The United States in the Great War: A HistoriographyAuthor(s): Dennis ShowalterSource: Magazine of History, Vol. 17, No. 1, World War I (Oct., 2002), pp. 5-13Published by: Organization of American HistoriansStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25163557Accessed: 25/05/2010 17:10

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available athttp://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unlessyou have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and youmay use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained athttp://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=oah.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printedpage of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range ofcontent in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new formsof scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Organization of American Historians is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access toMagazine of History.

http://www.jstor.org

Dennis Showalter

The United States in the Great War:

A Historiography

The subject of America's participation in World War I has

generated a body of literature far too extensive for compre hensive treatment in an essay. This piece is particularly

intended to provide some guidelines to English-language scholar

ship less likely to be familiar to non-specialist readers. It correspondingly emphasizes works

published recently, preferably in the last twenty five years. It focuses on monographs at the

expense of general histories with some discus

sion of the war. And it avoids as far as possible

citing familiar autobiographies and memoirs.

General Works

The United States in the early twentieth

century was a country in ferment. Industrializa

tion, immigration, and urbanization were only

the obvious manifestations of a "Great Trans

formation" that set the American polity and the

American people at odds with each other in new

ways. John Whiteclay Chambers's, The Tyranny

of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1890

1920 (1992), and David Kennedy's Over Here

(1980) are the best scholarly surveys of a coun

try at war with itself as well as the Central

Powers. Briefer and more analytical, America's

Great War (2000), by Ralph H. Zieger, sees the

conflict as the defining event of American history in the twenti

eth century. Meirion and Susie Harries offer a general audience

narrative ofthe home front in The Last Days of Innocence (1997).

Byron FarwelPs narrative, Over There: The United States in the

Great War, 1917-1918 (1999), incorporates previously over

looked groups?blacks and women in particular. Among older

studies, Arthur S. Link's Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era

(1954) was a part ofthe midcentury New American Nation series, and remains a useful comprehensive analysis. Tim Nenninger's essay in Against All Enemies (edited by Kenneth J. Hagan and

William R. Roberts, 1986), "American Military Effectiveness in

World War I," remains the best discussion of that controversial

subject. The Germans, who were in a position to know, gave the

United States a solid "B", according to Gregory Martin in "Ger man Strategy and German Assessments of the American Expedi

tionary Force" in War and History.

Among reference works, Anne Cipriano Venzon's The United States in the First World

War: An Encyclopedia (1995) stands out for the

range and quality of its entries. Chambers's

Oxford Companion to American Military History (1999) has a number of specific entries, and

features a superb essay on the United States

role in the war, jointly written by several lead

ing scholars. Holger H. Herwig and Neil

Heyman's biographical dictionary (1982) is

useful for major military and political figures. The official seventeen-volume The UnitedStates

Army in the World War, published by the United

States Department of the Army in 1948, and

the corresponding four-volume official history ofthe Air Service, The United States Air Force in

WW1 (1978), are mines of primary source ma

terial, reports and documents. These two works

are also widely available in public libraries. The

massive edition of Wilson's papers edited by Arthur S. Link (1966-1994) is less common,

but can be found in college and university collections.

Policy and Diplomacy The diplomacy of America's entry into the war is well covered

by the still standard works by Link about Wilson and Ernest May's The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917 (1954), both of

which affirm the strategic and moral desirability of United States

participation. Writing in the 1970s, John Coogan, in The End of

Neutrality (1981), and Patrick Devlin, in Too Proud to Fight (1974), were less certain. In Heir to Empire (1969), Carl Parrini

links military power and economic aggrandizement in a global

peXce Your Gift To The Nation

Peace was the ultimate gift Uncle Sam

and the chubby-cheeked doughboy sitting on his lap could give to the nation. (NARA NWDNS-4-P-163)

OAH Magazine of History October 2002 5

context. Thomas Knocks To End All Wars (1992) takes a positive view of Wilson's search for a "new world order," and Robert H.

Ferrell's Woodrow Wilson and WWl, 1917-1921 (1985), the best recent analysis of Wilson as war leader and peacemaker, stresses

the President's commitment to ending what he considered milita

rism run mad. The essay cowritten by Link and Chambers in The

United States Military under the Constitution of the United States

(1991), edited by Richard H. Kohn, is excellent on Wilson as

commander-in-chief. The generally dominant position of the

executive branch is also suggested by the title of Seward Livermore's

volume on the wartime Congress: Politics Is Adjourned (1966). Frederick Calhoun establishes Wilson's commitment to the

use of force in the Western Hemisphere as well as Europe in his

works Powers and Principles: Armed Intervention in Wilsonian For

eign Policy (1986) and Uses of Force and Wilsonian Foreign Policy (1993). The most obvious consequence, the Mexican interven

tion of 1916, is presented in John S. D. Eisenhowers's Intervention:

The United States and the Mexican Revolution, 1913-1917 (1993) and Joseph A. Stout's Border Conflicts (1999). Jack Sweetman's

The Landing at Veracruz: 1914 (1968) is excellent. Friedrich Katz covers the diplomatic background in The Secret War in Mexico

(1981), and his classic The Life & Times of Pancho Villa (1998)

incorporates the best survey in English of the intervention from

Mexico's perspectives.

Among other significant figures in United States foreign policy, Kendrick Clemens analyzes William Jennings Bryan's dilemma as

an isolationist secretary of state in a world at war in William Jennings

Bryan: Missionary Isolationist (1982). Daniel Smith's Robert Lansing and American Neutrality, 1914-1917 (1958) remains standard on

Bryan's successor Robert Lansing, as does Daniel Beaver's excellent

study of Secretary of War Newton D. Baker, Newton Baker and the

American War Effort, 1917-1919 (1966). Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels has no good biography, but his memoirs are useful for the

wartime role of his department. William J. Williams's article on

Daniels, "Josephus Daniels and the U. S. Navy's Shipbuilding

Program During World War I" in The Journal of Military History, has a broader scope than its title suggests. The relationship of Wilson to

his confidant and factotum Colonel Edward House is the subject of

Alexander and Juliette George's Woodrow Wilson and Colonel

House: A Personality Study (1956) but House still lacks a biography of his own. Edward M. Coffman's The Hilt ofthe Sword: The Career

of Peyton C. March (1966) remains definitive on wartime Chief of

Staff Peyton C. March.

Domestic Mobilization

Paul Koistinen's comprehensive monograph on domestic

mobilization, Mobilizing for Modern War (1980), is a demanding but rewarding read, stressing the government's commitment to

keeping control ofthe mobilization process. Kathleen Burk estab

lishes its roots in Anglo-American cooperation in Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, 1914-1918 (1985). Robert D. Cuffs

academic monograph, The War Industries Board (1973) and the

official history written by Bernard Baruch, American Industry in the

War (1941), combine to present the crucial role of the War

Industries Board. Franklin Grubbs, in Samuel Gompers and the

Great War (1982) and Valerie Connor, in The National War Labor

Board (1983), address American labor, and its ambivalence at

being simultaneously coerced and co-opted into the war effort.

Lettie Gavin's American Women in World War I (1997) and

Maureen Greenwald's Women, War, and Work (1980) present

A woman hangs posters for the United States Food Administration in Mobile, AL, one ofthe many ways women helped the war effort.

(NARA, NWDNS-165-WW-169B[4])

women's increasingly complex and comprehensive role in na

tional mobilization. Carole Marks, in Farewell?We're Good and

Gone (1989) and Florette Henri, in Black Migration (1975), cover

the massive African American migration to the North and Mid west in search of better jobs and new lives. Daniel Beaver's Newton

D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919 (1966) and

Phyllis Zimmerman's The Neck of the Bottle: George W. Goethals

and the Reorganization of the U.S. Army Supply System, 1917-1918

(1992) analyze the problems of integrating wartime supply and

production calculated in millions of dollars into a military system whose administration was structured and conditioned to think in

small change. Williams's monograph on the shipbuilding crisis, The Wilson Administration and the Shipbuilding Crisis of1917 (1992),

is a good case study.

An American people exhorted for years to be neutral in

"thought, word, and deed" were not automatically brought to

the trenches. Walton Rawls's Wake Up, America!: World War 1

and the American Poster (1988) deals with the new approaches of

poster propaganda. John Thompson covers the mobilization of

Progressive intellectuals in Reformers and War: Progressive Pub

licists and the First World War (1987); George T. Blakey does the same for the historians in Historians on the Homefront (1970).

George Creel's personal account, How We Advertised America

(1920), and Vaughn's monograph, Holding Fast the Inner Lines

(1980), feature the primary umbrella organization, the Commit tee on Public Information.

Citizens into Soldiers

Suppose they gave a war and nobody came? John Whiteclay Chambers's To Raise an Army (1987) is the definitive account of a conscription system that depended as much on persuasion as

compulsion for its effectiveness (see his essay on pages 26-33).

John P. Finnegan's Against the Specter of a Dragon (1974) deals with a peacetime preparedness movement oriented towards the middle

6 OAH Magazine of History October 2002

class and J. Garry Clifford focuses on the Plattsburgh camps in The

Citizen Soldiers (1972). The National Guard, much maligned as

politicized and ineffective, is rehabilitated by Jerry Cooper's

general monograph, The Rise ofthe National Guard (1997), which stresses regular army neglect of the citizen soldiers who were

supposed to be the nation's first line reserve.

National Guardsmen were not alone in suffering neglect. Arthur Barbeau's and Florette Henri's The Unknown Soldier: Black

American Troops in World War 1 (1974) remains the best mono

graph on the second-class status of African American soldiers; Gerald Patton discusses the struggle to train African American

officers in War and Race (1981). In A Night of Violence (1976), Robert Haynes presents the 1917 riot of ill-treated African Ameri can soldiers in Houston. Thomas Britten, in American Indians in

World War I (1997), points out that American Indians, in con

trast, were well regarded as "natural warriors." And immigrants took a long step towards full Americanization by service in an

army that, as Nancy Ford shows in Americans All! (2001), became

significantly multicultural in practice.

Organizing and training these men for war was a synergy of

improvisations. The best accounts of stateside train

ing are the unpublished dissertations of Douglas

Johnson, "A Few 'Squads Left' and Off to France"

(Temple University, 1992) and James Victory, "Sol

dier Making" (Kansas State University, 1990).

They should be read alongside James W. Rainey's

critiques of United States tactical doctrine and its

origins in Parameters. John M. Lindley's A Soldier is

Also A Citizen (1990) discusses the problems of

applying military justice to citizen soldiers. Nancy Bristow's Making Men Morai (1996) focuses on the

efforts of moralists to keep soldiers away from the

pleasant vices. Stephen Pope discusses the role in

that process the military gave to organized athletics in his essay "An Army of Athletes" in the Journal of

Military History; Thomas Canfield describes troop morale programs designed to inculcate "the will to

win" in Military Affairs. The whole process of "keep

ing the young ones moral after drill" sounds as

ghastly now as it seemed to many of its involuntary beneficiaries then.

"Over There"

By far the best survey of the American Expeditionary Force

(AEF) remains Edward Coffman's The War to End All Wars

(1968). John Eisenhower's Yanks is a fast-paced narrative, more

triumphant in tone than Coffman's balanced analysis. John Mosier's

The Myth ofthe Great War (2001) exaggerates America's contri

bution to victory to the point of distortion. Russell Weigley's The

American Way of War (1973) contextualizes the AEF's approach to the Western Front. Ronald Spector's brief essay in Military

Affairs, '"You're Not Going to Send Soldiers Over There, Are

You?': the American Search for an Alternative to the Western

Front, 1916-1917", discusses the vain search for an alternative

primary theater of operations.

The study of America's place in Allied strategic councils has

been dominated by the work of David Trask, with perceptive volumes on Anglo-American naval relations in Captains and

Cabinets: Anglo-American Naval Relations, 1917-1918 (1972), and

the United States role in the Supreme War Council, established in the wake ofthe German victories in the spring of 1918, in The

United States in the Supreme War Council (1961). Trask admires

cooperation even when it approaches deference, and his third

major work, on the AEF's approach to coalition war, The AEF and

Coalition Warmaking, 1917-1918 (1993), is sharply critical of its

nationalist orientation. Allan Millett's "Over Where? The AEF

and the American Strategy for Victory, 1917-1918, in Against All

Enemies takes a more balanced view of the United States military and political problems. David Woodward's analysis of Anglo

American military relations in Trial by Friendship (1993) is sympa thetic to the Americans' insistence on maintaining an independent

military identity, and an important article by Robert Doughty, "More than Numbers: Americans and the Revival of French

Morale in the Great War" in Army History reinforces the case by

establishing the central role of America's military presence in

sustaining French morale.

Nenninger's volume on the Leavenworth school

system, The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army (1978), and his survey essay ofthe United States army in the early twentieth century, "The Army Enters the

Twentieth Century" in Hagan's and Roberts's Inter

pretations of American Military History from Colonial

Times to the Present (1986), combine with Soldiers and

Scholars: The U.S. Army and the Uses of Military

History (1990), Carol Reardon's outstanding analysis of the prewar army's use of military history for an

overview of the army's intellectual preparation for

modern war. Dissertations by Ronald Barr, "Neo

Hamiltonism and Military Reform in the Progressive Era" (Louisiana State University, 1994), and Barrie

Zais, "The Struggle for a Twentieth-Century Army" (Duke University, 1981), discuss the institutional and

intellectual problems of modernizing the army be tween 1898 and 1917. Another unpublished disserta

tion, by James T. Seidule, "Morale in the American

Expeditionary Forces during World War I" (Ohio State University, 1997) is the best work to date on the AEF's morale. Gary Mead makes

good journalistic use of personal experiences recorded for an Army War College project in his narrative of The Dougjriboys (2000). Two

essays by Edward Coffiman, "American Command and Commanders in World War I" in Dimensions in Military History (1976) and "The

AEF Leaders' Education for War" in The Great War, 1914-1918

(1990), focus on senior United States leadership whose results

Nenninger describes as making "unsystematic" into a style of com

mand in "Unsystematic as a Mode of Command: Command and the

Process of Command in the American Expeditionary Forces, 1917 1919" in the Journal of Military History. James Cooke's Pershingand His

Generals (1997) demonstrates the problems AEF commander John J.

Pershing faced in developing division and corps commanders from

among men who had never seen as many as five thousand troops

together before 1916.

This 1917 Navy recruitment poster capitalizes on George M. Cohan's popular World War

I song, "Over There". (Library

ofCongress, LC-USZC4-1346)

OAH Magazine of History October 2002 7

Among recent works on AEF personalities, Donald Smythe's

analysis of Pershing is the most scholarly in Pershing: General ofthe Armies (1986); Frank Vandiver's two-volume biography, Black

Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing (1977) is reader

friendly. Allan Millett uses Robert L. Bullard as a focal point of an

excellent analysis ofthe World War I era army as an institution in

The General: Robert L. Bullard and Officership in the United States

Army, 1881-1925 (1975). I. B. Holley's work, General John M.

Palmer, Citizen Soldiers, and the Army of a Democracy (1982), takes a similar approach to a soldier better known for his support for

citizen soldiers than for his field performance. The first of Clayton

James's three volumes on Dou

glas MacArthur, The Years of MacArthur (1970-1985), is by far the best on his subject's role in World War I, as is the first

volume of Forrest Pogue's multivolume study of George C. Marshall, George C. Marshall:

Education of a General, 1880

1939 (1963). Marshall's own

account of his World War I ser

vice in Memoirs of My Services in

the World War, 1917-1918

(1976) embodies the intellec

tual and moral integrity charac

teristic of that great man and

soldier. The Marines' John

Lejeune is presented accurately and sympathetically by Merrill

Bartlett in Lejeune: A Marine's

Life, 1867-1942 (1991).

Operations The best case study of an AEF battle is Millett's detailed, warts

and-all account of Cantigny in America's First Battles 1776-1965

(1986). Robert Asprey's At Belleau Wood (1965) remains a

standard on Belleau Wood; Soissons 1918 (1999) by Douglas V.

Johnson II and Rolfe L. Hillman is particularly useful for its

treatment of the tensions at command levels between the French

and the AEF in the summer of 1918. In Squandered Victory (1995),

James Hallas argues that the Battle of St. Mihiel could have been a springboard to greater things. Donald Smythe's essay, "St.

Mihiel: The Birth of an American Army" in Parameters is more

skeptical. The second edition of Paul Braim's study of the Meuse

Argonne, The Test of Battle (1998), is more sympathetic to the

AEF's problems than the first version.

An alternative perspective on AEF performance is provided by a number of recent, well-done unit histories. George Clark's

history of Pershing's Marines, DevilDogs: FightingMarines of World

War I (1999), tells the story of an elite fighting force with a

corresponding flair for public relations. James Cooke has done the

42nd Division in The Rainbow Division in the Great War, 1917 1919 (1994), and the All-Americans of the 82nd in The All

Americans At War (1999). Lonnie White covers two southwestern

divisions, the National Guard 36th and the 90th, originally

composed primarily of Texas and Oklahoma draftees in Panthers to Arrowheads (1984) and The 90th Division in World War 1 (1996).

Stephen L. Harris's Duty, Honor, Privilege: New York's Silk Stocking

Regiment and the Breaking of the Hindenburg Line (2001) is one of

the very few modern regimental histories of the 107th Infantry, formed from the New York National guard. Chester Heywood, in

Negro Combat Troops in the World War: The Story of the 371st

Infantry (1969), and Arthur Little, in From Harlem to the Rhine:

The Story of New York's Colored Volunteers (1936), tell the stories

of African American regiments, unwanted by the AEF, who

compiled distinguished records under French command.

The women who served

with the AEF are the subject of an excellent study by Susan

Zeiger, In Uncle Sam's Service:

Women Workers with the Ameri can Expeditionary Force, 1917 1919 (1999). For the specialized arms and services,

Mark E. Grotelueschen offers

valuable insight into AEF gun

nery as a whole in Doctrine Un

der Trial: American Artillery

Employment in World War I

(2001). Dale Wilson's Treat lem

Rough: The Birth of American

Armor, 1917-1920 (1989) is

just as good on the Tank Corps. Charles Heller's monograph, Chemical Warfare in World War

1 (1985) and William Langer's Gas and Flame in World War I (1965) cover the AEF's chemical war. The latter work is noteworthy because of its author's later

distinguished career as a historian. Reg Schrader's essay in The

Great War, 1914-1918, "'Maconochie's Stew': Logistical Sup port of American Forces with the BEF, 1917-1918", offers an

interesting sidebar in his account of British logistical support for

AEF units.

Doughboy War (2000), edited by James Hallas, is an excel

lent selection of vignettes and anecdotes from contemporary and postwar firsthand accounts. Samuel Hynes contextualizes

Hallas's raw intellectual data in The Soldiers' Tale: Bearing Witness to Modern War (1997). Mark Meigs, Optimism at

Armageddon (1997), attempts to establish an overseas Ameri can mentality. Clayton Laurie evaluates AEF propaganda in

France in his essay "The Chanting of Crusaders': Captain Heber Blankenhorn and AEF Combat Propaganda in World

War I," featured in the Journal of Military History. Alfred

Cornebise covers doughboy poets in Dougboys Doggerel (1985) and journalists in The Stars and Stripes (1984); and has a good account of the AEF's higher education program in Soldier

Scholars (1997). Among an increasing number of newly pub lished frontline memoirs, Marine Elton Mackin's work, Suddenly

We Didn't Want to Die (1993), Albert Ettinger's A Doughboy with the Fighting 69th (1992), Milton Triplet's account of his

service as a sergeant in the 35th Division, A Youth in the Meuse

American Red Cross worker serves water to a badly wounded

British soldier at Montmirail, France, 31 May 1918 (NARA, NWDNS-111-SC-14129)

8 OAH Magazine of History October 2002

Argonne (2000), and Joseph D. Lawrence's Fighting Soldier

(1985) merit particular mention.

Air and Sea

James Cooke surveys the history of the AEF's Air Service in

The U.S. Air Service in the Great War, 1917-1919 (1996); James J. Hudson's Hostile Skies (1983) is operationally focused. Alfred F.

Hurley, Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power (1975), does a good

job of presenting Billy Mitchell's wartime career and modifying some of Mitchell's enthusiasms. Stephen McFarland's mono

graph, America's Pursuit of Precision Bombing, 1910-1945 (1995) establishes the Great War roots of United States emphasis on

precision strategic bombing. LB. Holley's Ideas and Weapons:

Exploitation of the Aerial Weapon by the United States During World

War I (1983) remains classic on the synergies of technology and

doctrine in America's air war.

The Navy played an unexpectedly secondary role in the Great

War. David Trask's essay, "The American Navy in a World at

War" in Peace and War, is a good overview of its activities; A.B.

Feuer's The United States Navy in World War I (1999) is a compre hensive yet pedestrian account. In One Hundred Years of Sea Power

(1994), George Baer describes the Navy's unprecedented success

in moving millions of men across the Atlantic and its frustration

at being denied the decisive surface battle for which it was

configured. That disappointment is also a theme of Jerry W.

Jones's Battleship Operations in World War 1 (1998). Dean Allard

surveys naval policies from the perspective of Admiral William

Sims in his essay "Admiral William S. Sims and United States

Naval Policy in World War I," published in American Neptune. Adrian Van Wyen's Naval Aviation in World War I (1969) is useful on the embryonic position of naval air. Three ofthe fleet's leading

personalities have competent biographies: Elting Morison on

Sims, Admiral Sims and the Modern American Navy (1942); Mary Klachko's and David Trask's work Admiral William Shepard Benson:

First Chief of Naval Operations (1986); and Paolo Coletta's Admiral

Bradley A. Fiske and the American Navy (1979) about one of the

Navy's forward-thinking admirals.

Domestic Dissent

As the war progressed, the nation's wartime coalition was

increasingly tested and found increasingly wanting. Harry N.

Scheiber surveys the general question of wartime civil liberties in

The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917-1921 (1960). William Preston, Jr.'s Aliens and Dissenters (1963) is strong on the

general aspects of control and repression. In World War I and the

Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States (1979), Paul Murphy describes the Great War as generating the modern institutional

ized concern for civil liberties. His argument is supported by Donald Johnson's work, The Challenge to American Freedoms

(1963), on the wartime origins ofthe ACLU, and from a feminist

perspective by Carrie Foster in The Woman and the Warriors

(1995) on the Women's International League for Peace and

Freedom. In A World Without War: How U.S. Feminists and

Pacifists Resisted World War 1 (1997), Francis H. Early discusses the Bureau of Legal Advice, formed to provide assistance to the war's

critics. Richard Polenberg presents the Supreme Court's treat

ment of a landmark free speech case in Fighting Faiths: The Abrams

Case, the Supreme Court, and Free Speech (1987).

Among repression's primary targets, Charles Chatfield's For

Peace and Justice: Pacifism in America, 1914-1941 (1971) analyzes the ideals and vicissitudes of American pacifists. Frederick Luebke, in Bonds of Loyalty: German Americans and World War I (1974),

and Christopher Gibbs, in The Great Silent Majority: Missouri's

Resistance to World War 1 (1980) focus on the problems facing German-Americans. Theodore Kornweibel's essay, "Black

America's Negative Response to World War I" in South Atlantic

Quarterly 80, is an overview of negative African American re

sponses to the war; Elliot M. Rudwick's Race Riot at East St. Louis,

July 2, 1917 (1964) and William M. Tuttle's Race Riot: Chicago in

the Red Summer of 1919 (1974) cover the racial upheavals in these

two Midwest cities. Labor discontent that built up during the war

manifested itself in major postwar strikes, including the steel

industry, covered in David Brody's Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike

of 1919 (1965), and the Boston police department, covered in

Francis Russell's A City in Terror: 1919, The Boston Police Strike

(1975). Wartime and postwar antileft activity is presented in

Stanley Coben's biography of Attorney General A. Mitchell

Palmer (1963) and Robert K. Murray's Red Scare (1964).

Peacemaking and Aftermath

Woodrow Wilson sought to use the Great War as the basis for

establishing a peaceful world order of states organized on a

nationalist basis and along capitalist economic lines, functioning under international law. David Esposito's Legacy of Woodrow

Wilson (1996) sympathetically surveys the president's war aims.

Arthur Link offers what is still the best overall justification of

Wilson's approach to peacemaking in Wilson the Diplomatist (1957); see also his anthology Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World

(1982). Arthur Walworth, in America's Moment, 1918: American

Diplomacy at the End of World War 1(1977), and Lloyd Ambrosius's

Wilsonian Statecraft (1991) are more critical, but remain balanced.

Lawrence Gelfand's The Inquiry (1963) is still good on America's

first think-tank, which provided Wilson with essential, usually sound advice. Jonathan Nielsen's American Historians in War and

Peace (1994) is solid?and overlooked?on the specific role

played by the United States historical community. Ralph Stone

deals with senatorial objections to the Versailles treaty and the

League of Nations in The Irreconcilables: The Fight Against the

League of Nations (1970); William Widenor focuses on a leading isolationist senator in Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an

American Foreign Policy (1980). Arno Mayer's Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking (1967) and

N. Gordon Levin, Jr.'s Woodrow Wilson and World Politics (1968) take an alternative position, describing Wilson's principal imme

diate objective as checking the threat of Bolshevism, and its

Communist development, a central result of which was United

States intervention in Russia. George Schild's monograph, bal ances Between Ideology and Realpolitik in his work by that title

(1995). David W. McFadden, in Alternative Paths: Soviets and Americans ,1917-1920 (1993) and David S. Foglesong, in America's Secret War Against Bolshevism (1995), however, more or less trace

the Cold War to Wilson's ill-advised meddling. On the other hand

OAH Magazine of History October 2002 9

Victor Fic's The Collapse of American Policy in Russia and Siberia, 1918 (1995) criticizes the President for not doing enough to

destroy the Bolshevik menace. Benjamin Rhodes demonstrates

the military difficulties of doing anything at all under the condi tions prevailing in both Russia and America in The Angfo-Ameri can Winter War With Russia, 1918-1919 (1988).

Klaus Schwabe's Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany, and Peacemaking, 1918-1919 (1985) is excellent on the evolu tion of German reactions to Wilson's changing views of peace;

see also Hans-Juergen Schroeder's scholarly anthology, Con

frontation and Cooperation: Germany and the United States in the

Era of World War I (1993) on German- American relations in the

first quarter of the twentieth century. Manfred Boemeke out

lines Wilson's changing views on Germans in "Woodrow Wilson's

Image of Germany, the War-Guilt Question, and the Treaty of

Versailles," and Marc Trachtenberg's "Reparation at the Paris

Peace Conference," in the Journal of Modern History, shows that

the famous Fourteen Points did not give Germany a free pass back into the community of nations. In Victors Divided: America

and the Allies in Germany, 1918-1923 (1975), Keith Nelson deals

with the interallied tensions generated by the occupation; George

Egerton's "Britain and the 'Great Betrayal': Anglo-American

Relations and the Struggle for the United States Ratification of

the Treaty of Versailles, 1919-1920," in Historical Journal, de

scribes the strains imposed by United States' failure to ratify the

results; Michael Hogan presents the evolution of an Informal Entente, the title of his 1977 work. There is less on Franco

American relations, but David Stevenson's "French War Aims

and the American Challenge. 1914-1918," in the Historical

Journal, discusses the wartime tensions over war aims, and

William R. Keylor surveys the postwar rupture in "How They Advertised France," published in Diplomatic History.

Bibliography Allard, Dean C. "Admiral William S. Sims and United States Naval Policy in

World War I." American Neptune 35 (1975): 97-110.

Ambrosius, Lloyd. Wilsonian Statecraft: Theory and Practice of Liberal Internation

alism during World War 1. Wilmington, DE: SR Books, 1991.

Asprey, Robert B. At Belleau Wood. New York: Putnam, 1965.

Baer, George. One Hundred Years of Sea Power: The U.S. Navy, 1890-1990.

Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1994.

Barbeau, Arthur E., and Florette Henri. The Unknown Soldiers: Black American

Troops in World War 1. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1974.

Barr, Ronald J. "Neo-Hamiltonianism and Military Reform in the Progressive

Era, 1898-1912." Ph.D Dissertation, Louisiana State University, 1994.

Bartlett, Merrill L. Lejeune: A Marine's Life, 1867-1942. Columbia, SC: Univer

sity of South Carolina Press, 1991.

Beaver, Daniel R. "George W. Goethals and the Problems of American Military

Supply." In Daniel R. Beaver, ed., Some Pathways in Twentieth Century

History. Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1969, 95-109.

-. Newton D. Baker and the American War Effort, 1917-1919. Lincoln,

NE:University of Nebraska Press, 1966.

Blakey, George T. Historians on the Homefront: American Propagandists for the

Great War. Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1970.

? University Press of Colorado

^^^^^H romance ^^^^^H H ^I9^^^^hBmEi HHHHH|and ^^^^^^H 111 B^^^^IHbii^PX

^^^^^^^^^^^Mortcmm. ^^^^^^^ MumA B fll ^'^''^^^Bf ^ SHE1'] ^^^^^HciiufjAsM-^o.i^f B^^HI^^^^^KflHI^Br! ^BfcS.'i^^B?iioSWIsfeilllM ^^^^^^^^^^ iw^ununiiMcom BflfflBIHiiiff^M^^^^^^^^BJ ^^^KH^^^IH^EPIifiiMpl

Galvanized Yankees on the Upper Missouri Lynching in Colorado, 1859-1919 The Face of Loyalty By Stephen j. Leonard

By Michele Tucker Butts $24.95 Hardcover $29.95 Hardcover

Co-winner of the 1999 Colorado Endowment

The Romance of Commerce and Culture for the Humanities Publication Prize

Capitalism, Modernism, and the Chicago-Aspen Colorado Crusade for Cultural Reform, Revised Edition A Sports History by James Sloan Allen by James Whiteside

$21.95 Paperback $34.95 Hardcover

10 OAH Magazine of History October 2002

Boemeke, Manfred F. "Woodrow Wilson's Image of Germany, the War-Guilt

Question, ant the Treaty of Versailles." In Manfred Boemeke et. al., eds.

The Treaty of Versailles'. A Reassessment after 75 Years. New York: Cambridge

University Press, 1998, pp. 603-614.

Braim, Paul F. The Test of Battle: The American Expeditionary Force in the

Meuse'Argonne Campaign, second rev. ed. Shippensburg, PA: White

Mane Press, 1998.

Breen, William J. Labor Market Politics and the Great War: The Department of

Labor, the States, and the First U.S. Employment Service, 1907-1933. Kent,

OH: Kent State University Press, 1997.

-. Uncle Sam at Home: Civilian Mobilization, Wartime Federalism, and the

Council of National Defense. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984.

Bristow, Nancy K. Making Men Moral: Social Engineering During the Great War.

New York: New York University Press, 1996.

Britten, Thomas. American Indians in World War 1. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press, 1997.

Brody, David. Labor in Crisis: The Steel Strike of 1919. Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1965.

Burk, Kathleen. Britain, America, and the Sinews of War, 1914-1918. Boston: G.

Allen & Unwin, 1985.

Calhoun, Frederick S. Power and Principle: Armed Intervention in Wilsonian Foreign

Policy. Kent, OH: Kent State University Pr ess, 1986. - Uses of Force and Wilsonian Foreign Policy. Kent, OH: Kent State

University Press, 1993.

Cameron, Rebecca Hancock. Training to Fly: Military Flight Training, 1907-1945.

Washington, DC: Air Force History and Museums Program, 1999.

Canfield, Thomas. "Will to Win?The US Army Troop Morale Program in

World War I." Military Affairs 41 (1977): 125-128.

Chambers, John Whiteclay, II. The Oxford Companion to American Military

History. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999

-. To Raise an Army: The Draft Comes to Modern America. New York: Free

Press, 1987.

-. The Tyranny of Change: America in the Progressive Era, 1890-1920.

second ed. New York: Saint Martin's, 1992.

Chatfield, Charles. For Peace and Justice: Pacifism in America, 1914

1941. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1971.

Clark, George B. Devil Dogs: Fighting Marines of World War 1.

Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1999.

Clements, Kendrick A. William Jennings Bryan: Missionary Isolation

ist. Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1982.

Clifford, J. Garry. The Citizen Soldiers: The Plattsburg Training Camp

Movement, 1913-1920. Lexington, KY: University Press of

Kentucky, 1972.

Coben, Stanley. A. Mitchell Palmer: Politician. New York: Columbia

University Press, 1963.

Coffman, Edward M. "The AEF Leaders' Education for War," in R.

J. Q. Adams, ed. The Great War, 1914-1918: Essays on the

Military, Political and Social History of the First World War.

Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan in association with King's Col

lege London, 1990, pp. 139-59.

-. "American Command and Commanders in World War

I." In Russell F. Weigley, ed., New Dimensions in Military

History. San Rafael, CA: Presidio Press, 1975, pp. 17-34.

-. The War to End all Wars: The American Military Experience in World War

1. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.

-. The Hilt ofthe Sword: The Career of Peyton C. March. Lexington, KY:

University of Kentucky Press, 1966.

Coletta, Paolo E. Admiral Bradley A. Fiske and the American Navy. Lawrence, KS:

University Press of Kansas, 1979.

Conner, Valerie ]. The National War Labor Board: Stability, Social Justice, and the

Voluntary State in World War I. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North

Carolina Press, 1983.

Coogan, John W. The End of Neutrality: The United States, Britain, and Maritime

Rights, 1899-1915. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1981.

Cooke, James J. The All-Americans at War: The 82nd Division in the Great War.

Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999.

-. Pershing and His Generals: Command and Staff in the AEF. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997.

-. The U.S. Air Service in the Great War, 1917-1919. Westport, CT:

Praeger, 1996.

-. The Rainbow Division in the Great War, 1917-1919. Westport, CT:

Praeger, 1994.

Cooper, Jerry. The Rise ofthe National Guard: The Evolution ofthe American Militia, 1865*1920. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1997.

Cornebise, Alfred E., ed. Doughboy Doggerel: Verse of the American Expeditionary

Force, 1918-1919. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 1985.

-. Soldier-Scholars: Higher Education in the AEF, 1917-1919. Philadel

phia: American Philosophical Society, 1997.

-. The Stars and Stripes: Dougjxboy Journalism in World War I. Westport,

CT: Greenwood Press, 1984.

Creel, George. How We Advertised America: The first telling of the amazing story of the Committee on Public Information that carried the gospel of Americanism to

every corner of the globe. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1920.

Cuff, Robert D. The War Industries Board: Business-Government Relations During World War I. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973.

Daniels, Josephus. Our Navy at War. New York: G.H. Doran, 1922.

Devlin, Patrick. Too Proud to Fight: Woodrow Wilson's Neutrality. New York:

Oxford University Press, 1974.

Doughty, Robert A. "More Than Numbers:" Americans and the Revival of

French Morale in the Great War." Arrrry History 52 (Spring 2001): 1-10.

Early, Francis H. A World Without War: How U.S. Feminists and Pacifists Resisted

World War I. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997.

Egerton, George W. "Britain and the "Great Betrayal': Anglo-American Rela

tions and the Struggle for United States Ratification of the Treaty of

Versailles, 1919-1920," Historical Journal 21 (1978): 885-911.

Eisenhower, John S. D. Yanks: The Epic Story ofthe American Army in World War

1. New York: Free Press, 2001.

-. Intervention!: The United States and the Mexican Revolution, 1913-1917.

New York: W.W. Norton, 1993.

Esposito, David M. The Legacy of Woodrow Wilson: America's War Aims in World

War I. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996.

Ettinger, Albert. A Doughboy with the Fighting Sixty-Ninth: A

Remembrance of World War 1. Shippensburg, PA: White Mane Pub.

Company, 1992.

Farwell, Byron. Over There: The United States in the Great War, 1917

1918. New York: Norton, 1999.

Ferrell, Robert H. Woodrow Wilson and World War I, 19174921.

New York: Harper & Row, 1985.

Feuer, A.B. The U.S. Navy in World War I: Combat at Sea and in the

Air. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1999.

Fie, Victor M. The Collapse of American Policy in Russia and Siberia,

1918: Wilson's Decision Not to Intervene. Boulder, CO: East European

Monographs; New York: Distributed by Columbia University Press, 1995.

Finnegan, John P. Against the Specter of a Dragon: The Campaign for American Military Preparedness, 1914-1917. Westport, CT: Green

wood Press, 1974.

Foglesong, David S. America's Secret War Against Bolshevism: U.S.

Intervention in the Russian Civil War, 1917-1920. Chapel Hill, NC:

University of North Carolina Press, 1995.

Ford, Nancy. Americans AM! Foreign-Born Soldiers in World War 1.

College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2001.

Foster, Carrie A. The Women and the Warriors: The U.S. Section of the Women's

International League for Peace and Freedom, 1915-1946. Syracuse, NY:

Syracuse University Press, 1995.

Gavin, Lettie. American Women in World War I: They Also Served. Niwot, CO:

University Press of Colorado, 1997.

Geifand, Lawrence. The Inquiry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1963.

George, Alexander L. and Juliette George. Woodrow Wilson and Colonel House:

A Personality Study. New York: J. Day, 1956.

Gibbs, Christopher. The Great Silent Majority: Missouri's Resistance to World War

1. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1988.

Greenwald, Maurine. Women, War, and Work: The Impact of World War 1 on

Women Workers in the United States. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1980.

Grossman, James R. Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great

Migration. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989.

Grotelueschen, Mark E. Doctrine Under Trial: American Artillery Employment in

World War 1. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001.

" i i P511-' Ul^f ^

German soldiers refered

toU.S. Marines as "devil

dogs." (Library of

Congress, POS

U5.H02, no. 1.)

OAH Magazine of History October 2002 11

Grubbs, Frank L. Samuel Gompers and the Great War: Protecting Labor s Standards.

Wake Forest, NC: Meridional Publications, 1982.

Hallas, James H. Doughboy War: The American Expeditionary Force in World War

J. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2000.

-. Squandered Victory: The American First Army at St. Mihiel. Westport, CT: Praeger, 1995.

Harries, Meirion and Susie Harries. The Last Days of Innocence: America at War, 1917-1918. New York: Random House, 1997.

Harris, Stephen L. Duty, Honor, Privilege: New York's Silk Stocking Regiment and

the Breaking of the Hindenburg Line. Washington, DC: Brassey's, 2001.

Haynes, Robert V. A Night of Violence: The Houston Riot of 1917. Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1976.

Heller, Charles E. Chemical Warfare in World War I: The American Experience, 1917-1918. Fort Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, 1985.

Henri, Florette. Black Migration: Movement North, 1900-1920. Garden City, NY:

Anchor Press, 1975.

Herwig, Holger H, and Neil Heyman, eds. Biographical Dictionary of World War

I. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.

Heywood, Chester. Negro Combat Troops in the World War: The Story ofthe 371st

Infantry. New York: Negro Universities Press, 1969.

Hogan, Michael J. Informal Entente: The Private Structure of Cooperation in Anglo American Economic Diplomacy, 1918-1928. Columbia, MO: University of

Missouri Press, 1977.

Holley, LB. Ideas and Weapons: Exploitation ofthe Aerial Weapon by the United States

During World War 1. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History, 1983.

Holley, LB. General JohnM. Palmer, Citizen Soldiers, and the Army of a Democracy.

Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982.

Hudson, James J. Hostile Skies: A Combat History of the American Air Service in

World War I. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1968.

Hurley, Alfred F. Billy Mitchell, Crusader for Air Power. Bloomington, IN: Indiana

University Press, 1975.

Hynes, Samuel. The Soldiers' Tale: Bearing Witness to Modem War. New York:

Allen Lane, 1997.

James, D. Clayton. The Years of MacArthur. 3 vols. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1970-1985.

Johnson, Donald. The Challenge to American Freedoms: World War I and the Rise

ofthe American Civil Liberties Union. Lexington, KY: University of Kentucky

Press, 1963.

Johnson, Douglas V., II, and Rolfe L. Hillman, Soissons 1918. College Station:

Texas A&M Press, 1999.

-. "A Few 'Squads Left' and Off to France: Training the American Army in the United States for Service in World War I." Ph.D dissertation,

Temple University, 1992.

Jones, Jerry W. U.S. Battleship Operations in World War 1. Annapolis, MD: Naval

Institute Press, 1998.

Katz, Friedrich. The Life & Times of Pancho Villa. Stanford, CA: Stanford

University Press, 1998.

-. The Secret War in Mexico: Europe, the United States, and the Mexican

Revolution. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981.

Kennedy, David M. Over Here: The First World War and American Society. New

York: Oxford University Press, 1980.

Keylor, William R. "How They Advertised France: The French Propaganda

Campaign in the United States during the Breakup ofthe Franco-American

Entente, 1918-1923." Diplomatic History 17 (1993): 351-73.

Klachko, Mary and David F. Trask. Admiral William Shepherd Benson: First Chief

of Naval Operations. Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 1987.

Knock, Thomas J. To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World

Order. New York: Oxford University Press, 1992.

Koistinen, Paul A. C. Mobilizing for Modem War: The Political Economy of American

Warfare, 1865-1919. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1997.

Kornwiebel, Theodore. "Apathy and Dissent: Black America's Negative Re

sponse to World War I." South Atlantic Quarterly 80 (1981): 322-338.

Langer, William L. Gas and Flame in World War 1. New York: Knopf, 1965.

Laurie, Clayton D. "The Chanting of Crusaders': Captain Heber Blankenhorn

and AEF Combat Propaganda in World War I." The Journal of Military

History 59 (July 1995): 457-82.

Lawrence, Joseph D. and Robert H. Ferrell, Fighting Soldier. Boulder, CO:

Associated University Press, 1985.

Luebke, Frederick. Bonds of Loyalty: German-Americans and World War 1. DeKalb:

Northern Illinois University Press, 1974

Levin, N. Gordon, Jr. Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to

War and Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press, 1968.

Lindley, John M. "A Soldier Is Also a Citizen": The Controversy Over Military Justice, 19174920. New York: Garland Publishing, 1990.

Link, Arthur S., et. al. eds. The Papers of Woodrow Wilson, Vols. 1-69. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press, 19664994.

-. Wilson: Campaigns for Progressivism and Peace, 1916-1917. Princeton,

NJ: Princeton University Press, 1965.

-. Wilson: Confusions and Crises, 1915-1916. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1964.

-. Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1957.

-. Wilson: The Struggle for Neutrality ,1914-1915. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

University Press, 1960.

-. Woodrow Wilson and the Progressive Era, 1910-1917. New York: Harper, 1954.

-., ed. Woodrow Wilson and a Revolutionary World. Chapel Hills, NC:

University of North Carolina Press, 1982.

-. and John Whiteclay Chambers II. "Woodrow Wilson as Commander

in-Chief," in Richard A. Kohn, ed. The United States Military under the

Constitution of the United States, 1789-1989. New York: New York Univer

sity Press, 1991, pp. 317-375.

Little, Arthur W. From Harlem to the Rhine: The Story of New York's Colored

Volunteers. New York: Covici, Friede, 1936.

Livermore, Seward W. Politics is Adjourned. Woodrow Wilson and the War Con

gress, 1916-1918. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1966.

Mackin, Elton E. Suddenly We Didn't Want to Die: Memoirs of a World War I

Marine, ed. George B. Clark. Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1993.

Margulies, Herbert F. The Mild Reservationists and the League of Nations Contro

versy in the Senate. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1989.

Marks, Carole. Farewell?We're Good and Gone: The Great Black Migration.

Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989.

Marshall, George C. Memoirs of My Services in the World War, 1917-1918. ed.

James L. Collins. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976.

Martin, Gregory. "German Strategy and German Assessments of the American

Expeditionary Force (AEF), 1917-1918." WarlnHistory 1 (1994): 160-96.

Maurer, Maurer, ed. The U.S. Air Service in World War 1. 4 vols. Washington, D.C: The Office of Air Force History, Headquarters USAF, 1978.

May, Ernest R. The World War and American Isolation, 1914-1917. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959.

Mayer, Arno. Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counter

revolution at Versailles, 1918-1919. New York: Knopf, 1967.

McFadden, David W. Alternative Paths: Soviets and Americans, 1917-1920. New

York: Oxford University Press, 1993.

McFarland, Stephen L. America's Pursuit of Precision Bombing, 1910-1945. Wash

ington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995.

Mead, Gary, The Doughboys. New York: Overlook, 2000.

Meigs, Mark. Optimism at Armageddon: Voices of American Participants in the

First World War. New York: New York University Press, 1997.

Millett, Allan R. "Cantigny, 28-31 May 1918." In Charles E. Heller and William

A. Stofft, eds., America's First Battles, 1776-1965. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1986, 149-85.

-. The General: Robert L. Bullard and Officership in the United States Army,

1881-1925. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1975.

-. "Over Where? The AEF and the American Strategy for Victory, 1917

1918." In Kenneth J. Hagan and William R. Roberts, eds., Against All

Enemies: Interpretations of American Military History from Colonial Times to

the Present. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1986, 235-56.

Morison, Eking. Admiral Sims and the Modern American Navy. Boston: Houghton

Mifflin, 1942.

Mosier, John. The M^th of the Great War: A New Military History of World War 1

New York: HarperCollins, 2001.

Murphy, Paul L. World War I and the Origin of Civil Liberties in the United States.

New York: Norton, 1979.

Murray, Robert K. Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919-1920. New York:

McGraw-Hill, 1964.

Nelson, Keith L. Victors Divided: America and the Allies in Germany, 1918-1923.

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.

Nenninger, Timothy . "American Military Effectiveness in the First World War," In Military Effectiveness, Vol. L Edited by Allan Millett and Williamson K.

12 OAH Magazine of History October 2002

Murray (London: Allen & Unwin, 1988), pp. 116-56. - . "The Army Enters the Twentieth Century, 1904-1917." In Kenneth

J. Hagan and William R. Roberts, ed., Against All Enemies: Interpretations of American Military History from Colonial Times to the Present. Westport, CT:

Greenwood Press, 1986, 219-34.

-. The Leavenworth Schools and the Old Army: Education, Professionalism, and the Officer Corps of the United States Army, 1881-1918. Westport, CT:

Greenwood Press, 1978.

-. "Unsystematic as a Mode of Command: Commanders and the Process

of Command in the American Expeditionary Forces, 1917-1919." The

Journal of Military History 64 (2000): 739-68.

Nielson, Jonathan M. American Historians in War and Peace: Patriotism, Diplomacy, and

the Paris Peace Conference 1919, Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Pub. Co. 1994.

Parrini, Carl. Heir to Empire: United States Economic Diplomacy, 1916-1923.

Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1969.

Patton, Gerald W. War and Race: The Black Officer in the American Military, 1915

1941. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1981.

Peterson, Horace C. and Gilbert C. Fite. Opponents of the War, 1917-1918.

Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1957.

Pogue, Forrest C. George C. Marshall New York: Viking Press, 1963.

Polenberg, Richard. Fighting Faiths: The Abrams Case, the Supreme Court, and Free

Speech. New York: Viking, 1987.

Pope, Stephen W. "An Army of Athletes: Playing Fields, Battlefields, and the

American Military Sporting Experience, 1890-1920." Journal of Military

History 59 (1995): 435-56.

Preston, William, Jr. Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903

1933. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1963.

Rainey, James W. "Ambivalent Warfare: The Tactical Doctrine of the AEF in

World War I." Parameters 13 (September 1983): 34-46.

-. "The Questionable Training of the AEF in World War I." Parameters

22 (Winter 1992-93): 89-103.

Rawls, Walton. Wake Up, America!: World War 1 and the American Poster. New

York: Abbeville Press, 1988.

Reardon, Carol. Soldiers and Scholars: The U.S. Army and the Uses of Military

History, 1865-1920. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1990.

Rhodes, Benjamin D. The Anglo-American Wmter War with Russia, 1918-1919: A

Diplomatic and Military Tragicomedy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1988.

Rudwick, Elliott M. Race Riot at East St. Louis, July 2, 1917. Carbondale, IL:

Southern Illinois University Press, 1964

Russell, Francis. A City in Terror: 1919, The Boston Police Strike. New York: Viking Press, 1975.

Scheiber, Harry N. The Wilson Administration and Civil Liberties, 1917-1921.

Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1960.

Schild, Georg. Between Ideology and Realpolitik: Woodrow Wilson and the Russian

Revolution, 1917-1921. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1995.

Schrader, Charles R. "

'Maconochie's Stew:' Logistical Support of American

Forces with the BEF, 1917-1918," In R.J.Q. Adams, ed. The Great War, 1914 1918. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1990, 101-31.

Schroeder, Hans-Juergen, ed. Confrontation and Cooperation: Germany and the United States in the Era of World War 1. Providence, RI: Berg Pub., 1993.

Schwabe, Klaus. Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany, and Peacemaking, 1918

1919: Missionary Diplomacy and the Realities of Power. Chapel Hill, NC:

University of North Carolina Press, 1985.

Seidule, James Tyrus. "Morale in the American Expeditionary Forces during World War I," Ph.D dissertation, Ohio State University, 1997.

Smith, Daniel Malloy. Robert Lansing and American Neutrality, 1914-1917. Berke

ley, CA: University of California Press, 1958.

Smythe, Donald. Pershing: General of the Armies. Bloomington, IN: Indiana

University Press, 1986.

-. "St. Mihiel: The Birth of an American Army." Parameters 12 (March

1983): 47-57.

Spector, Ronald. "'You're Not Going to Send Soldiers Over There, Are You?' The

American Search for an Alternative to the Western Front, 1914-1916,"

Military Affairs 36 (1972): 1-4.

Stevenson, David. "French War Aims and the American Challenge, 1914-1918," Historical Journal 22 (1979): 877-94- Stone, Ralph A. The Irreconcilables: The

Fight Against the League of Nations. Lexington, KY: University Press of

Kentucky, 1970.

Stout, Joseph A. Border Conflict: Villistas, Carrancistas, and the Punitive Expedition, 1915-1920. Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian University Press, 1999.

Sweetman, Jack. The Landing at Veracruz: 1914. Annapolis, MD: United States

Naval Institute Press, 1968.

Thompson, John A. Reformers and War: Progressive Publicists and the First World

War. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987.

Trachtenberg, Marc. "Reparation at the Paris Peace Conference." Journal of Modem History 51 (1979): 24-55.

Trask, David F. The AEF and Coalition Warmaking, 1917-1918. Lawrence, KS:

University Press of Kansas, 1993.

-. "The American Navy in a World at War, 1914-1919." In Kenneth J.

Hagan, ed., In Peace and War: Interpretations of American Naval History, 1775-1984. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1984, 205-20.

-. Captains and Cabinets: Anglo-American Naval Relations, 1917-1918.

Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 1972.

-. The United States in the Supreme War Council: American War Aims and

Inter-Allied Strategy, 1917-1918. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1961.

Triplet, William. A Youth in the Meuse-Argonne. ed. by Robert H. Ferrell.

Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000.

Tuttle, William M. Race Riot: Chicago in the Red Summer of 1919. New York:

Atheneum, 1972.

United States Department of the Army. United States Army in the World War, 1917-1919. 17 vols. Washington, DC: United States Government Printing

Office, 1948.

United States War Industries Board [Bernard Baruch]. American Industry in the

War. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1941.

Vandiver, Frank E. Black Jack: The Life and Times of John J. Pershing. 2 vols.

College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1977.

Van Wyen, Adrian O. Naval Aviation in World War I. Washington, DC: Chief of

Naval Operations, 1969.

Vaughn, Stephen. Holding Fast The Inner Lines: Democracy, Nationalism, and the

Committee on Public Information. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North

Carolina Press, 1980.

Venzon, Anne Cipriano. The United States in the First World War: An Encyclope dia. New York: Garland, 1995.

Victory, James. "Soldier Making: The Forces that Shaped the Infantry Training of White Soldiers in the United States Army in World War I." Ph. D

dissertation, Kansas State University, 1990.

Walworth, Arthur. America s Moment, 1918: American Diplomacy at the End of World War 1. New York: Norton, 1977.

Weigley, Russell F. The American Way of War: A History of United States Military

Strategy and Policy. New York: Macmillan, 1973.

White, Lonnie J. Panthers to Arrowheads: The 36th (Texas/Oklahoma) Division in World War I Austin, TX: Presidiai Press, 1984.

-. The 90th Division in World War 1. Manhattan, KS: Sunflower Press, 1996.

Widenor, William C. Henry Cabot Lodge and the Search for an American Foreign

Policy. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1980.

Williams, William J. "Josephus Daniels and the U.S. Navy's Shipbuilding Program During World War I." Journal of Military History 60 (1996): 7-38.

-. The Wilson Administration and the Shipbuilding Crisis of 1917. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 1992.

Wilson, Dale E. Treat 'em Rough: The Birth of American Armor, 1917-1920.

Novato, CA: Presidio Press, 1989.

Woodward, David R. Trial by Friendship: Anglo-American Relations, 1917-1918.

Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky, 1993.

Zais, Barrie E. "The Struggle for a 20th Century Army: Investigation and reform of the United States Army after the Spanish-American War, 1898-1903." Ph. D dissertation, Duke University, 1981.

Zeiger, Susan. In Uncle Sam's Service: Women Workers with the American Expedi tionary Force, 1917-1919. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999.

Zieger, Robert H. America's Great War: World War I and the American Experience. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.

Zimmerman, Phyllis A. The Neck of the Bottle: George W. Goethals and the

Reorganization of the U.S. Army Supply System, 1917-1918. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1992.

Dennis E. Showalter is professor of history at Colorado College and

past president of the Society for Military History. He is author of Tannenberg: Clash of Empires (1991), and editor of the two volume reference work History in Dispute: World War I (2000).

OAH Magazine of History October 2002 13