposed to increasing cyclones andfloods causing damage to agriculture, properties, livestock and human lives. Global warmingwill also accelerate melting and receding of Himalayan glaciers, which in turn will reduceflow of water in the rivers emerging from the Himalayas. Reduction in river water flow islikely to affect agricultural production in North India, reducing the food production by over40% in the country.Global warming will accelerate evaporation of moisture from soil and plants andwater requirement of crops will be higher. The farmers will have to irrigate their cropsmore frequently, resulting in additional work load and additional power requirement forpumping the water. With the changing climate, over 70% of the plants may have difficultyin adapting to the new climate, which may suppress crop growth and yields. Change inclimate may also influence flowering and fruit set of various crops. The present promising

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varieties of many crops may fail to produce high yields because of physiological changescaused by changing weather conditions. Thus, agricultural research will demand higherinvestment and time to develop new varieties of crops suitable for the changing climate.Climate change will further impose new challenges and uncertainties. While frequentfloods and droughts may result in frequent failure of crops, farmers will have to incur additionalexpenses on re-sowing of new crops after failure of crops sown earlier. This will not onlyenhance cost of production but also demand additional inputs in the form of improved seeds,fertilisers, agro-chemicals, etc. causing shortage of inputs and panic situations. This may furtheraffect resource poor small farmers who will not be able to mobilise finances to procure theseinputs. Therefore, climate change is likely to affect Indian agriculture and particularly a majorityof small farmers through food insecurity and unemployment. Drop in agricultural productionwill result in shortage of foodgrains and other essential commodities, inflation and furtherexploitation of common people, as we have started experiencing during this year.Mitigating Global WarmingAs we have already started experiencing the ill-effects of global warming in the form ofunpredictable erratic rainfall, steep rise and fall in the atmospheric temperatures, acuteshortage of drinking water, it is necessary to take immediate steps to initiate suitable actionswhich have the potential to reduce the ill-effects of global warming and climate change.Increase in emission of green house gases, particularly carbon dioxide, has been a majorcause of global warming. Therefore, the major focus is on reducing the emission of carbondioxide, by curbing consumption on fossil fuel. This will have to be done through introductionof energy efficiency in industries, thermal power plants, automobiles, transportation, aviationand conservation of energy through promotion of green buildings.Although the per capita energy consumption in India is far below the consumptionin developing countries, India stands third among the highest releasers of carbon dioxide inthe atmosphere because of large population. India has also been contributing substantialquantity of methane, another green house gas which is released from livestock and theirdung. Methane poses a more serious threat compared to carbon dioxide as it can absorb23 times more heat. Therefore, emission of methane can be a serious concern as Indiaowns the largest livestock population in the world.Development of wastelands through afforestation, efficient use of water to rechargethe ground water table as well as to increase green cover on barren lands and promotionof sustainable agriculture are other important steps, where India can play a very significantrole. Indeed, the strategy for India should be to promote such eco-friendly activities whichwill help in mitigating climate change while supporting sustainable livelihood for the poor.This programme should motivate common people to take active role by showing immediatebenefits for them. BAIF’s experiences in the past have revealed that while involving thepoor in any development programme, it is necessary to ensure that the participants haveopportunities to earn their livelihood, while contributing to the cause of development.BAIF’s Approach to Sustainable LivelihoodFocusing on development of the poor, BAIF Development Research Foundation, a Civil SocietyOrganisation, committed to promote sustainable livelihood, has promoted various incomegeneration activities using locally available natural resources such as land, water, livestock

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and vegetation for generating gainful self employment in rural India. Among them,promotion of cattle development for dairy husbandry, conservation of soil and waterresources for sustainable agriculture and promotion of tree-based farming for rehabilitationof degraded and wastelands have made significant contribution to sustainable developmentwhile mitigating global warming. BAIF’s strategy has been to ensure that the programmesare beneficial to the participating families to earn their livelihood while conserving eco-system, biodiversity and environment. Empowerment of women has been an integral partof the development programmes as they contribute to almost 70% of the labour foragriculture and play a significant role in improving the quality of life.Livestock DevelopmentLivestock is being considered as a threat to eco-system and environment in many developedcountries. However, for over 75% of the small farmers in India, livestock is an importantsource of income for livelihood. For these farmers, immediate food security from livestockis the primary concern, inspite of their ill-effects on the environment. BAIF considered it asan opportunity to empower small farmers to take up dairy husbandry to improve the milkproduction, while reducing the ill-effects on environment.Over the years, cattle have made a significant contribution to rural economy in theform of nutritious milk, bullock power and manure. In the absence of adequate technicalservices for genetic improvement, timely health care and feeding of balanced ration, theproductivity of cattle and buffalo has decreased significantly over the years. Thus, the smallfarmers have developed a tendency to increase their herd size to generate additional income,which has been increasing the pressure on the supply of fodder and feed resources. Realisingtheir plight and opportunity to generate gainful self employment through dairy husbandry,BAIF focussed on genetic improvement of cattle way back in 1967. As milk was in shortsupply while demand was very high, the programme was well accepted by farmers. BAIFalso realised that livestock development is a good opportunity for direct interaction withsmall and poor farmers for improving their livelihood. Furthermore, cattle were very wellaccepted by all sections of the society and even the illiterates were aware of managingcattle and buffaloes by feeding crop residues, without any advanced training. Realising theimportance of dairy husbandry in rural economy, BAIF decided to take up genetic upgradationof low productive, non-descript cattle through crossbreeding while conserving elite Indiannative breeds. Earlier the State Animal Husbandry Departments were implementing thisprogramme, but the conception rate was very low due to usage of liquid semen. So BAIFdecided to use frozen semen technology which not only ensured good quality semen butalso enabled supplying semen of superior quality bulls. BAIF further introduced breedingservices at the doorsteps of farmers, which saved their time and ensured timelyinsemination, while facilitating good interaction with those who are actually involved inlooking after the animals and to provide answers to their problems, from time to time.Through such interactions, illiterate farmers were motivated, gained confidence andimproved their skills, which empowered them to manage their programme efficiently. Whilethe native non-descript cows yielded 200-500 L milk/lactation of 300 days, crossbreds bornto these cows were able to come into milk production at the age of 3 years and yield on anaverage 2500-3000 L milk/lactation, contributing a net profit of `8,000 to `10,000/cow/annum. As a result, a family maintaining 3 crossbred cows was able to come out of poverty.

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Each crossbred valued at over `25,000 to `30,000, was the most valuable asset everpossessed by these small families. They could sell surplus cows from time to time to meettheir capital needs. As these valuable cows were prone to injury and infection againstvarious diseases, farmers were motivated to stall-feed and feed them well. Stall-feeding alsocreated awareness about the conservation of resources and influenced them to reducetheir herd size. Thus, there has been drastic reduction in free grazing which indirectlybenefitted the eco-system. With stall-feeding, dung collection from cows went up by 4times indirectly supporting sustainable agriculture and organic farming. It also enabledmany farmers to establish biogas plants to meet their domestic fuel needs. Impact of BAIF’scattle development programme is presented in Case Study No. 1.Dairy husbandry generated gainful self employment even for landless and women-headed families, who could purchase crop residues and fodder from other farmers. As theycould generate substantial income from crossbred cows, it was not necessary for them towork as agriculture labourers in other farms under the hot sun. Apart from reduction inhardship, they were able to stay at home and look after their house and children. This way,genetic improvement of cattle as well as buffaloes helped small farmers to come out ofpoverty, keeping a small number of animals, while significantly contributing to environmentalconservation and reduction of global warming. This programme today is spread over 55,000villages in 12 states benefitting over 3 million BPL families. With an annual budget of `30crores, the BAIF Programme is able to promote production of milk worth `2500 crores(USD520 million)/annum through small farmers.Upgradation of local non-descript cattle through crossbreeding has now been adoptedby most of the State Governments in the country. This has helped India to attain the firstrank in milk production in the world with over 105 million tons milk per year. However,the demand for milk is growing steeply and it is expected to cross 180 million tons peryear by the year 2022. This provides further opportunity to expand the programmethroughout the country, involving small farmers to enjoy sustainable livelihood, whilemitigating the ill-effects of global warming.Goat is another species of livestock, which ranks second in population (125 million)after cattle (185 million). Goat is considered as the enemy of eco-system mainly becausein drought prone areas where cattle and buffaloes fail to perform well, farmers tend toreplace their herd with goats. Goat population during the last two decades has increased by50%, mainly in arid regions. Environmentalists are of the opinion that goat has an aggressivegrazing habit which causes severe damage to vegetation and accelerates desertification.Due to this fear, there have not been many development programmes to support goatkeepers. However, as a large number of poor landless and women-headed families aremainly dependent on goat husbandry for their survival, even without any support, they willcontinue to keep goats and the damage is bound to continue. Therefore, to solve thisproblem, BAIF studied the existing system of goat husbandry in different parts of the countryand came up with a strategy to help them to reduce the ill-effects on eco-system whileenhancing the productivity. This programme was launched in Rajasthan, Gujarat, West Bengaland Gujarat. BAIF organised goat keepers into small Self Help Groups of 6-8 memberstogether owning about 35-40 does. Each group was provided with a superior quality buckof a locally recognised breed for genetic improvement. They were also supported withvaccination, deworming and advised on proper feeding to improve the growth. Awareness

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among goat keepers was created through a locally trained field guide to keep the herd sizesmall, to ensure that there is enough fodder available for all the goats in the region. Theywere further linked to the market directly to fetch better price. As a result, these goatkeepers were able to enhance their income by 2-3 folds without increasing their herd size.The programme has now been expanded in other areas to benefit poor goat keepers withoutincreasing goat population, in remote parts of the country. Further details on the goatdevelopment programme implemented in West Bengal are presented in Case Study No. 2.Scope for Reducing Green House GasesFurther efforts can be made to reduce emission of greenhouse gases through livestock bypromoting special programmes in the sector. These include reduction of livestock population,reduction in methane production by livestock and recycling of methane generated to meetthe energy needs.Reduction of unproductive livestock should be taken seriously as they are drainingour precious feed resources which are in short supply, while exerting pressure onbiodiversity and environment. Awareness needs to be generated among farmers about theopportunity losses by keeping low yielding animals. This is a serious problem in cattle asfarmers are unable to dispose off their unproductive cattle, both female and male. Whilecows can be used at least for producing crossbreeds, managing bullocks is becoming amajor problem, as tractors and power tillers have replaced bullock in the farming sector,turning bullocks uneconomical even for small holders. Therefore, a serious review of thelivestock policy should be taken to deal with conservation of a large number of native draftbreeds, their economics and utility for our farmers.Even under the dairy development programme through cross breeding, 50% progenyis expected to be males. These male calves grow fast and are ready for farming andtransportation operations at the age of two years, while bullocks of most of the nativebreeds take 4-5 years. These crossbred bullocks are also capable of carrying out heavytillage operations, but they are slow and less tolerant to heat stress as compared to nativedraft breeds. But in the absence of growing demand for bullocks, they may not be useful.Therefore, it is necessary to explore economic use of bullock power as an alternate sourceof energy, by designing new bullock-powered machines and tools. Development of singlebullock drawn implements, water pumping system and power generation device for lightinghouses may turn these bullocks economical. Subsequently, we also need to popularise theuse of sexed semen under the breeding programme to focus on production of only femalesfor milk production, which will boost the income of dairy farmers.The other area for mitigating global warming in livestock sector is by reducingmethane emission in the atmosphere. Livestock produce methane while digesting varioustypes of feed. Studies have confirmed that some of the feeds rich in fibre content acceleratemethane emission. Thus, further techniques should be developed to process fibrous feed tobreak down lignin before feeding to livestock for reducing methane generation. There aretechniques to degenerate fibre through physical, biochemical and microbial processes whichcan probably be perfected and popularised among dairy farmers.Capturing methane gas from cattle sheds before escaping into the atmosphere canalso be explored Methane released from dung can be easily prevented by generation ofbiogas, by every livestock owner. Presently, this aspect has been almost neglected, inspite

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of shortage of other sources of energy for domestic cooking and lighting. Major reasons forpoor popularity of biogas plants, which have been promoted by Khadi and Village Industriesand various Ministries ever since our independence are poor design of the plant needinglarge space, high capital cost, poor post installation services and attractive subsidy offeredfor other fuels such as kerosene, electricity and biomass. Further R and D efforts are neededto develop compact biogas plants which can be installed even on roof top and operated byusing biodegradable domestic wastes as well with dung.Production of fodder to meet shortage of feed should also be taken up on priority, toproduce superior quality, easily digestible fodder, instead of feeding highly fibrous roughages.Development of fodder tree plantations on degraded and dry lands and reclamation of ravineand saline lands will not only meet fodder needs but also enhance green cover and rechargingof ground water table. Presently, farmers are totally ignorant of the ill-effects of livestock onglobal warming. Hence, a serious awareness campaign should be organised to involve themto adopt eco-friendly practices to reduce the ill-effects.Management of Water ResourcesWater plays a significant role in conservation of eco-system and improvement in agriculturalproduction. It is because of lack of assured supply of moisture that agriculture in rain fedareas has not been very successful in many parts of the country. It is reported that only35% of the rainfall in India is effectively used while the remaining 65% water is causinghavoc by accelerating soil erosion, flooding of rivers and silting of reservoirs. Very often,small farmers are not able to make efficient use of rainwater due to their ignorance andinability to make necessary investments. BAIF has been promoting watershed developmentand efficient use of water resources. The programme includes harvesting of rainwater, landshaping and contour bunding to prevent soil erosion and recharging of ground water,introduction of efficient irrigation systems, use of organic mulches, establishment of shelterbelts, eco-friendly cropping, etc.Establishing networks of farm ponds in semi-arid regions of Karnataka and AndhraPradesh have not only enabled farmers to take one assured crop in rainy season but alsohelped in efficient recharging of ground water, which in turn enabled revival of dried borewells and rivulets to retain water throughout the year. Land use plan and development ofsuitable cropping systems based on soil fertility and water availability could help farmersidentify suitable crops which can yield higher income making optimum use of water. Withvarious innovating approaches, farmers participating in the programme were able toenhance their cropping intensity by 15-20% and overall crop yields by 25-35%. Theprogramme also facilitated assured supply of safe drinking water all round the year andincreased forage production, which supported livestock husbandry, enabling farmers toenhance the income further. Promotion of green manuring, bio-fertiliser application,vermicomposting and mixed cropping could reduce the investment in chemical inputs andpromote eco-friendly farming. Application of higher doses of farm yard manure andestablishment of shelter belts on field bunds and borders would continue to help farmersto combat the ill-effects of global warming, through reduction in wind velocity and soilmoisture loss. Impact of BAIF’s watershed development programme in Rajasthan ispresented in Case Study No. 3.

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Global warming will have a direct impact on availability of water for irrigation andhuman and livestock consumption. Therefore, conservation of water resources should betaken up on priority. For efficient use of rain water, watershed development, facilitatingsurface and subsurface water storage and soil conservation should be undertaken on priority.With contour bunding, flow of rain water can be arrested, preventing erosion of fertile soils.This would also facilitate in situ conservation of water. Prevention of soil erosion willfurther prevent siltation of reservoirs and rivers. Flooding and erosion of river banks furtheraccelerate the river to change its course resulting in huge losses to the local economy. Treeplantations on bunds, barren lands and river banks will play a significant role reducing soilerosion and siltation of rivers. These trees which have the potential to grow fast can be amajor source of income. Unfortunately, aerial views of our rivers with wide banks devoid oftree plantations, frequently changing the direction of water flow, reflect our ignorance andneglect in handling even the most serious problems of water scarcity and global warming!Tree-based FarmingTrees are known to be hardier than arable crops to overcome water stress and othervagaries of nature. BAIF initiated tree-based farming in 1976 with the introduction ofHawaiian Giant type of Leucaena (Subabul) which could survive on degraded wastelandseven in semi-arid and arid regions and produce fodder, fuelwood and timber. With thedevelopment of cultivation practices and highlighting of its economics, it was possible topromote cultivation of Subabul on wastelands. As this species was useful as fodder, fuel andpulpwood, Subabul became popular in India in a very short period. Even today, thousandsof hectares of Subabul plantations are standing in Andhra Pradesh for supplying pulpwoodto paper mills. Subsequently, promotion of multipurpose tree species and fruit crops wasinitiated for rehabilitation of small farmers, particularly tribals.Tribals who represent over 10% of the total population in the country have beendeprived of their livelihood with continuous denudation of forest resources. This compelledthem to cultivate drought tolerant food crops like pearl millet, sorghum, finger millets, etc.on degraded hilly terrains without adopting proper cultivation practices. Thus, the cropyields on such lands were very low and inadequate to ensure food security. This compelledthem to migrate to cities for 6-8 months in a year in search of wages, neglecting theirhouseholds and crops.Realising this problem, BAIF initiated the programme of developing their degradedlands through establishment of fruit crops like mango and cashew. As the gestation periodof these fruit crops was 4-6 years and food security during gestation period was verycritical to prevent migration, cultivation of foodgrains and vegetables was introduced in theinterspace between fruit plants right from the first year. To meet the needs of fuel andtimber, various multipurpose tree species were established on field bunds and borders,which also served as fence and wind break. As women were the major contributors toagricultural development contributing over 70% of the labour, it was felt necessary toempower them to take active part in the programme. Reducing their hardship throughintroduction of labour saving devices, community health, maternal and child care, functionalliteracy and gender sensitisation were the primary steps to develop their capabilities. Theseactivities were followed by formation of their Self Help Groups, promotion of saving andmicro-credit activities, training and field visits to expose them to various income generation

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opportunities and assisting the SHGs to establish backward and forward linkages tostrengthen their enterprises for income generation. Training on active participation inPanchayati Raj Institutions, community health care, hygiene, sanitation and other socialdevelopment aspects were also organised to promote community leadership amongparticipant women and men. Selected local youth were trained as field guides to guide thefamilies in developing their fruit orchards and to initiate various community developmentactivities. Support for procuring critical inputs was provided from the project.This programme helped over 0.2 million tribal families to establish agri-horti-forestryon 0.4 ha/family, on their degraded lands, which were not suitable for intensive crop production.Various water conservation measures were introduced to improve the crop growth andyield, while ensuring safe drinking water throughout the year. Cooperatives of participantfamilies were formed to process mango, cashew and other commodities grown on theirfarms. The landless were involved in food processing and marketing activities. As migrationstopped, these families started maintaining high yielding cows, buffaloes and goats whichprovided supplementary income. The programme generated year round employment for theparticipant families. With good health, they were able to attend to all the farming activitieswell in time. Consumption of alcohol came down drastically. As the migration of womenstopped, children started attending school. These families who were earning `6000 to `8000,are now able to earn `35,000 to `50,000/annum. With tree-based farming, these families arenow able to meet their fuel needs from their orchards and hence, do not have to go to foreststo fell trees. On the contrary, they have realised the impact of green cover on productivity oftheir orchards and water supply. Increase in green cover has improved the micro-climateand accelerated the process of carbon sequestration. The programme has demonstrated thefeasibility of promoting sustainable livelihood while improving the biodiversity andenvironment. This is an excellent approach to involve the rural poor for reducing the ill-effects of global warming. Drought tolerant, hardy fruit trees being the main source ofincome, these farmers are not likely to face any setback due to global warming in the nearfuture. Success of wadi programme is presented in Case Study No. 4.Programme SustainabilityProgramme sustainability is the critical issue which should be ensured in every suchprogramme. To address this, BAIF has promoted series of People’s Organisations at variouslevels in the form of SHGs, User Groups, Planning Committees, Federations and Co-operativesto organise different functions for forward and backward integration and communitymobilisation. These groups were involved in all the activities, right from project planning.Regular meetings of these groups ensured transparency and harmony among the members.A sense of ownership was developed among the participant families which was a drivingforce to sustain the programme. With suitable planning and capacity building, the participantfamilies are prepared to take up various income generating activates, by availing loan.Thus, such programmes can be replicated without large funding.Case Study 1Crossbred Cows Brought about Smile for PoorA Lame Cow Brought FortuneDadasaheb Korde, living at Tilekarwadi, near Urulikanchan in Pune district, lost his father

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at a young age. His mother worked as a farm labourer as their 0.8 ha dryland was notproductive. Dadasaheb assisted her as he had no other work. Looking at their poverty, aneighbouring farmer donated a dry crossbred cow with a fractured leg. The family tookgood care of this cow and availed of breeding services from BAIF. The cow delivered afemale calf and started yielding 5-6 litres of milk/day. He purchased another crossbredfrom the sale of milk. Good profits motivated him to expand the business through 5-6home born cows.From his earnings, Dadasaheb set up an irrigation system to bring 0.32 ha land underfodder production. Today, he has purchased 0.4 ha land for cultivation of fodder and ismaintaining 20 high yielding cows and 13 heifers. Now, he is selling over 150 litres of milkevery day. He has installed a milking machine and a biogas unit. The cows have broughtprosperity and status to Dadasaheb’s family, who had lived in chronic poverty before.Long March of a Landless to ProsperityGopinath Khaire, a youth had migrated from a remote village in Osmanabad district toUrulikanchan in search of wages in 1973. Starting with a daily wage of `3/day, which roseto `9 thereafter, life was difficult. However he purchased a crossbred heifer which wasinseminated at the BAIF Centre. The heifer delivered a female calf and started producingmilk. With the additional income, he purchased another cow and the daily milk producedincreased to 20 L/day. Encouraged by his success, he expanded the herd and also startedselling the surplus. Gopinath now owns 5 cows and sells around 35 L at `12/L. The familyis also engaged in shared cropping on 0.625 ha of leased land to meet his fodder needs. Hisonly son Suresh who dropped out of school and worked as farm labour, is now assistinghim and earns an additional monthly income of `3000 by milking 15 cows of other farmersat `200/cow/month. With their savings, they constructed a large house in 2004 which hasall the modern amenities. A new cattle shed has been built for his prized cattle. Gopinath’swife Prayagbai ensures that her two grandchildren attend school and tuitions regularly.Livestock Showed Way to Live with ConfidenceHuchamma is a landless widow living in a remote village called Baluvaneralu in Tipturtaluka of Tumkur district. In the absence of other sources of livelihood, she was at themercy of landlords to earn her wages. In the year 2001, BAIF initiated women empowermentprogramme. She enrolled herself as a member of the Sridevi Women’s SHG. In 2005,Huchamma took a bold decision to take a loan of `25,000 to set up her livestock developmententerprise. She purchased 8 sheep for `10,000 and invested the remaining `15,000 incattle trade. Today, Huchamma has 20 sheep in her herd. She gets 15-18 new kids everyyear and sells around 10-12 male sheep who are an year-old, at `2000/head. She also sells5 truck loads of sheep manure at `10,000 every year. In addition, the present value of herherd is over `1.50 lakhs, which is her capital asset. She brings milking cows fromneighbouring villages and cattle fairs and sells them to needy farmers. This businesscontributes `20,000 to her income per annum. Thus, her annual earning has increased toabove `50,000.After settling her previous loan, Huchamma availed of an additional `50,000 bank loanthrough her SHG in February 2008 and purchased two crossbred cows to start her dairyenterprise. On an average, she sells 20 L of milk/day and earns a net income of `30,000

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to `35,000 from this enterprise annually. From the savings, she has purchased 0.2 ha ofland and furnished her house. She was able to get her daughter married and gave her goldornaments worth `70,000. ‘Before joining the SHG, I was wasting my time in idle talk withmy neighbours. BAIF came as a ray of hope for me. I do not have to work as farm labourany more. Apart from managing my livelihood, I also became enlightened and sent mychildren to school and taught them good habits. I can never forget BAIF and my SHG forbringing happiness to my family’, says Huchamma proudly.Crossbred Cows Provided Sustainable LivelihoodSushilamma, an illiterate woman, lives with her husband and three children in the samevillage. Being landless, working as seasonal farm labour was the only source of livelihood.In 2001, Sushilamma joined the Shri Bhuvaneshwari Women SHG and started contributing`10 from her savings every week. In 2005, she decided to avail of `25,000 as bank loanthrough her SHG and purchase a crossbred cow. She started taking good care of her cowto improve the milk production. After gaining confidence, she decided to devote her entiretime to dairy husbandry instead of going out for work. During the first year, she made a netincome of `20,000 from the sale of milk. Unfortunately, during the next calving, the cowdelivered male calves but Sushilamma did not lose interest. Fortunately, the next calf wasa female. Sushilamma nurtured the calf with good care and the calf came into milk productionin 24 months. With additional income from the second cow, she started making a net profitof `30,000 every year. From this saving, she purchased another cow. Now owning threecows, she sells about 30 litres of milk everyday and earns a net income of `45,000/year.From the savings, she purchased 0.2 ha land and built a house. When asked about her newenterprise, she says ‘before joining the programme, I was a slave but today, I am anindependent person’.An impact study of BAIF cattle development programme in Gujarat, Maharashtra andKarnataka, covering over 2000 participant families, reported in 2008, that the dairy farmersparticipating in the programme for about 8-10 years, have enhanced their annual incomefrom `8000 to `51,000 during this period. Dairy programme was accepted by about 60%of the families in the programme areas and benefitted significantly 87% of the participantfamilies. More than 75% dairy farmers had two or more crossbred cows, which contributedto their sustainable livelihood. Having realised the benefit of crossbred cows, the familieshave also been purchasing high yielding crossbred cows from outside while disposing offtheir inferior animals. Thus, rearing of crossbred cattle has become a household activity inthe villages where BAIF is providing livestock breeding and other support services throughtheir mobile centres.Source: BAIF Annual Report 2008-2009. BAIF Journal 31 (1), 2010.Case Study 2Turning Goat Husbandry into an Eco-Friendly EnterpriseGoat had the dubious distinction of destroying the eco-system and environment due to itsaggressive browsing habit and tolerance to harsh weather conditions. Thus, promotion ofgoat husbandry has not been receiving due attention of the Animal Husbandry Department.Lack of technology and extension further eroded their genetic base and productivity inrecent years. However, goat being an important source of livelihood for the poor, with the

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reduction in profitability, the only option available for goat keepers was to enhance theherd size to cope with their needs.Realising the limitations of goat development, BAIF had not made any attempt topromote goat development. However, BAIF was approached to initiate a goat project inWest Bengal as some of the policy makers and senior Government officials felt that withhigh mortality and low production, a large number of goat keepers were deprived of theirearnings and were living in chronic poverty. Tata International and Sir Dorabji Tata Trustcame forward to provide finance to take up a pilot project. The Government of West Bengalextended their services. Thus, with great hesitation, BAIF ventured into goat developmentwith a mission to develop best practices to turn goat husbandry into an eco-friendlyenterprise for benefit of small farmers, landless and women.The area selected for the project included 135 villages in Raina II and Kanksha blocksof Burdwan district and Ranibandh and Raipur blocks of Bankura district, covering 10,000families, maintaining goats. BAIF studied their problems and identified genetic erosion,high mortality due to a disease called PPR, poor growth due to shortage of feed and infestationby endo-parasites and exploitation by middlemen while selling goats.Thus, the following programme was launched to enhance the profitability of goat keepers.1. Formation of self help groups of goat keeping women each with 5-7 womenmaintaining a total of 35-40 does.2. Training of goat keepers through a field guide each supervising 10-12 SHGs.3. Distribution of a superior quality Black Bengal buck for each SHG, with the conditionthat one of the members will take good care and maintain the buck for providingbreeding services to does of their members at a nominal price of `5 or `10.4. Vaccination against PPR disease through the Animal Husbandry Department.5. Deworming carried out by the field guides by collecting service charges.6. Demonstration on feeding mineral mixture for better growth.7. Castration of inferior male kids at one month of age to promote growth.8. Weighing of goats periodically to monitor growth.9. Linkage with market to avoid middlemen.The programme was coordinated by a veterinarian, who trained the supervisors andlocally recruited part-time field guides. Self Help Groups had an understanding that none oftheir members will increase the herd size beyond 8-10 depending on the fodder availabilityin the village. It was also decided neither to distribute female goats brought from outside asit put additional burden on local resources and nor to encourage goat keeping by thesefamilies who have not been keeping goats so far.With the above practices, within 2 years, the goat mortality came down from 45% toless than 5%. Deworming and feeding mineral mixture, improved the growth and the goatkeepers started weighing their animals periodically to monitor their growth, which alsohelped them to assess the value and bargain with the middlemen for higher price.The project enabled goat keepers to earn `10,000 to `12,000 (USD 250) while keeping5-6 goats, without denuding the vegetation. The field guides collected moderate fees, apartfrom keeping some goats to demonstrate best practices while earning additional income.

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Looking to the success, this project is being replicated in other districts of West Bengal,Jharkhand, Tripura and Rajasthan.Source: Eco-friendly Goat Husbandry for Sustainable Livelihood of Small Farmers.BAIF Technical Bulletin 1/2008.Case Study 3Watershed Development for Sustainable Livelihood: Gokulpura Shows the WayBackgroundGokulpura, Govardhanpura and Thana are three tiny villages located in the semi-arid zoneof Hindoli tehsil in Bundi district of Rajasthan. Most of the 633 families living here werepoor. Agriculture was the main source of livelihood but most of the 3286 ha lands wereinfertile and eroded. The average annual rainfall of 400-500 mm being erratic, agriculturalproduction was low and uncertain. Major crops like maize, sorghum or bajra yielded 800-1000 kg grains/ha. Traditional social customs like purdah, denial of girl’s education, teenagemarriages and male dominance had led to further backwardness and illiteracy.BAIF initiated the Cattle Development programme here in 1993. Looking to the plightof these villagers, a natural resource conservation programme was initiated in 1996 withthe support of India Canada Environment Facility (ICEF).Development of Community PasturesAs fodder was in scarcity, community pastures were heavily denuded. Silvipasture developmentwas initiated on 45 ha through contour trenching, gully plugging, fencing of the boundary,sowing seeds of forage legumes (Stylo) and grass species (Dhaman grass) and establishingsaplings of fodder-cum-fuelwood species to improve the green cover. Villagers also agreedto extend voluntary labour. The Village Panchayat not only permitted them to initiatesilvipasture development but also extended maximum cooperation by clearing theencroachments and laying out approach roads. To sustain their interest, village level PastureManagement Committees and SHGs were formed. The instant success of the project wasreflected in the confidence among the communities particularly the women who startedmeeting regularly, discussed their problems, initiated small savings and disbursed loans tomeet their needs as well as for pasture development activities.Pasture lands which were eroded for decades started turning green in the first yearitself. The pasture management committee permitted the villagers to cut the grass andtake away 50% for feeding their livestock while the rest was sold. With abundant supply ofgreen fodder and over 83% families maintaining crossbred cows or improved buffaloes, themilk yield has increased from 1-2 L/day to 6–8 liters and 8-10 L/day for buffaloes andcrossbred cows respectively. Cows and buffaloes which were fetching `4000 and `8000 arenow priced at `20,000 and `25,000 respectively and these villages once deficit in milk, nowgenerate surplus milk and supply to dairy co-operative. A milk chilling plant has beeninstalled in Gokulpura.Watershed DevelopmentWith improved water infiltration, ground water recharging was very significant. BheemSagar, a newly built percolation tank, retains water throughout the year, where a few landlessfamilies undertook fishery. With efficient rainwater harvesting, the per capita water

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availability increased from 810 cum to 2194 cum (the region having per capita wateravailability below 1700 cum is considered as water stress region). Three percolation tankscould retain water till summer and recharge open wells. Looking to the surplus watersituation, these three villages were eliminated from the list of drought affected villages inBundi district during the famine of 2000, although the rainfall during that year was only399 mm. Even during 2009, one of the worst years of drought, with a total rainfall of 125mm, this cluster has been sufficient in water, while drinking water is being supplied intankers to neighbouring villages since October 2009.Improved Agricultural ProductionAssured supply of water encouraged them to use improved agricultural inputs. By the thirdyear, 84% of the cropping area under the watersheds had assured irrigation to grow twocrops during the year. 100% farmers who were unaware of improved crop varieties andcertified seeds before the project are using improved seeds. The average crop yields haveincreased from 1.8 tons to 2.6 tons and 6.0 tons/ha for local and high yielding varietiesrespectively. Technical inputs from ICRISAT helped farmers to improve crop yields, whilesupport from ITC established better market linkage. The gross annual income from theselands enhanced from `8,000 to `65,000/ha. With improved crop productivity, the landprices are 100 - 150% higher than in the neighbouring villages.Improvement in Quality of LifeWith assured water resources, the Village Panchayat installed tap water schemes to supplyclean drinking water. School children and members of the SHGs were trained to chlorinatethe well water regularly. This has helped most of the families to maintain good health. Theenrollment of girls in school which doubled during the first five years, now exceeds 95%.With improved wood stoves and energy saving devices, the drudgery of women has reduced,apart from lesser time taken to cook food and reduction in use of fuelwood for cooking.Increase in ground water table has reduced the time taken by them to fetch water as wateris now available in their village itself. The improvement in quality of soil has ensured foddersecurity and reduced their time taken to collect fodder. Due to use of modern farm equipments,the time taken by women in agricultural operations has reduced while some of them arealso able to afford hiring of labour for their field activities. Thus, women have earned goodrespect in the society with increasing prosperity.Source: Gram Swarajya at Gokulpura: A successful struggle of poor villagers to combatdrought in Rajasthan. BAIF-ICEF Project Impact Study, 1999.Case Study 4Food and Environmental Security for Tribals through Wadi ProgrammeA Smile after 25 Years!Ganesh Wangad belonging to the Warli tribal community lives in Bhendipada village,Mokhada cluster in Thane district of Maharashtra with his wife, two sons, two daughtersand grandparents. About 25 years ago, with the hope of raising a nursery of mango grafts,his grandfather approached a local bank for a loan of `1000. With the sanctioned loan, heplanted 50 grafts of Alphanso variety of mango. However, the bank verification officer wasnot satisfied with the growth of the plants and advised him to replace the plants with

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another variety but none of the replaced mango grafts survived. The outstanding loan withinterest had soared to `5000 which was not possible for the family to repay.The comprehensive tribal development project launched in Bhendipada village in theyear 2000-2001 met with a lukewarm response from the villagers with the exception ofGanesh. Neither his brothers nor his parents joined the programme as they were not fullyconvinced about the benefits. Determined to change his destiny, Ganesh and his wifeestablished healthy grafts of mango provided by BAIF on 0.4 ha land and eucalyptus plantson 0.2 ha. The villagers ridiculed the couple as they toiled in the hot sun. As the stray cattleused to enter the plot, his affectionate grandfather assured him that he would watch over thewadi. He was able to get a diesel engine and pipeline from the Tribal Department of theGovernment of Maharashtra with the facilitation of BAIF-MITTRA and water his wadi. Withthe hard work of the couple, these plants grew taller than them in a year! After observing theimpact on the wadi plot of Ganesh, gradually, the villagers were motivated to join theprogramme and 69 participants came forward to participate in the next 3 years.Encouraged by the success, he started cultivating black gram, lentil and soyabean,vegetable crops, medicinal plants and flowering plants as inter crops in his wadi. From thesale of flowers, now their daily income is `250. Once a fortnight, a trader visited Ganesh topurchase the herbal tea cultivated on his plot which fetches him `10 every day. Theenterprising couple took a loan of `5000 from Renuka Self Help Group and started a pettyshop. With his first income from wadi, Ganesh repaid the outstanding loan and purchaseda treadle pump as well. From the earnings of `10,000, from mango grafts raised in hisnursery, Ganesh renovated his house. In the fourth year, he earned `14,225 which increasedto `22,763 in 2007, apart from production of foodgrains for his home consumption. Today,Ganesh is a role model.Wadi Transformed his LifeDhavalu Laxman Mahale, a school drop out lived in a remote village, Kharonda, 27 km fromJawhar town with five children, of whom only two survived. The other three children dieddue to malnutrition and lack of health care. The family owned only 0.4 ha land and he usedto grow only traditional crops like paddy, finger millet and red gram during the rainy season.Dhavalu could produce only two bags of finger millet and two bags of paddy from his landto generate an income of `4000/annum. This compelled him to migrate to nearby citiesduring rabi and summer season for employment. When BAIF launched the agri-horti-forestryprogramme in this cluster, Dhavalu did not join the programme in the first year due tohesitation. Encouraged by the success of other farmers, and the realisation that they couldalso take up traditional crops during kharif, and vegetables in rabi season, he decided to jointhe programme in 1994. He planted 40 mango grafts and about 650 forestry saplings.Finger millet was cultivated as an inter crop. His wife Sitara shared the work and theyearned `5000 in 4 months. Next year, he established a forest nursery in between fruitplants and earned `23,500.He learnt the technique of mango grafting at Vansda in 1996 and started his nursery.Initially, he prepared 200 grafts out of which only 20 grafts survived. But he was notdiscouraged. He consulted BAIF experts to improve his techniques. During the next year, heprepared 1500 grafts with 90% survival. His total income rose to `45,000 in 1998-99. Hedesigned an innovative grafting knife for mangoes which had some additional benefit over

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the traditional design. Considering the market potential, Dhavalu organised a group of tenfarmers to grow vegetables like cluster bean and bottle gourd and started selling the producedirectly in the market located in Navi Mumbai since year 2000. In 2006-07, his income was`1.65 lakhs through sale of mango grafts, mango fruits and vegetables. Now, Dhavalu is agood trainer in mango grafting.Shortage of drinking water was a serious problem of Kharonda village and it was anuphill task for the women to fetch water from downhill. With assured food security, womenstarted demanding the installation of a reliable source of drinking water. Dhavalu with hisimmature skill in plumbing took the lead to seek Government funding and in 1999-2000,a drinking water scheme was sanctioned. After a thorough discussion with farmers and adetailed planning, a well was dug near a stream. All the families contributed their labour indigging the well and for laying the pipeline. An electric motor along with a pipeline wasinstalled to lift water from the well to the overhead tanks, along with taps. A system ofcollecting monthly water charges from each household was introduced to meet the electricitycharges and other expenses. This arrangement has ensured reliable source of clean waterand reduced the hardship of women.Looking to his initiative, he was selected as Chairman of the Tribal MITTRA FruitProcessing and Procurement and Sales Co-operative Society Ltd, Pimpalshet, Jawhar taluk,which is engaged in cashewnut processing, pickle manufacturing, fresh mango trading, andsale of mango and cashew grafts. Dhavalu’s two sons are studying in an Ashram school inJawhar and his wife is an active member of the local SHG. Thus, the Wadi programme haschanged his life and Dhavalu has motivated other members of his community to follow him.Jasmine Cultivation – A New InitiativeA few years ago, BAIF initiated the wadi programme in Vikramgad tehsil of Thane districtwith the support of the Government of Maharashtra. Although the block is only 100 kmaway from Mumbai, the tribals who were in majority, were living in chronic poverty. Theannual rainfall in the region is more than 2500 mm but the land productivity was low dueto poor shallow soils, lack of knowledge about improved agricultural practices and poorinfrastructure to establish efficient forward and backward linkages. Over 3000 familiesmotivated by the success of BAIF’s wadi programme elsewhere in the state, decided to takepart and establish mango and cashew plants. To sustain their livelihood during the gestationperiod, till the fruit plants started bearing fruits, these families were motivated to take upvarious intercrops and jasmine flower production was one of the options.Although jasmine is a common plant in every backyard, production on a commercialscale was never thought of before. But the members of the self help groups took a boldinitiative to establish a special “Bangalora” variety of jasmine plants in between their fruitplants. With scientific cultivation, the plants started bearing flowers in less than four months.Then, marketing posed a challenge as there were no local buyers! Thus, some youth from theparticipant families were selected to organise the market. After various options, these youthhave set up a unique model. Every family cultivating jasmine, plucks the buds early in themorning and pool it together at a central point in their village. One youth from each villagecollects the buds and brings it to Vikramgad on a motorcycle. The flower buds collected fromdifferent villages are pooled and packed in a gunny bag. One of them on rotation takes it toThane by bus. He also collects additional flowers collected by the SHGs from many other

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villages on the way towards Thane. As the demand for jasmine market is poor in Thane, theyouth then take the flowers to Dadar market by local train and participate in the wholesaleauction. During the last two years, Vikramgad jasmine has become popular in Dadar marketbecause of its superior variety. Now the auction starts only after the Vikramgad flowersreach the market! While most of the wadi participants could earn over `30,000 to `50,000/annum, even the small holders who produced very small quantity of flowers could takeadvantage of the marketing network, much before their fruit trees started bearing fruits.An impact study of the wadi programme in Thane district in 2008, reported that over73% of the families in the project villages, participated in the programme. Out of theiraverage holding of 1.71 ha, 0.52 ha was kept fallow. The programme enabled them to bringtheir fallow under wadi and reduced the fallow to 0.3 ha. None of the families had irrigationfacilities, but with the establishment of wadi, for the first time, 70% families renovatedtheir own wells, 17% tapped water from springs and 12.5% families availed of water fromcheck bunds, which enabled them to ensure over 95% survival of fruit plants. Cashewplants started fruiting in the third year but substantial income began after six years. Asmost of the participants had introduced intercropping, their food security was ensuredfrom the first year itself. The rise in their income had a direct impact on increase in foodconsumption, clothing, education, medical care and expenses on marriages and festivals.The literacy level of participant families increased from 15.33% to 47.73%, but over 95%children were now enrolling in schools.With the establishment of wadi, 55% families were maintaining milch animals while37% were keeping goats and 65% were maintaining poultry. Migration of male memberscame down from 17% to 37.7%, while the number of days of migration reduced from 81.6days to 29 days. Female migration came down from 53.75% to 6.75% and number of daysfrom 55 days to 7 days! This had significant impact on health and quality of life of womenand children.Source: BAIF Annual Report 2008-2009. BAIF Journal 30 (1), 2009.