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The Views of Populists: What Trump Voters’ Perspectives and Perceptions of Trump Voters Tell Us About U.S. Democracy Katherine Cramer Faculty Director of the Morgridge Center for Public Service, and Professor of Political Science, University of Wisconsin-Madison [email protected] Prepared for the Conference on Identity and Inequality, Princeton University, October 2017. Earlier portions and versions of this paper were presented to the DFG/SSRC Anxieties of Democracy Workshop on Political Inequality and Democratic Innovations, Villa Vigoni, Italy, March 2017; the Midwestern Political Science Association Annual Meetings, Chicago, April 2017; and the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco, August 2017. My sincere gratitude to the people who granted me access to their conversations and emails for this study. Thank you also to funding from the UW-Madison Baldwin Wisconsin Idea Endowment Grant, the Leon Epstein Faculty Fellowship, and the Kellett Mid-Career Faculty Researcher Award. Thank you to Emma Frankham for research assistance and feedback, and to the participants in the Anxieties of Democracy Workshop, MPSA conference, and Larry Bartels for feedback on previous versions. Abstract: What does the current populist moment tell us about contemporary democracy? In particular, what does it tell us about civic identity? I look in close at the views that people have of the civic competency of their political opponents, in order to consider the potential for democratic innovation in the service of including greater voice in governance for a wide range of people. I draw on a decade of observations of conversations of people who eventually supported Trump in the 2016 presidential election in communities across Wisconsin, as well as analysis of correspondence from people reacting to their views. My findings speak to the nature of contemporary American democratic identity, and suggest a significant barrier to improving the health of democracy is an inconsistent emphasis on individual agency as a target of blame. Observing the construction of identity through these conversations and emails illuminates the way racial and civic identities are intertwined in definitions of “the people.”

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Page 1: The Views of Populists: What Trump Voters’ Perspectives and · 2017-10-17 · campaign and aftermath of the 2016 presidential election. The emails I analyze have written to me about

TheViewsofPopulists:WhatTrumpVoters’Perspectivesand

PerceptionsofTrumpVotersTellUsAboutU.S.Democracy

KatherineCramer

FacultyDirectoroftheMorgridgeCenterforPublicService,andProfessorofPoliticalScience,

[email protected]

PreparedfortheConferenceonIdentityandInequality,PrincetonUniversity,October2017.EarlierportionsandversionsofthispaperwerepresentedtotheDFG/SSRCAnxietiesofDemocracyWorkshoponPoliticalInequalityandDemocraticInnovations,VillaVigoni,Italy,March2017;theMidwesternPoliticalScienceAssociationAnnualMeetings,Chicago,April2017;andtheAnnualMeetingoftheAmericanPoliticalScienceAssociation,SanFrancisco,August2017.Mysinceregratitudetothepeoplewhograntedmeaccesstotheirconversationsandemailsforthisstudy.ThankyoualsotofundingfromtheUW-MadisonBaldwinWisconsinIdeaEndowmentGrant,theLeonEpsteinFacultyFellowship,andtheKellettMid-CareerFacultyResearcherAward.ThankyoutoEmmaFrankhamforresearchassistanceandfeedback,andtotheparticipantsintheAnxietiesofDemocracyWorkshop,MPSAconference,andLarryBartelsforfeedbackonpreviousversions.Abstract:Whatdoesthecurrentpopulistmomenttellusaboutcontemporarydemocracy?Inparticular,whatdoesittellusaboutcivicidentity?Ilookincloseattheviewsthatpeoplehaveoftheciviccompetencyoftheirpoliticalopponents,inordertoconsiderthepotentialfordemocraticinnovationintheserviceofincludinggreatervoiceingovernanceforawiderangeofpeople.IdrawonadecadeofobservationsofconversationsofpeoplewhoeventuallysupportedTrumpinthe2016presidentialelectionincommunitiesacrossWisconsin,aswellasanalysisofcorrespondencefrompeoplereactingtotheirviews.MyfindingsspeaktothenatureofcontemporaryAmericandemocraticidentity,andsuggestasignificantbarriertoimprovingthehealthofdemocracyisaninconsistentemphasisonindividualagencyasatargetofblame.Observingtheconstructionofidentitythroughtheseconversationsandemailsilluminatesthewayracialandcivicidentitiesareintertwinedindefinitionsof“thepeople.”

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1.IntroductionTheelectionofDonaldTrumptothepresidencyin2016madeitclearthattheUnitedStates,andarguablywesternindustrializeddemocracy,isinapopulistmoment(Galston2016).Agreatdealofenergyhasbeenspenttryingtounderstandanddiagnosetheillsamongpeoplewhohavevotedforrecentpopulistcandidates.Itaketheopportunitytoinsteadexamineandperhapsdiagnosewhatiswrongwithdemocracy.Populismisapoliticaldiscoursethatpitsacorruptelite,includingthegovernment,againstapureandvirtuouspeople(Mudde2007;Laclau2005;OliverandRahn2016).Voterswhosupportcandidatesusingsuchrhetoricbuyintothenotionthat“thepeople”(understoodtoincludeparticulartypesofpeople)deservemorepowerthancurrentgovernment(andmediaandeconomic)structuresgivethem.Populistmessagesdonottypicallyassertthatallpeopledeservemorepower,butinherentinpopulistmessagesistheideathatordinarypeopleandtheircommonsenseandlivedexpertisedeservetobeinputsingovernance.ManypeopleintheUnitedStates,notjustthosewhosupportpopulistcandidates,perceivethatgovernmentisoutoftouchandunresponsivetotheirconcerns(OliverandRahn2016,194-196).Whythen,don’tweseeorganizingacrossawiderangeofpeopletoachievegreaterrepresentation?Thispaperinvestigatescivicidentity,definedaspsychologicalattachmentstootherswhompeopleperceivearevalidpoliticalparticipantsintheirdemocracy.Ifocusonhowpeopleperceiveothersintermsoftheirciviccompetenceasawaytoconsidertheprojectof“inclusivepopulism”(McKean2016),orthepossibilityofpeopleacrosscurrentsocialdivisions,especiallyracialdivides,organizingtoachievebetterrepresentationofabroaderarrayofpeopleingovernance.Thesenotionsofciviccompetencearenottypicallycentraltoourconsiderationofpopulistattitudes.Thefocusistypicallyonattitudestowardgovernmentandelites.However,scholarsdoexpectthatmembersofthepublicwhosupportpopulistcandidateshavedistinctiveviewsofdemocracy.Hawkins,Riding,andMudde(2012)inanexaminationofsentimentswithintheAmericanpublicthatunderpinsupportforpopulistcandidatesconceptualizepopulismasfollows:

Specifically,wedefinepopulismasaManichaeanapproachtothepoliticalworldthatequatesthesideofGoodwiththeputative“willofthepeople”andthesideofEvilwithaconspiringelite(Hawkins2010;Mudde2007).Itisthemoralizing,dualisticapproachtoourbeliefinpopularsovereignty,onethatexaltstheopinionofthemajoritywhilecharacterizingoppositionasimmoralandmalevolent.Itstandsinoppositiontotheapproachofpluralism,whichemphasizestheinevitabilityanddesirabilityofdifferencesofopinion.Whereaspluralismcallsforinstitutionsthatenshrineandprotectminority

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rightsinthepursuitofamajoritywill,populismcravesmoralclarityandpositsareifiedpopularwillthattreatsdissentassuspectanddangerous.Whereaspluralismseespoliticalrelationsasessentiallythoseofcooperationorevenharmony,populismseesaworldthatisnaturallyantagonistic.(3)

Althoughexaminationsofpopulistsentimenttypicallyfocusonconceptionsofelitesandthegovernment,1thereisaconsensusthatpopulistsentimentsentailaperspectiveontheroleofordinarypeopleindemocracy.Peoplewhosupportpopulistcandidatesappeartoperceivethatvirtueiswiththepeopleandtheircommonwisdom,ratherthanwithexpertsorelites(OliverandRahn2016,190).Theemphasisisonthegoodnessofrulebymajority,asopposedtotheprotectionofminorityrights(190).Giventhisheavyemphasisontheroleofthepeopleinpopulistthought,howdopopulistsupportersconceiveofthevirtueofthepeople?Whatdotheyexpectofothercitizensastheyexercisetheirvoiceinademocracy?Whatroledotheseexpectationsplayaspeopleconstructtheiridentitieswith“thepeople?”Definitionsof“thepeople”inpopulistrhetoricareinherentlyantagonisticandconstructedinoppositionto“others”(OliverandRahn2016,191).Becauseofthis,andbecausemyinterestisinexaminingthepossibilityoforganizingacrosspopulistgroupswhoperceivealackofrepresentation,Iexaminethewaypeopleperceivetheciviccompetenceoftheirpoliticalopponents.Iamnotpresumingthatitisideasaboutciviccompetencethatarethemainthingthatpreventspeoplefromformingpoliticalcoalitions.Astrongcontenderforthatroleisracismandnativism.Ithaslongbeenadvantageousforthoseinpowerandagainstredistributiontouseracismtopreventcoalitionsbetweenlower-incomewhitesandracialminorities(AlesinaandGlaeser2004;Lipsitz2006;Roediger2007).Recentincreasesinimmigrationhavebeenaccompaniedbyanti-immigrantattitudesthathavedrivenwhitestowardtheRepublicanParty,awayfrompotentialcoalitionwithDemocratic-leaningracialminorities(AbrajanoandHajnal2015).Anti-immigrantsentimentsareplayingakeyroleinpopulistsupportintheUnitedStates,asinothercountries(Milner2017).DonaldTrump’scampaignrhetoricdefined“thepeople”withfrequentreferencetoimmmigrantsasathreat(Lamont,Park,andAyala-Hurtado2017).ThecontemporarycontextofthefirstAfrican-

1Forexample,in(Hawkins,Riding,andMudde2012),theauthorsusethefollowing4itemstotappopulistattitudes:“Politicsisultimatelyastrugglebetweengoodandevil.”“ThepoliticiansinCongressneedtofollowthewillofthepeople.”“Thepowerofafewspecialinterestspreventsourcountryfrommakingprogress.”“Thepeople,notthepoliticians,shouldmakethemostimportantpolicydecisions.”OliverandRahn(2016)measurepopulistattitudesthrougha14-itembatteryofquestionsabout“people’sfeelingstowardthepoliticalprocess,expertsandcommonwisdom,andattachmenttoanAmericanidentity”(196).

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Americanpresidenthasalsogivenrisetoastrongerroleforracisminpoliticalpreferences(Tesler2012,2016;ParkerandBarreto2013).Mypointisnottosetasideracismandanti-immigrantsentiments,buttoexaminehowpeopleintertwinethemwithnotionsofciviccompetencyintheirconstructionsofidentitywith“thepeople.”ItshouldbeagiventhatwhenexaminingpublicopinionintheincreasinglyraciallydiverseUnitedStates,wetakeintoaccounttheracialhierarchythatformsthebackdropofAmericanpolitics(MasuokaandJunn2013,3).AsMasuokaandJunnwrite,

InsteadofasimplebinaryofbeingAmericanornot,belongingexistsonacontinuumthatreflectstheracialhierarchy…Theconstructionandmaintenanceofracialgroupsrelyontheimperativesofpreservingtheprivilegesofhigher-statusgroups.Tokeeptheorderintact,negativecharacteristicsoflower-statusracialgroupsareimputedtoindividualclassifiedbyraceandethnicitytojustifytheirunsuitabilityforfullbelongingintheAmericanpolity.(4)

Asawindowtotheseperceptions,Ifocusmyattentiononunderstandingsamongwhiteworking-classruralresidentswhovotedforDonaldTrumpintheU.S.presidentialelectionof2016,andinturn,understandingsamongleft-leaningresidentswhoarereactingtotheirperspectives.Ifocusmyattentiononwhiteworking-classruralresidentsnotbecausetheyareresponsiblefortheelectionofpopulistcandidateTrump,butbecausetheyareregardedasacorepartofthecontemporaryU.S.populistbase.2ThedataIdrawonaretranscriptsandfieldnotesfromanethnographicpublicopinionstudy,andemailcorrespondencefrommembersofthepublicreactingtotheviewspresentedinthatstudy.TheethnographicworkisastudyIhaveconductedwithruralvotersintheupperMidwesternU.S.stateofWisconsinsince2007(CramerWalsh2012;Cramer2016).Startingin2007,Iinvitedmyselfintotheconversationsofpeoplemeetingregularlyingatheringplacessuchasdiners,gasstationsandcafesin39groupsin27communitiesthatIhadsampledacrossthestatetorepresentarangeofplacesvaryinginpolitical,social,andeconomicindicators.3Ivisitedmostofthesegroupsrepeatedlythroughthepresidential2WeshouldbecautiousinattributingtheelectionofTrumptowhiteworking-classvoters.AsCarnesandLupuhavepointedout(2017),whendefinedbyincome,themajorityofTrumpsupporterswerenotworking-class.TheindicatorofclassmorecommonlyusedbypunditsiseducationanditisthecasethatthemajorityofTrumpvotersdidnothaveacollegedegree.(See,however,Lamont,Park,andAyala-Hurtado(2017)forattentiontoworking-classdefinedasthosewithoutcollegedegrees.)However,CarnesandLupupointout,amongTrumpsupporterswithoutacollegedegree,60%fellintheupper-halfoftheincomescale.PerhapsamoreappropriatewayofdescribingTrump’sbaseiswhitevoters(e.g.Coates2017).3ExtensivedetailsonthemethodsusedforthisworkareavailableinCramer2016.

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electionof2012,andhavereturnedtolistentogroupsmeetinginruralplacesinthecampaignandaftermathofthe2016presidentialelection.TheemailsIanalyzehavewrittentomeaboutthebookandop-edsthatIhavepublishedandpublictalksIhavegivenonthisproject,receivedsincethe2016presidentialelection.Iincludeinthisanalysis163emailsthatcommentedontheportrayalsofruralresidents’views.4ThevastmajorityoftheseemailsarefrompeopleIhavenevermet,whoarenotthemselvessocialscientists.51.2AbriefrecapofruralconsciousnessandresentmentTosetthestage,allowmetorecapbrieflytheperspectivesIhaveencounteredinmyfieldworkthatIhavefocusedoninmypublicationsandspeechesaboutthisstudy.Ihaveconductedthisfieldworkwithpeoplewhomeetwitheachotherregularlyingatheringplacesoftheirchoosing.Thesearenotinterviews,orfocusgroups,andIdonotconvenethesegatherings.Thesearegroupsofpeoplewhoassemblethemselves,andinmostcasesdonotknowuntilIshowupthatIwillbejoiningthemthatday.6Idocomeequippedwithquestionstoposetothegroup,butforthemostpartallowtheparticipantstochoosethedirectionoftheconversation.Aboutoneyearintomyfieldwork(whichstartedin2007),itwasundeniablethatwhatIwashearingintheruralareasandsmallercommunitieswasapervasiveandintenseresentmenttowardthecities.ThiswasnotaperspectiveIexpected,norintendedtostudy.Ihavecalledthisperspectiveruralconsciousness,buildingoffofthegroupconsciousnessliteraturethathashelpedusunderstandwhensocialidentitiesarelikelytobeimportantforpoliticalbehavior(Milleretal.1981).Inshort,thisisanidentityasaruralpersoninfusedwithasenseofdistributeinjustice.Ingeneral,ittooktheformofpeoplefeelingasthoughruralresidentslikethemselveswerenotgettingtheirfairshareofthreemainthings:attention,resources,andrespect.Theyperceivedthattheimportantdecisionsthataffectedtheirlivesweremadeinthemainurbancentersinthestate,andcommunicatedouttothem,withlittlelisteninggoingoninreverse.Theyalsoperceivedthatoneofthesecenters,thestatecapital(Madison),pulledintheirtaxpayerdollars,spentthemonitselforontheotherurbancenter(Milwaukee),andspentlessthanitshouldontheirowncommunities.Finally,theyperceivedthatthepeoplemakingthesedecisionshadlittleexperienceorunderstandingofruralareas,anddidnotrespectthepeoplelivingthere.4Iexcludedemailsthatconsistedofquestionssolelyaboutmyresearchmethodsorwhatliteraturetoconsultforfurtherreading.Iusethecontentoftheemailstocategorizepeopleaspro-oranti-Trump.5Ofthe163writers,Ipersonallyknew23ofthem,and29ofthemself-identifiedasacademics.6TheoneexceptionistheDowntownAthleticClub(Group1)whomIcontactbeforeIvisitbecausetheymeetinawarehouseownedbyoneofthemthatishardtoaccessiftheyarenotexpectingme.

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Animportantpartoftheseperspectivescenteronnotionsofhardworkanddeservingness.Often,whenpeopleareexplainingtomethattheyarenotreceivingtheirfairshareofresources,theyaremakingajudgmentthattheydeservemoreandthatwhattheydeserveisgoingtoundeservingotherssuchaswelfarerecipientswhoareracialminorities,lazypublicemployeeswhositbehinddesksallday,andtheirwhiteneighborsondisability.Intheseconversations,theirdefinitionofdeservingnessareafunctionoftheirperceptionsofwhominthepopulationworkshard.PeoplewhoweremakingsenseofpoliticsthroughtheseviewpointstendedtobeattractedtoDonaldTrumpasapresidentialcandidate.Throughthislens,Trumpvalidatedtheirfrustrationwithpoliticsasusualandtheirsensethattheydeservedmore,andthatwhattheydeservedwasbeingdivertedtoundeservingothers.IprovidethisbackgroundontheperspectivesofmanyofthepeopleIhavemetinmyfieldworktoprovidecontextfortheirviewsoftheciviccompetenceofClintonvoters.Thisanimositytowardcitiesandcitypeople—includingracialandethnicminoritiesandalsowhiteurbanprofessionals—isanimportantperspectivethroughwhichtheyviewedtheClintoncandidacyandthepeoplewhosupportedher.MyfieldworkdoesnotlenditselftoadescriptionofwhatallUnitedStatesresidents,norevenallresidentsofWisconsinites,thinkaboutthecompetenceofothers.Mygoalinsteadistolookcloselyatwhatitlookslikewhenpeopledoubtthecompetenceofotherstotrytounderstandhowtheseperspectivesinfluencesupportfordemocraticinnovation.Althoughmygoalisnottodescribeacross-sectionofattitudes,anoverviewofevidencefromsurveydataisausefulstartingpoint.Inshort,surveystellusthatpeopleintheUnitedStatesthinklittleofthecompetenceofotherpeople,andstrikingly,oftenthinklittleoftheirownabilities,too.Mostpeoplethinkthattheyareinformedtojustanaveragedegree.WhentheGSSin2012asked,“Comparedtomostpeople,howinformedareyouaboutpolitics:notatall,alittle,somewhat,very,orextremely?”theaverageresponsewas“somewhat.”7Unlikethetypicalover-reportingonself-reportsofvotingturnout,itdoesnotappearthatthereisasocialdesirabilitybiastowardthemoreinformedresponse.In1999theIEACivicEducationStudyof14-year-oldsshowedresultsskewingtowards“disagree“inresponsetothestatement,“Iknowmoreaboutpoliticsthanmostpeoplemyage.”8Andinresponsetothestatement,“Iamabletounderstandmostpoliticalissueseasily”morerespondentssaid“Don’tKnow,”“StronglyDisagree”or“Disagree”(N=1588)assaid“Agree”orStronglyagree”(N=1508).

7GeneralSocialSurvey,2012MergedData,ICPSRstudynumber35478.8ICPSRstudynumber03892,“Stronglydisagree”N=517,“Disagree”N=1058,“Agree”N=492,“StronglyAgree”N=172,“Don’tknow”N=456.

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Weknowthattheseperceptionsofpoliticalknowledgeandunderstandingareoftennotaccurate,andthattheyarebiasedagainstpoliticallymarginalizedgroups.Forexample,womenandmenbothperceivethatwomenarelessknowledgeableaboutpolitics(Banwart2007;MendezandOsborn2010).Idrawattentiontotheseperceptions—accurateornot—onthebasisofevidencethatperceptionsareanimportantmediatorbetweenrealityandpoliticalchoicesandbehavior(Bartels2002;Erbring,Goldenberg,andMiller1980;Milleretal.1981).Howweseeeachotherislikelyanimportantfactorinthepoliticalactionswepursue,ornot,withoneanother.Perceptionsofthedemocraticcapacityandpoliticalexpertiseofothersenableorinhibitourwillingnesstoengageincommunicationaboutpoliticswithothers(Huckfeldt2001).Theyquitelikelymatterforhowmuchattentionwegivetoothers’preferences.Wearenotlikelytolistenandtakeseriously(andbepersuadedby)theviewpointsofpeoplewethinkdonothavesufficientpoliticalknowledge(regardlessoftheiractuallevelofexpertise)(Ryan2011).2.EmpiricalEvidenceonPerceptionsoftheCompetenceofOthersIturnnowtoperceptionsamongthegroupsinmyfieldworkthatIhaveobservedsincethe2016election.Myconclusionsinthispaperareinformedbymyworksince2007withthefullsetof39groups,butIwillfocusmyexamplesonconversationsthathaveoccurredin2016and2017.Sincetheelection,Ihavefocusedon6groups,whichconsistmainlyofTrumpsupporterslivinginruralareas.Formoredetailsonthecommunitiesinwhichthesegroupsmeet,pleaseseeAppendixA.Group19 The“DowntownAthleticClub,”whichisagroupofwhiteworking

andretiredmenwhomeetforcoffeeinawarehouseattachedtoonemember’sbusiness,everyweekdaymorning,inalow-incomeagriculturalhamletincentralWisconsin.(Thereferenceto“downtown”isatongue-in-cheekreferencetothefactthatthereisnodowntowninthiscommunity.)IvisitedwiththemtheFridayaftertheNovemberelection,andagaininlateJanuaryafterthepresidentialinauguration.

Group6 Agroupofwhiteworkingandretiredmenwhomeetforcoffeeinagasstationearlyeveryweekdaymorninginalow-incomenorthwesternWisconsinloggingcommunity.IspenttimewiththemtheMondaymorningfollowingtheelection,andthenagaininearlyJuly.

Group8 Agroupofwhiteworkingandretiredmenandwomenwhomeetinagasstationinasmalltowninsouth-westernWisconsin.IspenttimewiththeminlateJune.

9IamusingthegroupnumberreferencesIusedinCramer2016(p.231-233).

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Group9 Agroupofwhiteretiredandworkingmenandwomenwhomeetinadinerinssmalltouristtowninnorth-centralWisconsin.Ispenttimewiththeminmid-June.

Group11b Agroupofwhitemiddle-agedworkingandretiredmenwhomeettoplaydiceanddrinkcoffeeeverymorninginthesametownasthegroupofwomenjustbelow.Ispenttimewiththeminmid-July.

Group11c Agroupofwhitemiddle-agedandseniorwomenwhomeetforlunchonceaweekonthemainstreetofatowninoneofthepoorestcountiesincentral-westWisconsin.IspenttimewiththeminearlyJanuary,beforetheinauguration,andinmid-July.

Perhapsthemoststrikingthingabouttheperceptionsoftheciviccompetenceofthepeopleamongtheseso-calledpopulistvotersisjusthowseldomsuchatopiccomesup.Overthepastdecade,thesegroupshaveexpressedinvariouswaysthattheirviewsandconcernsarenotgivenadequaterespectorattention,buttheydonotarticulateadesiretobemoreinvolvedinpoliticsthemselves,orthatpeopleingeneralshouldbe.Thiswillnotsurprisestudentsofpopulism,sincescholarshiponpopulismrecognizesthatpopulistappealsplaytothedesireforgreaterrepresentation,buttypicallythroughmeanssuchasdirectdemocracy,ratherthanthroughparticipatoryordeliberativedemocracy(e.g.MuddeandKaltwasser2017).Thefocusoftheirresentmentisnotthelackofparticipationofordinarypeople,butonthenatureofgovernment.Whentheydiagnoseproblemswithdemocracy,thebehaviortheycriticizeistypicallythatofgovernmentornewsmediaactors.Thereforeatthesametimethatpopulistrhetoricpositsvirtueresideswiththepeople,thepeopleIhaveencounteredwhosupportedDonaldTrumpin2016havenotspentmuchifanytimetalkingaboutthosevirtuesastheabilitytoparticipateindemocracy.2.1Citypeoplearebeingfooledandcan’treasonNevertheless,theaftermathofthe2016presidentialelectionhasaffordedachancetohearwhattheytelleachotheraboutthecompetenceoftheirpoliticalopponents.OneofthemoststrikingperceptionsIhaveencounteredistheperceptionthatpeopleontheleftaremakinguninformedorfoolishdecisions.Isaythatthisisstriking,becausewell-educatedpeopleontheleftcommonlyclaimthatworking-classpeoplewhovoteinfavorofsmallergovernmentarebeingfooled,distracted,orareuninformed,butthevotersontherightthatIhavespenttimewithreciprocatewithquitesimilarcomplaints.Theyhavehadplentytosayabouthowpeopleinthecities(oratleastthosewhovotedforClinton)aretheoneswhoarebeingfooled,whoarenotsmart,andarenotreasoningthroughinformationcarefully.AttheendofJanuary,themenintheDowntownAthleticClublamentedthatpeoplearenotreasoningthroughtheirchoices,butinsteadarejustvotingthepartyline(Group1).

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Ben10:IguesswhatbothersmeisIonlyknowabout4or5Democrats,but

I'mjustsurprisedhow,Republicansareprobablythesameway,howtheycanseethecountrygoingtohellandstillvote.Oneguytoldme,ifHitlerranforpresident,ifhewasaDemocratthey'dvoteforhim.Hedoesn'tcarehowthecountryisgoing,he'dstillvoteforanotherDemocrat.

KJC:[Restatingtoclarify]He'sjustgoingtovotefortheparty.Ben:Justgoingtovotefortheparty.Tome,that'stheruinofthenation.Fred:OhIsaidthatabout15-20yearsago.Isaidthey'vegottothrowthe

Democrats,Republicans,andeverybody'sjustgottobeanindividualrunningtodowhat'sbestforthecountry,notwhat'sbestfortheirparty.

Thisperceptionthatcitydwellersarelessintelligentweretypicallyaimedatwhiteelites.Takeforexample,thissarcasticremark(madeattheendofJanuary)againstReincePriebus,formerchairoftheRepublicanNationalCommittee,andwhomTrumpchosetobehischiefofstaffshortlyafterwinningtheelection.

Lou: He'stheguywhoalsohelpedengineerTrump'scampaign.He'sa

sharpguy.Hereallyis.I'msurprisedhecamefromsouthernWisconsin,he'sasharpguy[thegrouplaughshard--he’smakingajokeaboutthelackofintelligencecomingfromthemoreurbanpartofWisconsin.]

Acrosstheyearsofmyfieldwork,Iregularlyencounteredpeoplewhotoldmethaturbanitesmaybe“well-educated”buthavelittlecommonsenseandcannotactuallymakereasonabledecisions.Forexample,onemaninagroupofmenmeetingeverymorninginthetownhallofanortherntouristtowntoldmeinJune2008thatresearchersfromtheuniversityinMadisontendedtolookdownonlocalslikehimself.“Theydon’twantanythingtodowithya.Theythinkthey’resmarterthanya.Gotthatbooklearning.Peoplegotocollegetheycomeoutdumberthantheywentin.Theygotthebooksthere,thosebooks,it’snotliketheexperience”(seealsoCramer2016,ch.5).Aroundtheelectionsof2008,2012,aswellas2016,IregularlyheardthatpeoplevotedforBarackObamaandthenHillaryClintonbecausetheywereillogicallyvotingonthebasisofidentitypolitics.Theperceptionwasthatthesevoterswerecastingtheirballotsforthesecandidates“justbecause”ObamawasBlackandClintonwasawoman.10Allnamesinthequoteddiscussionsarepseudonyms.Iuse“KJC”torefertomyself.

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Onpolicyissues,theseTrumpsupportersarguedthatClintonsupportershavetheirbasicfactswrong.Theirallegationswerethatpeopleontheoppositesideofthepoliticalspectrumwerepayingattentiontobiasednewssources,orwerebeingfooledbytheDemocrats.Here’soneexamplefromtheDowntownAthleticClubattheendofJanuary(Group1).

Lou: WhentheDemocratstellyouthatObamacareisreallygoodfor20

millionpeople,figuretheodds.There's300millionpeopleinAmerica.20millionismaybe6%.Maybehalfofthemgettheirpremiumsubsidized,maybetheydon't,buttheirdeductibleissohighthattheycan'tuseitanyway.Youknow,it's4000-5000[dollars].Thatmightbelow.Theycan'tuseit.It'safallacythatthat'shelpingpeople.

Inthemonthssincetheelection,IhavebluntlyaskedpeoplehowtheyrespondtotheclaimthatpeoplewhovotedforTrumpmadeanignorantdecision.Tothegroupofwomenmeetingforlunch(Group11c),Iasked(inearlyJanuary),

KJC: Howdoyourespond?Whatdoyousaybacktothat,tosomeonesayingtoyou,like,"HowcantheynotknowthatvotingforTrumpisvotingagainsttheirinterests…”

Carrie:Well,viewingwhatourviewpointofHillaryorIshouldsaymy

viewpointofHillaryandwhatshehasdoneandmyviewpointofTrump,whathehasdone.Ifwedoprosandcons,Trumpwins.Imean,that'sallyoucando.

Lucille:Weneedchange.Carrie:Weneedchange.Lucille:Wereallyneedthechange.Ithinkalotofpeoplewerereallyhoping

forthat…Ican'tbelievepeoplevotedforhim[Obama]thesecondterm.

Gladys:Well,IthinkifOprahwouldhavekepthermouthshut,heprobably

wouldn'thave.[….]Carrie:Well,peoplevotedforObamabecausehe'sBlack.Gladys:Oh,yeah.Oh,“I'mdoingtherightthing.”Carrie:Yeah,justlikewhitepeoplevotedforHillarybecauseshe'sgoingtobe

thefirstwoman.That'snotthereasontovoteforHillary.Ifyou'revotingforherbecauseyoubelieveinwhathergoalsareandachievements,thenfine.Don'tvoteforsomebodyjustbecause.

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Thesevotersperceivethatwhatevergovernmentisdoing,itisnotbenefitingpeoplelikethem,andtheythereforefoundtheTrumpmessageofaneedfordrasticchangeappealing.TheyhaveahardtimeunderstandingwhypeoplevotedforObama,especiallyforasecondterm,becausetheyperceivedhisfirsttermbroughtlittlechangeinpoliticsasusual.Theythinktheneedforchangeissignificantandisnotoutweighedbyreasonssuchasadesiretoelectthefirstfemalepresident.Noticehowpartisanship,groupidentities,andperceptionofciviccompetencearealignedintheseconversations.Myclaimhereisnotaboutcausality,orwhichofthesecharacteristicsdrivetheothers.Instead,mygoalistoilluminatehowpeopleareconstructingtheirnotionsofwhoarelegitimatemembersofthevirtuous“people”byquestioningtheutilityofcategorizations(Blacks,women)thatarenottypicallyincludedasthetraditionalmainstream.2.2ClintonvotersarehypocriticalPartofthesevoters’criticismofpeoplewhovotedforClintonwasthattheyperceivedthatchoicetobehypocritical.Thishasbeenespeciallyapparentinconversationsaboutsexism.WhenIaskedtheDowntownAthleticClubaboutTrump’smisogynisticcommentsintheAccessHollywoodvideotapethatcametolightduringthepresidentialcampaign,11theyretortedthatTrump’sbehaviorwasnotsignificantlydifferentthanBillClinton’s.

Fred: IgetakickoutofKen,ourstaunchDemocrat.WhenTrumpgetintherehesays,“Oh!Ican'twaituntiltheinaugurationwhenthatstripperwalksdowntheaisleattheinauguration!”I'mlike,really?That'sanydifferentthanthepresidenthavingsexintheWhiteHousewithsomebody?[pause]That'sbetter?That'sokay?That'sokayforthattohappen?Whatthehellareyouthinking?Whywouldyoueven[shakeshishead]?That'swhatblowsmymindonsomeofthesepeople.It'sokayaslongasit'sforKenandtheDemocratsandwhatever,nowit'sokay,butGodforbidsomethingelsehappensontheotherside.

IheardnearlyidenticalcommentsfromthegroupofwomenmeetinginthecentralWisconsintown(inJanuary).

Carrie:Ihaveaquestionforyou,tobepersonal.WereyouforTrump,orwereyouforHillary?

KJC: IvotedforHillarytobehonest.Carrie:Why?

11http://www.nbcnews.com/video/trump-on-video-making-lewd-remarks-about-women-781496387850

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KJC: BecauseHillary,Ihavetosay[pause]Ididwatchthevideotapethat

wasreleasedwithTrumpbraggingaboutgrabbingthiswoman.AndIreally[pause]Icouldn'tgetpastthat.Ihaveanine-year-olddaughter,and…

Gladys:ButLookatSlickWillie12[…]13Carrie:Hischoiceofwordswereunappropriate.Butwe'reallhuman.Even

girlsgooutandgetdrunkandhaveagoodtimeandsaythingsmaybeweshouldn'tsayinpublic.

Gertie:BillClinton,lookathim.Carrie:Theydidn'tknowthattheywerebeingtaped.Again,somethingthat

happenedin2003isgoingtocomeoutnow?YetlookatallthestuffHillary'sdone.That'sjustgoesunderneaththecarpet,whichisalotmoreharmfulthanwhatTrumpeversaid,notthatitwasn'tappropriate.

TomanyClintonvoters,votingforapersonwhoopenlybraggedaboutsexuallyassaultingwomenisunconscionable.ButtotheseTrumpsupporters,thatstanceisaself-righteousdenialofthatDemocraticcandidateshavebehavedinappropriately,too.2.3PeopleontheleftarenottolerantLeft-leaningvotersandpunditscommonlycriticizethosevotingagainstbiggovernment,thosevoting“againsttheirinterests,”asnotbeingsufficientlyopentoopposingpointsofview.14MembersoftheconservativegroupsIspenttimewithexpressedasimilarviewofpeoplevotingforDemocrats.SeveralmenintheDowntownAthleticClubputitthisway,attheendofJanuary(Group1):

Fred: Yeahhe'dbe...Yeahthat'sthethingwe'venoticed,ifyougetaRepublicanandaDemocrattalking,justtalkingaboutit,theDemocratseemsliketheyjustgoballisticoverthetop.Doesn'tmatterwhatyousay,you'rejusttotallywrong.Won'tevenallowyoutolisten.Won'tevenallowhimselftolistentowhatyouhavetosay.

12ThisisanicknameforformerDemocraticpresidentBillClinton.13Iusethissymboltodenotedialogueomittedforthesakeofbrevity.14Surveysofvoting-ageU.S.residentsshowthisperceptionsamongleft-leaningvoters(http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-polarized-voters-20160622-snap-story.html)(Parton2016).

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Lou: You'llhaveahardtimeinthiscountrygettingthingstogether.TheDemocrats,theysayIshouldbetolerantbutthey'renottolerantofanything.IfIdon'tagreewiththem,they'renottolerant.

Similarly,thewomeninthelunchgroupincentralwestWisconsintalkedabouttheimpossibilityofdiscussingpoliticswithpeoplewhoopposedTrump(Group11c.January).

Gertie:Youdidn'ttalkaboutObamaoranyofthem.Trumptothem,Imean

hewasadirtyword.Gladys:ThisiswhyIdon'tdiscusspoliticsbecauseI'mnotgoingtoget

scoldedforhowIthink.“WhodoyouthinkyouaretellingmethatI'mwrongandyou'reright?”

Gertie:Ididn'ttalktothem.Ijustlistenedtothem.IfIsaidIwasforTrump,

oh...Ijustlistenedtothem.Ididn'tdiscussitwiththem.Samewaywithfamily,I'msure.

Lucille:Ijustsaid,"Mm-hmm,ah,oh.Isn'titscaryoutthere?"andthingslike

that.

Thesevotersdonotperceivemuchtolerancefortheirviews.Thisisareminderthatimprovingthecivilityofdiscourse,oreventheexistenceofdiscourse,acrosspoliticaldividesisdifficultinthecontemporaryeraofcontentiousness(Wellsetal.2017).WhileTrumpvotersareoftenaccusedofintolerancetowardmanysocialgroups,theseTrumpvotersperceivethatthoselodgingsuchcomplaintshavelittletolerancethemselves.2.4DemocratsjustvoteforhandoutsAcommoncritiqueoflow-incomepeoplevotingforRepublicancandidatesisthattheyarevotingagainsttheirinterests,butthelow-incomepeopleIhavespenttimewithwhosupportTrumplikewiseperceivefaultymotivationsamongthepeoplevotingforDemocrats.OneoftheirmostcommoncomplaintsalongtheselineshasbeenthatpeoplearevotingforDemocratsbecausetheywanttocontinuereceiving“handouts,”orsupportfromgovernmentprograms.Forexample,whilemeetingwiththeDowntownAthleticClub(Group1)threedaysaftertheelection,Iaskedaboutthemembers’faithintheirfellowcitizens.Lou’sinitialresponsewaspositivebutthenJoelamentedthatpeoplevoteforDemocratsbecausetheyarereluctantto“bitethehandthatfeedsthem.”ThenKen,thetokenDemocratthatday,jumpsintosaythatfarmerswhovoteRepublican—andreceivefarmsubsidies—areguiltyofthesamething.

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KJC:Howdoyoufeelaboutotherpeopleinthecountry,meaning,whenyouthinkaboutthefutureofdemocracydoyouhavefaithinotherpeopleinthecountrybeingabletomakegooddecisions?

Lou:Yah,youhavetointhiscountry.John:Yeah,Ithinkthey'llbeforcedtomakegooddecisions.Otherwise,the

wholerepublicwillcrumble.Joe: Ithinkthevoterbaseismessedupnow.Itwon'tgetstraightenedout

until,there'stoomanypeopleonthegovernmentteamnow,whichhasscrewedupthevoterbase.Theyexpectalltheworkingpeopletopayforallthesepeoplethatdon'twork,andthat'sbasicallytheDemocraticvoterbase,isallthesegiveawayprograms,andalltheseaidprograms.It'sbetteroff,likeFredsaid,probablyifhehadthrowninthetowelhewouldhavebeenbetteroffonwelfare!Wellthat’s,“Don'tbitethehandthatfeedsyou.”Ithinkthat'stheproblem,mostly,isthevoterbaseissoscrewedupwiththegive-awayprogramsbecausethere'ssomanyofthem,andthat'swhyit'shardforconservativeslikemostofusheretobreakthroughbecausethey're,allthedevilsarevotingDemocraticbecausetheydon'twanttobitethehandthat'sfeedingthem.

KJC: Yeah.[notsaidasaquestion,butinatonethatIamlistening]Ken: [Disagreeing.]Thisisabigfarmingarea.Youeverhearoffarm

subsidies?[He’sperceivingthatIamagreeingwiththesefolks—sohereheispartlyarguingwithme,asmuchasheisarguingwiththeothersintheroom.]That'sagiveawayprogram.ThebiggestoneintheUnitedStateshistory,andwegotalotofconservativesareall,"Oh,we'regoingtovoteRepublican."They'revotingforthehandthatfeedsthembecausetheylookinthemailboxandtheygo,"Oh,lookatthemchecks."

Joe: Ken,noteveryonetakesthose.Ken: Youcangoonthewebsite,andIcouldreadyouofffortyofthemfrom

aroundherethathavetakenthem.So,I'mjusttellingyou.That'sabiggiveaway.Whentheytalkaboutgiveawayprograms,that'sahellofabiggiveawayinthisarea.

Joe: Thedifferencebetweenthatgiveawayandthatprogramisthatthose

peopleareworking.Ken: TheydonotpaytheirfairshareintaxesbecauseIpaythreeandahalf

times.IhavepropertyinnorthernWisconsin.Ipaythreeandahalf

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timesmorethananyfarmerpaysonahundredandsixtyacresaroundhere,andmineisinamanagedforestprogram.Istillpaythreeandahalftimesmore.That'snotright.

Whenyou'reinabigruralareawhereyouhaveallthis,andthey're

notpaying--justsayin.’We'rekindofdepressedinthatarea.Lookingformoney.Everymunicipalityislookingformoney.Aidshavebeencuttotheschools,andwe'vegotalltheseso-calledconservatives,butthey'reworriedabouttheirownpocketbook,justlikethey'rebellyachingandcryingabouttheDemocratswaitingfortheirhandouts.

Itkindofgoesbothways.Didn'tmeantostartanargument,butthat's

afact.Andyoucangoonawebsiteandanycountyinthestateandseewherethatmoneygoes.

Lou: LikeIsaid,thosesubsidies,thepeoplethataregettingthemare

working.They'reworking.Ken: It'sahandout.It'sahandoutyoushouldnotget.Nobodygivesto

nobodyelse.

Lateronintheconversation,Bengoesbacktothethemeofpeoplevotingbecauseofhandoutsandurbanpeoplecastingignorantvotes.Heasksmetoexplainhowcanitbethatcitypeopleseethingssodifferently.

Ben: Okay,everybodythat'ssittinginhere,noteverybody,wedependonthegovernment.There'sfourteachersinhere,andIworkforanoperatingengineersallofmylife.SohalfofourworkcamefromtheDepartmentofTransportation,federalmoney.Imeanweall,well,Idon'tliketosayall,butmostofusdependedontaxdollars,helpfromthegovernmenttokeepthecountrygoing.Andthen,weseeitthisway,andthenthecitiesseeittheotherway,sowhatarewemissingthere?

Jake: That'satrickledown,too,becauseheemployedpeopleintown,which

inturnbuystufffromthestores.Ben: Well,hellyeah.It'sallatrickledown.John: Everythingiskindofatrickledown,butImeanmoredirectthan...Jake: Yeah,Iunderstandthat.Ben: Farmersgetsubsidies.Youworkforafarmer.Everybodydependson

itsowhyistheattitudedifferent?Sometimesomebody'sgottotellmethat.I'msurprisedyoucan'ttellmethat.Whythedifferencein

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MilwaukeeandMadisonandthecities,aredifferentthanruralAmericabecausewe'reallruralAmerica.Hell,yeah,wedependonthegovernmentsomewheretokeepusrolling.

John: Ifeverythingwasgovernment.Joe: Isn'tthatsomeoftheproblem,though,thatthegovernmentthinks

theyhavetorunyourlifesomuchthatyou'vegottodependonthem?John: Abigportionofitisthesizeofgovernmentagain.Lou: Ithinkinthecitiestheyhavealotofsocialprogramsthattheyhelp.

Yeah,theyhavealotofsocialprogramsdownthere.Alotofminorities,andthat'stocostthemalotofmoney.Youcan'tsaytheydoalotinroadsbecausewhenyougotoMadisontheirstreetsareallterrible.Theydon'ttakecareofthembecausetheydon'thaveanymoney,Iimagine,todothat.They'vegotalotofotherpeoplethey'vegottotakecareof.

[…]John:Thefarmers,it'sfeastorfamine.KJC: I'mtryingtothinkofagoodanswerforyou.Imeanit'sagreat

question.IaskbecauseIwassayingearliertotheseguysIhavealotofpeoplecallingmeandaskingme,"HowcanitbethatpeopleinruralWisconsinvotedforTrump?"YouknowwhatImean?Yourquestionisexactlytheflipside.“What'sthedealwiththecitypeople,andtheDemocraticPartyissoappealing?”Greatquestion.

Lou: Handouts.Handouts.Theygettheir...John: IjustthinkingeneralnowIdon'tknowthemagnitudeofthecountry

thesizeofthecountry,butthegovernmentisjustgrowingatsucharapidpacethatisitreallynecessarytohave,Iguessbacktosomebodysaidhere,isitnecessarytohavethathugebodyofpeopleworking,andImeanwiththeirhandinthepotingovernmentgrabbingabigsalary,oragoodsalary?Doweneedallthosepeopleonthedole,onthepayroll?

Somehowmaybetheycanshrinkthesizeofthegovernment.Maybe

theycan't.Maybewe'rejustgrowingtoofastthatthere'snowaytoshrinkit.

Lateronintheconversation,Benbringsupthequestionagainofhowcouldcitypeoplegetitsowrong:

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Ben: Myquestionis,whatwastheconcernofyouryoungstudents?KJC: Avarietyofthings.Oneisthere'salotoffearamongmystudents

aboutTrump,howhe'sgoingtotreatpeopleingeneral.Immigrants,Muslims,gaystudents,youknow,students,Imean,Madisonisaplacewhere,that'skindofallonthesurface,youknowwhatImean?

Ben: It'salmostultraliberal,too,youknow.That'spartoftheproblem.You

cangodowntoMadison,andthemthreepeoplethatyoujusttalkedabout,wetalkaboutthem.Weputtheshoeonwhereitfits.

Ronny:Incollege,theyhavetheirviewaboutall,whenthey'retwenty-five

andtwenty-sixandthey'reoutworking,they'llbeswitchingbecausethey'llfindoutaboutthesethings.

Ben: They'llhavetoberesponsiblebecauseyouknowwhereruralAmerica

wantstheimmigrants?Youknowwhere?Where?BACK!Outofhere.Tomorrow.[sayingthiswithalotofintensity]That'sthewaywefeelaboutit.Freebiesandtheycameinhere,andthey'refreebies,andwedon'tneedanymorefreebies.

KJC: Ithinkthat'spartofwhatscaressomeofmystudents.Ben: Ithinkthatverywellcouldbe.They'retooinvolvedinthatdo-gooder

stuff.Ithinktheygetthatfromthecolleges.Wantedfreetuition,whichcanneverhappen.Ithinkthatjustgrabbedthemall.

Benwasnottheonlyoneinthisgroupconcernedthatyoungpeopleinthecitiesweremakingbadpoliticaldecisions.

Ronny:Ithoughtit[theelection]gotsostupidIwasactuallygoingtovoteforLadyGaga.

Joe: Ohno,Ronny,don'tadmitthat.John: No,Iwasjust,whyIaskedthatisIseetheriotsinallthecities.Ronny:They'remostlyyoungpeople,too.John: Theyareyoung.Ithinkthey'reundertwenty-five,mostofthem.

Obviously,there'sareasonwhythey'redoingthat.TheyhavethisgreatdistrustinTrump.Iunderstandthat,butthey'resupposedlyeducatedkids.WhatI'msayingbythatistheyhavetounderstandthatsomeofthisstuffjustcan'tcomeabout.ItISachoretotrytosortthroughit.[Heisrecognizingthatunderstandingtheissuescanbedifficult.]

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Lou: He[Trump]can'tdothatstuffallbyhimself[suchasstartingnuclear

war].Hecan'tdothat.Themenmeetingintheloggingtown200milesnorthwestacrossthestate(Group6,November)similarlycomplainedabouthandouts.TheydidnotstateexplicitlythathandoutsweredrivingvotesforDemocratsbutIwasstruckbythewaythecomplaintsabouthandoutscameupinthecontextoftalkaboutthedifferentwayoflifeinthecities.

KJC: TellmeaboutyourfaithinyourfellowAmericans.Bo: IgotfaithinthepeopleIhangwithbecauseItrustthemandthey're,I

considerthemfriends.DoIhavefaithinalotofotherfolks?No.Mitch:I'matransplantandIcomeuphereforareason.KJC: They'reprettynicetoyouthough.Mitch:Ohyeah,theybeatmeupfrequentlytoo[laughing],butIcomeuphere

forareason.Becauseofthepeople.He'sagoodperson,he'sagoodperson,he'sagoodperson[noddinghisheadatdifferentpeoplearoundthetable].Thefellowshipisfantastic.Youcancountonyourfellowpersonhere.Youreallycan.Downbymeit'sdogeatdog.Istheresomepeopleyoucantrust?Yeah,butit'snotthesame.

[...]Jerry:Whydoyouthink[afriendoftheirs]istryingtogetupheresobad.Mitch:What'shedoing?SamethingI'mdoing.I'mrunningfromit.Jerry:Hewantstogetawayfromthat.Mitch:Youbet.I'mrunningfromit.Iwouldlovetohavemyfamilyuphere

withme.Theydon't...Istartedcominguphere37yearsago.AndwhenIgetmytime,Icome.NowIprobablyspend5monthsayearhere.

Ayoungerman,perhapsinhis30s,startstalkingabouthislifeandhisex-wife.

Noah:No,myback'sgettingtiredcarrying3or4peoplearoundallthetime.Iwishtheycouldchipin.

Ron:Yeahtheygetondisabilityandlikeyousay...Mitch:Itdoesn'tmatterifyou'reaDemocratoraRepublican.

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Ron:Onceyougetit,it'sgood.Theythrowthestuffatyou—moneyatyou…OK,we'realldancing![laughs]

Noah:Myex-wife--Complain,complain,complain.Causeshecan'tfinda

mantotakecareofher.Soshe'sonadisabilitynow?Sothat'showshegothercheck?Butshe'sfine!Justfine!

Bo: What'swrongwiththesedoctors--Noah: Peoplearejustgivingitout--Bo: That'sright.What'swrongwiththesedoctorsapprovingtheseso-

calleddisabilities?Theygivethemoutlikethey'reaspirin.Noah:Justgiveitawaybecauseofthat.Theygiveawaybillionsofdollars...Mitch:Absolutely.

TheDowntownAthleticClub(Group1)includesatleastonepersonwhopointsoutthatawiderangeofpeoplereceive“handouts,”includingevenpeoplewithintheircoffeeklatch.Eventhen,however,someofthemaresimplybewilderedthatwell-educatedpeoplewouldvoteforcandidatesfromthepartymorelikelytosupportsuchgovernmentprograms.ItisstrikingtomejusthowsimilarthatviewistotheastonishmentIencounterinurbansettingswhenpeopleaskmehowcanitbethatpeoplevotedforTrump.IntheothergroupsofTrumpsupportersIspenttimewithinotherpartsofthestate,thereisastridentbeliefthathandoutsareamajorproblem,andareatthecoreofmanyofourpublicissues.ManyontheleftcriticizeTrumpvotersforfailingtoseethattheycouldbenefitfromtheverygovernmentprogramstheyarevotingagainst.ButlisteningtotheseTrumpvotersrevealsaseriousconcernthatthoseusingandsupportingthegovernmentprogramsarethemselvesdeluded.Whenpeopletalkabouthandoutsand“giveaways”theimplicationisthatthepeoplewhoreceivethemarenotdeservingofthissupport.Theyareoftentalkingaboutwhiterecipientsoftheseprograms,butracialconsiderationsenterinthroughnotionsofdeservingness.Throughoutmyfieldwork,asotherscholarshavenoted,individuals’assessmentsofdeservingnessarelinkedtoideasofwhoworkshard(SossandSchram2007).RacialstereotypesintheUnitedStatesoftenequateindustriousnesswithwhitenessandlazinesswithpeopleofcolor(Winter2008,2006).Whatworkisbeingdonetomaketheseviewsappropriateintheseconversations?Thenotionofindustriousnessandpersonalinitiativeenablespeopletowriteoffentiregroupsofpeopleasnotdeservingofinclusioninaciviccommunity.Sotoo,

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doesblamingthevictims,andderidingtheattemptstoachievegreaterrepresentation(e.g.,“nowtheythinktheyhavegotavoice”).WhenImetwiththeDowntownAthleticClub(Group1),3daysaftertheelection,racismandethnocentrismwereundeniablyapartoftheconversation.

John: Thereasontheeconomyisanissuewithmeisbecauseifyougettheeconomyrollingmanyofthepeoplethatarenotworkingaregoingtobeworking.Consequently,thatshouldtakesomeoftheagonyawayfromthosepeople.Everybodywillbehappier.Theidlenessofitallrightnow,Ithinknojobs,andwhatnot.Ithinkpeoplegetdisgusted.I'mtalkingaboutthosepeopleinMilwaukee,Madison,Racine,Kenosha.I'mnottalkingaboutruralAmericasomuchasI'mtalkingabouttheriots.

Ronny:Iwasn'tgoingtovote,butIwantedasticker.Iwantedasticker.John: ThosearethepeoplethatI'mconcernedwith.Theones--The

Fergusonpeople.Ben: We'vegottogetoursafetyback.Obamaletitjust...We'rebackinthe

sixtieswiththeBlackrelationship.[other:ohyeah]He'sgottogetthatback.I'mnotgoingtoMilwaukee.

Joe: Racerelationsareworsethaneverwithhiminthere.Ben: Madison,though.Allthosecities.We'vegottogetthatsafetyback.It's

allweseearetheshootingandshootings.Barack,hejustlettheBlacks,triedtogivethemsomuch,andnowtheythinkthey'vegotavoice.Thisisgoingtoteartheworld--we’reaminority–that’swhyhe[Trump]wontheelection,wontheelection.

Lateronintheconversation,aswewerewindingdownandIwasgettingreadytoleave,JohnasksmeaquestionaboutcrimeinMadison,andtheconversationturnstoMuslims.

John: Iwouldsay,myquestionforyou--KJC: Yes.John: [Areyou]fromMadison?[Heisdouble-checking.Theyhaveknown

meforyearsandknowIworkinMadison.]KJC: Yes.

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John: Howdothepeople,thecommoncitizens,howdotheyfeelaboutthecriminal–doyouhaveaprobleminMadison—wherepeopleareafraidofthepolice,orafraidofmovingupanddownthestreetatnightoranything?

KJC: I'dsaynotafraidofthepolice.Imeanit'sdifferentifyou'reawhite

person.Ifyou'reaBlackpersonlivinginMadisonIthinkthereissomefearrightnow.

John: Fearforthem?KJC: Fortheirownsafety.John: Orbythem?KJC: Fortheirownsafety.ThenIthinkingeneralthere'sasensethatcrime

ishigherandit'sdoesn'tfeelassafeacity.John:WhatabouttheMuslimcommunity?KJC: They'reprettyscaredatthemoment.Jake: SincethatthingoverthereinLaCrosseorwhereveritwas[referring

toarecentattackinwhichaMuslimstudentattheUniversityofWisconsin-Stoutwasbeatentodeath.]15

KJC: IgotaletterfromaMuslimstudenttheotherdayafterTrumpwon

saying,"I'mafraidformypersonalsafety.WhatdoIdo?"Jake: Isheacitizenorisheherejustforschool?KJC: Yeah,he'sbeenintheU.S.hiswholelife.Iforgetwherehe'sfrom,but

hisfamily'sMuslim.Iwantedtosaytohim,"Youdon'thavetobeafraid.Peoplearestilldecentandnoone'sgoingtohurtyou."

Lou: He'snotarefugee.KJC: He'sAmerican.Lou: Heshouldn'thavetoworry.

15http://www.jsonline.com/story/news/2016/10/31/uw-stout-student-dies-after-assault/93091678/

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Jake: Thatdon'tmakeadifference.Right?"MuslimisMuslim.That'sbad.”[He'sreferringtoothers'perceptions,andcriticizingthecurrentcontextthatismakingthisstudentfeelunsafe.]

John: ThesensethatIgetfromtheMuslimcommunityisthatthevast

majorityofthepeople,thewhitepeople,don'tcareifthey'rehere.It'sjustthat,atleastIsomewhatfeelthisway,thatmygripewiththeMuslimcommunity,isthatIdon'tthinktheygooutoftheirwayenoughtomonitortheirradicals.Imeanyoucannotprotectthem.Ifyouwanttobeinthiscountry,fine,behere,butdon'tprotectthebadeggs,thebadapplesandstuff.You'vegottocomeforthandsay,"Thisperson'sgotsomeawfulradicalideas.We'regoingtohavetodealwiththat."

Jake: Istheirthoughtprocessthesameaswhatwefeel?KJC: Idon'tknow.That'saverygoodquestion.Joe: ThereinKoreaIhadbrothers,oneinHawaiiandoneinJapan.The

oneinJapansetrightontheshoresofJapanlookingatSouthKorea,andhehadtwocoloredbuddies,oneoneachside,whenIgetincombatthey'regoingwithme.Theyweren'tdiscriminatingintheservice.Theyweretreatedlikeeverybodyelse.

John: They'reallbrothersthere.Imean,that'sadifferentstory.That'sa

differentissue.Imeaneverybodylooksout.Joe: Youwanttogohome,you'vegottolookoutforyourbuddy.He'sgot

tolookoutforyouoryoumightnotmakeit.John: They'renotworriedabouttheUnitedStatesatall.They'reworried

about,ifwe'reallinonecluster.We'reworriedaboutthisonesavingitandthatonesavingitandthatcountry'swaytheheckoverthere.

Joe: Iknowtheywouldn'tlieaboutit.Ifaguywasdragginghisfeet,they

didn'tcareifhewaswhite,blackorpurple.Whenitgotdarktheyhadablanketpartyandbeatthesupremehellrightoutofhim,andnobodycoulddonothingbecausenobodyknewwhodidit.

Weseeheresomeseriousproblemsfordemocracy.Intheconversationabove,asintheconversationsreportedearlierthatcriticizearelianceonidentitypoliticswhenmakingpoliticalchoices,thereisafrustrationwithhavingtopayattentiontorace,andalongingforraceblindness.Ratherthanconsideranexpansivedefinitionofthepeople,thereisadesiretorestrictwhichgroupsareacknowledgedwhenconsideringpoliticalissues.Perhapsevenmoreproblematicthantheresistancetorecognitionistheexpectationofdifferentstandardsofbehaviorformembersof

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varioussocialgroups.Forexample,thereisanexpectationthatmembersofmarginalizedgroupsshouldpoliceeachother,butnoindicationofanequivalentexpectationforwhites.Inotherconversations,theyarguethatprotestsaboutpolicebrutalityhappenedbecauseObamaignitedracialunrest.TheyapplaudTrump’seffortstodeportundocumentedimmigrantsbecausetheyperceivetheseresidentsareleechingoffothertaxpayers.

Ben: Thepeoplewe'recomplainingaboutarethepeopleyoujustmentioned[immigrants].It'snotthelandofthefree,it'sthelandofthefreebie.That'sthiscountry.Thepeoplewhoelectedthepresident,theyaretiredofit.That'swhywedon'tgetalongwithMadison,justfortheattitudethatyoujustbroughtupherefromthepeoplethataredownthere.That'snotyou.[Givingmeapassprobablybecausetheyknowme.]Idon'tcareifthat'sthepeoplethatelectedthispresidentbecausewe'retiredofwhatyoujustsaid.Youknow,we'retiredofthefreebie.I'vegotnothingagainstimmigrants,I'vegotnothingagainstthat,butbyGodyoubetterpayyourtaxesandbelegalhere.There's13millionpeopleinthisnationthatjustshouldn'tbehere.Tome,that'sjust--Ican'tevenimaginethat,thataren'tpayingtheirfairshare.

Thereisadesirefordoublestandardshere,whichonemightsayistheessenceofsocialinjustice.Thesefolkscravetolerance,understanding,andrespectfromothers,buttheyarenottryingtoextendthosesamethingstoracialandethnicminorities.Idrawtheseexamplesfromjustonegroup,inonestate,inonecommunity.ItisbynomeansrepresentativeofpeoplewhovotedforTrump,ruralvoters,orevenTrumpvotersinruralWisconsin.Itsmembersarewhitemenstrugglingtomakeendsmeetandtodowhattheybelieveisrightinacomplicatedworld.Throughtheirattemptstomakesenseoftheworld,wecanseehowtheydrawonnotionsofappropriatecivicbehaviorandteachtheirconceptionsof“thepeople”toeachother.Whiteidentityisawidespreadidentity,sharedbyroughlyhalfoftheU.S.voting-agepublic,butitsrelevancetopoliticsisnotalwaysclear(WongandCho2005).Ourexaminationsofpopulismtypicallylookforwaysinwhichtherhetoricofpoliticiansdrawtheselinkages.However,wecannoticeintheseconversationshoweverydayinteractionamongmembersofthepublicdoesthisworkaswell.Ideally,democracyrequiresmembersofthepublictooccasionallyconsiderthelivesandconcernsofothersinordertoactonbehalfofthepublicgood(Arendt1998[1958];Pitkin1981).Racismpreventsthatfromhappening.Theinconsistentapplicationsofcivicstandards–drivenbyracismorotherwise—inhibittheabilityofpeopletoidentifywithoneanotherasjointmembersofaciviccommunity.

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2.5.PerceptionsofprotestDiscrimination,orunequaltreatmentofpeopleonthebasisoftheirsocialgroupmembership,isantitheticaltodemocracy.Intheviewscharacterizedaboveweseepeoplecriticizingotherpeoplewhoreceivebenefitsfromgovernmentsocialprograms.Wehearthatthesolutiontosocialproblemsisnotgovernmentintervention,butinsteadindividualinitiative.Interestingly,thesesameindividualsseemtohaveadifferentviewofindividualinitiativeorindividualagencyintherealmofpoliticalaction.Thisisnotunexpected:InU.S.culture,peopleapplydifferentnormswhenthinkingabouttherealmsofeconomicsandpolitics.Whiletheyuseanormofdifferentiationwhenitcomestoeconomics,perceivingthatpeopleoughttoberewardedforhardworkandindividualaccomplishment,theymorereadilyapplyanormofegalitariansm,oronepersononevote,intherealmofpoliticsHochschild(1981).Inthatlight,itisnotsurprisingthatpeoplemightregardindividualinitiativedifferentlyacrossthesetworealms.Butitisneverthelessstrikingthatpeoplewhoarguesostronglyinfavorofpullingoneselfupbythebootstrapsdenigrateindividualagencywhenexercisedintherealmofpolitics.Take,forexample,theirreflectionsontheWomen’sMarchthedayafterthepresidentialinaugurationandontheBlackLivesMattermovement.

AttheendofJanuary,visitingwiththeDowntownAthleticClub(Group1),Iheardthesethoughtsontheefficacyofthewomen’smarch.

Lou: Thosecollegestudents,iftheygetthroughschool...Rightnowthey

couldcomplainaboutit.They're25-26and[when]they'remaking50,60,70,80thousand[dollars]ayearthey'llallbeRepublicanstoo.Theywon'tbeDemocrats.They'llbetiredofpayingtaxesandallthatstuff.It'sjustlike,whatdothewomenexpectoutofthisprotest?Whatdotheyexpect?

KJC: Whatdoyouthink?Lou: Ithinkthey'redumb.Wastingtheirtimeandmoney,they'renotgoing

tochangeanything.Theywon'tchangeanything.[Pause]Idon'tthink.Maybeyouthink[lookingatme].

KJC: Well,we'llsee.Lou: Maybeyouwereintheprotest.KJC: No,IwasinAlabamaactuallywithmydaughter.Lou: Allright!

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Severalmonthsearlier,ontheFridayaftertheelection,theyalsocriticizedpeopleprotestingTrump’swin.

Joe: Iheardonthenewsyesterdaytheywereinterviewingsomeoftheprotesters,andtheyinterviewedtwoofthemwerehighschoolkids.Yeah.

Fred: Well,Iheardontheradiothismorning,orwhateverthere'sprotesting

inCalifornia.Theyinterviewedaguy,whatever,hesayshethrewsomethingthroughabankwindoworwhatever,hesaid"WellI'mjustmadbecausehewon."I'mlike,“tThat'sareasontothrowafuckingchairthroughadamnbankwindow.Jesus,yououghttobethrowninjailwithhim.”

AttheendofJanuary,theyseemedpuzzledbythetacticofprotestingeneral,wonderingaloudaboutwhypeoplewouldthinkitwouldmakeadifferenceandwonderinghowanyonecouldcarveouttimetoparticipate.Weweretalkingabouttolerance,whenRonnyaskedmehowstudentsatUW-Madisongotalongwithoneanother,andthisledintoaconversationaboutprotest:

Ronny:Kidsprettymuchgetalongdowntherefromdifferentnationalities?KJC: Yeah.Itdependsonwhoyouask.ForthemostpartIwouldsaythey

figureitout.But,yeah,Idon’tknow.That'spartofwhatI'mtryingtofigureout.Shouldn'titbethecasethatifwearetalkingtopeoplewhohavedifferentbackgroundsthanwedoorhavedifferentlivesthatweunderstandoneanother?DoyouknowwhatImean?Or—Ijustreally--Idon'tknowwhatwedofromhere.

Lou: Well,Iknowonething,itdon'tdoanygoodtoprotestallthatstuff.

Thatdoesn'treallyhelp.They'renotgoingtochangeanything,theprotester.

KJC; Well,Ithinkitmakespeoplefeelliketheyare.Ronny:Ifit'saboutprotestthenprotest,butwhentheystartbreaking

windowsandstealingstuffthat'sdifferent.Lou: AlongtimeagoIwasinthehospital,Ihadmygallbladderout.The

DemocraticPartywasinChicagoandtheyrioted.TheSupremeCourtJusticesaidtheyhavetherighttoprotestbuttheydonothavetherighttoblockthestreetsothatthecommonpersoncouldnotdrivehiscartogofromeastorwestorwhatever.It'slikeyousaid,theydon'thavetherighttobreakwindowsanddoallthatstuff.Protestnottodothat,andthat'swhatalwayshappens.Sowhatdoesitdo?Makes

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us,welltheretheyareagain.Protesting,breakingwindows,burningcars...

Fred: ThethingisitgotwayworseintheObamathing.Whentheywere

protesting,iftheywereaBlackprotesterandyoutriedtodosomething,manyouwereprejudiced[youwerecalledprejudiced.]

Lou: Racist.Fred: Racist.Thiscountryhasgottenthatway,mambypamby.Iusethis

storyallthetime.IwenttoMadisononeyeartocollege.Ashortcourse.[Ashort-term,on-sitecourseforpeopleinthefarmingindustryattheUniversityofWisconsin-Madison].Therewas365ofuskidsintheshortcourse.TherewasoneBlackkid.TheoneBlackkidgotcaughtforbreakingintothedormsandstealingstuff.Hegotkickedout.Wouldthathappennow?Whatwouldhappen?“You'reprejudiced.You'repickingonthatonekid.”Wellhewastheonlyonethatdidit.Itdidn'tmatterwhowasthere,hewastheonethatdidit.Itwasn'tprejudice,butbecausetheydoit,it'sbacktoprejudiceagain.Hedidit.Sorry.Itdoesn'tmatterwhatyouare.Yougotcaught,youdidit.

Lou: Theblacks,thewhites,allthosepeople...Don'ttheywork?KJC: Sure.Lou: Howdotheyhaveallthattimetodothat?KJC: Toprotest?Lou: Yeah,andwheredotheygetallthemoneytogototraveltodothat?If

IwasworkingIwouldn'thavetimetotakeoffandgodothat.Fred: Justtobedevil'sadvocateIagreewithyou,butifthey'reinthecity

theycouldhaveajobwheretheywork11[a.m.]to7[p.m.].Theymightgotherefor2or3hours.Probablynot,becauseyou'retired.Ifyou'reagoodemployee,agoodworker,you'regoinghomeandgoingtosleep,butthereisthatpotentialwhereyouwork3to11[p.m.]likeMikedoes,onshiftwork.Thatmany?Idon'tknow.

Lou: Theyouth,they'renotworking.TheBlackvote,that'salotofthem,

they'renotworking,probably.Alotofthemtheyhaulthemintoprotest.

Fred: Bus'emin.

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Lou: Theybringtheminfromoutsidetocreatechaos.

Noticehowwithinthisbriefconversationtherearecontrastingviewsoftheappropriatenessofindividualagencyintherealmofeconomicsandintherealmofpolitics.Itisalsosuggestivethatperceptionsoftheappropriatenessofindividualinitiativeinthesetworealmsisdependentonwhichmembersofthepopulationaretakingtheinitiative.

Lackofinitiativeintherealmofemploymentistakenasasignoftheerosionofmoralfiber,buttheexerciseofinitiativeintheformofprotestistakenasevidenceoflackofmoralfiber,too.HereisthewaythemembersofthisgrouptalkedaboutprotestontheFridayaftertheelection.

Lou: YouknowObama'sphilosophy,camefromafarright,fartherrightthananybodythought.

Ken: [AClintonsupporter,disagreeingwithhim]Ithinkyou'rewrong.Left!Lou: Oh,yeah,left.Ken: YAH!YAHYAH!Yeah,seeIcaughtyou.Youdon'tknowwhatthehell

you'resaying.Lou: I'mwrong.[Kenlaughs]ThatReverendWright.He[Obama]was

indoctrinatedwiththatReverendWrightphilosophy.They'reagainsttheAmericansandours.Welllookwhat'shappeningintheriotstoday.Lookwhat'shappening.

Joe: DidyoueverseeriotslikethatwhentheRepublicanslost?John: Itoldyouyesterday,that'saproductofeverytimethatthere'san

activityorsomething,thewholegenerationisusedtoneverlosing.Theyalwaysgivetrophiestolastplace,forPete’ssake.

Joe: Exactly.Yeah.Everybodygetsatrophy.John: Everybodygetsatrophy.Everybody'sgottofeelgoodabout

themselves.Joe: There'sneverawinneroraloser.Everybody'sthesame.Ronny:Therewasareallygoodbookwrittenonthat:PunishmentByReward.John: That'saboutthetruth,too.Ronny:Alltheseschoolsgivingthingstokidsthattheydidn'tdonothingfor.

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Thisgroupcallstheprotestsagainsttheoutcomeoftheelection“riots,”andattributesthemnottoconcernwithdemocracybuttocharacterflaws.Thewomen’sgroupmeetingforlunchinatown90mileswestoftheDowntownAthleticClubhadsimilarquestionsabouttheconnectionbetweencontemporaryyouthcultureandprotestpolitics(Group11c).

Dolores:Alltheseyoungpeopletheyarecomplaininganddemonstratinganddoingcrazythings.Wetellthemtheyshouldgetajob.Evenifit'saminimumpayingjob,it'ssomething,it'straining.Theycangofromtheretothenextjob.

Jane:That'swhateverybodydoes.Dolores:Ithinkthey'respoiled.

Forthemembersofthisgroup,individualinitiativeisagoodthingwhenitpertainstotheworkplace,butnotwhenitpertainstopoliticalagitationagainstthestatusquo.Theyconsideredtimespentprotestingasevidenceoftoomuchtimeonone’shands.TheviewsofClintonsupportersasexpressedamongtheseruralTrumpvotersarenotsurprisinglyrathernegative.Somecommentssuggestedabasicfaithinothers(“otherwise,thewholerepublicwillcrumble”)butmanyoftheircommentscontainedextensivedoubtsaboutthedecision-makingoftheirpoliticalopponents.Theybelievedvotersontheleftarebeingfooledandhavefaultyreasoning.Theytalkedaboutthemashypocriticalandintolerant.Theysawthemotivationsofleft-leaningvotersasfaulty,perceivingthatDemocraticvoterswerebeingdrivenbyadesiretocontinuereceiving“handouts.”Finally,theTrumpsupportersIspenttimewithcriticizedmorethanthenatureandoriginsofthepreferencesofClintonvoters.Theyderidedanddiscountedtheirpoliticaltactics.Takentogether,Ihavesuggestedthattheseviewsdemonstrateaninconsistency,orambivalence(Hochschild1981)intheapplicationofnormsaboutindividualagency.Atthesametimethatthesefolksvalueindividualinitiativeandhardworkintherealmofemployment,theyseelittlevalueinindividualinitiativeintheformofpoliticalaction.3.ReactionstoruralresentmentWhenweturntothewayleft-leaningpeoplehaverespondedtotheruralresentmentIhaveobservedinthegroupsofvotersIhaveencounteredinmy

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fieldwork,thereislikewiseaninconsistencyinthewaypeopleconceptualizetheagencyorinitiativeoftheiropponents.Inthefollowinganalyses,IdrawfromemailsthatIhavereceivedsincethe2016presidentialelection.Specifically,Iamincludinginthisanalysisallemailssenttomeinresponsetomyworkonruralconsciousnessthatcontainedreactionstothatworkbeyondquestionsaboutmethodology,relatedliterature,orspeakingengagementinvitations.Theseemailsarenotnecessarilyrepresentativeofanypopulation.WhattheygiveusisanopportunitytolookincloseatwhatitsoundslikewhenpeoplerespondtoempatheticportrayalsofRepublican-voting,rural,whiteworkingclasspeople,andacallformorelisteningandunderstandingoftheviewsofsuchpeople.MostofthecorrespondenceIhavereceivedhasbeenexpressionsofgratitude.16ManyofthoseemailsconsistofpeoplewritingtotellmethatmyworkhelpedthemunderstandhowsomeonecouldvoteforTrump.ManyothersstatethattheyhavewitnessedorexperiencedtheviewsofresentmentIexplain,andthankmeforgivingthoseviewssomeattentionandforrepresentingthepeoplewhoholdthemwithdignity.17Somesharepersonalstruggleswithadualidentity,aspeoplewhogrewupinasmalltownbutmovedtoanurbanarea,whonowfinditdifficulttoencounterruralconsciousnessamongpeopletheyknowandcareabout.Butperhapswecanlearnmorefromtheemailswhodosomethingotherthanthankme.First,thereareahandful(4)thatcriticizemyuseoftheterm“resentment.”Thesemessagesremarkthatresentmentisanoverlynegativeterm,whichdownplaysthelegitimacyoftheviewsandthelegitimacyoftheirnegativereactiontoleftistpolicies.18Evenmorerevealingformypurposeshereisthatmanypeoplearecompelledtoexplaintomethattherealproblemisthatthereissomethingwrongwiththesepeople.28ofthe163writersmadethistypeofclaim.Theywrotetoexplaintome,oftenindetail,whatiswrongwiththeRepublican-voting,whiteworkingclassruralpeopleIhavebeenwritingandspeakingabout.

16Ofthe163emailsincludedinthisanalysis,140containedexpressionsofgratitude.1724oftheemailsIreceivedstatedthattheperspectivesofruralpeopleIdescriberesonatewiththeirownexperience.18Inresponsetothesecriticisms,Ihaveaskedpeopleinmyfieldworkhowtheyfeelabouttheuseoftheterm“resentment.”Theymaybereluctanttocriticizemyuseofthetermtomyface.ButtypicallytheresponseIhavereceivedisblankstaresorpuzzledexpressions.WhenIexplaininmoredetailwhatIamasking,peoplehavesaidthingsalongthelinesof,“Ofcourseweareresentful.”

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Theseemailsmakethisclaiminavarietyofways.OnewomanwroteanemailtomeandaWashingtonPostreporterwhoprofiledmyworktosaythatthepeopleIspenttimewithhavea“realwishfora‘benevolentdictator,’astrongmaternalorpaternalfigurewhowilllistentoandcarefortheminwaysnotappropriateorpossiblebeyondchildhood.Itisinfantiletosupposethatotherswilllistentousandunderstandustothisdegreeonceweareadults.”19Anotheroutlinedhistheorythatallpeoplecanbefitonacontinuumbetween“peoplewhoareexploitersandpredators”and“peoplewhoseetheirroleinlifeasgivingtoandcaringforothers”andthata“loggerwhosefamilyisbarelygettingbyonhis$9perhour[and]canidentifywiththelikesofScottWalker,RonJohnson[aTeaPartyRepublicanSenatorfromWisconsin],andDonaldTrump”occupies“asimilarpointon[that]continuumasScottWalker,”implyingthatthesevotersareofquestionablemoralcharacter.20Manyhavesuggestedthattheseruralresidentsignorefacts,areuninformed,andignorantorpayattentiontothewrongnewssources.“Apparentlythenewssourcesformanyfolksarefromtheirowncorneroftheuniverse”oneformerstatelegislatorremarked,acknowledgingthatmanypeoplechoosenewsthisway.“Ourfragmentedinformationsourcesdonotshowsignsofchanging,“hewrote.21Someofthemworriedaboutignoranceonparticularissues.“WastherenotarecognitioninruralagriculturalWisconsinthatFederalprogramssupportingdairyproductpricesupports,cropinsuranceandotherpricesupportprogramshelped?”wroteoneman.22AnotherwonderedwhethertheseresidentsrecognizethecontributionsthatHispanicimmigrantsaremakingtotheircommunities,especiallythroughdairyfarming.23Manyquestionedthelegitimacyoftheruralresidents’grievancesinmoredirectways.OnemanarguedthatinfactruralandexurbanareashavenotlessbutdisproportionatelymorethantheirfairshareofpowerinCongressandthat“increasedpowerhaslegitimizedasenseofgrievanceanddesireformorepower.”24Othersquestionedthenatureandextentoftheirpoliticalparticipation.Forexample,onemanwrote,

Isuspectifyoudrilldownthemostdisenchantedarealsothemostdisconnected.Thatis,iftheyparticipateatallinpoliticsitistovoteandeventhen,sporadically.Isuspectthatfeelingofdisrespectyoudocumentbroughtouttheunengagedwhovotedtheirangerandresentment.Ok,fine.ButtheysentbacktoCongressandthelegislaturesthesamecastofcharactersthatgavethem,andallofus,whatwehave.Andtheyexpectchange?

19WriterID#159.20WriterID#60.21WriterID#166.22WriterID#170.23WriterID#171.24WriterID#163.

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Whichistooffertheideathatifyoutalktopoliticallyactivemembersofspecialinterestgroups—FarmBureau,medicalassociations,povertyadvocates,pickany—youmightgetadifferentperspective.Thosepeoplewhokeeponvotingaftertheelectionbylobbyingandadvocacyaretheoneswhoreallymakeourdemocracywork.Whatyourklatchersmissisthatvotingdoesn’ttellpoliticianswhattodoand,inTrump’scase,it’shardtosayevenwhathemightdo.Theyprojectedontohimtheirownmyth.25

Somesaid,inoneformoranother,“Pullyourselvesupbyyourbootstraps.Ididit.Youcan,too.”Forexample,onemanwrotethatmybook

tellsasadtaleofabroadpopulationthatwerepromisedthattheywereinaplaceandthatplacewouldalwaysbethere….Theyareentitledtoawhitelifelikeit‘shouldbe.’Theyneedtodonothingbutwhatwasdonebeforeanditshallbetheirs.Aninheritedlifenevertochange….Universallythisisawhiteissue,andalthoughfolksmaysugarcoatthemessagewith‘we’renotracist’whattheybelieveisiftheysharethepiesotospeakthereislessforthem,andprooftothemistheuncomfortablefeelingthatablackPresidentmeanslessofachanceforthemtobePresidentsothatimagetricklesdownsotospeak…Theywarmtoyoubuttheydonotchangetheirplace,theynodbutdonotengage,theygohomeandbelievethatothershaveitbetter.Theirlossistheresultofotherstakingtheirrightfulplaceorsucceedingwheretheyfailed.26

Onemanwroteaboutagenerations-longselectionprocessatwork,inwhich

Wholeavesandwhostays[intheseruralcommunities]isnotrandom….Whenruralpeoplecomplainabouteastcoastelites,Ibringittotheirattentionthatmanyofthose‘elites’aretheirownchildrenwholefttogowheretheopportunitiesare…Whostayedbehind?Thoseshyoftakingrisks,thosewithconservativepersonalityprofiles….Thoseleftbehindfindcomfortintheirownresentmentofurbansuccess.27

Hewentontoarguethatthe“abandonmentofruraltowns,businesses,homesandschools”wasnotafailureasruralpeopleseeitbutinsteadasuccess.“Itwasthesheddingofunsustainableinfrastructuresothattherestofthepopulationcouldsurvive.”Manyofthepeoplequestioningthechoices,reasoningandperspectiveofruralfolksexhibitingresentmenttowardthecitiesandsupportingTrumphadpersonalexperiencelivinginaruralareathemselves.Theyacknowledgedtheresentment,butquestioneditslegitimacy.25WriterID#164.26WriterID#57.Ihavecorrectedsmalltyposintheoriginal.27WriterID#58.

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Onemandisagreedwiththeseresidents’perceptionsthattheyhavenotbeenlistenedto.HewrotethathegrewupinasmallWisconsintown,buthadmovedtoacityinthestateandnowheandhisfamilyare“theembodimentoftheurbaneliteyourarticletalksabout.”28

YouarecertainlycorrectabouttheresentmentthatsimmersinruralWisconsin(andI’massumingtherestofthecountry).Ihaveseenitmyself…ButIhavetopushbackabitregardingapartofthearticle….It’stheideathattheyhavenotbeenlistenedtoby‘elites.’Whatdoesn’teverseemtogetdiscussedinthevarious“think-pieces”isthatmanyofusso-calledelitestheyresentactuallycamefromhotbedsofresentment.WegrewupinsmalltownsinruralAmerica.Wegrewuplisteningtoourruralfamiliesandfriends.Listeningtothemcomplainabout‘citypeople’and‘blacks’and‘Mexicans.’Ofteninmuchmorecolorfullanguage.Wethenleftthosetownstogotocollege–somethingourfamilieswerehappyaboutandwantedustodo.Wewent,andwelearned.Andwecamehomeandlistenedtoourruralfriendsandfamiliesmore.Andwerespectfully–foryears,respectfully,wouldtrytoimpartthethingswelearnedincollege(theplacetheywantedustogo)tothem…Andwe,againforyears,werebrushedoff….Toldwe“didn’tknowhowtherealworldworked.”Littleofwhatwesaidorbroughthomewaslistenedto.Rarelywerewelistenedtoatall.Theywerestubbornlyuninterested.Itgetstiresometonothearthissideofthestoryeverdiscussed.Itgetstiresometobebrandedthevillains…simplyforunderstandingthechangingdynamicsofthecountryanditseconomyandactingaccordingly.Ratherthanstubbornly,desperatelyholdingontoasocietalidealthatnolongerandprobablyneverexisted.Whenwilltheirresentmentbeassuaged?....We’veallspentoverhalfadecade‘listening’tothem.Yetwestillhearthesamerefrain,‘Elitesdon’tlistentous!’Whatwillconstruebeinglistenedto?Whenwilltheyfeelheard?Whenmyselfandmywifeandourfriendsfinallyhaveourlivesruinedbytheirresentments?Whenweallacquiescetotheirretrogradeand(largely)falsepresumptionsabouttheworldtheylivein?Honestly,when?IloveWisconsin.Ilovemyfamily,andmychildhoodfriends,andgenerallyenjoyedmyupbringinginsmalltownWisconsin.Butfrankly,IhavealsohadituptomyearswithbeingthescapegoatfortheproblemsofruralWisconsin,andmorelargely,America.Wehavenotignoredthem,wehavesimplynotdoneexactlywhattheywanted.29

28Thisisareferenceto(Cramer2016b).29Writer#168.Ihavecorrectedsmalltyposintheoriginal.

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SeveralemailsIhavereceivedalongtheselinesexpressfrustrationwithhavingdonethehardworkofmovingwherethejobsare,payingattentiontoeconomictrendsandactingaccordingly,andgettingbrandedastheenemyoranoutsiderfordoingso.Theyarguethatthechoicestheymadearetherightchoiceswhenconsideringthefacts,andtheyshouldnotberesentedforhavingmadethem.ThereisanexpectationintheseemailsthatruralTrumpvotersoughttofixtheircircumstancesthroughindividualinitiative.Thisstrikingbecauseitisleft-leaningpoliticalideologiesthatweexpecttobemoreattentivetostructuralconcerns.Forexample,racialjusticeactivismregularlydrawsattentiontohowracialoppressionoccursatafardeeperlevelthaninterpersonaldiscrimination;itisperpetuatedbylawsandpoliciesthatinstitutionalizeracism,suchasdiscriminatoryracistzoninglawsorhiringpracticesthatallowemployerstodiscriminateagainstpeoplewithcriminalrecords.ButintheviewsIhavejustcharacterized,weseeacalltopaymoreattentiontotheindividual-levelflawsoftheattitudesandbehaviorofpeople,namelyruralwhiteworking-classcounterpartswhohavesupportedDonaldTrump.Theresistancetoacknowledgingstructuralcausesofindividuals’behaviorandattitudesisnotlimitedtoright-leaningmembersofthepublic,butmaybebettercharacterizedasafunctionofgroupidentity.Thisgroup-servingbiasinattributionsofresponsibility(Hewstone1989)iswelldocumentedintherealmofpolitics(Conover1988;Rudolph2003).Whenconsideringpeoplewethinkarelikeourselves,wearemorelikelytonoticeexternalchallenges,notcharacterflaws,buttheoppositeistruewhenweareconsidering“others.”Werecognizethetendencyofpopulistsupporterstoattributeblametoracialandethnicothers,asawayofshiftingresponsibilityfromthemselves(OliverandRahn2016,192),butthisbehaviorisnotrestrictedtopeopleofaparticularpoliticalleaning.4.Conclusion:FocusingontheflawsofindividualsThroughouttheviewsIhavepresentedhere–ofboththeruralTrumpsupportersandtheleft-leaningemailwriters—thereareclaimsaboutwhichvoicesdeservetobelistenedtoandwhichvoicesareworthyofattentionandrecognition.Again,theseviewsarenotnecessarilyrepresentativeofacross-sectionofanypopulation.Butwhatisstrikingtomeishowrareitisinthefieldworkorintheemailcorrespondenceforpeopletoremarkthatperhapstheproblemisnotthecharacter,knowledge,newshabitsorpoliticaltacticsofthisorthatpopulation,butinsteadthefactthatsomanypeoplefeelunheard.Ifwereturntothequestionofhowdoweincreasethehealthofdemocracy,theviewspresentedinthispapersuggestthatarealongwayoff.Thegroupconsciousnessliteraturesuggeststhatpeoplearemostlikelytoengagepoliticallyonbehalfoftheirsocialidentitieswhentheseidentitiesareinfusedwithasenseofsystematicinjustice(Milleretal.1981).WearealongwayofffromtheseemailwritersandruralTrumpsupportersfromeithersharingacommonidentityandevenfartherofffromperceivingthatthemembersofacommongrouparerecipients

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ofsharedsystematicinjustice.Bydrawingattentiontotheflawsofindividualpeople,wedrawattentionawayfromthebroaderforcesthatresistjusticeandequality.Totheextentthatcitizensandresidentsidentifytheproblemastheattitudesandbehaviorofeachother,thereislittleroomforasignificantrestructuringandimprovementofdemocracy.Ataminimum,theviewsIhavepresentedareacautionagainstcraftingdemocraticinnovationsthatrequirejointbuy-infrompeoplewithopposingpoliticalviews.Stridentlydifferentpointsofviewtowardtheroleofgovernmentarethemselvesonebarriertodemocraticinnovation.Buttheskepticismaboutthebasicjudgmentofpeoplewhosupportinnovationviathegovernment,andsometimesabouttheirrighttoequalrespectandfreedom,isperhapsanevenmoredauntinghurdle.Perhapstheseconversationsarereasontorethinkthenotionthatthedemocraticinnovationthatwouldbemosteffectiveormostfeasiblecanoccurattheleveloftheordinarycitizen.ThepeopleIhaveencounteredinmyfieldworkhavebeentellingmefornearlyadecadethattheiropinionsdonotmatter,thattheyareoverlookedandignoredbythepoliticalprocess.Theyarenotentirelywrong(Bartels2013;Gilens2013;GilensandPage2014).Perhapsourdesirefordemocraticinnovationshouldnotfocusonperspectivesandpreferencesamongordinarymembersofpublics,butshouldinsteadfocusonthepowerfulelitewhoactuallyinfluencetheshapeofourinstitutions.Whatif,ratherthanexpectingordinarycitizenstoexerciseempathyforpeopleontheothersideofpoliticalandsocialdivides,weexpectedelitestodebatethemeritsofinvestinginpublicgoodsthatbenefitbroadswathsofsociety,suchaseducationandtheenvironment?Shouldourexaminationofthispopulistmomentfocusontheflawsofvoters?Orshoulditperhapsfocusontheflawsofthosewhodeveloptherhetoricthattapsintothedivisiveusvs.themcategorizationswefindamongmembersofthepublic?Inotherwords,thisanalysisisfurthersupportfortheargumentsintherecentChrisAchenandLarryBartelsbook,DemocracyforRealists(2016).Theyshowustheverydifficulttruththatthefolktheoremofdemocracyinwhich“goodcitizenswouldengageinthoughtfulmonitoringoftheirgovernment...[d]emocraticnormswouldbeenforcedbythesharedvaluesofanenlightenedpopulace...and[a]governmentderivesitsjustpowersnotmerelyfromtheconsentofthegoverned,butfromtheirpoliticaljudgments"(297),doesnotcaptureactualhumanbehaviorindemocracies,andisnotpossibleforeventhemostsophisticatedandpoliticallyawaretoachieve.Thatheavilyempiricallysupportedconclusionisitselfsobering.Butperhapsmosttroublingisthisclaim:

Especiallyatthestatelevel,proponentsofmind-numbingclichésaboutgivingpowertoordinarypeoplebearconsiderableresponsibilityforthedominationofgovernmentbynarrowlyself-interestedgroups.Inreforminggovernment,goodintentionsandhigh-soundingrhetoricarenotenough.Intheend,itisthefolktheorythatpropsupeliterule,anditis

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unrepresentativeelitesthatmostprofitfromconvenientjustificationsitprovidesfortheiractivities.(327)

Wehaveseeninthispaperthatpeopleinthepublichavethefolktheoreminmindwhentheyjudgetheirfellowcitizens.Theyexpectotherstobewell-informed,andexpectthatgovernmentoperatesonthebasisofjudgmentsmadeamongmembersofthepublic.Theirdisdainforothersisnotassistedbyusingthisfolktheoremasastandard.TrumpsupportersandClintonsupportersdeemeachothertobeincompetentandunworthyofempathy.Thefolktheoremgivespeoplejustificationforturningawayfromthosetheydisagreewith,andtuningoutfrompayingcloseattention,andintheendenablesthosewiththereinstocontinuetopasspolicythatdoeslittletoimprovetheirlives.Onemightsaythatitisnotthefolktheoremofdemocracythatisintervening,butinsteadwhitesupremacy.Ifwhitesupremacyisdefinedasanideologyinwhichwhites,particularlyupper-classwhitemen,areregardedassuperiortoothermembersofsocietyandarethereforepresumedtobethosewhooughttoholdpoliticalpower(Crenshawetal.1995),thenitisworthwhiletonoticethesimilarityofeffectsfromthisideologyandthisfolktheorem.Thistheoryofdemocracyholdsupunattainablestandardsofciviccompetenceandthereforemakesitdifficultforthoseexcludedfrompowertoachieverecognitionasvalidcivicparticipantsorworthypoliticalalliesinthepursuitofamorejustsociety.

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AppendixA:DescriptionofGroupsinFieldw

ork30

Group

Num

ber M

unicipality D

escription G

roup Type M

unicipality Population

(2015)

Median

Household

Income (2015)

2016 Republican

Presidential Vote

(%)

Dates of Site

Visits

(Month/Y

ear) Since 2016

1 C

entral hamlet

Daily m

orning coffee klatch, local gas station (em

ployed, unemployed,

and retired men)

600 55,000

45 11/16

6 N

orthwestern village

Daily m

orning coffee klatch, local gas station (em

ployed, unemployed,

and retired men)

700 32,000

45 11/16, 7/17

8 Southw

estern village D

aily morning coffee

klatch, local gas station (em

ployed, unemployed,

and retired men)

1500 39,000

50 6/17

9 N

orth-central village D

aily morning breakfast

group, dinner (employed

and retired, mixed

gender)

2,000 53,000

55 6/17

11b C

entral-west village

Daily m

orning coffee klatch, local gas station (em

ployed, unemployed,

and retired men)

2000 39,000

65 7/17

11c C

entral-west village

Weekly lunch group of

wom

en at restaurant (em

ployed and retired)

2000 39,000

65 1/17, 7/17

30SourceforpopulationandhouseholdincomeisUSCensusAmericanCommunitySurvey5-yearestimate.Numbersforthesefiguresandvoteoutcomeshavebeenroundedtoprotectidentityofthecommunities.

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