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The U.S. Military in Transition to an All-Volunteer

Force: The Role of Advertising in Maintaining High

Recruitment Levels

Habib Khoury

Professor Sohui Lee

PWR 1SL: The Rhetoric of Advertising

Due Date: 06/07/2013

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In 2010, approximately 156,000 Americans were serving in wars. The United States

had deployed 125,000 soldiers in Iraq and 31,000 in Afghanistan (Farrell, 2011). Every

single one of those soldiers was a volunteer.

Yet, since the late 1990s, the United States has experienced difficulty in reaching its

enlistment quotas for the military (Sackett, 2004). Following a surge in recruitment in the

1970s and 80s, public interest in serving in the military began to waver. Eager to

maintain a strong active-duty enlisted military force, the United States Department of

Defense commissioned several studies to examine the factors that favor high enlistment

numbers. The importance of such studies remains significant today. Given that the United

States continues to wage wars around the world, maintaining a wide basis of enlistees in

the army becomes all the more critical. In order to maintain an active-duty, enlisted

military force of about 1.2 million, the U.S. military services must ensure around 200,000

new enlistments each year (Dertouzos, 2009). Thus, prior to any future military activity,

be it in Libya or Syria or Pakistan, the United States must assess whether it has sufficient

manpower to deploy in furtherance of its interests abroad. Without a sufficient number of

enlistees, any military action would be futile and condemned to failure.

The main issue is therefore pinpointing the factors that allowed the armed forces to

transition from a mandatory military service to an All-Volunteer Force (AVF) while

maintaining strong levels of enlistment. To learn how to increase recruitment in the

future, we must look to the past to understand what was successful in this regard and

what was not. In particular, we examine the surge in recruitment levels from around 1975

to 1995. Several different theories have been proposed to explain the success of the AVF

in terms of recruitment. Certain authors, such as Barry Bayus, cite external incentives

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such as employment prospects and cash bonuses as the main drive behind enlistments

(Bayus, 1985). Others, including Lawrence Goldberg, point to periods of economic

depression (Goldberg, 1982) as inciting increased recruitments.

This paper sets forth the thesis that advertisement played a significant role in

improving the image of the military following the Vietnam War, thereby ensuring high

levels of recruitment. Based on review of the literature and analysis of specific posters,

the argument we advance is that the advertisement campaign following the end of the

draft rebranded the military as a young, hip, open and flexible place, as opposed to an

archaic, rigid and closed institution. By targeting its recruitment advertisements to a

wider audience and latching onto rights movements, the military was able to overcome

the antiwar sentiment that followed the Vietnam War and ensured continued support for

and enlistment in the military.

The United States Military In Transition: From A Mandatory Service

To An All-Volunteer Force

The years leading up to the mid seventies are filled with events that started shaping

and changing the American culture. The events were so influential that the 1960s is

known for being the decade of the Cultural Revolution (Kimball 5). Indeed the 1960s

were first memorable for the civil rights movement. Arthur Marwick argues in The

Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy, and the United States, c.1958-

c.1974 that black protest, black violence, and the change in relationships between whites

and blacks are "the central feature of American history in the 1960s" (Marwick 194). Led

by Martin Luther King, the civil rights movement was able to successfully achieve its

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political goals: the Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination based on color or

national origin in public accommodations; the Voting Rights Act of 1965 restored voting

rights for African Americans; and finally, the Fair Housing Act of 1968 banned

discrimination based on color in real estate.

The women's rights movement followed the civil rights movement closely. Although

it did not achieve a political success as big as the civil rights movement did in the 1960s,

it still sparked a cultural change in the 1960s as protests began and the "Women's

Liberation Movement" grew in size, but most importantly because it led to a landmark

decision by the United States Supreme Court on abortion, Roe v. Wade in 1973. "The

trend in the early seventies was towards recognition of a woman's right to choose

abortion" (Marwick 702) and therefore a Supreme Court ruling in Roe v. Wade did

establish that it is possible for some abortions to be legal.

The Hippie culture was also a highlight in the 1960s in that it led to the counter-

culture phenomenon. This term was first used by Theodore Roszak in The Making of a

Counter Culture: Reflections on the Technocratic Society and its Youthful Opposition.

Roszak investigates the youth culture in the 1960s in terms of ideology, usage of

psychedelic drugs and opposition to the government. Roszak mainly studies the youth

opposition against the government during the Vietnam. "No account of America's cultural

revolution would be complete without some discussion of the Vietnam War" (Kimball

31). The Vietnam War was most definitely influential on the American society, and

especially on the American youth. Kimball argues in The Long March: How the Cultural

Revolution of the 1960s Changed America that the Vietnam War mainly legitimated anti-

Americanism. Among the reasons to oppose the war were moral arguments against U.S

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intervention and the reaction to the media portrayal of the tragedies of the war but one of

the most important reasons that led many Americans to oppose the war was the draft.

Indeed, many people started believing that the draft was "inconsistent with a free society"

(Friedman 1967).

With the rise of anti-Americanism, the military draft was heavily criticized and the

idea of an all-volunteer force became very popular. This led the Republican candidate

Richard Nixon to promise that he would cancel the draft and move the country to an all-

volunteer force if elected. Nixon stated in a campaign speech that a draft that "arbitrarily

selects some and not others simply cannot be squared with our whole concept of liberty,

justice and equality under the law. [...] in the long run, the only way to stop the inequities

is to stop using the system" (Nixon, 1968). Once elected, Nixon started working on

turning the United States into an all-volunteer force.

The first step Nixon took was

to establish the Gates

Commission to advise him on

setting up an all-volunteer force.

Although the Gates Commission

was opposed to the idea of the all-

volunteer force, after observing

the anti-Americanism that

followed the Vietnam War in the

late 1960s and after seeing that

most of the youth that were

Figure 1: The Vietnam Generation (Rostker, 45)

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drafted during the period from 1964 to 1973 did not serve in the Vietnam War (figure 1)

it later decided that it was best in the nation's interest to have an all-volunteer force,

supported by an effective standby draft, "than by a mixed force of volunteers and

conscripts" (Gates 1970). Finally, on August 4, 1971, the House of Representatives

moved to an all-volunteer force by a vote of 297 to 108; on September 21, 1971, the

Senate followed by a vote of 55 to 30; and finally, Nixon finalized the country's transition

to an all-volunteer force by signing the bill that extended the draft for two years (Lee and

Parker, 138-147). "The all-volunteer force has changed the American military in

remarkable ways" (Rostker 5). In fact, the all-volunteer force changed the quality,

representativeness, and professionalization of the military. First, the quality of personnel,

measured administering standardized IQ tests, has improved after the end of the draft.

Furthermore, The social representation of the military also changed and the military

started to be more representative of the American population. A study made by David S.

Chu notes that the number of females sharply, the percentage of new recruits who

finished high school and the number of African American recruits increased. Finally, the

all-volunteer force increased the number of career personnel which means that the

military was able to allocate less resources on training new personnel.

Rebranding the U.S. Military After the Vietnam War

The success of the transition to an All-Volunteer Force while maintaining high

enlistment levels is strongly based on an understanding of what is effective in terms of

attracting youths to military service. Advertisement, we suggest, is a main such effective

tool. Following the creation of the All-Volunteer Force, the budget for military

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advertisement had inflated: during the 1980s, annual advertising expenditures for

recruitment totaled around $80 million (Dertouzos, 1). Each service of the military

managed a separate budget for recruitment, and profited from the Joint Recruiting

Advertising Program held by the military. It was therefore possible for the Department of

Defense to commission extensive studies examining the effect of advertising on

recruitment levels. According to Dertouzos, both the separate and joint advertising

programs were very effective in increasing enlistment in all four services of the U.S.

military – the Army, Navy, Marine Corps and Air Force. (Dertouzos, vi). A one-time

increase in advertising, if organized and designed correctly, could induce heightened

enlistments for as long as six months (Dertouzos, 3).

The key question is therefore how the military used the effective tool of

advertisement to maintain high levels of enlistment after the end of the mandatory draft.

We explore two means that were particularly effective in increasing enlistments. The first

is a complete rebranding of the image of the military as a welcoming, diverse institution

following the end of the Vietnam War. The advertisements would thus set aside

traditional images of the military as a rigid, inflexible institution for the overly masculine

and replace them with images of an open institution, ready to welcome recruits from all

ways of life. The second means of increasing enlistment through advertising is joining the

countercultural movement in promoting certain values that appeal to potential recruits.

This type of advertisements focused more on generational research that attempted to

rebrand the military as a pioneer in civil rights movements and youth trends. In particular,

women’s liberation movements and the hippie counterculture served as hooks to which

the military was able to attach itself and tender to the goodwill of sympathizers of the

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causes. By rebranding the military as a young, hip, open and flexible place, those

advertisements overcame the antiwar sentiment that followed the Vietnam War and

ensured continued support for and enlistment in the military.

Advertisements Creating an Open and Diverse Military

The first key factor to the recruitment success of the all-volunteer force was a

complete rebranding of the popular image of the military. Following the heavy losses of

human life and questionable strategies employed by the military in the Vietnam War,

American popular perception of the United States Army was at its lowest in decades

(Gibson, 48). The army was seen as weak, fractured and ineffective – a perception which

would not contribute positively to enlistment numbers after the war. The Vietnam War

had torn down the image of the American warrior hero that had been building since the

beginnings of military advertisement during the Second World War (Id.). The horrors

recounted by former soldiers and GIs as well as the imagery of the My Lai massacres

provided enough ammunition to the antiwar movement to erode public eagerness to join

the army. Indeed, young potential recruits were so disinterested in joining the military

after 1973 that the army was only able to achieve its monthly enlistment quota twice in its

first fifteen months (Cortright 43).

Beth Bailey argues that the only way the army could overcome this public perception

obstacle was to use advertising to convince youth to volunteer in the military. To use her

own words, “all-volunteer force = massive marketing campaign” (Bailey 66). A

successful transition to the all-volunteer force needed a substantial commercial

advertising campaign. Indeed, according to the Project Volunteer in Defense of the

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Nation (PROVIDE), the Army could not attract recruits effectively unless it rebranded its

image into a positive one.

As a response, the military radically shifted its advertising focus to produce powerful

appeals to military service. It discontinued its former campaigns representing the military

as the ultimate form of masculinity, and put forth new ones that emphasize camaraderie,

dialogue and personal

choice. The ads took the

focus away from military

service as an obligation of

citizenship and framed the

issue as a welcome duty to

family, friends, comrades

and previous generations of soldiers. Indeed, a popular Vietnam-era recruiting poster,

“FEEL LIKE A MAN… Go Army” (figure 2, above) emphasized the traditional imagery

of military service being intimately connected with expressions of manhood and

masculinity. Other advertisements echoed the same sentiment or set forth patriotism and

duty to country. They identified soldiers as prominent and heroic figures of war stories,

with visual imagery suggesting combat zones. Accompanying texts emphasized terms

such as “patriotism,” “duty,” “country,” and “fight.” The advertisements thus portrayed

the rationale behind military service as patriotic obligations to one’s country. This is

unsurprising given the nature of the mandatory draft until 1973, and yet, as Beth Bailey

states, entirely insufficient motivation for an all-volunteer force in the following years

(Bailey, 66).

Figure 2: "Feel Like a Man" Ad, 1963

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In contrast to the pre-Vietnam War advertisement era, the military rebranded its

image at the end of the draft to portray a more welcoming environment, receptive to

dialogue with its members. The 1971 “Today’s Army” campaign launched the image

transformation of the military from a rigid, distant organization to a vital one, receptive to

new ideas in a changing and dynamic world (U.S. Army Recruiting & Career Counseling

Journal, 22). The idea behind the campaign was to speak to the recruits at the individual

level and treating

them as equals so

that there might be a

genuine dialogue

between army and

soldier. This

dialogue,

superfluous and

unnecessary at the

time of the mandatory draft, would allow the military to exert influence to “enhance its

image at every opportunity” and “strengthen the confidence of the American people in its

Army’s service to humanity at home and abroad” (U.S. Army Recruiting & Career

Counseling Journal, 4).

Indeed, the advertisement presents nine portraits of young men representing ethnic,

racial and cultural diversity. The men are well-dressed and the photographs are taken in a

studio, suggesting propriety and uprightness. The men look nothing like the overly

masculine models of the pre-Vietnam War advertising era. None of them looks

Figure 3: "Today's Army Wants to Join You!" Ad, 1971

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particularly muscular or seems to have been well trained in combat. The inclusion of

diverse characters – a hippie, a young black man with an Afro haircut and a nerd-like

person – puts forth the image of an all-inclusive military, ready to welcome recruits from

all ways of life. The caption accompanying the images echoes this message.

[…] We know you have a brain and your own ideas. […]

We know you’d like to build your mind and body.

We know you’d like to further your education, become an expert at a skill, have

opportunity for advancement, travel, and 30 days vacation a year.

We also know you put a price on these things. The price is your individuality.

And you question the Army’s willingness to pay this price.

Today’s Army is willing to pay this price.

We’re committed to eliminating unnecessary formations, skin-head haircuts,

signing out, signing in, bed checks, and ‘make work’ projects. […]

Like the accompanying photograph, the text presents a flexible military, willing to

change to fit the needs, desires and ideas of potential recruits. The military states that it is

willing to pay the price to reform itself for its various recruits, from those here to build

their bodies to those wanting to build their minds. This is a sharp departure from the

earlier and more traditional images of the military as a stable institution to which recruits

flocked, willingly or not, because of the mandatory draft. Whether or not one believes the

readiness of the military to change its structure and operations to fit recruits, it is certain

that the advertisements presented a new portrait of a welcoming, flexible institution in

order to repair its broken image and attract more enlistments in the all-volunteer force

after 1973.

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Advertisements Integrating the Military into the Counterculture

The second reason that military advertisements were successful in the transition to an

all-volunteer force was in their rebranding of the institution as a full participant, if not a

pioneer, in civil rights movements. As detailed above, the late 1960s and 1970s were

decades of transformational social and cultural change in the United States. New values

and ideals replaced traditional imagery and roles; without adapting, the military would be

forced into a reputation as an archaic feature of a previous generation. Thus, in addition

to rebranding itself as a welcoming, flexible institution, the second vital image change

that the military undertook was to make itself an environment that is open to the forward-

thinking, trendsetting youth of a new cultural equilibrium. This step took several facets;

first, it included targeting women as equally desirable recruits, second, it integrated itself

in the counterculture that was prevalent at the time.

The advertising campaigns targeting women came as a reaction to the women’s

liberation movement of the 1960s and 1970s that saw political feminism enter into the

military dialogue, among other reclamations. Prior to the movement, military

advertisements portraying women tended to place them in the background, working at

home while the men fought for the country. Even more, women were at times at times

used as the image of a lack of masculinity and ability, as in a now-famous Navy

advertisement of the First World War. The poster seen below shows a female figure

lamenting the fact that her gender would not allow her to join the Navy, with a caption

that reads “Be a Man and Do It” (Figure 4). The poster thus not only plays on the image

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of masculinity as discussed above, but also highlights

the fact that women would be out of place and

unwelcome to join the Navy.

In contrast, advertisements at the end of the draft

portrayed a vividly different picture. Women were

integrated as an equal participant in the military and

were portrayed as just as capable and welcome as the

men. The advertisement below shows women in the

military in the midst of performing various physical

activities. The women, all smiling and confident, are

dressed in military uniforms and undertaking tasks

from welding to aviation in what appears to be all four branches of the military. While

some might question the caption that reads “Some of Our Best Men are Women” as

retaining chauvinism in setting men as the point of reference by which women are

judged, it remains

nonetheless true that the

advertisement signals a shift

in the portrayal of women as

full, capable, and valued

members of the military

recruits.

Figure 5: Advertisements are Increasingly Geared Toward Women

Figure 4: Howard Christy, "Gee!! I Wish I Were a Man," 1917

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The other cultural movement to which military advertisements successfully

responded was the hippie movement, which had started in the 1960s. The willingness of

the institution to address and appeal to cultural changes and youth trends only increased

its recruiting base and served to avoid alienating a sizeable portion of the age-appropriate

population. One particularly interesting advertisement targeting the hippie movement

advanced the notion that the military favored the inclusion of new soldiers that are

individualistic thinkers. The idea was driven home by the poster which read: “We care

more about how you think, than how you cut your hair,” referring to the emphasis in

hippie imagery on long

hair. The man in the

advertisement, sporting a

long haircut, underscores

the accompanying text that

states that “today’s Army is

pretty relaxed about how

you cut and style your

hair.” Long hair,

symbolizing the youthful counterculture becomes a symbol of a hip, tolerant army that

accepts its new soldiers’ personal expression and ideological inclinations.

Are External Factors More Important to Recruits?

Certain analysts of military recruitment contest the role of advertisement in

increasing enlistment, emphasizing instead other factors such as external incentives,

Figure 6: The Army and Longer Haircuts

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economic conditions and specific war or peace events.

One such analyst, John Eighmey, points to the correlation between enlistment rates

and periods of high unemployment and economic instability (Eighmey, 11). He argues

that one of the reasons the all-volunteer force was able to pick up speed with its recruits

is the coincidental unemployment spike of 1973 following the Middle East oil crisis.

Sociologist Charles Moskos echoes this criticism and states that the military service after

the draft had become not an institutional but an occupational job. Therefore, the military

had to compete with the job market in attracting recruits that would be considering such

primary factors as salary and economic benefits (Moskos, 8). As a result, both authors

seem to be suggesting that active military recruitment through traditional strategies,

including advertising, are not as effective as external factors such as salary and the

economic and employment climates.

I disagree with the minor importance that these authors assign to advertising.

Military service requires more conviction from recruits than mere economic incentives

may give them. When asking a person to potentially risk their lives, money alone cannot

constitute sufficient motivation. Conviction, idealism, and a sense of the greater good are

also necessary. Therefore, without advertising to create a mythology surrounding military

service, I do not believe we would have seen similarly strong recruitment rates. In that

sense, I place more faith within the statistical analysis provided by James Dertouzos that

establishes that advertising does indeed affect recruitment rates, even when accounting

for external economic factors, because it changes the behavior of the youth that the

military seeks to recruit by changing that youth's attitude toward the military (Dertouzos,

15).

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Conclusion

In summary, it is clear that the military transition from a mandatory draft to an all-

volunteer force was significantly aided by new advertisement campaigns that sought to

rebrand the institution as a young, welcoming, attractive alternative to other career paths.

By rapidly acknowledging and responding to a changed sociocultural environment, the

military was able to survive the antiwar movement that followed the Vietnam War and

maintain strong enlistment numbers so as to reach its recruitment quotas for an active-

duty enlistment force.

The response of the military’s advertising efforts were twofold. First, it discarded the

traditional image of a rigid, inflexible institution that accepts only the most masculine

recruits into its ranks, instead putting forth the image of an open and flexible place that

welcomes young men from diverse backgrounds and walks of life. Second, it built itself

as a full participant in the counterculture of its time, advancing the role and

empowerment of women and embracing modern trends, visions and ideals. As such, the

military would regain an attractive popular image that would drive young men and

women to join its forces voluntarily and out of a sense of personal investment and

identification.

To be true, advertisements are certainly not the only factor that enabled strong

enlistment numbers after the creation of the all-volunteer force. As discussed above,

external incentives such as cash bonuses and employment prospects in times of economic

depression also contributed to young men and women’s decisions to enlist in the military.

This is certainly to be expected - after all, no lifelong decision is made purely on

idealistic sentiment without reference to material advantages or shortcomings. However,

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all other considerations being equal, it is evident that advertisements played a significant

role in changing the popular perception of the military and increasing its attractiveness.

Therefore, notwithstanding the other benefits offered by the institution, advertisements

allowed the military to maintain high recruitment levels to transition successfully into an

all-volunteer force that is stable in times of peace and capable of effective deployment

when the time of war arrives.

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Bibliography

Works Cited:

Bailey, Beth L. America's Army: Making the All-Volunteer Force. Cambridge,

Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2009. Print.

Beth Bailey's America's Army offers a historical approach to military advertising

after the end of the draft in 1973 and the making of the all-volunteer force. In America's

Army's section "The Army in the Marketplace", Beth Bailey describes how the military

was able to use advertising as a weapon to form the all-volunteer force in the 1970s. She

explains that, because of the controversial war in Vietnam, the American youth was

generally against military service and would not want to enlist. She argues that the only

way the army could convince the youth to volunteer was through advertising. This book

is helpful as it enables me to understand the historical approach to military advertising

after the end of conscription.

Bayus, B.L., V.P. Carroll, A. G. Rao, H. L. Lee, and A. Shapiro. "The Navy Enlistment

Marketing Experiment." Marketing Science 4.4 (1985): 352-74. Print.

This source cites external incentives such as employment prospects and cash

bonuses as the main drive behind enlistments. It enabled me to generate arguments that

countered my thesis and helped me set up the refutatio.

Chu, David S. C., Population Representation in the Military Services - Fiscal Year 2002,

final report, Washington, D.C.: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense (Personnel and

Readiness), 2004. Print.

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This report discusses the population representation in the military services during

the fiscal of 2002. It was useful to my research as it helped me understand how the

population representation in the military changed after 1973.

Cortright, David. "Economic Conscription." Society May/June 1975, 12.4: 43-47. Print.

In this article, Cortright offers an economical approach to conscription and to

military recruitment after 1973. I used this source to obtain statistical evidence associated

with the end of the draft to support my argument.

Dertouzos, James N. Cost-effectiveness of Military Advertising: Evidence from 2002-

2004. Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 2009. Print.

In this source, Dertouzos discusses the cost-effectiveness of military advertising.

This source helped me find statistics to support my argument regarding the effectiveness

of military advertising.

Dertouzos, James N., and Steven Garber. "Effectiveness of Advertising in Different

Media: The Case of U.S. Army Recruiting" Journal of Advertising Summer 2006, 35.2:

111-122. Print.

The principal argument in this article revolves around how military advertising

was indeed successful in military recruitments. The authors explain that army advertising

was very productive in producing enlistments and that response functions for television,

radio, and magazines are consistent with widespread advertising practice. to support their

arguments, they use an econometric study as well as use a variety of statistical

approaches (including graphs and tables). This article is valuable to my research as it

explores the theoretical approaches that are associated with the effectiveness of military

advertising in producing enlistments.

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Eighmey, J. "Why Do Youth Enlist?: Identification of Underlying Themes." Armed

Forces & Society 32.2 2006: 307-28. Print.

In this article, John Eighmey points to the correlation between enlistment rates

and periods of high unemployment and economic instability. His argument helped me

generate arguments in my refutatio.

Farrell, Brenda S. "DOD Should Coordinate and Monitor Its Efforts to Achieve Cost-

Effective Bonuses and Special Pays". GAO Reports June 2011: 1-38.

This source investigates enlistments bonuses and special pays. This source helped

me obtain statistics about the military in recent years.

Friedman, Milton, Statement by Professor Milton Friedman, hearing before the 90th

Congress, 1st Session, Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, Volume 113,

March 9, 1967.

This source is a statement made by professor Milton Friedman before the 90th

Congress. Friedman discussed the rise in anti-Americanism and opposed the draft. His

statement was useful to my research because it offered an interesting thought on the

relationship between the idea freedom and the draft.

Gates, Thomas S., Jr. The Report of the President's Commission on an All-Volunteer

Force 1968-1974. Washington, D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office 1970. Print.

This source is a report that originated from the Gates Commission that advised

Nixon on an all-volunteer force. I used this report to explain the reasons the Nixon

administration had to turn the country to an all-volunteer force.

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Gibson, James William. Warrior Dreams: Violence and Manhood in Post-Vietnam

America. New York: Hill and Wang, 1994. Print.

Gibson's Warrior Dreams: Violence and Manhood in Post-Vietnam America

provides a lot of information on the affects of recruiters, advertising, unemployment and

other factors on recruitment. This source enabled me to better understand the impact of

advertising on enlistments but it also informed me about the affects of other factors on

recruitment, which helped me set up my refutatio.

Goldberg, Lawrence. "Recruiters, Advertising, and Navy Enlistments." Naval Research

Logistics Quarterly 29.2 1982: 385-98. Print.

This source argues that certain periods of economic depression caused an increase

in recruitment. It enabled me to generate arguments that countered my thesis and helped

me set up the refutatio.

Kimball, Roger. The Long March: How the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s Changed

America. San Francisco, California: Encounter Books, 2000. Print.

This book describes how the events of the 1960s changed America culturally and

politically. The author focuses on events like the civil rights movement, the gender rights

movement, and the anti-Americanism movement that followed the Vietnam War and

explains how they affected the American society. This book is valuable to my research as

it helped me explain the political and cultural background of my topic.

Lee, Gus C., and Parker, Geoffrey Y., Ending the Draft: The Story of the All-Volunteer

Force. Washington, D.C.: Human Resources Research Organization, 1977. Print.

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This book contains a history of the all-volunteer force. This report was helpful as

it described the decision-making process for moving the United States to an all-volunteer

force. It also analyzes the factors that led to the end of the draft.

Marwick, Arthur. The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy and the

United States, c.1958-c.1974. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998. Print.

This book describes how the events of the 1960s changed America culturally and

politically. The author focuses on events like the civil rights movement, the gender rights

movement, and the anti-Americanism movement that followed the Vietnam War and

explains how they affected the American society. This book is valuable to my research as

it helps me explain the political and cultural background of my topic.

Moskos, Charles. "A New Concept of the Citizen-Soldier." Orbis 49.4 2005: 663-76.

Print.

Charles Moskos states that the military service after the draft had become not an

institutional but an occupational job. Therefore, the military had to compete with the job

market in attracting recruits that would be considering such primary factors as salary and

economic benefits. This article helped me set up my refutatio.

Nixon, Richard M. The All-Volunteer Armed Force: A Radio Address by the Republican

Presidential Nominee, Washington, D.C.: Republican National Committee, 1968. Print.

This source is a radio address by Nixon before he became the President. In his

speech, Nixon describes the inequities of the draft. This was helpful to my paper as it

illustrated the factors that led to the end of the draft.

Rostker, Bernard. I Want You! The Evolution of the All-Volunteer Force. Santa Monica,

California: Rand, 2006. Print.

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This book describes the evolution of the all-volunteer force. The author explain

the move to end conscription, the coming of the all-volunteer force, and the effects of the

end of the draft and the move to an all-volunteer force on the military from 1973 to the

present. This book helped me understand the background of the all-volunteer force and

how the all-volunteer force changed the military.

Sackett, Paul R., and Mavor, Anne S., eds. Evaluating Military Advertising and

Recruiting: Theory and Methodology. Committee on the Youth Population and Military

Recruitment - Phase II. Washington, D.C.: The National Academies Press, 2004. Print.

Paul Sackett and Anne Mavor's Evaluating Military Advertising and Recruiting:

Theory and Methodology offers an input on an aspect of military advertising that revolves

around its psychological effects on the American youth. In their study, Sackett and

Mavor focus on a variety of methodological approaches that include monitoring trends in

youth attitude and values, determining optimal levels of advertising and planning

advertising using experimental approaches. This book was valuable to my research as it

provided a more psychological and societal approach to military advertising.

United States Army Recruiting Command. “A & I plan for ’72: Stimulate prospect

interest and strengthen the Army image,” U.S. Army Recruiting & Career Counseling

Journal July 1971. Print.

This article discusses the army's image and explains how the military can

influence the American youth by enhancing its image at every opportunity. This source

helped my explain how the military hoped to increase enlistments by changing its

advertising policies and rebranding itself.

Khoury 24

Works Consulted:

Brockett, Patrick L. and Cooper, William W. "Alternative Statistical Regression Studies

of the Effects of Joint and Service Specific Advertising on Military Recruitment" The

Journal of the Operational Research Society October 2004, Vol. 55, No. 10: 1039-1048.

Print.

Bicksler, Barbara A., Curtis L. Gilroy, and John T. Warner, eds. The All-volunteer Force:

Thirty Years of Service. Washington, D.C.: Brassey's, 2004. Print.

Dertouzos, James N., and Steven Garber. Is Military Advertising Effective ? An

Estimation Methodology and Applications to Recruiting in the 1980s and 90s. Santa

Monica, California: Rand, 2003. Print.

Hintze, Wayne. Recognition of Military Advertising Slogans Among American Youth.

Arlington, Virginia: Defense Manpower Data Center, 1999. Print.

Killen, Andreas. 1973 Nervous Breakdown: Watergate, Warhol, and the Birth of Post-

Sixties America. New York: Bloomsbury, 2006. Print.

Opinion Research Corporation. The Image of the Army: Army Veterans, General Public,

High School Educators, and Vietnam Army Veterans in College Appraise the U.S. Army.

Princeton, NJ: Corporation, 1969. Print.

Advertisements:

Christy, Howard C. "Gee!! I Wish I Were a Man,"1917.

This advertisement helped me understand the image of women in the military

before 1973.

United States Army, "Feel Like a Man... Go Army,"1963.

Khoury 25

This advertisement illustrates a common advertisement before 1973 that targets

mainly nationalism.

United States Army, "Join the People who've Joined the Army," 1977

This advertisement offered an image of women in the military after 1973. This

helped me compare the role of women in the army before and after 1973.

United States Army, "Today's Army Wants to Join You," 1971.

This advertisement explains how the army tried to portray an image of itself as

welcoming of all cultures and backgrounds.

United States Army, "Today's Army Wants to Join You," 1971.

This advertisement explains how the army tried to portray an images of itself as

tolerant and how it embraces the counter-culture of the 1960s.