The_History_of_the_High_Heel_Sex_Gender.docx

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Introduction

The aim of this dissertation is to examine the social history of the high heel through

the lens of gender, status and sexuality. The high heel is an object of clothing, which

has generated much interest throughout the centuries. Through many different types

of media including art, literature, and music, the heel has provoked much discussion

and is a cause of contention amongst modern feminists. In Inge Blackman’s and

Kathryn Perry’s feminist review titled ‘Skirting the issue’, they state that ‘the

argument has been that fashion epitomized women’s constant striving towards the

feminine. Seasonal adjustments of style kept them as much on their toes as the high

heels that ruined their spines’.1

Over the past few years’ high heels have become more extreme, moving from the

demure 1.5 inch to 6 inches in elevation. As of ‘2004 the highest heels commercially

available are boots boasting a combination of 43 cm (17 in) platforms and 51 cm (20

in) heels, produced by James Syiemiong (India) for boldnbootiful.com in February

2004’.2 Although this height of shoe is not sold in the vast majority of high street

stores, the sartorial influence of figures such as the pop star, Lady Gaga, and fashion

designer, Victoria Beckham, led to the sale of 9-inch heels in 2011. A-list French

designers Yves Saint Laurent and Christian Louboutin have long favored extremely

high stiletto heels and their creations have gained them a firm following of celebrities

and everyday people alike. Perhaps more worrying though is the growing trend of

1 Inge Blackman and Kathryn Perry, “Skirting the Issue: Lesbian Fashion for the 1990s feminist

Review”, No. 34, Perverse Politics: Lesbian Issues. Palgrave McMillan Journals, (1990), accessedJanuary 10, 2013.

2 “Guinness World Records”, accessed March 1st, 2013, www.guinnessworldrecords.com.


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women receiving foot surgery in order to go on wearing heels. The surgery involves

collagen injections in the pads of the feet and having your toes surgically shortened.

Podiatrist Ali Sadrieh who founded the Beverly Hills Aesthetic Foot Surgery in

Studio city California, states, “It's unrealistic to tell women not to wear high heels”. 3

Ali has trademarked three unique cosmetic foot procedures called ‘Cinderella

procedure’ a treatment, which is used to prevent bunions by narrowing the feet.

Secondly there is the ‘Perfect 10! Aesthetic Toe Shortening’ which trims toes to

prevent them from hanging over sandals. Lastly there is also the ‘Fat-Tuck Pad

Augmentation’, which takes fat from the patient’s abdomen and then is injected into

the balls of the feet to alleviate pain and pressure on the feet. Ali Sadrieh goes on to

explain that; “I came up with procedures that allow the women to function, pain-free,

in the real world”.4 However this has raised huge controversy amongst orthopedic

foot surgeons, who have blasted the new procedures in a news release in 2010.

“Shortening a toe to get into a tight-fitting shoe should not be a standard of care in

any physician's office” 5, says Donald R. Bohay, an orthopedic foot surgeon and the

co-chairman of Public education for the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle

Society.

It is often assumed that the high heel is a rather modern invention and although there

is much confusion as to when the high heel was invented, research shows, that the

3 Melinda Beck, ‘Toe the Line: Doctors Fight Cosmetic Foot Surgery”, The Wall Street Journal:Health Journal, accessed March 1st,

2013,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703700904575391033879156718.html.

4 Melinda Beck, “Toe the Line: Doctors Fight Cosmetic Foot Surgery”, The Wall Street Journal:Health Journal, 2010, accessed March 1st, 2013,

http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703700904575391033879156718.html.

5 Melinda Beck, “Toe the Line: Doctors Fight Cosmetic Foot Surgery”, The Wall Street Journal:Health Journal, accessed March 1st, 2013,http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703700904575391033879156718.html.

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heel can be traced back to ancient Egypt. While there are few extant records to

indicate who wore heels during the Egyptian period, it has been assumed that the

aristocracy wore them to set them apart from the lower classes. Steele F. Stewart’s

paper titled ‘Footgear- It’s History, Uses and Abuses’, points out that in the middle of

the second millennium BC, Egyptians began to frequently uses sandals, ‘Retention

was obtained generally by the Egyptians by a T or V thong passing through the

sole… among the priestly sandals which have come down to us is a wooden pair

elevated on delicate piers’.6

In addition Egyptian butchers used elevated shoes for much more practical purposes,

in order to keep their feet clean of any blood while slaughtering animals. However

murals have been found dating back to 3500 BC, which depict an early version of

what is thought to be high heels, being worn by the aristocracy. Both men and women

wore them and it is thought they were used for ceremonial purposes.

The purpose of this dissertation is to determine which sections of society wore high

heels and, more importantly, why. Secondly, it will be examined whether status,

gender and sexuality played a significant role. Europe between the sixteenth and

eighteenth century will provide the geographical focus, with reference to Napoleonic

France. Although it should be noted that shoe fashion in America was of very little

importance, so much so that Bernard Murstein notes ‘It wouldn’t be until the mid

1800s when America would catch up to Europe shoe fashion’.7 However the sixteenth

6 Steele F. Stewart, Footgear- It’s History, Uses and Abuses, Clinical Orthopedics and RelatedResearch, Ohio, 121-122.

7Bernard I. Murstein, Love, Sex, and Marriage through the Ages , New York: Springer PublishingCompany, 1974.

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to eighteenth century in Europe will be the main focus since there are a few other

countries with such a rich history concerning the high heel.

Recent studies on France in this period demonstrate the influence of gender and

status, as well as sexuality, in areas of fashion and the consumption of luxury goods.

For example, during the European renaissance, the high heel became a status symbol

worn by both male and females from the higher social statuses. It has been suggested

that wearing high heels as a fashion statement was pioneered by Catherine de Medici

a Franco/Italian noblewomen. Catherine de Medici is believed to have worn them to

impress the French court when she wed the Duke of Orleans, the future king.

Contemporary accounts state that she wore heels to boost her tiny stature and to

improve her somewhat plain looks. ‘Her heavy cheeks and bulging eyes were

stubborn features that could not be coaxed away by paint’.8 In addition another

reference is made about her lack of beauty in a biography of Catherine de Medici,

Giorgio Vasari painted Catherine’s life –size portrait for Francis and found his

subject’s personality, if not her looks, quite beguiling. When Vasari left the

room to take a short break during a sitting, Catherine is said to have picked up

the brushes and remodeled her features to resemble those of a Moorish

women.9

Catherine de Medici would often wear heels around the two-inch mark and the

accessory was soon popularized amongst men and women at court. By the end of the

sixteenth century high heels became so synonymous with the aristocracy that, a

8 Leonie Frieda, Catherine de Medici, London: Phoenix, 2005, P 55.9 Leonie Frieda, Catherine de Medici, London: Phoenix, 2005, p 48.

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person of class was said to be ‘well heeled’. Catherine de Medici has been credited

with associating the heel with power at court and with the upper echelons’ of society.

Two hundred years later King Louis XIV of France decreed that only nobility could

wear heels. Seventeenth-century portraits of King Louis XIV depict the various

intricate heels worn by the king and they were often decorated with miniature battle

scenes. They came to be known as “Louis heels”, and were in the region of five

inches tall. Louis’s decree les talons rouge prohibited anyone but the nobility to wear

red shoes, which furthermore could be no higher then his own. The heel was so

readily adopted by seventeenth-century men and by Medici’s successor, that two

hundred years later consequently gave way to cultural foot fetishism.

Additionally, famed novelist Restif de Bretonne threw erotic emphasis on the ‘finely

arched foot and delicately curved heel’.10 According to David Kunzle ‘like the corset,

high heels sculpted the body to make it appear more aristocratic, pure, refined, and

desirable’.11 The Puritans in the New World also noted the desirably aesthetic and

erotic nature of the high heel. Bernard Murstein also points out that ‘the

Massachusetts Colony even passed a law banning women from wearing high heels to

ensnare a man or they would be tried as a witch.12

A number of different source materials will be touched upon in this dissertation.

Secondary literature will play a large role, with both historical and fashion genres

10 David Kunzle, Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing, and Other Forms of Body-Sculpting , London: The History Press, 2004.

11 David Kunzle, Fashion and Fetishism: Corsets, Tight-Lacing, and Other Forms of Body-Sculpting , London: The History Press, 2004.

12 Bernard I. Murstein, Love, Sex, and Marriage through the Ages , New York: Springer PublishingCompany, 1974.

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being examined to gain a wider perspective on the three issues raised. Additionally

primary sources have also played a significant part in understanding, not only who

wore high heels but why they did. The use of primary sources have given a much

wider perspective on different subject’s lives and problems from their point of view.

This study will also draw on a range of media, from examples of historic heels

preserved in fashion museums to paintings and portraits of figures wearing these

items. Catalogues of shoes, and textual accounts will provide a wider perspective on

issues of gender, sexuality and status in this period.

Chapter one: Sixteenth century Europe: An introduction to the high heel as a symbol

of power and status.

Historians have considered the sixteenth century to be one of the most pivotal

centuries in the history of humans due to the fundamental changes that took place

within society. The sixteenth century was also part of larger historical era’s known as

the Renaissance and the Baroque period, the former which lasted from the late

fourteenth century all the way through to the sixteenth century.

The baroque era is a period in history that coincided with the seventeenth century,

however only the years between 1600-1650 will be very briefly touched upon to put

prevailing ideas of status, gender and sexuality into wider context. The Baroque era

began around 1600 in Rome and Italy before spreading to the rest of Europe. It was a

period of artistic style used to imply eccentricity, abnormality and extravagance. The

Roman Catholic Church propagated the new artistic style in response to the Protestant

Reformation. The Catholic Church felt that the art form should convey religious

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themes in relation to ones emotional involvement. In reality it was a form of

propaganda used by the Catholic Church to renew peoples faith in them.

Despite the religious and political agenda, the Baroque period introduced a colorful,

passionate and extravagant mirage of new art form. Which saw a dramatic change in

fashion, waistlines became higher and the ruff disappeared in favor of linen and broad

lace. Changes in footwear appeared too, where once the rounded shape of the

previous period had dominated, the square toe came into vogue and lasted throughout

the entire century.

The sixteenth century in England saw the introduction to the one of the most

extravagant periods known to Europe in terms of costume history. It is also the first

period in history which modern ideas of how we clothe ourselves had an impact and

influenced what people wore. The reason behind this influence was due to

geographical expansion of trade, and exploration. Furthermore an increase in power

and wealth of monarchies and kingdoms internationally, in France, England and

Spain, heavily contributed to the emergence of ideas and frequent changes in fashion.

However one of the main pieces of garment which allowed the people of the sixteenth

century to exhibit their wealth, was the elevated shoe. One particular style of the

elevated shoe that became popular around the time of the Renaissance was the

chopine, due to a ‘renowned interest in ancient Greek and Roman culture’. 13 Figure

one is an example of a pair of sixteenth century Venetian chopines.

13 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p8.

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The exact origin of the chopine is unknown and there have been several debates

abound among historians on Mediterranean fashion. On the one side of the argument,

historians have concluded that the Chopine originated from Turkish women’s

bathhouse clogs as can be seen in figure 2.

Figure 1. Collection of the Bata Shoe Museum.

P83.338. Venetian late 16th century chopine.

These two different styles of Chopine’s were

considered modest, with the gold velvet covered

chopine measuring five and a half inches in height.

The Chopine in the background consists of a

wooden platform covered in silk velvet with

embellishments and tracks of braid. Further on in

this dissertation, there is discussion of the chopine

being worn in order to protect the wearer’s clothes

from dirt on the streets. However the use of

luxurious materials would suggest that many of the

chopines were worn indoors.

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The bathhouse clogs were for practical uses,

in that they kept their feet from coming into

contact with the heated and slick marble

floors. However other sources contend that

the platform style came to Europe before the

Renaissance and were from the Orient.

Although most historical and fashion articles

simply attribute Venice to be the birthplace

of the chopine in the sixteenth century.

Elizabeth Semmelhack wades into the

argument by suggesting that Spain ‘deserves

consideration as its place of origin given that the platforms of many chopines were

Figure 2. This illustration is taken from Nicolas

Nicolay’s book Navigations et Peregrinations

orientales, avec les figures et les habillements au

naturel, tant des homes que des femmes, which was

published in Lyon in 1567/68.

The intent of the book was to provide Europeans with

information about the customs and clothing of the

people of the ‘Orient’.

This illustration is from an edition published in 1580,

depicting a Turkish woman lifting her skirt to reveal

her nalin.

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crafted from cork rather than wood’.14 Regardless of the endless debate and

discussion over where the chopine originated, the chopine was a popular

accouterment amongst Venetian women and functioned both as a practical and

symbolic function. Harold Koda a fashion scholar and curator for The Costume

Institute, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, explains; “the thick-soled, raised shoe

was designed to protect the foot from irregularly paved and wet or muddy streets. But

the enhancement of the wearer's stature also played a role”.15

In 2010 an exhibition at the Bata Shoe Museum in Toronto showcased more than

sixty pairs of the rarest shoes in the world. Amongst the shoes was a pair of Spanish

Chopines circa 1580-1620 and another pair of Chopines from Venice measuring

nearly 20 inches. Elizabeth Semmelhack the museum’s senior curator states

“excessively high chopines in Italy offered the opportunity for more fabric to be

displayed but it also offered the opportunity for servants to be displayed”.16

Elizabeth Semmelhack goes on to explain that,

Women wearing excessively high chopines could not manage to walk without

the assistance of at least two servants. In fact, the reason why men still offer

women their arm today dates back to when women wore chopines and needed

that little extra help to be able to go forward.17

It is important to note that at the beginning of the fifteenth century, the chopine was

the main subject in sermons and sumptuary laws.


15 Harold Koda, The Chopine. In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History, New York: The MetropolitanMuseum of Art, 2000, accessed March 1 st, 2013,

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/chop/hd_chop.htm.

16Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,

2008, p8.17 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p8.

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In 1427, saint Bernardino da Siena, whose order, the Zoccolanti, were

renowned for their stilted clogs, criticized woman’s hand breadth high

chopines (pianelle) as foolish, dangerous and extravagant, since they required

women to spend more money on cloth for longer dresses.18

In 1430 the Venetian Major Council prohibited chopines more than three and a half

inches in height and declared that any women who broke the law would be issued a

fine. Despite religious clerics condemning chopines as an affront to God and a danger

to the wearer and their souls, chopines continued to be worn. The main reason for the

public censure of the chopine was due to the impropriety surrounding them, as they

were the preferred choice of footwear by Venetian prostitutes. Numerous images

from this period illustrate this point as can be seen in figure 3.

18 Elizabeth Semmelhack, heights of fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p8.

Figure 3. The print is taken from Cesare Vecellio, Habiti

antichi et moderni di tutto il mondo ( Ancient and Modern

Clothes from Various Places of the World ), 1598.

This is a 16th century print of a public prostitute from

Venice. The prostitute is depicted here pulling up her skirt

in a scandalous manner. Revealing in the process a pair of

chopines and her braghesse, which translates to underpants

and is an Ottoman inspired garment.

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Gender and Status in the sixteenth century

The Orient was a source of great inspiration within Europe during the sixteenth

century, with the Europeans becoming increasingly fascinated with it’s customs and

clothing. This new interest was further fortified by two particular authors, Pieter

Coecke van Aelst who wrote Moeurs et fachons des Turks in 1553 and Nicolas

Nicolay’s Navigations et Peregrinationd orientales, avec les figures et les

habillements au naturel, tant des homes que des femmes, 1567/8. In addition

Semmelhack points out that ‘agents on diplomatic missions played a pivotal role in

providing samples of Near Eastern dress’.20 As with any new sartorial trend the upper


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echelons of society were always the first to display them as they had the finance and

resources to do so.

Men were the first to start wearing high heels in the early sixteenth century. It was a

practice donned by the European aristocracy in the 1600s as a sign of status. The

reasoning behind this choice of footwear was that only someone who didn’t have to

partake in manual labor could travel around in such impractical footwear. In January

2013 the BBC published an article titled, ‘Why did Men stop wearing high heels?’

chronicling the male and his choice of footwear. Elizabeth Semmelhack, curator of

the Bata shoe museum, states, “The high heel was worn for centuries throughout the

near east as a form of riding footwear”.21 The heel was originally worn for practical

purposes only and allowed soldier’s to secure their stance when engaging in combat,

allowing them to shoot with a bow and arrow more effectively. Persia now known as

modern day Iran was in affect the birthplace of the first model of the sixteenth

century heel. An example of how the first model may have looked can be seen in

figure 6.

21 William Kremer, “Why did men stop wearing high heels?”, BBC News, January 25th, 2013,accessed February 17th, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21151350.

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Figure 6. Collection of the Bata Shoe

Museum.P90.201.

This shoe contains a stacked wooden heel,

with the bottoms originally painted red to

indicate political privilege and status of thewearer.

The heeled shoe is a child’s and dates back

to possibly the middle of the seventeenth

century and may be French in origin.

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In 1559 Persia’s Shah Abbas I, sent a diplomatic mission to Europe, calling on the

courts of Russia, Germany and Spain. This led to a demand for all things Persian in

Western Europe. The aristocrats at court eagerly adopted Persian style heels in an

attempt to give their image a masculine edge. However this trend soon filtered down

to the lower echelons of society, like with all fashions adopted by the elite. A

response to this was for the aristocracy to increase the height of the heel, thus the

birth of the high heel. Semmelhack further explains ‘when the lower classes began to

wear heeled shoes, the wealthy increased the height of their own heels

dramatically’.22 Semmelhack does go on to note that it isn’t possible to provide

specific measurements to denote when the heel becomes a high heel. Furthermore talk

of when the heel became high is subjective and depends entirely on the context of this

particular period.

In regards to gender, Semmelhack brings the subject of women and high heels back

into focus,

In the 1630s you had women cutting their hair, adding epaulettes to their

outfits…they would smoke pipes; they would wear hats that were very

masculine. And this is why women adopted the heel — it was in an effort to

masculinize their outfits.23

It should be noted however that women, even those born into the aristocracy were

still seen as ‘lesser’ people, and this was another reason why the height of the heel

was increased. In order to maintain this distinction between male and female, the heel

was divided into two types, fat and skinny. Men wore the fat heel and an example can

be seen in figure 7, and the latter for women.

22 Elizabeth Semmelhack, heights of fashion: A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,

2008, p17.23 William Kremer, “Why did men stop wearing high heels?”, BBC News, January 25th, 2013,accessed February 17th, 2013, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-21151350.

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The image of the male high heel in figure 7 is a perfect example of Pierre Bourdieu’s

theory of class distinction. In Bourdieu’s book ‘

Towards the end of the sixteenth century a new invention unfolded, the high heel.

Like its predecessor the chopine, the high heel was highly impractical and could not

be used for leisurely pursuits; its wearers found that the heel would sink into the

ground as walkways and roads were not paved at the time.

To rectify the problem the shoe was placed into a flat-soled mule creating an

overshoe. Although unfortunately this new invention didn’t do much to help the

wearer as the overshoe proved difficult to walk in, despite preventing the wearer from

sinking in the mud. However this was quickly corrected by placing a flat sole on the

bottom of the heel thus creating a new style called the slap shoe. Perhaps surprisingly

men were the first to adopt this very feminine style of shoe, but by the 1630s both

men and women are depicted wearing them as can be seen in figure 8.

Figure 7.Collection of the Bata Shoe

Museum. P06.13.

This is an example of a seventeenthcentury male high-heeled shoe.

Heels worn at this time were often

high and were a sign of masculinity.

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Figure 8 a

Figure 8. Collection of the Bata Shoe Museum. P79.588. The Shoemaker, plate 4 from The Trades,

Abraham Bosse, 1632-35.

This is a 17th century etching titled The Shoemaker by Abraham Bosse. The etching depicts ashoemaker fitting his client with a pair of slap-soled shoes. It may not be noticeable but you can see

a pair of chopines beneath her skirt. This etching provides at a glance, a shift in fashion from

chopines to high heels. Figure 8a is a close up of the slap soled shoe that is being fitted on the

client.

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Sexuality in the sixteenth century

There is an abundance of articles, television programs and academic papers on the

subject of sexuality and the high heel in the twenty first century. Many

anthropologists have suggested ‘that wearing high heels is a behavior consistent with

human concerns about attracting opposite-sexed mating partners’.24 A sentiment,

which has proved, correct and has been explored further on in this dissertation in

regards to Catherine de Medici. There is however very little comprehensive research

into sixteenth century ideas of sexuality concerning the high heel. Therefore an

anthropological approach has also been taken in order to better understand sexuality

in the sixteenth century in regards to high heels. In addition historical images will be

used and examined to see if there are any differences in the way male and females are

situated and placed whilst displaying footwear. This should provide some insight into

placing the high heel into sexual context in the sixteenth century.

There have been few women throughout history who have made such an impact upon

society and break away from the societal norms and views confined to women, in

regards to fashion. Catherine de Medici however has been credited with introducing

the formal invention of the high heel in to mainstream fashion. Catherine de Medici,

born Caterina Maria Romula de Medici was an Italian/Franco noble born in 1519.

The Medici family was among one of the most powerful families in the world. They

ruled over Florence and later Tuscany, ‘produced three popes and heavily patronized

the arts; furthermore they ensured that they had long lasting influence within Europe

24 E.O. Smith, High Heels and Evolution Natural selection, Sexual selection and high heels, Atlanta:Emory University Press, 1999, p 3.

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by way of marriage’.25

In 1553 Catherine de Medici married the Duke of Orleans, second son of the king of

France at the tender age of fourteen to form a political alliance between France and

Italy. Faced with the prospect of not only marrying a man who ‘treated his wife with

civility, his indifference to her was obvious for all to see’ 26, but entering French court

which was arguably one of the finest on earth, caused much insecurity for the would

be princess. Armed with the fear that her plain looks couldn’t possibly be a match for

the splendidly glamorous French court and those who resided in it, Catherine ‘sought

the aid of an ingenious Florentine artisan’.27 Historians and scholars have attempted to

unearth the Florentine artisan without yielding any results. It could be argued that

Catherine de Medici was one of the first to use the high heel as a sexual object.

To bring the discussion back to an anthropological perspective, there are a number of

theoretical theories to explain and interpret wearing heels, such as symbolic and

feminist amongst others. However placing this into historical context goes without

saying that wearing heels in the sixteenth century was a ‘cultural trait following no

particular underlying evolutionary predisposition, but reflecting cultural ascription of

gender and status’.28 As already aforementioned when discussing gender and status of

the high heel, it was men who first debuted the heel with women shortly following

suit. Furthermore in order to maintain a distinction between the sexes, the fat and

skinny heel was created with the former being worn by men. Women adopted the heel

25 Paul Aurandt, Transformation of Catherine de Medici, Lakeland Ledger, April 16th, 1982,accessed March 17th, 2013, news.google.com/newspapers.

26 Leonie Frieda, Catherine de Medici, London: Phoenix, 2005, p 51.27 Paul Aurandt, Transformation of Catherine de Medici, Lakeland Ledger, April 16th, 1982,

accessed March 17

th

, 2013, http://news.google.com/newspapers.28 E.O. Smith, High Heels and Evolution Natural selection, Sexual selection and high heels, Atlanta:Emory University Press, 1999, p6.

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in the 1630s because as Semmelhack pointed out women wanted to ‘masculinize’

their outfits. E.O Smith reinforces this idea by suggesting ‘that wearing heels could

be a type of culturally defined gender marking of the inferior status of women in a

patriarchal society’.29

When taking all of this into consideration, one could go as far to suggest that the

chopine was invented as way of keeping women subordinate to men and placing them

in a sexual docile position within society. That being said it is hard try and find some

sort of comprehensible sense of sexuality and femininity, or it’s construction when

dealing with social constructs such as sexuality and it’s link to the elevated shoe. This

is partly due to the fact that early modern fashion and its identity, is hard to confine. It

is for this very reason that the chopine has been criticized ‘as a vanity of women’. 30

More confusingly however, Semmelhack ‘s exhibition on the chopine revealed that

the chopine was, ‘categorized as the foundation garment of courtesans and prostitutes,

but at the same time it was status symbol for virtuous women – virtually a signifier of

the patrician bride in Venice’.31

The manifold meanings of the chopine have caused much confusion, more

specifically the famous misinterpretation of Vittore Carpaccio ‘Two Venetian Ladies’

as can be seen in figure 9 below.

29 E.O. Smith, High Heels and Evolution Natural selection, Sexual selection and high heels, Atlanta:Emory University Press, 1999, p12.

30 Colin. A. Murray, On a Pedestal. From Renaissance Chopines to Baroque Heels, Toronto: Bata

Shoe Museum, 2009, accessed March 10

th

, 2013, http://arthist.net/reviews/357/view=pdf.31 Colin. A. Murray, On a Pedestal. From Renaissance Chopines to Baroque Heels, Toronto: BataShoe Museum, 2009, accessed March 10th, 2013, http://arthist.net/reviews/357/view=pdf.

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Figure 9. Two Venetian Ladies. 1510. Vittore Carpaccio. Available from

http://www.wga.hu/frames-e.html?/html/c/carpacci/5/01ladies.html, accessed April

16th, 2013.

The painting was originally thought to depict two courtesans, which in Renaissance

Europe came to refer as the ruler’s mistress. However upon further inspection modern

art historians have argued that it is likely that the two women are members of the

patrician Torella family (mother and daughter). This is due to their finery and pearl

necklaces. Objects within the painting such as the white handkerchief, pearls, and the

dove are all symbols of chastity. The chopines, which are in the left hand side of the

painting, have perhaps caused confusion resulting in several debates amongst the

academia, due to the dual meanings of the chopine in the sixteenth century.

The painting is believed to be a quarter of the original work and consists of other

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panels. Figure 10 below is part of the ‘The Venetian Ladies’ and is named ‘Hunting

on the lagoon’. The further discovery of this panel has again reinforced early modern

art historian’s arguments that the painting depicts members of the patrician Torella

family.

Figure 10. The J. Paul Getty Museum. 79.PB.72. Vittore Carpaccio’s Hunting on the

Lagoon.

The painting portrays several boats in a lagoon and would reinforce early suggestions

put forward by early modern art historians.

Conclusion of the sixteenth century

Sixteenth century Europe saw unprecedented changes in social, economic, religious

and political aspects. This inevitably had an impact on the way society chose to adorn

themselves, and the manner in which they did so was a reflection of this.

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Reviewing all the historical information on the high heel it is clear that not only was

this accoutrement worn purely to signify ones social status when it first became

fashionable at French court, but was worn to exhibit a sense of masculinity. As earlier

discussed, women adopted the elevated shoe around the 1630s in an attempt to

masculinize their outfits, perhaps hoping to be seen as mans equal. However if this

was the desire of the aristocratic women, it had little affect since two types of heel

were invented to maintain the distinction between man and women. Thus arguing that

the elevated shoe was a cultural definer of gender, marking women as inferior in a

patriarchal society. The latter is arguably up for debate, however an exhibition on the

chopine put on by Elizabeth Semmelhack of the Bata Shoe Museum, brought up an

interesting albeit confusing issue, the duality of the nature of the chopine. Venetian

prostitutes and courtesans favored the chopine, which led to the censure of the

chopine in 1430. On the other hand the chopine was a symbol for virtuous women,

often worn by patrician brides.

Men used the elevated shoe to solidify their masculinity and exert their power over

society and more importantly over women. This is made clear by the distinction in the

type of heels created for the opposite sexes. Whilst examining paintings depicting

women of different social standings wearing chopines, it can be determined that they

were used to limit activity of the wearer. Thus keeping women in a subordinate

position within society.

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Chapter two: Seventeenth century Europe: setting the scene

Chapter one saw the introduction of how the heel became the high heel and how it

became a symbol of status. Chapter two is a continuation of this and will begin to

look at the high heel in more depth by delving into gender and sexuality, and its

association in regard to the high heel. It must be noted however that gender, sexuality

and status are inextricably linked, sometimes making it hard to define their

boundaries.

In order to understand the change in the high heel and the way it impacted upon

gender, status and sexuality, seventeenth century Europe must be put into context.

Seventeenth century Europe saw itself go through great change and upheaval in every

aspect. It is at this point that a new social group emerged called ‘middling’; their rank

put them in between the landed gentry and the rest of society. Susan Kingsley Kent

explains,

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In politics, many of these “middling” people, and puritans drawn from the

gentry, resisted the efforts of the Stuart kings to rule absolutely, and fought a

civil war in order to assert the supremacy of parliament. Within the family,

sons challenged their fathers for the right to inherit property, wives demanded

more than mere spiritual equality with their husbands.32

This new social order saw mainstream fashion change dramatically as it began to

reflect the stringent social divides within the community, such as religion, class and

nationality. In addition to the rapid social and economic changes in England, France

began to emerge as one of the greatest powers in Europe. This was largely down to

three kings, Henry IV, Louis XIII and Louis XIV, weakening the power of the

magnates (nobility). With their expansion of royal absolutism, France became a major

power within Europe. As a result fashion began to reflect the political and religious

changes, as did the ever-growing divide between social divisions.

It was in France that footwear became an essential accoutrement in the first part of

the seventeenth century. It was one of the many domains that French craftsmen

excelled at, and almost all styles of shoes that have been worn ever since were created

at this point. For example the “Louis” or the “Louis French” became a signature style

of heel worn and made popular by the sun king himself. The “Louis” featured a

curved heel, in which the sole of the shoe rises up and under the arch and back down

again towards the front of the heel. Figure 11 is an example of a “Louis”, dating back

to 1890-1920, featuring white leather heels and lining and comprising of green velvet

uppers with green leather welt embroidery.

32 Susan Kingsley Kent, Gender and Power in Britain, 1640-1990, London: Routledge, 1999, P 3.

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Status and politics in the seventeenth century

Unlike his predecessor, Catherine de Medici, Louis XIV is the only person in history

that has been more closely identified with wearing high heels then anyone else to

date. Louis XIV of France was the sixteenth century equivalent to today’s Imelda

Marcos, the latter of which owned three thousand pairs of shoes. Louis XIV stood at a

diminutive 5ft 4 inches and increased his stature with 4-inch heels, decorated with

depictions of battle scenes.

Figure 11. Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at The

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the Brooklyn

Museum, 2009; Gift of Cooper Union Museum, 1951.

Accession number: 2009.300.4628a, b

This mule is of French origin and dates back to 1890-1920.

Although not from the seventeenth century, it is the closest

real life example to a “Louis” heel. The mule was stampedwith costa, as was de rigor in France during the

seventeenth century, Article 35 of the statutes, which

governed over the guild of Cordonniers ordered every shoe

produced by a guild member to be stamped. This was so

that it was possible to determine where the shoe was made.

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Joan DeJean verifies Louis XIV love of over the top footwear when she describes

how Louis XIV visited Bordeaux before embarking upon his marriage to the infanta

of Spain. Nicolas Lestage who was the official bootmeister to the king presented

Louis XIV with a pair of shoes,

He confected (“without even having measured the royal foot”) a pair of men’s

pumps described as truly breathtaking: “pumps upon which lilies were heaped

upon lilies, burnished by solid gold, made of honey colored Oriental

silk/Lined with taffeta in the monarch’s color.33

In the 1670’s Louis XIV issued an edict, forbidding anyone other then those in his

court to wear red heels. The sole and heel of a shoe was dyed red, as it was an

33 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p 87.

Figure 12. Louis XIV, King of France, Hyacinthe Rigaud, 1701. Musee du Louvre, Paris. Reunion

des Musees Nationaux/ Art Resource, NY.

King Louis XIV has been displayed as the divine chosen monarch of France. His white shoes, with

the heel covered in red leather were a feature reserved only for the French aristocracy.

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important colour for the monarchy due to sumptuary laws and the high cost of dye, it

also carried with it marital overtones. Even though the French monarchy had been

wearing red heels since the early 1600s, they were especially dear to Louis XIV.

Historian Philip Mansel points out that the ‘painted heels showed that nobles did not

dirty their shoes’34 he continues that they also demonstrated that their wearers, ‘were

always ready to crush the enemies of the state at their feet’.35

Louis XIV declared that ‘only those aristocrats granted access to his court be allowed

to wear shoes with red heels’36, in the process Louis XIV turned this fashion trend

into a ‘signifier of political privilege’.37 In France however the red sole and the heel

had an unequivocal meaning of status and power, and was a visible indicator of social

status. On the contrary red soles in England had an entirely different meaning and

were seen as the mark of a dandy, a slave to French fashion. Towards the second half

of the seventeenth century additional touches were added. This idea of showcasing

privilege and status through the means of footwear became evident in the seventeenth

century.

Like the second half of the sixteenth century, the type of heel worn by men and

women of the aristocracy were very different in style. As you can see in figure 13,

men’s heels featured a square toe cap and a thick squared block heel, whereas

women’s heels became higher with the toe cap delicately tapering to a soft point as

shown in figure 14.

34 Philip Mansel , Dressed to Rule: Royal and Court Costume from Louis XIV to Elizabeth II , USA:Yale University Press, 2005.

35 Philip Mansel, Dressed to Rule: Royal and Court Costume from Louis XIV to Elizabeth II , USA:Yale University Press, 2005.

36 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p 89.37 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p90.

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Museum.P93.62.

The distinction between men and women’sfootwear is very apparent here. This pair of men’s

mules was considered high and features a wide

and domineering heel compared to the heel in

figure 14.

Figure 14. Collection of the Bata Shoe

Museum.P90.186.Italian, c. 1700.

This heel conveys all the hallmarks of

femininity and superiority. The heel is

covered in oxblood colored leather, with

an embroidered silk upper and a

diamante buckle.

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The square-toed solid heel for the man represented ‘socioeconomic authority’. 38 For

women, Semmelhack explains ‘high heels expressed status but also made the foot

appear dainty’39, an example of this ‘aristocratic ideal’ can be seen in Charles

Perrault’s Cinderella, published in 1695.

Figure 15 is another example of gendered footwear and how the shape of the heel

suggested feminine ideals in the seventeenth century. In the engraving, only the point

of the shoe can be seen poking out beneath the lady’s dress. The seventeenth century

saw the heel for women become narrower as to suggest a narrow foot. This shape also

reflected the current sartorial trends, which became popular in second half of the

seventeenth century.

38 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,

2008, p 21.39 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p 21.

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Gender and Sexual expression in the seventeenth century

Sexual expression through the means of wearing high heels was not explicit in

seventeenth century Europe. However one only has to examine the footwear at this

time to see that seventeenth century fashion decreed women to have small feet. This

was in part due to external sartorial influences of Chinese fashion and culture.

Foot binding was a practice carried out in China, which involved binding the feet of

females from as young as three years old. The process involved binding the feet with

cotton bandages before the arch of the foot had a chance to develop fully. All of the

toes except the big toe would be curved under in order to achieve what was known as

the ‘lotus’ shape. Tim Edwards author of ‘Fashion in Focus’ explains that ‘the

Golden Lotus is an ancient symbol within Chinese culture…that celebrates the

Figure 15. Bibliotheque des Arts Decoratifs,

Paris/ Archives Charmet/ The Bridgeman Art

Library International.

The Night, Lady Going to Bed, French, second

half of the 17th century.

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smallness of the feet – here to less than three inches – and led to the notorious

tradition of foot binding’.40

To have bound feet was seen as a status symbol, as was the red sole of the “Louis”

heel at this time. To possess small feet was considered beautiful, feminine and was a

prerequisite for marriage. Furthermore only a handful of the Chinese population could

afford to bound their daughters feet as it implied they were wealthy enough not to lift

a finger, hence bound feet were seen as an indicator of ones social status. Many

western scholars have put forward varying theories as a way to interpret the reasons

behind foot binding, one of them being of an erotic nature. Edwards goes on to note

that ‘what is of interest here is precisely is the intertwining of status, sexuality and

gender as the small foot was symbolic of both aristocratic status and intense eroticism

– for women’s feet that is’.41

Foot binding was at its height during the seventeenth century, and had an impact on

European fashion. R. Turner Wilcox describes the consequences of how ladies in

Europe would resort to extremes in order to have small feet, ‘one day at the French

court, during a ceremony, several of the queen’s maids of honor fainted away from

pain occasioned by tightly bound feet’.42 It was also at this time that the sedan chair

arrived making it possible for women of the beau monde to walk as little as possible.

In figures 16 and 17, an example of a ‘lotus’ foot can be seen, along with the

influence on seventeenth century European footwear.

40 Tim Edwards, Fashion in Focus Concepts, Practices and Politics, London: Routledge, 2010, p 80.41 Tim Edwards, Fashion in Focus Concepts, Practices and Politics, London: Routledge, 2010, p 80.42 R. Turner Wilcox, The Mode In Footwear, London: Dover Publications, 2008, p109.

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Figure 16. Myfanawy Evans, The painful Tradition of

Foot Binding in China, Pattaya Daily News,

September 16th, 2010, accessed April 16th, 2013,

http://www.pattayadailynews.com/en/2010/09/16/the-

painful-tradition-of-foot-binding-in-china/

This is a photographic image of a foot that has been

bound, a practice that was popular since 700 AD. The

desired measurements of feet were around 3 inches,

and were known as the “Golden Lotus”.

Figure 17. Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection

at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the

Brooklyn Museum, 2009; Gift of Mrs. Clarence

R. Hyde, 1928.

This pair of seventeenth century heels closely

resembles the shape of the “lotus” foot in the

practice of foot binding in Chinese tradition.

Comprising of silk, metal and leather, this pair of

heels is English in origin and dates back to 1732-

59.

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Towards the end of the seventeenth century another type of shoe came into the public

spectrum, the mule. Once originally reserved for the boudoir, the mule became yet

another symbol of status and grandeur, ‘fashion plates make it clear that the mule was

the footwear of choice to accompany that revolutionary new way of dressing’. 43 The

mule often consisted of a very high heel and ‘were de rigueur with the deshabille’.44

43 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p97.44 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p97.

Figure 18. Accession Number: 1982.338a.Late 19th – early 20th century.

These are a pair of Lotus shoes and were

worn by Chinese women, who had endured

the foot binding process. These shoesmeasure at 5 and at half inches, which wasquite large since 3 inches, was thedesired easureent.

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town’.47 In Fragonard’s painting (which can be seen in figure 21) hints that it may

well be the end of the golden age of the mule ‘the century inaugurated by the

Comtesse d’Olonne’s killer red model and brought to an abrupt end by the French

Revolution’.48

Conclusion of the seventeenth century

Distinctions between male and female footwear was a mirror of the cultural shifts that

took place at the beginning of the seventeenth century up until 1790. Semmelhack

points out that ‘for men participation in fashion was becoming proscribed as the seeds

were being sown for the Great Male “Renunciation”’.49 Were once men took great

pride and delight in displaying their wealth and status through ostentatious displays of

dress, the end of the seventeenth century saw the high heel as the first article of

fashion to be abandoned in favor of a more refined style (figure 20).

However women were still treated as subordinate to men and the clear distinctions

between male and female footwear highlighted this. It would take another century

until the high heel would cease to be a hindrance to women.

47 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p98.

48 Joan DeJean, The Essence of Style, London: Free Press, 2005, p99.49 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p 25.

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Figure 20. Charlottenburg Castle, Stiftung Preussische Schlosser & Garten Berlin

Brandenburg, Berlin. Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/ Art Resource, NY.

Declaration of Love, Jean-Francois de Troy, 1731.

This painting illustrates the difference in male and female footwear in the eighteenth

century. The lady situated at the center of the painting is wearing dainty silk covered

high-heeled mules whilst her suitor sports a pair of plain black leather heels. Mules

made of high quality materials were to be worn in informal settings.

Chapter three: The eighteenth century, a continuation of status, gender and sexuality.

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Eighteenth century Europe went through a period of social, political and intellectual

adjustment and was known as the period of ‘Enlightenment’. Ideas that had been

articulated a hundred years previously were now being implemented on a broader

scale. In academia new fields of calculus and mechanics were being explored,

influencing the way people viewed the universe. John Locke and Thomas Hobbes

brought along new political ideas of democracy resulting of questioning and

challenging monarchial power structures across Europe. The Enlightenment however,

resulted in the French and American revolutions; the former would see a huge impact

upon the high heel.

Arguments formulated as a result of the Enlightenment, endorsed the idea that men

from all classes ‘were uniquely endowed with rational thought’.50 As was par for the

course, women were epitomized as ‘inherently deficient in rational faculties and unfit

for education, citizenship, and control of property’.51 ‘Women’s inborn proclivity

towards foolish adornment’52, was proof of this notion and wearing high heels only

provided further indication of this failing. Men’s rejection of frivolity in the form of

fashion and high heels was seen as them conforming to their intrinsically virtuous

sense.

50 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p25.


2008, p25.52 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p25.

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Gender and status in the eighteenth century

Whilst sixteenth and seventeenth century France had enjoyed great political power

and influence in areas such as fashion over Europe, France in the eighteenth century

watched their monarchy collapse. According to the general populace, the collapse of

the ancien regime was a result of women abusing power and using manipulation as a

tactic to dissipate men and their wealth. Marie Antoinette became synonymous with

her ‘reckless extravagance’53 and was pilloried even long after she had been

beheaded.

In addition the second half of the eighteenth century saw a sudden surge of interest in

the position of women and their role within society. However the focus of such

53 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p27.

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debate was mostly centered on women’s education, although a vast proportion of

these ideas came from men. Francois Fenelon a French theologian argued ‘women

would not be destined for public office and that their influence would be through the

home and family’.54 The latter view was common at this point and whilst there were

other writers, male and female alike who began to question the role and status of

women, the majority still felt that women were beneath men and were only of use at

home.

Issues relating to gender and dress continued well into the eighteenth century with the

subject attracting much discourse to be centered on possession, and the exercise of

reason. Mary Wollstonecroft, a British writer, philiopsher and a stong advocate for

women’s rights reasoned that ‘women develop skills in dressing, not because of a

natural born love of fashion, but because it is the only instrument of “power”

available to them’55 (see figure 21).

54 Eva Jacobs, W.H. Barber, Jean H. Bloch, F.W. Leakey, Eileen Le Breton, Women and society in

eighteenth century France, London: Athlone Press, 1979, p4.55 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p25.

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At the same time Mary Wollstonecraft was

composing A Vindication of the Rights of Woman,

France watched as it’s monarchy began to fall

apart. As France was going through a revolution,

high heels began to fall out of favor all across

Europe due to its associations with the

aristocracy. Napoleon Bonaparte became the

Emperor of the French in 1804 and in 1791

implemented the Code civil des François, laying

out the legal rights of men and women. Under the

Napoleonic code high heels were banned and by

the end of the eighteenth century the height of the

heel had been reduced so dramatically, that it resemblance was closer to a flat shoe as

can be see in figure 22.

Democratic and political ideas of the late eighteenth

century saw the rapid decline of the high heel, whilst a

renewed interest in Greek and Roman antiquities made

the high heel even more undersirable. In addition western

movement, Neoclassicism, had an impact on dress and by

the nineteenth century most women who were fashion

Figure 21. Collection of the Bata Shoe Museum. By

kind permission of the Trustees of The Wallace

Collection, London. The Swing, Jean-Honore

Fragonard, c.1767.

A young woman who is dressed in the latestfashions, perched on a swing. A clergyman is

pushing the young girl, whilst a besotted Baron de

Saint-Julien (a nobleman who commissioned the

painting) looks up her adoringly. His gaze is fixed

firmly on her skirts, as she is the focus of his desire

and her apparent power over him.

The tiny mules, which she has playfully kicked off,

suggest an air of intimacy.


Museum. P88.148.American, c. 1790s.

Although not European in origin, these black

leather shoes were a reflection of the new

restraints geared towards making footwear

more modest. The bright pink leather

embroidery still draws attention.

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conscious adopted simple white dresses and flat sandals in a nod to ancient dress

(figure 22).

Sexual expression and female politics in the eighteenth century

Liberalism in the Reform Act of 1832, denied women any kind of political

citizenship. The irony being the contradiction between, a set of philosophical

ideologies that brought down the power and authority of the aristocracy, enabling the

Figure 23. Collection of the Bata Shoe Museum.

P88.53. Italian, 1795-1805.

Excavations that took place at Pompeii and

Herculaneum in the eighteenth century sparked an

interest in the ancient world. Women who were

daring enough would don neoclassical fashion.

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‘enfranchisement of middle-class, and later working-class men’.56 Yet on the other

hand, women were denied full citizenship on the account of their biological and

characterological differences.

The eighteenth century also saw constructions of femininity evolve, consisting of

antithetical qualities; feeling, submissive, dependent, self-sacrificing and passive.

‘This collapsing of sex and gender – of the physiological organism with the

normative social creation – made it possible for women to be constructed as at once

pure and purely sexual’.57 Although contradictory, this definition of femininity still

saw women subordinate to men. In turn this made female fashion very difficult,

women had to be careful in how they presented themselves to the outside world due

to the new identity constructions of femininity. On the one hand indifference to

fashion was seen as unnatural and was not desirable or feminine; too much attention

to dress was seen as morally corrupt and suspect. Semmelhack argues that ‘dress was

constructed as a potential tool of wily feminine deceit that could be used to ensnare

men by targeting the one area where they admitted a lack of reason – sexual desire’.58

British writer, Mary Wollstonecraft, highlighted the issue in A Vindication of the

Rights of Women’ which was published in 1792. Wollstonecraft takes issue with a

piece of work written by Dr. Gregory, a Father’s Legacy to his Daughters, she

asserts:

He advises them to cultivate a fondness for dress, he asserts, is natural to

them. I am unable to comprehend what either he or Rousseau mean, when

they frequently use this indefinite term. If they told us, that in a pre-existent

state the soul was fond of dress, and brought this inclination with it into a new

body, I should listen to them with a half smile, as I often do when I hear a rant

about innate elegance. But if he only meant to say that the exercise of the

56 Susan Kingsley Kent, Gender and Power In Britain, 1640-1990, London: Routledge, p179.

57 Susan Kingsley Kent, Gender and Power In Britain, 1640-1990, London: Routledge, p179.58 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,p25.

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faculties will produce this fondness, I deny it. It is not natural; but arises, like

false ambition in men, from a love of power.59

Wollstonecraft argued that women developed a love of dressing because it was the

only way in which women could exert any kind of power.

The decline in the high heel was not only down to political or democratic ideals, but

rather a rejection of ideals formulated that defined women. A new concept of

domesticity and motherhood began to emerge as presented by Jean Jacques Rousseau.

The ideology was that women had the responsibility of ‘maintaining morality and

purity.60 In the late eighteenth century and early nineteenth century, the perceived

perception of women being sexual was changed in that men were now more lustful

and had carnal desires. A new role was created as sentimentality was how women

were now defined with them being transformed into a ‘glorification of female

emotion and motherhood’.61 There was now an expectation of women not only to

provide a moral education for their own children, but also to maintain morality within

the family dynamic without having to step outside.

This new concept of domesticity is captured in figure 23, which captures a young

mother exemplifying this trait, whilst also showcasing a pair of heel less shoes.

59 Mary Wollstonecraft, A vindication of women’s rights, London: Dover Publications Incorporated,1996, p23.

60 Susan Kingsley Kent, Gender and Power In Britain, 1640-1990, London: Routledge, 1999, p28.61 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p27.

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Although a new cult of domesticity had

developed in the eighteenth century,

there was still a large majority of women

who did not wish to be confined nor

maligned as the head and hearth of the family. Many women began to use their new

position and role within society to partake in larger ethical issues. Women of the

upper and middle classes, in the United States and Britain became advocates of the

abolition of slavery and for women’s rights.

Along with this new demand for social mobility, the high heel began to make a

comeback. This was also partly due to the industrialization of shoe making which had

in fact begun in the previous century, making a wider range of shoes readily available

at different price points.

While only certain women who were deemed to be “respectable”, had more freedom

of movement, their participation was still extremely limited to consumption and

leisure. It was considered inappropriate to concern themselves with any other facets

Figure 24. Snark/ Art Resource, NY. One

Year after Marriage, Achille Deveria, c.

1820-1840.

This print titled One Year after Marriage is

an example of a domestic setting, which is

quite intimate, with the mother seemingly

partaking in a moment of melancholicquietness.

Notice how her footwear is flat and

delicate, not suitable for outdoor use. This

type of shoe, which can also be seen in

figure 22 and 23, was the height of fashion

towards the end of the eighteenth century.

Figure 25. Brooklyn Museum Costume Collection at The

Metropolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the Brooklyn

Museum, 2009; Gift of Herman Delman, 1954.

An example of the transition from the high-heeled shoes

from the early eighteenth century, to the delicate flat

nineteenth century styles. The sharp pointed toe also

became very fashionable in the late eighteenth century.

The soft leather and overall finish on the shoe suggest that

these were meant for indoors. The shoe itself could be of

British origin and dates from around 1795-1810.

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of society other then what men deemed acceptable causes. ‘Whether expressed as a

concern over the safety of their virtue or as fear of their meddling nature’ 62 there was

still an air of anxiety about the modern women of the late eighteenth century.

Conclusion of the eighteenth century

Towards the end of the eighteenth century the high heel as a marker of status, power,

privilege and aristocratic ideals had been demolished, along with “frivolous” styles of

fashion. The reform in fashion and footwear over the eighteenth century was a direct

reflection of the changes within society, political, religious and societal alike. Despite

many concerns surrounding women’s issues and the many reforms that had taken

place to ensure better equality, dress still posed many problems.

Many reformers urged women to stop being “slaves to fashion” and proposed

alternatives styles and forms of dress which was considered rational. However

attempts to depart from the mainstream caused a backlash. The reason for this as

Semmelhack points out; ‘they were abandoned as detrimental to the furthering of

greater issues’.63 In spite of the challenges, social and political activism continued to

have great effect on the way women dressed, including footwear worn in the

nineteenth century.

Chapter four: Feminism and the sexual politics of dress: an overall conclusion


2008, p30.63 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p30.

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During the period of the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries, the high heel was used as

a way of keeping women subordinate and a way to limit their leisurely pursuits.

Andrea Vianello states ‘In many ways, chopines were both an instrument of

oppression and female freedom; some considered them an effective way to limit a

woman’s mobility’.64

However at the turn of the nineteenth century women turned to the hobbling heel, ‘as

women’s demands for greater social mobility increased’.65 From the nineteenth

century onwards women have used shoes, specifically the high heel, as a way of

conveying or projecting a certain image. In turn this has caused much debate from

feminists, some who feel women are disempowering themselves by allowing

themselves to be objectified by men. There are some feminists however that feel the

high heel is positive as it gives women confidence and added power, especially in the

work place.

Over the decades feminism and feminist theory has changed so drastically to the point

that, some would argue, no one including feminists are really sure what feminism is

anymore. This confusion is apparent when it comes to the discussion of women’s

apparel. In Susan J. Douglas’s latest book, Enlightened Sexism: The Seductive

Messages that Feminism’s Work is Done, Douglas puts forward the argument that

women find it perfectly acceptable to sexually objectify themselves without having to

suffer any repercussions, because they feel they are now man’s equal. To put it

64 Giorgio Riello, Peter McNeil, Shoes: a History of Sandals to Sneakers, London: Berg Publishers,

2008.65 Elizabeth Semmelhack, Heights of Fashion A History of the Elevated Shoe, Toronto: Periscope,2008, p30.

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sexually objectifying them, thus they rejected these standards. “In 1973 I gave up

beauty practices as part of that movement, supported by the strength of the thousands

of heterosexual and lesbian women around me who were also rejecting them” 70 stated

radical feminist Sheila Jeffreys in her book Beauty and Misogyny. “I stopped dying

my hair ‘mid golden sable’ and cut it short. I stopped wearing makeup. I stopped

wearing high heels, and eventually gave up short skirts”.71

Herein lies the issue within the ‘radical feminist lexicon’ 72; to wear high heels has to

stand out as the biggest betrayal of all. High heels more often than not demean,

constrain and harm. They also cause an array of medical problems such as, bunions,

disfigured toes and back problems. Despite the many problems high heels can cause,

they can empower women. Alexandra Shulman editor of British Vogue explains, “ I

realized that heels were transformative – they not only gave me extra inches, but they

raised the bar in so many different ways for my attitude, posture, confidence and

femininity”.73 Similarly Rosie Boycott journalist and feminist feels that heels provide

a sense of empowerment and femininity, “heels are undeniably feminine… the extra

height brings a certain authority with it”.74

70 Sally Feldman, Heights of Madness, Rationalist Association, May 7th, 2008, accessed April 16th,2013, http://rationalist.org.uk/articles/1781/heights-of-madness.



73 Anonymous, The height of feminism? Or do high heels demean women as sex objects?, The DailyMail, January 1st, 2009, accessed April 16th, 2013, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-

1103749/The-height-feminism-Or-high-heels-demean-women-sex-objects.html

74 Anonymous, The height of feminism? Or do high heels demean women as sex objects?, The DailyMail, January 1st, 2009, accessed April 16th, 2013, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-1103749/The-height-feminism-Or-high-heels-demean-women-sex-objects.html

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The high heel has come a long way since the elevated versions dating back to fourth

century B.C.E. Despite the associated meaning with the heel for men and women, the

heel will forever be synonymous with sex, status and gender.

Figure 26. LadyPeep Spikes Patent. Christian Louboutin.

http://eu.christianlouboutin.com/uk_en/, accessed April 16th, 2013.

These are a pair of sky-high heels designed by A-list French designer Christian

Louboutin. The heels measure 150 mm, which is equates to 6 inches and retail at

£825.00. Over the past five years this style of heel has become increasingly popular,

with versions being replicated on the high street. All the soles of Christian

Louboutin’s shoes are trademarked with a specific colour of red. A habit practiced by

King Louis XIV.

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