The World of the Late The World of the Late Roman Empire and Roman Empire and

The Late Roman ArmyThe Late Roman Army1.1. The Historical ContextThe Historical Context2.2. The most important Changes to the ArmyThe most important Changes to the Army3.3. The End of the Roman ArmyThe End of the Roman Army

The Roman Empire Under The Roman Empire Under TrajanTrajan

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The ContextThe Context Empire reached greatest territorial extent under Trajan (AD Empire reached greatest territorial extent under Trajan (AD

98-117)98-117) Successive emperors Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius Successive emperors Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus Pius

(138-161) – only made adjustments to frontier, any (138-161) – only made adjustments to frontier, any territorial additions only to facilitate frontier defencesterritorial additions only to facilitate frontier defences

Brief period of peaceBrief period of peace Marcus Aurelius (161-180) first signs of strains on military Marcus Aurelius (161-180) first signs of strains on military

resources in his reignresources in his reign Responded with important changes: creation of Responded with important changes: creation of field field

armiesarmies as distinct from provincial armies already stationed as distinct from provincial armies already stationed in region: brought together army units from different parts in region: brought together army units from different parts of Empire = of Empire = vexillation; vexillation;

Promotion of military commanders based on suitability not Promotion of military commanders based on suitability not on class or progressive stages of traditional on class or progressive stages of traditional cursus cursus honorumhonorum

By end of 2By end of 2ndnd century the rudiments of the two important century the rudiments of the two important changes in army organization apparent.changes in army organization apparent.

Trajan annexes DaciaTrajan annexes Dacia ““After spending some time in Rome, Trajan made a After spending some time in Rome, Trajan made a

campaign against the Dacians; for he took into account campaign against the Dacians; for he took into account their past deeds and was grieved at the amount of their past deeds and was grieved at the amount of money they were receiving annually, and he also money they were receiving annually, and he also observed that their power and their arrogance were observed that their power and their arrogance were increasing…Trajan constructed over the Danube a stone increasing…Trajan constructed over the Danube a stone bridge for which I cannot sufficiently admire him…Trajan, bridge for which I cannot sufficiently admire him…Trajan, having crossed the Danube by means of this bridge, having crossed the Danube by means of this bridge, conducted the war with safe prudence rather than with conducted the war with safe prudence rather than with haste; and eventually, after a hard struggle, vanquished haste; and eventually, after a hard struggle, vanquished the Dacians…Decabulus, when his capital and all his the Dacians…Decabulus, when his capital and all his territory had been occupied and he was himself in territory had been occupied and he was himself in danger of being captured, committed suicide; and his danger of being captured, committed suicide; and his head was brought to Rome. In this way Dacia became head was brought to Rome. In this way Dacia became subject to the Romans and Trajan founded cities there.” subject to the Romans and Trajan founded cities there.” (Cassius Dio, 68.6.1-13.1-4.) (Cassius Dio, 68.6.1-13.1-4.)

The Political Context at end of The Political Context at end of 22ndnd century AD century AD

Rome still capital of undivided Empire and seat of Rome still capital of undivided Empire and seat of EmperorEmperor

Senate somewhat curtailed, but still exercised Senate somewhat curtailed, but still exercised auctoritasauctoritas

Political and military advancement went hand in Political and military advancement went hand in hand, following stages of hand, following stages of cursus honorum cursus honorum (civilian (civilian and military posts)and military posts)

Legionary legates, most provincial governors Legionary legates, most provincial governors were senatorswere senators

Equites Equites had limited opportunities to rise to high had limited opportunities to rise to high posts; but avenues to rise to power: governors of posts; but avenues to rise to power: governors of Egypt were equestrian prefects (Imperial Egypt were equestrian prefects (Imperial provinces)provinces)

The Frontiers The Frontiers Variety of different frontier types: some were open Variety of different frontier types: some were open

roads; some followed lines of rivers; some had roads; some followed lines of rivers; some had physical barriers: ditches, Hadrian’s Wall in England physical barriers: ditches, Hadrian’s Wall in England (overkill) – consisted of ditch to north, wide stone wall (overkill) – consisted of ditch to north, wide stone wall with turrets, mile-castles and forts, larger ditch to with turrets, mile-castles and forts, larger ditch to south (south (vallumvallum) )

Germany –the Germany –the limen limen (palisade fronted by a ditch) (palisade fronted by a ditch) built by Hadrian, later replaced by bank of earthbuilt by Hadrian, later replaced by bank of earth

In Raetia – a stone wall; Africa – stretches of stone In Raetia – a stone wall; Africa – stretches of stone walls; most frontier provinces had legionary walls; most frontier provinces had legionary fortresses in interior; Rhine and Danube – rivers fortresses in interior; Rhine and Danube – rivers formed boundaries – legions stationed at strategic formed boundaries – legions stationed at strategic points close to river bankspoints close to river banks

Auxiliary troops stationed in forts on frontier lines; Auxiliary troops stationed in forts on frontier lines; most frontiers had small fortlets, with watchtowers in most frontiers had small fortlets, with watchtowers in between between

The ArmyThe Army

Size of Legions about 5500 – 6000 Roman Size of Legions about 5500 – 6000 Roman citizenscitizens

Auxiliary units: 3 types – Auxiliary units: 3 types – alaealae (cavalry); (cavalry); cohortes peditataecohortes peditatae (infantry); mixed units of (infantry); mixed units of both foot and horsement (both foot and horsement (cohortes cohortes equitatae)equitatae); 500 strong or 1000;; 500 strong or 1000;

Citizenship granted after 25 years of serviceCitizenship granted after 25 years of service Recruitment of legions and auxiliary units Recruitment of legions and auxiliary units

mostly from local population living around mostly from local population living around fortsforts

Army Reforms of Septimius Army Reforms of Septimius Severus Severus

(Emperor AD 193-211)(Emperor AD 193-211) probably as an attempt to make service more attractiveprobably as an attempt to make service more attractive Privileges: 1. gave legal sanction to soldiers’ marriage; 2. Privileges: 1. gave legal sanction to soldiers’ marriage; 2.

increase in payincrease in pay Cash always most effective way to coerce army; military Cash always most effective way to coerce army; military

revolts put down or deflected by large donatives.revolts put down or deflected by large donatives. Now large part of Empire’s resources went to armyNow large part of Empire’s resources went to army Both Cassius Dio and Herodian accused Severus of bleeding Both Cassius Dio and Herodian accused Severus of bleeding

the Empire dry. the Empire dry. Easier Promotions: possible to rise from ranks to officer Easier Promotions: possible to rise from ranks to officer

status, from there to Praetorian Guard, even to equestrian status, from there to Praetorian Guard, even to equestrian posts of civil service and even further.posts of civil service and even further.

Appointed equestrians to command three new legions he Appointed equestrians to command three new legions he raised; installed equestrian prefect as governor of raised; installed equestrian prefect as governor of MesopotamiaMesopotamia

Advancement of non-senators not Severus’ innovation, Advancement of non-senators not Severus’ innovation, influence of Senate gradually weaker; made appointment influence of Senate gradually weaker; made appointment of equestrians only more formal of equestrians only more formal

Cassius Dio 79.13:Cassius Dio 79.13:the example of Agrippa and Triccianusthe example of Agrippa and Triccianus

““he sent Agrippa to Dacia and Decius Triccianus to he sent Agrippa to Dacia and Decius Triccianus to Pannonia. The former had been a slave acting as Pannonia. The former had been a slave acting as tireman for some woman and had stood trial tireman for some woman and had stood trial before Severus for that very reason, though he before Severus for that very reason, though he had been counsel for the imperial treasury; had been counsel for the imperial treasury; banished later to an island for the betrayal of banished later to an island for the betrayal of some cause, he had subsequently been recalled, some cause, he had subsequently been recalled, along with the others, by Tarautas, had had along with the others, by Tarautas, had had charge of his judicial decisions and charge of his judicial decisions and correspondence, and finally had been relegated to correspondence, and finally had been relegated to the position of senator with the rank of ex-praetor, the position of senator with the rank of ex-praetor, because he had admitted immature lads into the because he had admitted immature lads into the army. Triccianus had served as a private soldier in army. Triccianus had served as a private soldier in the contingent from Pannonia, had once been the contingent from Pannonia, had once been doorkeeper to the governor of that province, and doorkeeper to the governor of that province, and was at this time commanding the Alban legion. “was at this time commanding the Alban legion. “

Cassius Dio on Septimius Cassius Dio on Septimius SeverusSeverus

75.2.75.2.““There were many things Severus did There were many things Severus did

that were not to our liking, that were not to our liking, 33 and he  and he was blamed for making the city was blamed for making the city turbulent through the presence of so turbulent through the presence of so many troops and for burdening the many troops and for burdening the State by his excessive expenditures State by his excessive expenditures of money, and most of all, for placing of money, and most of all, for placing his hope of safety in the strength of his hope of safety in the strength of his army rather than in the good will his army rather than in the good will of his associates in the government” of his associates in the government”

Cassius Dio 77.15Cassius Dio 77.15

“ “ At all events, before Severus died, At all events, before Severus died, he is reported to have spoken thus to he is reported to have spoken thus to his sons (I give his exact words his sons (I give his exact words without embellishment): "Be without embellishment): "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and harmonious, enrich the soldiers, and ignore all other men." ignore all other men."

Reforms of Septimius Severus Reforms of Septimius Severus continuedcontinued

Most important reform: increase in size of Most important reform: increase in size of armyarmy

Marcus Aurelius had recruited two new Marcus Aurelius had recruited two new legions; Severus raised extra auxiliary unitslegions; Severus raised extra auxiliary units

Raised 3 new legions; 2 left in garrison in Raised 3 new legions; 2 left in garrison in new province of Mesopotamia; 1 garrisoned new province of Mesopotamia; 1 garrisoned in Alba ca. 20 miles outside Romein Alba ca. 20 miles outside Rome

Increased numbers of Praetorian Guard and Increased numbers of Praetorian Guard and Urban CohortsUrban Cohorts

Estimated he had 30,000 men in Italy at his Estimated he had 30,000 men in Italy at his disposaldisposal

The Field Army The Field Army vexillumvexillumin the 3in the 3rdrd century century

Origins of 4Origins of 4thth century field army found in Septimius Severus’ new legions century field army found in Septimius Severus’ new legions Severus did not intend legion as mobile reserve but as support for his Severus did not intend legion as mobile reserve but as support for his

throne when away from Italythrone when away from Italy troops mobile but slow – took 60 days to march from Rome to Cologne – troops mobile but slow – took 60 days to march from Rome to Cologne –

better to call them reserve for the II Parthica – used this army in this better to call them reserve for the II Parthica – used this army in this capacity by successors: was with Caracalla when he was murdered, then at capacity by successors: was with Caracalla when he was murdered, then at Apamaea with Emperor Macrinus, then in Germany under Severus Apamaea with Emperor Macrinus, then in Germany under Severus Alexander, then at siege of Emona with Maximus, at Milan in 258 with Alexander, then at siege of Emona with Maximus, at Milan in 258 with Emperor GallienusEmperor Gallienus

Emperors commanded armies composed of vexillations from different Emperors commanded armies composed of vexillations from different legions, legions, alaealae and and cohortescohortes of provincial armies; expeditionary armies – of provincial armies; expeditionary armies –

33rdrd and 4 and 4thth centuries presence of Emperor necessary at place of fighting – centuries presence of Emperor necessary at place of fighting – emperor at different bases: Cologne, Trier, Milan, Verona, and others emperor at different bases: Cologne, Trier, Milan, Verona, and others became headquarters of Imperial armies at different timesbecame headquarters of Imperial armies at different times

Mobility extremely important – Cavalry more important to defend against Mobility extremely important – Cavalry more important to defend against rebels and usurpersrebels and usurpers

Met requirements of time: no conquest but to counter sudden attacks on Met requirements of time: no conquest but to counter sudden attacks on Roman high command by barbarians or usurpers, often by both at same Roman high command by barbarians or usurpers, often by both at same time. time.

The Third Century Crises The Third Century Crises Empire confronted by several crises at same time.Empire confronted by several crises at same time. Usurpers: Power struggle between commanders of provincial legions.Usurpers: Power struggle between commanders of provincial legions. Barbarian Attacks across the Rhine and Danube by increasingly Barbarian Attacks across the Rhine and Danube by increasingly

organized and effective German confederacies (i.e. Goths, Franks, organized and effective German confederacies (i.e. Goths, Franks, Alemanni etc.) and across the Euphrates from invigorated Persian Empire Alemanni etc.) and across the Euphrates from invigorated Persian Empire (Sassanid Persia); Repeated simultaneous invasions on two fronts.(Sassanid Persia); Repeated simultaneous invasions on two fronts.

Several devastating plagues.Several devastating plagues. Massive economic failure.Massive economic failure. Power struggles required loyalty of troops; Raises in pay; devastation of Power struggles required loyalty of troops; Raises in pay; devastation of

land and disruption of trade caused by internal and external invaders land and disruption of trade caused by internal and external invaders reduced available resources; debasement of coinage and hyperinflation – reduced available resources; debasement of coinage and hyperinflation – increases in pay for the troops.increases in pay for the troops.

One brief period of stability – 253-268 (Age of Gallienus)One brief period of stability – 253-268 (Age of Gallienus) Generally – shift in leadership towards the military aspectGenerally – shift in leadership towards the military aspect

Emperor Gallienus 253 - 268Emperor Gallienus 253 - 268

AD 255 created cavalry army when defending Rhine AD 255 created cavalry army when defending Rhine frontier and in need for rapid movement; frontier and in need for rapid movement; assembled from legionaries from Rhine, Pannonia assembled from legionaries from Rhine, Pannonia and Noricum, brought II Parthica and Praetorians and Noricum, brought II Parthica and Praetorians from Rome perhaps into one standing force.from Rome perhaps into one standing force.

From 259 this cavalry was based at Milan under From 259 this cavalry was based at Milan under commander Aureolus who was in charge to prevent commander Aureolus who was in charge to prevent Gallic usurper Postumus from invading ItalyGallic usurper Postumus from invading Italy

Danger to have a single person in command; Danger to have a single person in command; Aureolus could not resist temptation – rebelled Aureolus could not resist temptation – rebelled against Gallienus, did not gain throne but was against Gallienus, did not gain throne but was murdered, cleared path, however, for Claudius II murdered, cleared path, however, for Claudius II Gothicus (268-70)Gothicus (268-70)

Reforms of DiocletianReforms of Diocletian

Placed detachments along frontiers; strengthened Placed detachments along frontiers; strengthened defenses, rebuilt forts and garrisoned themdefenses, rebuilt forts and garrisoned them

Division of Empire into short-lived 4 parts Division of Empire into short-lived 4 parts (Tetrarchy) under its own Augustus or Caesar (Tetrarchy) under its own Augustus or Caesar chosen by Diocletian; in attempt to prevent civil warchosen by Diocletian; in attempt to prevent civil war

Creation of Creation of comitatuscomitatus (field army)? (field army)? In Republic and early Empire – In Republic and early Empire – comites comites were were

members of entourage of magistrates, provincial members of entourage of magistrates, provincial governors governors

More official under Marcus Aurelius and the More official under Marcus Aurelius and the Severans, body of officers accompanying emperor Severans, body of officers accompanying emperor on campaign; not purely military but also on campaign; not purely military but also administrativeadministrative

Probably made up of different troopsProbably made up of different troops Creation of Creation of protectores? protectores?

Constantine AD 307-337Constantine AD 307-337

When aming at throne was in similar When aming at throne was in similar position as Gallienus – facing multiple and position as Gallienus – facing multiple and hostile opposition forceshostile opposition forces

Assembled army of troops from Britain, Assembled army of troops from Britain, added Gauls and Germans from Rhine; but added Gauls and Germans from Rhine; but could not strip north-western frontier of all could not strip north-western frontier of all its troops - would open himself up to its troops - would open himself up to attack. attack.

Defeated Maxentius at Milvian bridgeDefeated Maxentius at Milvian bridge Zosimus 2.15 claims he was outnumbered Zosimus 2.15 claims he was outnumbered

by 100,000 - - his defeat of Maxentius by 100,000 - - his defeat of Maxentius termed miraculoustermed miraculous

Reforms of ConstantineReforms of Constantine After victory at Milvian Bridge, was left with remnants of After victory at Milvian Bridge, was left with remnants of

Maxentius’ armies, and his own assembled field army. Maxentius’ armies, and his own assembled field army. Could not disband it – until position securedCould not disband it – until position secured

Made distinctions between mobile units of Made distinctions between mobile units of comitatensescomitatenses and Imperial bodyguard – the and Imperial bodyguard – the scholae palatinae scholae palatinae under under direct command of Emperor; preventing power praetorian direct command of Emperor; preventing power praetorian prefects had in past prefects had in past

Comitatenses Comitatenses divided into cavalry – commanded by new divided into cavalry – commanded by new posts posts magister equitummagister equitum

and infantry, commanded by and infantry, commanded by magister peditum magister peditum single mobile army centered around Emperor unable to single mobile army centered around Emperor unable to

keep peace in all parts of Empirekeep peace in all parts of Empire Creation of regional field armies in different areas, Creation of regional field armies in different areas,

especially in Germany, Illyricum and east, each with own especially in Germany, Illyricum and east, each with own commander: commander: magistermagister

Separation of Separation of ripensesripenses (field army) and (field army) and limitanei limitanei (frontier (frontier army) army)

The Roman Army in the 4The Roman Army in the 4thth CenturyCentury

By 4By 4thth century the Imperial Roman century the Imperial Roman Army was the Army of the Late Army was the Army of the Late EmpireEmpire

Successful until the two great Successful until the two great disasters: Adrianople AD 378 – disasters: Adrianople AD 378 – destroyed the eastern armydestroyed the eastern army

Frigidus AD 394 - destroyed western Frigidus AD 394 - destroyed western armyarmy