The Late Roman EmpireThe Late Roman Empire

Part 2Part 2

The End of the Roman ArmyThe End of the Roman Army

The 4The 4thth Century Centurygeneral remarksgeneral remarks

By 4By 4thth century the Imperial Roman Army was century the Imperial Roman Army was modified and had become the Army of the modified and had become the Army of the Late Empire;Late Empire;

Recruitment became more difficult – Recruitment became more difficult – Although it was the regular Roman army - Although it was the regular Roman army -

contained large component of barbarianscontained large component of barbarians Army continued to recover after set-backs Army continued to recover after set-backs Turning point the two great disasters: at Turning point the two great disasters: at

Adrianople AD 378 – destroyed the eastern Adrianople AD 378 – destroyed the eastern armyarmy

At Frigidus AD 394 - destroyed western armyAt Frigidus AD 394 - destroyed western army

Emperors Valentinian and Valens Emperors Valentinian and Valens (364-75/78)(364-75/78)

364 Valentinius declared emperor: 364 Valentinius declared emperor: context:context: frontiers threatened everywhere, eastern army frontiers threatened everywhere, eastern army

decimated , Alamanni were devastating Gaul and Raetia, decimated , Alamanni were devastating Gaul and Raetia, Sarmatians and Quadi attacked Pannonia, Goths were Sarmatians and Quadi attacked Pannonia, Goths were plundering Thrace; Britain raided by Picts, Scots, Attacotti; plundering Thrace; Britain raided by Picts, Scots, Attacotti; Moorish tribes harassed African provincesMoorish tribes harassed African provinces

In short - chaos and destruction on all frontsIn short - chaos and destruction on all fronts At request of army – Valentinian appointed colleague to At request of army – Valentinian appointed colleague to

share throne and deal with the various crises, chose his share throne and deal with the various crises, chose his brother Valens;brother Valens;

364 Empire and army divided between them: 364 Empire and army divided between them: Valentian went to the West to restore peace at western Valentian went to the West to restore peace at western

front - with base at Trier; front - with base at Trier; Valens went to the East, campaigning against GothsValens went to the East, campaigning against Goths

Recruitment in the 4Recruitment in the 4thth century century Recruitment became more difficult Recruitment became more difficult In 355 Emperor Constantius passed laws to curtail In 355 Emperor Constantius passed laws to curtail

activities of veterans who turned to banditryactivities of veterans who turned to banditry 364 Valentinian – laws outlining more privileges for 364 Valentinian – laws outlining more privileges for

veterans (to ease their lot and prevent them from turning veterans (to ease their lot and prevent them from turning to crime)to crime)

In 365 tougher measures to round up deserters; height for In 365 tougher measures to round up deserters; height for recruits reducedrecruits reduced

The avoidance of service by cutting off fingers and thumbs The avoidance of service by cutting off fingers and thumbs –was countered by forcing such men into service despite –was countered by forcing such men into service despite disabilitiesdisabilities

following year lost patience and had those who mutilated following year lost patience and had those who mutilated themselves burnt to deaththemselves burnt to death

Valens tried to correct other abuses such as the trick of Valens tried to correct other abuses such as the trick of claiming pay of dead comrades, selling off supplies claiming pay of dead comrades, selling off supplies intended for troops for a profit intended for troops for a profit

Conscriptions held annuallyConscriptions held annually

Emperor Constantine Augustus to Emperor Constantine Augustus to Octavianus. We order that veterans’ sons Octavianus. We order that veterans’ sons who are fit for military service, of whom who are fit for military service, of whom some indolently refuse to perform some indolently refuse to perform compulsory military duties while others are compulsory military duties while others are so cowardly that they wish to evade the so cowardly that they wish to evade the necessity of military service by mutilating necessity of military service by mutilating their own bodies, if they should be judged their own bodies, if they should be judged incapable of military service because their incapable of military service because their fingers have been cut off, are to be fingers have been cut off, are to be assigned, without any ambiguity, to perform assigned, without any ambiguity, to perform the complete compulsory public services the complete compulsory public services and duties of decurions. ….CTh 7.22, Ad 319 and duties of decurions. ….CTh 7.22, Ad 319 (#390, Campbell)(#390, Campbell)

Valens’ Settlement of the Valens’ Settlement of the GothsGoths

375 settlement of Goths at Danube 375 settlement of Goths at Danube frontier frontier

Many Goths drafted into army, not Many Goths drafted into army, not enough to prevent pressure on food enough to prevent pressure on food supply; supply;

Resulting famine coupled with Resulting famine coupled with exploitation of Goths by Roman officials exploitation of Goths by Roman officials ended in revolt; defeat of Romans at ended in revolt; defeat of Romans at Adrianople in 378, Valens killed in battleAdrianople in 378, Valens killed in battle

Eastern army almost completely Eastern army almost completely destroyeddestroyed

The disaster at Adrianople The disaster at Adrianople 378378

defeat of Romans at Adrianople in defeat of Romans at Adrianople in 378, Valens killed in battle378, Valens killed in battle

Eastern army almost completely Eastern army almost completely destroyeddestroyed

Theodosius 379-392Theodosius 379-392

Needed 3 years to bring Goths to termsNeeded 3 years to bring Goths to terms Allowed them to settle in Thrace on lands Allowed them to settle in Thrace on lands

they had ravaged; given autonomy they had ravaged; given autonomy Some authors criticized Theodosius for Some authors criticized Theodosius for

this, this, Others like Author Salvian agreed that Others like Author Salvian agreed that

barbarians were there to stay and had barbarians were there to stay and had either to be assimilated or defeated;either to be assimilated or defeated;

Defeating them has proved to be Defeating them has proved to be impossibleimpossible

Barbarization of ArmyBarbarization of Army Usually after conclusion of war, treaty that required enemy Usually after conclusion of war, treaty that required enemy

to contribute number of men to Roman army, to contribute number of men to Roman army, en masseen masse and annually, or similar arrangement. Could be distributed and annually, or similar arrangement. Could be distributed among existing armies, diluting barbarian influence, or as among existing armies, diluting barbarian influence, or as one body sent to distant provincesone body sent to distant provinces

Defeated tribesmen Defeated tribesmen dediticiidediticii – sometimes settled in large – sometimes settled in large numbers inside Empire; other groups came voluntarily; numbers inside Empire; other groups came voluntarily; sometimes admitted and given land:sometimes admitted and given land:

Augustus 50,000 Getae settled in Moesia; Tiberius let Augustus 50,000 Getae settled in Moesia; Tiberius let 40,000 Germans into Gaul and Rhineland; Marcus Aurelius 40,000 Germans into Gaul and Rhineland; Marcus Aurelius let 3,000 Naristae in; Probus 100,000 Bastarnae, let 3,000 Naristae in; Probus 100,000 Bastarnae, Constantine settled 300,000 Sarmatians in Thrace, Italy and Constantine settled 300,000 Sarmatians in Thrace, Italy and Macedonia.Macedonia.

Common feature = expectation that tribesmen would Common feature = expectation that tribesmen would defend sections of frontier where they were granted land, defend sections of frontier where they were granted land, or provide troops for army, or provide troops for army,

Foederati Foederati (federates)(federates)

Employment of barbarians by means of alliance Employment of barbarians by means of alliance with a tribal leader or client kingwith a tribal leader or client king

2 types: 1. barbarian groups, settled or garrisoned 2 types: 1. barbarian groups, settled or garrisoned in regions of Empire who had to provide military in regions of Empire who had to provide military assistance (i.e. Visigoths in Aquitaine, Burgundians assistance (i.e. Visigoths in Aquitaine, Burgundians in Burgundy)in Burgundy)

2. barbarian military units recruited for particular 2. barbarian military units recruited for particular campaigns (Goths, Franks, Huns, sometimes a mix campaigns (Goths, Franks, Huns, sometimes a mix of different ethnic groups; sometimes under their of different ethnic groups; sometimes under their own leader; usually disbanded after campaign)own leader; usually disbanded after campaign)

Occasionally recruited into regular army to fill gapsOccasionally recruited into regular army to fill gaps a method of increasing size of Roman army for a method of increasing size of Roman army for

campaignscampaigns

Barbarian soldiers and Barbarian soldiers and officersofficers

Many served in regular army, some rose to high rank Many served in regular army, some rose to high rank (Magnentius – became emperor for short time (350 – (Magnentius – became emperor for short time (350 – 351))351))

Individual recruitment and enrollment of large groups Individual recruitment and enrollment of large groups of barbarians was common since early empireof barbarians was common since early empire

Usually loyal to Rome – Germans for example, had Usually loyal to Rome – Germans for example, had little sense of nationality, no among Germanic tribes little sense of nationality, no among Germanic tribes unity,unity,

Roman versus German a modern dichotomy, did not Roman versus German a modern dichotomy, did not exist in antiquity.exist in antiquity.

Signed up for 20-25 years service; received Signed up for 20-25 years service; received citizenship at completion. Germans in positions of citizenship at completion. Germans in positions of authority in army or civilian office were more Roman authority in army or civilian office were more Roman than Romansthan Romans

Barbarians and the Western Barbarians and the Western Roman ArmyRoman Army

Purges of barbarians in western army Purges of barbarians in western army backfiredbackfired

408 - Romans in Honorius’ court 408 - Romans in Honorius’ court massacred Germans among the emperor’s massacred Germans among the emperor’s followers; followers;

killed Stilicho who was in command of the killed Stilicho who was in command of the Italian army, an excellent general; the Italian army, an excellent general; the foederati foederati of his army (c. 30,000) deserted of his army (c. 30,000) deserted to Alaric and his Gothsto Alaric and his Goths

left western court almost defenseles left western court almost defenseles

Responses to barbarization of Responses to barbarization of ArmyArmy

Author Synesis recommended removal of all Author Synesis recommended removal of all barbarians from high office (purifying army)barbarians from high office (purifying army)

After defeat at Adrianople (378) – sealed orders After defeat at Adrianople (378) – sealed orders went out to commanders of Eastern troops to went out to commanders of Eastern troops to summon Goths in army to pay parade and then kill summon Goths in army to pay parade and then kill them.them.

More purges in 386 when group of Goths More purges in 386 when group of Goths committed massacre at Tomi and after revolt of committed massacre at Tomi and after revolt of Gainas in Constantinople (Gainas was behind Gainas in Constantinople (Gainas was behind assassination of praetorian prefect Rufinus, led assassination of praetorian prefect Rufinus, led march on Constantinople, was defeated, and then march on Constantinople, was defeated, and then killed by Huns)killed by Huns)

Defeat of western army at Frigidus 394Defeat of western army at Frigidus 394 Attempts made to reduce numbers of Germanic Attempts made to reduce numbers of Germanic

tribesmen in armytribesmen in army

Adrianople 378Adrianople 378 Their counsel, though the least prudent, so far prevailed, Their counsel, though the least prudent, so far prevailed,

that the emperor led forth his whole army without order. that the emperor led forth his whole army without order. The Barbarians resolutely opposed them, and gained so The Barbarians resolutely opposed them, and gained so signal a victory, that they slew all, except a few with whom signal a victory, that they slew all, except a few with whom the emperor fled into an unfortified village. The Barbarians, the emperor fled into an unfortified village. The Barbarians, therefore, surrounded the place with a quantity of wood, therefore, surrounded the place with a quantity of wood, which they set on fire. All who had fled thither, together which they set on fire. All who had fled thither, together with the inhabitants, were consumed in the tlames, and in with the inhabitants, were consumed in the tlames, and in such a manner, that the body of the emperor could never such a manner, that the body of the emperor could never be found. When the affairs of the empire were reduced to be found. When the affairs of the empire were reduced to this low condition, Victor, who commanded the Roman this low condition, Victor, who commanded the Roman cavalry, escaping the danger with some of his troops, cavalry, escaping the danger with some of his troops, entered Macedon and Thessaly. From thence he proceeded entered Macedon and Thessaly. From thence he proceeded into Moesia and Pannonia, and informed Gratian, who was into Moesia and Pannonia, and informed Gratian, who was then in that quarter, of what had occurred, and of the loss then in that quarter, of what had occurred, and of the loss of the emperor and his army. (Zosimus Book 4)of the emperor and his army. (Zosimus Book 4)

The 5The 5thth century and our century and our SourcesSources

Source DifficultiesSource Difficulties No sources covering the army in this period when No sources covering the army in this period when

most important changes took placemost important changes took place 44thth century army: described by Ammianus century army: described by Ammianus

Marcellinus Marcellinus 66thth century army: described by Procopius century army: described by Procopius Between 4Between 4thth and 6 and 6thth century – western army century – western army

disappeareddisappeared Eastern army was modified and emerged as Eastern army was modified and emerged as

Byzantine armyByzantine army Have glimpses of the beginnings of changes and Have glimpses of the beginnings of changes and

the end – have no details about the period in which the end – have no details about the period in which the major changes took place. the major changes took place.

The Army in the 5The Army in the 5thth century century

Liebeschuetz argues that by mid 5Liebeschuetz argues that by mid 5thth century the regular army had become century the regular army had become unimportantunimportant

Difficulties to recruit Romans into army; resistance from large landowners; Difficulties to recruit Romans into army; resistance from large landowners; many barbarian groups had settled inside Empire; local cooperation with many barbarian groups had settled inside Empire; local cooperation with barbarians barbarians

FoederatiFoederati eager to provide troops for Empire; provided opportunity for eager to provide troops for Empire; provided opportunity for profit; especially the Germans were professional fighters; profit; especially the Germans were professional fighters;

Western army could not afford to stop recruiting barbarians as in east; Western army could not afford to stop recruiting barbarians as in east; Aetius, magister militum, last great commander in west was supported by Aetius, magister militum, last great commander in west was supported by

his own private army of Huns (murdered in 454)his own private army of Huns (murdered in 454) See similar pattern of personal armies as in Late Republic (but now See similar pattern of personal armies as in Late Republic (but now

consisting of barbarians)consisting of barbarians) At same time Western Empire failed to assimilate barbarians properly, At same time Western Empire failed to assimilate barbarians properly,

which contributed significantly to its demise. which contributed significantly to its demise. After mid 5th century Western Army unable to recover from losses of After mid 5th century Western Army unable to recover from losses of

trained Roman soldiers to hand down Roman traditiontrained Roman soldiers to hand down Roman tradition Inability to train new troops led to decline of army in short timeInability to train new troops led to decline of army in short time Roman combat methods disappearedRoman combat methods disappeared Romanization ceased; in past Roman army was most important and Romanization ceased; in past Roman army was most important and

effective instrument of Romanization processeffective instrument of Romanization process

End of the Western Empire End of the Western Empire Western government unstable; no centralized Western government unstable; no centralized

administration; impoverishment of resources;administration; impoverishment of resources; Civil wars between usurpers; 410 CE Alaric and the Civil wars between usurpers; 410 CE Alaric and the

Visigoths sack RomeVisigoths sack Rome Troops withdrawn from Britain in 407; Army withdraws from Troops withdrawn from Britain in 407; Army withdraws from

Spain 411; Western Empire shrunk to Italy and GaulSpain 411; Western Empire shrunk to Italy and Gaul Frontiers on Rhine overrun; constant raids; infiltration Frontiers on Rhine overrun; constant raids; infiltration

rather than ‘invasion’ composition of population simply rather than ‘invasion’ composition of population simply changed changed

Exact date of end of western Empire not clear; accepted Exact date of end of western Empire not clear; accepted date date 476476

Roman laws, military institutions continued to live on in Roman laws, military institutions continued to live on in barbarian kingdoms; no formal disbandment of army barbarian kingdoms; no formal disbandment of army directed from Ravenna or Romedirected from Ravenna or Rome

Even the soldiers in the army did not know that their Even the soldiers in the army did not know that their Empire had endedEmpire had ended

By these means, the Roman empire, having By these means, the Roman empire, having been devastated by degrees, is become the been devastated by degrees, is become the habitation of Barbarians, or rather having lost habitation of Barbarians, or rather having lost all its inhabitants, is reduced to such a form, all its inhabitants, is reduced to such a form, that no person can distinguish where its cities that no person can distinguish where its cities formerly stood. That affairs were thus brought formerly stood. That affairs were thus brought into so melancholy a state will be evident into so melancholy a state will be evident from a particular narrative of them. The from a particular narrative of them. The emperor Theodosius, having consigned Italy, emperor Theodosius, having consigned Italy, Spain, Celtica, and Libya to his son Honorius, Spain, Celtica, and Libya to his son Honorius, died of a disease on his journey towards died of a disease on his journey towards Constantinople. His body was embalmed, and Constantinople. His body was embalmed, and deposited in the imperial sepulchres of that deposited in the imperial sepulchres of that city.  (Zosimus 4)city.  (Zosimus 4)

The end of the Western armyThe end of the Western army “ “ So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were So long as the Roman dominion lasted, soldiers were

maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard maintained in many towns at the public expense to guard the boundary wall.the boundary wall.6767 When this custom ceased, the When this custom ceased, the squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted squadrons of soldiers and the boundary wall were blotted out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. out together. The troop at Batavis, however, held out. Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the Some soldiers of this troop had gone to Italy to fetch the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the final pay to their comrades, and no one knew that the barbarians had slain them on the way. One day, as Saint barbarians had slain them on the way. One day, as Saint Severinus was reading in his cell, he suddenly closed the Severinus was reading in his cell, he suddenly closed the book and began to sigh greatly and to weep. He ordered book and began to sigh greatly and to weep. He ordered the bystanders to run out with haste to the river, which he the bystanders to run out with haste to the river, which he declared was in that hour besprinkled with human blood; declared was in that hour besprinkled with human blood; and straightway word was brought that the bodies of the and straightway word was brought that the bodies of the soldiers mentioned above had been brought to land by the soldiers mentioned above had been brought to land by the current of the river.” (Eugippius, Vita Sancti Severini)current of the river.” (Eugippius, Vita Sancti Severini)

The 6The 6thth century Army century Army

When army in east reappeared in our When army in east reappeared in our sources it was the Byzantine Armysources it was the Byzantine Army

Basic 4Basic 4thth century army still century army still recognizable: recognizable: limitaneilimitanei on frontiers; on frontiers; comitatensescomitatenses in field army; in field army; scholae, scholae, protectores, foederatiprotectores, foederati still existed still existed

Changes: tactical functions: Changes: tactical functions: scholae scholae and and protectoresprotectores had become show- had become show-case troopscase troops

foederatifoederati had become regular troops had become regular troops

Justinian and the 6Justinian and the 6thth century century ArmyArmy

Justinian’s changes: created more Justinian’s changes: created more magistri magistri militummilitum

Divided command of Divided command of magister militum per magister militum per OrientemOrientem by splitting off some territory under a by splitting off some territory under a magister militum per Armenian.magister militum per Armenian.

Magister militum per AfricamMagister militum per Africam had also jurisdiction had also jurisdiction over Sardinia and Corsica.over Sardinia and Corsica.

Eventually replaced by a new office” Eventually replaced by a new office” exarchexarch Powerful position, embodying civil and military Powerful position, embodying civil and military

functions, with civil subordinated to the militaryfunctions, with civil subordinated to the military Not a special rank, by late 6Not a special rank, by late 6thth century century exarchs exarchs of of

Italy and Africa were equivalent of kings Italy and Africa were equivalent of kings attending to civil, military, judicial and religious attending to civil, military, judicial and religious matters, answered only to the Emperor.matters, answered only to the Emperor.

Justinian and the 6Justinian and the 6thth century century ArmyArmy

Able to keep up strength of armyAble to keep up strength of armyRecruitment for frontier and field Recruitment for frontier and field

armies local and voluntaryarmies local and voluntaryProportions of Romans to Barbarians Proportions of Romans to Barbarians

in regular army higher than in in regular army higher than in previous periods previous periods