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THE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002
THE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEFECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDECOSYSTEMS OF THE UNITEDSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYSTATES AND PACIFIC FREELYASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002
National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationIn Cooperation with Partners from Federal,In Cooperation with Partners from Federal,In Cooperation with Partners from Federal,In Cooperation with Partners from Federal,In Cooperation with Partners from Federal,State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies,State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies,State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies,State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies,State, Territorial, and Commonwealth Agencies,and the Pacific Freely Associated Statesand the Pacific Freely Associated Statesand the Pacific Freely Associated Statesand the Pacific Freely Associated Statesand the Pacific Freely Associated States
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About This DocumentAbout This DocumentAbout This DocumentAbout This DocumentAbout This Document
Called for by the U.S. Coral Reef Task Force’s (USCRTF) National Action Plan toConserve Coral Reefs, this is the first biennial report on the condition of coral reefs.It is the scientific baseline for subsequent reports on the health of U.S. coral reefecosystems that are to be used by NOAA and others to evaluate the efficacy of coralreef conservation and management practices.
The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s National Ocean Service ledthe development of this report. It was authored by 38 experts and supported by 79contributors from government agencies and non-governmental organizations acrossthe nation and internationally. Over 100 Task Force members and other notablescientists have reviewed this document.
AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgmentsAcknowledgmentsAcknowledgmentsAcknowledgments – This document was prepared and printed under the auspicesof NOAA’s National Ocean Service in cooperation with federal and non-federal(State, Territory, and Commonwealth) members and staff of the USCRTF, and othereminent coral reef scientists and managers. The authors thank the many individualsthat helped make this document what it is. We are especially grateful to Ruth Rowefor all her assistance in editing and formatting this report. Kevin McMahon as-sembled the sizable bibliography. Special thanks are due all the photographers whocontributed their high quality art to this report. They made the story come alive.
Photo CreditsPhoto CreditsPhoto CreditsPhoto CreditsPhoto Credits – Front cover: Palmyra Atoll, James Maragos, USFWS; Backcover: Midway Atoll, James Maragos, USFWS; Inset photos: Kip Evans, FagateleBay NMS; William Harrigan, Florida Keys NMS; Matt Kendall, NOS; JamesMaragos, USFWS; Title Page: Donna Turgeon, NOS. All others are credited underthe graphics they contributed.
All pictures of Hawaiian monk seals and green sea turtles that were taken in theNorthwestern Hawaiian Islands are printed with the permission of NOAA’s NationalMarine Fisheries Service.
CitationCitationCitationCitationCitation – Please cite this report as follows.
Turgeon, D.D., R.G. Asch, B.D. Causey, R.E. Dodge, W. Jaap, K. Banks, J. Delaney,B.D. Keller, R. Speiler, C.A. Matos, J.R. Garcia, E. Diaz, D. Catanzaro, C.S.Rogers, Z. Hillis-Starr, R. Nemeth, M. Taylor, G.P. Schmahl, M.W. Miller, D.A.Gulko, J.E. Maragos, A.M. Friedlander, C.L. Hunter, R.S. Brainard, P. Craig,R.H. Richond, G. Davis, J. Starmer, M. Trianni, P. Houk, C.E. Birkeland, A.Edward, Y. Golbuu, J. Gutierrez, N. Idechong, G. Paulay, A. Tafileichig, and N.Vander Velde. 2002. The State of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the United Statesand Pacific Freely Associated States: 2002. National Oceanic and AtmosphericAdministration/National Ocean Service/National Centers for Coastal OceanScience, Silver Spring, MD. 265 pp.
Executive Summary and National SummaryExecutive Summary and National SummaryExecutive Summary and National SummaryExecutive Summary and National SummaryExecutive Summary and National Summary by Donna D. Turgeon and Rebecca G. AschStatus Reports by Jurisdiction:Status Reports by Jurisdiction:Status Reports by Jurisdiction:Status Reports by Jurisdiction:Status Reports by Jurisdiction:
FloridaFloridaFloridaFloridaFlorida by Billy D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, Ken Banks, Joanne Delaney, BrianD. Keller, and Richard Spieler
Puerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto Rico by Cruz A. Matos, Jorge R. Garcia, and Ernesto Diaz U.S. Virgin Islands U.S. Virgin Islands U.S. Virgin Islands U.S. Virgin Islands U.S. Virgin Islands by Don Catanzaro, Caroline S. Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr, Richard
Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorFlower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary by George P. SchmahlNavassa Island Navassa Island Navassa Island Navassa Island Navassa Island by Margaret W. MillerHawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’i by David A. Gulko, James E. Maragos, Alan M. Friedlander, Cynthia L. Hunter, and
Russell E. BrainardAmerican Samoa American Samoa American Samoa American Samoa American Samoa by Peter CraigGuamGuamGuamGuamGuam by Robert H. Richmond and Gerry W. Davis
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands by John Starmer, Michael Trianni, andPeter Houk
Pacific Freely Associated States Pacific Freely Associated States Pacific Freely Associated States Pacific Freely Associated States Pacific Freely Associated States by Charles E. Birkeland, Ahser Edward, YimnangGolbuu, Jay Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James E. Maragos, Gustav Paulay, Robert Richmond,Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander Velde
THE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES AND
PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002
THE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE STATE OF CORAL REEF ECOSYSTEMS OFTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES ANDTHE UNITED STATES AND
PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002PACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES: 2002
Paula Allen, Florida Department of Environmental Protection
Larry Basch, National Park ServiceJim Beets, Jacksonville UniversityAntonio Betivoglio, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceJim Bohnsack, National Marine Fisheries ServiceRafe Boulon, National Park ServiceEric Brown, University of Hawai‘iAndrew Bruckner, National Marine Fisheries ServiceLeah Bunce, National Ocean ServiceJohn Christensen, National Ocean ServiceGil Cintron, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceAthline Clark, Hawai‘i Division of Aquatic ResourcesRick Clark, Biscayne National ParkAndrew Cornish, American Samoa Coral Reef InitiativeRichard Curry, Biscayne National ParkNancy Daschbach, Fagatele Bay National Marine SanctuaryLCDR John Davis, U.S. Coast GuardDamaris Delgado, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesEdward Demartini, National Marine Fisheries ServiceBarry Devine, University of the Virgin IslandsGerdard DiNardo, National Marine Fisheries ServiceMichael Dowgiallo, National Ocean ServiceAlexis Dragoni, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesNick Drayton, The Ocean Conser- vancyTom Egeland, U.S. NavyCarol Emaurois, Palau Interna- tional Coral Reef CenterJohn Field, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceKevin Foster, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceCarol R. Fretwell, National Coral
Reef InstituteAlan M. Friedlander, The Oceanic InstituteCDR Matthew Gagelin, U.S. NavyGinger Garrison, U.S. Geological SurveyMichael Gelardi, Undersea Video ProductionsCynthia Gerstner, Shedd AquariumSteven Gittings, National Marine Sanctuaries OfficeCarmen Gonzalez, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesMark Grace, National Marine Fisheries ServiceBen Graham, Department of Interior
Office of Insular AffairsFelix Grana, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesRoger Griffis, National Ocean ServiceEmma Hickerson, Flower Garden Banks National Marine SanctuaryThomas F. Hourigan, National Marine Fisheries ServicePaul Jokiel, University of Hawai‘iMatt Kendall, National Ocean ServiceBarbara Kojis, Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural ResourcesVernon R. Leeworthy, National Ocean ServiceCraig Lillyestrom, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental Resources
Becky Lizama, CNMI Coastal Resources Management OfficeChristie Loomis, University of the Virgin IslandsJarad Makaiau, Western Pacific Regional Fishery Management CouncilGary Matlock, National Ocean ServiceRoberto Matos, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesCliff McCreedy, National Park ServiceJohn McManus, National Center
ContributorsContributorsContributorsContributorsContributorsContributorsContributorsContributorsContributorsContributors
for Caribbean Coral Reef ResearchJames Mcvey, NOAA Office of Oceanic and Atmospheric Re- searchJill Meyer, National Ocean ServiceKatherine E. Miller, formerly with
the CNMI Division of Fish andWildlife
Steven Miller, National Undersea Research CenterMark Monaco, National Ocean ServiceJohn C. Ogden, Florida Institute of OceanographyArthur Paterson, National Ocean ServiceBrendalee Phillips, National Park
ServiceAnthony R. Picciolo, National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information ServiceMichelle Pugh, Dive Experience, St. CroixKu‘ulei Rodgers, University of Hawai‘iPaige Rothenberger, University of the Virgin IslandsRojeanne Salles, Puerto Rico Department of Natural and Environmental ResourcesJoseph Schwagerl, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceRobert Shallenberger, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceWill Smith, University of Hawai‘iRichard Spieler, National Coral Reef InstituteHarold Stanford, National Ocean ServiceAlan Strong, National Environmen- tal Satellite, Data, and Information ServiceJames Thomas, National Coral Reef InstituteJim Tilmant, National Park ServiceWilliam Tobias, Virgin Islands Department of Planning and Natural ResourcesMichael Weiss, National Ocean
ServiceSusan White, U.S. Fish and Wildlife ServiceCheryl Woodley, National Ocean Service
TABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTSTABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 1
NATIONAL SUMMARYBackground .............................................................................................................................. 17
Coral Reefs ............................................................................................................................. 18Reef Ecosystems ..................................................................................................................... 19Corals and Reef Communities ................................................................................................ 19Global Concerns ..................................................................................................................... 23
Environmental Pressures ........................................................................................................ 27Global Climate Change and Coral Bleaching......................................................................... 28Diseases .................................................................................................................................. 30Tropical Storms ...................................................................................................................... 31Coastal Development and Runoff........................................................................................... 32Coastal Pollution .................................................................................................................... 33Tourism and Recreation .......................................................................................................... 35Fishing .................................................................................................................................... 36Harvest and Trade in Corals and Live Reef Species .............................................................. 37Boats, Ships, and Groundings ................................................................................................ 38Marine Debris ......................................................................................................................... 39Alien Species .......................................................................................................................... 40Other Physical Impacts to Coral Reefs ................................................................................... 40Offshore Oil and Gas .............................................................................................................. 40
National Assessment ................................................................................................................ 43Gaps in Habitat Mapping........................................................................................................43Gaps in Ecosystem Monitoring .............................................................................................. 44Status of Coral Reef Ecosystems ............................................................................................ 45
Florida .................................................................................................................................. 45Puerto Rico .......................................................................................................................... 48The U.S. Virgin Islands ....................................................................................................... 49The Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary....................................................... 51Navassa Island ..................................................................................................................... 52The Hawaiian Archipelago .................................................................................................. 53American Samoa.................................................................................................................. 56Guam ................................................................................................................................... 57Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands ............................................................... 58Pacific Freely Associated States .......................................................................................... 61Republic of the Marshall Islands ......................................................................................... 61Federated States of Micronesia............................................................................................ 61The Republic of Palau ......................................................................................................... 62
National Trends in Coral Reef Ecosystems ............................................................................ 62
Agency Responses .................................................................................................................... 73Map All U.S. Coral Reefs .......................................................................................................73Assess and Monitor Reef Health ........................................................................................... 74Conduct Strategic Research .................................................................................................... 78Understand Social and Economic Factions – The Human Dimension ................................... 80Expand and Strengthen Marine Protected Areas .................................................................... 80Reduce Adverse Impacts of Fishing and Other Extractive Uses ............................................ 82Reduce Impacts of Coastal Uses ............................................................................................ 83Reduce Pollution .................................................................................................................... 85Restore Damaged Reefs..........................................................................................................87Reduce Global Threats to Coral Reefs ................................................................................... 88Reduce Impacts for International Trade in Coral Reef Resources ......................................... 89Create an Informed Public ......................................................................................................90Improve Coordination and Accountability ............................................................................. 91
Recommendations and Conclusions ...................................................................................... 93Complete Mapping, and Establish a Monitoring Network ..................................................... 93Strengthen MPAs .................................................................................................................... 93Reduce Overfishing ................................................................................................................ 93Reduce Pollution from Runoff ............................................................................................... 93Build a Better System of Enforcement ................................................................................... 95Increase Cooperation Among Agencies .................................................................................. 95Conclusions ............................................................................................................................ 95
REGIONAL REPORTSStatus of the Coral Reefs in Florida......................................................................................... 101Status of the Coral Reefs of Puerto Rico ................................................................................. 119Status of the Coral Reefs of the U.S. Virgin Islands ............................................................... 131Status of the Coral Reefs of the Flower Garden Banks of the Northwestern Gulf of Mexico 143Status of the Coral Reefs of Navassa....................................................................................... 151Status of the Coral Reefs in the Hawaiian Archipelago .......................................................... 155Status of the Coral Reefs of American Samoa ........................................................................ 183Status of the Coral Reefs of Guam .......................................................................................... 189Status of the Coral Reefs in the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands ................ 195Status of the Coral Reefs of the Pacific Freely Associated States ........................................... 205
The Republic of the Marshall Islands ................................................................................... 205The Federated States of Micronesia ..................................................................................... 212The Republic of Palau ..........................................................................................................216
APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................. 225Appendix I: Acronyms ............................................................................................................ 225Appendix II: Species Names – Scientific to Common Name ................................................. 229Appendix III: Scientific Names – Common Name to ScientificName ................................... 235Appendix IV: AFederal Protection for U.S. Coral Reef Ecosystems ...................................... 241Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 243
Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 – The Coral Reef Conservation Act ( PublicLaw 106-562, U.S.C. 6401 et seq., December 2000) authorizes $16 million annually from2000-2004 to the Secretary of Commerce to help preserve, sustain, and restore the conditionof coral reef ecosystems. The Act authorizes 1) the establishment a new Coral Reef Conser-vation Program to providing matching grants for projects that conserve coral reefs, and2) funding for a National Program to conduct a variety of coral reef activities such asmapping, assessment, monitoring, research, restoration, public outreach, and removingabandoned fishing gear, marine debris, and grounded vessels. The Act also requires theNational Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) to develop a National CoralReef Action Strategy, and authorizes establishing a Coral Reef Conservation Fund to buildpublic-private partnerships for coral reef conservation. See http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/for more information.
2000-02 Agency Activities 2000-02 Agency Activities 2000-02 Agency Activities 2000-02 Agency Activities 2000-02 Agency Activities – A variety of government (Federal, State, Territory,Commonwealth) and non-governmental partners are engaged in activities that help con-serve, protect, and manage coral reef ecosystems. Some activities have increased since 2000.For example, beginning in 2000 the Department of Commerce and the Department of theInterior received new funding specifically related to coral reef conservation. Other entitieshave continued or shifted resources to begin addressing coral reef related issues on land andat sea. For more information please contact the United States Coral Reef Task Force http://coralreef.gov/.
Coral Reef Presidential OrderCoral Reef Presidential OrderCoral Reef Presidential OrderCoral Reef Presidential OrderCoral Reef Presidential Order – As part of the National Ocean Conference in June1998, President Clinton signed the Coral Reef Protection Executive Order (13089) toconserve and protect the health, biodiversity, heritage, and ecological, social, and economicvalues of U.S. coral reef ecosystems. The Executive Order tasks Federal agencies with anumber of actions including reviewing and increasing efforts to protect coral reef ecosys-tems, working with State and Territorial resource trustees and other partners. The Ordercreated an interagency U.S. Coral Reef Task Force (USCRTF) to oversee implementation ofthe Order. For more information see http://coralreef.gov/.
United States Coral Reef Task ForceUnited States Coral Reef Task ForceUnited States Coral Reef Task ForceUnited States Coral Reef Task ForceUnited States Coral Reef Task Force – Established by Executive Order 13089 in1998, the USCRTF is co-chaired by the Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Com-merce. It is composed of the heads of 11 Federal agencies, the Governors of 7 states andterritories, and the Presidents of the Freely Associated States (Palau, Marshal Islands, andMicronesia). Working with many government and non-government partners, the USCRTFadopted the National Action Plan to Conserve Coral Reefs (National Action Plan) in March2000, the first national blueprint for U.S. action to address the loss and degradation of coralreefs. The National Action Plan outlines thirteen major goals to address key threats to reefs.For more information on the Task Force please see http://coralreef.gov.
Authorizations, Appropriations, Agency ActionsAuthorizations, Appropriations, Agency ActionsAuthorizations, Appropriations, Agency ActionsAuthorizations, Appropriations, Agency ActionsAuthorizations, Appropriations, Agency Actions
National Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationVice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.)Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.)Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.)Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.)Vice Admiral Conrad C. Lautenbacher, Jr., USN (Ret.)Under Secretary of Commerce forUnder Secretary of Commerce forUnder Secretary of Commerce forUnder Secretary of Commerce forUnder Secretary of Commerce forOceans and AtmosphereOceans and AtmosphereOceans and AtmosphereOceans and AtmosphereOceans and Atmosphere
National Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceMargaret A. Davidson (Actg.)Margaret A. Davidson (Actg.)Margaret A. Davidson (Actg.)Margaret A. Davidson (Actg.)Margaret A. Davidson (Actg.)Assistant Administrator for OceanAssistant Administrator for OceanAssistant Administrator for OceanAssistant Administrator for OceanAssistant Administrator for OceanServices and Coastal Zone ManagementServices and Coastal Zone ManagementServices and Coastal Zone ManagementServices and Coastal Zone ManagementServices and Coastal Zone Management
Department of CommerceDepartment of CommerceDepartment of CommerceDepartment of CommerceDepartment of CommerceDonald L. EvansDonald L. EvansDonald L. EvansDonald L. EvansDonald L. Evans
SecretarySecretarySecretarySecretarySecretary
U.S. Department of CommerceU.S. Department of CommerceU.S. Department of CommerceU.S. Department of CommerceU.S. Department of CommerceNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Oceanic and Atmospheric AdministrationNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceNational Ocean ServiceJuly 2002July 2002July 2002July 2002July 2002
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The United States has jurisdiction over majesticcoral reefs covering an estimated 7,607 mi2 in thetropical-subtropical belt around the equator. Manyof these reef systems support diverse, brightlycolored marine life surrounded by emerald seas(Fig. 1); others have been affected by environmen-tal and human-related impacts and need restora-tion. In the Western Atlantic and Caribbean,shallow-water1 coral reefs are found off Florida2,Puerto Rico, the U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI), and inthe Navassa Island National Wildlife Refuge nearHaiti. In the Gulf of Mexico, reef banks are foundon the continental shelf 100 miles south of theTexas/Louisana Border. In the Pacific, coral reefsoccur off the Hawaiian Archipelago, AmericanSamoa, Guam, the Commonwealth of the NorthernMariana Islands (CNMI), WakeAtoll, and another six remoteNational Wildlife Refuges3. Inaddition, the Freely AssociatedStates (the countries of theRepublic of Palau, the Republicof the Marshall Islands, and theFederated States of Micronesia),included in this report, havesome of the richest coral reefs inthe world, covering an estimated4,479-31,470 mi2.
In response to growing concernsabout the condition of reefs, theUnited States Coral Reef TaskForce4 (USCRTF) called for anationally-coordinated mappingand monitoring program to helptrack and evaluate the conditionof U.S. coral reefs and report to
the Nation every two years. This report is the firsteffort to collect consistent, comparable scientificinformation to assess the status of coral reef health.
This first biennial report on the condition of coralreef ecosystems – The State of Coral Reef Ecosys-tems of the United States and the Freely AssociatedStates: 2002 was led by NOAA’s National OceanService. Thirty-eight experts authored the reportwith information from another 79 contributors. Itincludes the latest data from published literature aswell as unpublished information from coral reefmanagers and scientists. Information from recentUSCRTF mapping, research, monitoring, andconservation initiatives are also included. It hasbeen peer-reviewed by over 100 coral reef ecosys-tem experts.
This report assesses the conditionof reef resources, ranks the rel-ative importance of environmen-tal pressures that have degradedreefs, highlights significantactions taken by USCRTF agen-cies to conserve coral reef eco-systems, and provides recom-mendations from coral reefmanagers to fill informationgaps. It forms a baseline againstwhich future assessments will becompared, allowing scientists totrack and ultimately predictchanges in reef conditions.
Pressures on Coral ReefPressures on Coral ReefPressures on Coral ReefPressures on Coral ReefPressures on Coral ReefEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystems
Every reef system has sufferedvarying degrees of impact from
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Kapuna (Hawaiian elder and expert fisherman) Buzzy Agard started fishing the Northwestern HawaiianIslands in the early 1950s. When he first arrived, he spotted a school of large moi (threadfins, an earlyHawaiian food fish) and harvested them. He tells that there were “no more the next day, the next week,or ten years later.” He said he learned that “the reefs are fragile and need to be managed with care.”
1 Where first used, definitions of scientific terms are highlighted in bold type for the reader’s reference. Within this report,shallow-water generally refers to those reefs in clear oceanic waters less than 150 feet where ambient light is adequate tosupport reef-building corals. Where used in the context of mapping habitats, it is the depth aerial and satellite photographicinstruments can effectively penetrate the water column, at most 100 ft.
2 There are three main areas of coral reefs and banks in Florida – the Florida Keys, the southeastern coast from Monroe toPalm Beach Counties, and the Florida Middle Grounds approximately 100 mi northwest of St. Petersburg.
3 Baker, Howland, Jarvis, Johnston, Kingman, and Palmyra.4 The USCRTF, co-chaired by the Secretary of Interior and the Secretary of Commerce, includes the heads of 11 Federal
agencies and the Governors of 7 States, Territories, and Commonwealths with responsibilities for coral reefs. The Task Forcealso includes representatives from the U.S. All-Islands Coral Reef Initiative and the Pacific Freely Associated States.
Figure 1. Coral reefs are called the“rainforests of the sea” due to theirhigh biodiversity and threatened status(Photo: Mike White).
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natural environmental andhuman disturbance (refer toTable 2 in the National Sum-mary). A burgeoning popula-tion of 10.5 million now re-sides in coastal counties andislands next to U.S. coralreefs; another 203,000 resideon islands of the Freely Ass-ociated States. The coastaldevelopment (schools, roads,marinas, and other businesses)needed to support the popula-tion and the tourists that flockto these seaside communities is a major threat. Addthe recreational and commercial use of reef resour-ces, and it is a wonder that beautiful reefs can stillbe found in all jurisdictions.
Changing climate, coastal development, overfish-ing5, disease, and natural events such as tropicalstorms may interact to increase overall reef degra-dation.
Global Climate Change and Coral BleachingGlobal Climate Change and Coral BleachingGlobal Climate Change and Coral BleachingGlobal Climate Change and Coral BleachingGlobal Climate Change and Coral Bleaching6 –The ultimate long-term environmental threat tocoral reef ecosystems is global climate change thatmany believe is linked to the dramatic increase ofcoral bleaching in the past decade. Bleachingvaries regionally, locally within a reef7, and amongspecies. It also coincides with elevated water tem-peratures associated with El Niño and La Niñaevents.
Although most U.S. reefs escaped major damagefrom the largest coral bleaching event on record(1997-1998), reefs off Florida, Palau, and Palmyrawere devastated (Fig. 2). During this bleachingevent, an estimated 16% of the reef corals weredestroyed world-wide.
FishingFishingFishingFishingFishing – Historically, the broad array of reeffishing activities has greatcultural, economic, and recre-ational value. This reportcalculates that U.S. commer-cial reef fisheries today areworth over $137.1 million tofishermen. The gross valueestimated for commercialfisheries in the Freely Associ-ated States is another $109.8
million. According to coral reefmanagers, the greatest human-related impacts on the broadestscale are over-harvesting ofreef resources and fishing-associated habitat destruction.
Overfishing threatens Florida,Puerto Rico, the USVI, theMain Hawaiian Islands, Ameri-can Samoa, and to a lesser deg-ree reefs around other popula-ted islands. In the SouthAtlantic, Gulf of Mexico, and
Caribbean, NOAA identified 23 reef fish as over-fished and concluded there was too little data todetermine the status of another 232 species. As aresult, four species of Western Atlantic grouperhave been added to the list of candidate speciesunder the Endangered Species Act (Fig. 3).
Managers from Florida, Puerto Rico, USVI,Hawai‘i, and the offshore coral banks in the Gulfof Mexico are particularly concerned that certaintypes of fishing gear, particularly fish and lobstertraps and large gill nets, may physically damageand degrade reef habitat.
Diseases Diseases Diseases Diseases Diseases – Over the last few decades, there hasbeen a worldwide increase in reports of newdiseases. Disease appears to be more prevalentnear human population centers. While there is nodirect correlation, long-term, low-level stress frompoor water quality, elevated water temperatures,overfishing, and other factors may make reeforganisms more susceptible to disease.
The Caribbean region has much higher incidencesof disease, where outbreaks of a number of dis-eases have contributed to mass mortalities ofcorals, fish, sea fans, sea urchins, sponges, sea-
grasses, and other organisms.One of the worst of these, adisease killed over 90% of themature long-spined seaurchins throughout much ofthe Caribbean in the early1980s. Since then, theseurchins have recovered to onlyabout 10% of their originalnumbers on reefs off Florida,Puerto Rico, and the USVI. Of
Figure 2. A bleached coral in Florida (Photo:Harold Hudson).
Figure 3. The Nassau grouper is a candidatefor protection under the Endangered SpeciesAct (Photo: NOAA’s NMFS).
5 As used throughout this report, the terms overfishing and overfished are generally the same as defined for U.S. federalfisheries – a rate or level of fishing mortality that jeopardizes the capacity of a fishery to produce the maximum sustainableyield on a continuing basis (Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act, Pub. Law 94-265, 16U.S.C.1801 Sec. 2).
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the many coral diseases to emerge over the last 20years, white-band disease is one of the most viru-lent, killing up to 90-95% of the elkhorn and stag-horn corals off St. Croix, Puerto Rico, and south-eastern Florida by the 1990s.
With the exception of cancerous tumors infectinggreen sea turtles8 off the Main Hawaiian Islands,disease in the Pacific Islands is low to moderate.
Tropical StormsTropical StormsTropical StormsTropical StormsTropical Storms – With eight hurricanes in thepast 20 years nearly destroying staghorn and elk-horn coral populations, USVI managers considertropical storms a major threat (Fig. 4). Elsewhere,reef corals have more resilience. On many Pacificislands, normal heavy wave action removes rela-tively fragile vertical branches of corals. As aresult, throughout the region, low-growing encrust-ing and massive growthforms of coral prevail.
Because they lie in the West-ern Pacific Monsoon Trough,Guam and the CNMI havethese low-profile reefs.About half the typhoons thatdevelop in the Pacific passnear or directly hit theseislands, yet the extensiveliving reef structure thatprotects them sustainssurprisingly little damageeven when a super typhoon passes directly over-head.
Coastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and Runoff – Tropicalclimates, colorful reefs, and clear waters drawpermanent residents and tourists to seashores. Tosustain the influx, additional housing, hotels, andother coastal development (e.g., roads, airports,hospitals, schools) are needed, all of which resultin runoff and sedimentation during and after con-struction. Runoff and sedimentation from coastaldevelopment have degraded coral reef ecosystemsoff southeastern Florida and the Keys, Puerto Rico,the USVI, most of the Main Hawaiian Islands,Guam, and the CNMI.
Runoff and sedimentation also occur in rural areaswhere forests have been removed for agriculture.
Near-shore reefs off high Pacific islands in Amer-ican Samoa, the CNMI, and Palau experiencerunoff and sedimentation during tropical storms.Although less widespread than overfishing, runoffand sedimentation are of considerable concern tomanagers in all jurisdictions.
Coastal PollutionCoastal PollutionCoastal PollutionCoastal PollutionCoastal Pollution – Managers from eight jurisdic-tions consider coastal pollution a major threat totheir coastal coral reef ecosystems. Toxic chem-icals and excessive nutrient enrichment are mostlylimited to relatively small areas within canals, har-bors and marinas, and near sewage disposal sites.There are polluted ‘hot spots’ near reefs offFlorida, Puerto Rico, the USVI, some islands with-in the Hawaiian Archipelago, American Samoa,Guam, and the CNMI. High levels of toxic chem-
icals have been found in thetissues of reef wildlife offurbanized areas and several ofthe Northwestern HawaiianIslands.
Harvesting and Trade in CoralsHarvesting and Trade in CoralsHarvesting and Trade in CoralsHarvesting and Trade in CoralsHarvesting and Trade in Coralsand Live Reef Speciesand Live Reef Speciesand Live Reef Speciesand Live Reef Speciesand Live Reef Species – Thetrade in live reef fish, chunksof coral, and invertebrates foraquariums has grown rapidlyover the last decade, raisingconcerns among scientists andmanagers, particularly those inHawai‘i (Fig. 5). The United
States is the largest importer of ornamental coralreef species, responsible for around 70-95% of theglobal trade in coral and ‘live rock’ and nearly half
Figure 4. Coral rubble produced by stormdamage (Photo: Matt Kendall).
6 Bleaching is a condition whereby the algae (called zooxanthellae) living in the epidermal tissue of most reef corals areexpelled after prolonged exposure to certain environmental conditions (e.g., elevated temperatures). The color of the coralprimarily comes from the zooxanthellae, so the coral whitens when they are expelled, leaving only the white carbonate colorof the coral skeleton. This condition can be temporary if the zooxanthellae return within a few days, if not, then coralmortalities can be high.
7 Incidences and mortalities from bleaching are generally higher at shallower depths and lower on reefs within estuaries.8 Fibropapilloma disease.
Figure 5. Managers in Hawai’i are concerned about thepotential effect of the aquarium trade on the endemicmasked angelfish (Photo: James Maragos).
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of the total worldwide trade in marine aquariumfishes. Most of the ornamental fish and inverte-brates originating from U.S. waters come fromHawai‘i and Florida, with smaller numbersoriginating in Puerto Rico, the USVI, and Guam.Since 1999, these jurisdictions have taken actionwith new studies, regulations, marine protectedareas9 (MPAs), no-take zones, and landmark legalsettlements.
AlienAlienAlienAlienAlien10 SpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpecies – Only recently have alien speciesbeen recognized as a threat to ecosystems. Non-native organisms are introduced to near-shore reefsfrom ship hull fouling and ballast water, aquariumreleases, as well as purposeful introductions forscience and aquaculture. Besides the organisms,each may have diseases or parasites that can deva-state native species. Although their impacts are notwell studied, coastal invasive species are a majorconcern in the Hawaiian Islands with its many rareand endangered species.
Boats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and Groundings – Boat trafficthreatens reef structure and associated wildlife.Groundings, anchor damage, and propellers speed-ing through shallow waterways are some of themost destructive chronic human factors (Fig. 6).They cause significant localized damage to shal-low-water coral reefs. The increasing number oflarge ship and small boat groundings is a majorthreat off Florida, the USVI, and the MainHawaiian Islands, and of moderate concern alongother populated coasts.
Tourism and RecreationTourism and RecreationTourism and RecreationTourism and RecreationTourism and Recreation – The economic value ofcoral reefs is significant. But growth within the
tourist industry has serious ecological ramifica-tions for coral reef ecosystems off Florida, PuertoRico, USVI, the Main Hawaiian Islands, Guam,and Palau. This report calculated that annually 45million visitors come to seaside and live-aboardaccommodations to dive, fish, and otherwise enjoyU.S. coral reefs. Reef-related tourism generates anestimated $17.5 billion annually in local incomeand sales for U.S. States, Commonwealths, andTerritories. An additional 113,000 tourists visit theFreely Associated States, spending over $84.8million annually. With so many tourists visitingcoral reefs, damage is inevitable (Fig. 7).
Managers from eight jurisdictions consider theimpacts from tourism and associated recreationalactivities a medium-to-high concern for near-shorecoral reef ecosystems.
Marine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine Debris11 – Transported by ocean currentsover long distances, marine debris snags, smothers,and breaks coral colonies, and kills marine wildlife(e.g., endangered Hawaiian monk seals, sea turtles,and island sea birds, Fig. 8) through either entang-lement or ingestion. Marine debris is a matter ofhigh concern for the coral reef managers from theNorthwestern Hawaiian Islands and the FederatedStates of Micronesia. Since 1999, multi-agencyclean-up activities have removed over 150 tons ofdebris from Hawaiian Island beaches and near-shore reefs, but much still remains.
Offshore Oil and Gas Offshore Oil and Gas Offshore Oil and Gas Offshore Oil and Gas Offshore Oil and Gas – Some coral reefs arelocated near petroleum extraction facilities; othersare threatened by their close proximity to oil
Figure 6. Two grounded fishing vessels in Pago Pago Harbor,American Samoa (Photo: James Hoff).
Figure 7. Unaware of the damage they cause, tourists canliterally trample the coral reefs that they come to see(Photo: William Harrigan).
9 Defined in the Marine Protected Areas Executive Order 13158, an MPA is “an area of the marine environment that has beenreserved by Federal, State, Territorial, Tribal, or Local laws or regulations to provide lasting protection for part or all of thenatural and cultural resources therein” (Federal Register 2000). Some MPAs have no-take provisions, zones, or the entireMPA may be designated a reserve; in these, resource extraction has been prohibited to protect biodiversity and/or to enhancecertain fish stocks.
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refineries, storage facilities, or shipping lanes fre-quented by oil tankers. Potential impacts includeaccidental spills, contamination by drilling-relatedeffluents and discharges, vessels anchoring whenplacing pipelines, drilling rigs and production plat-forms, seismic exploration, use of chemical disper-sants in oil spill mitigation, and platform removal.
Within a 2.9 mi2 radius of the Flower GardenBanks National Marine Sanctuary in the north-western Gulf of Mexico, there are currently ten oilproduction platforms with approximately 100 miof pipeline. Within the boundary of the EastFlower Garden Banks, there is a gas productionplatform. To date, none of these have been aproblem.
Other Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral Reefs –There are other human-related impacts to reefstructure of concern to managers. Although nolonger legal in U.S. waters, dynamiting reefs tocollect fish remains a problem in the Indo-Pacificregion. Live munitions aboard some sunken WorldWar II relics have been found and used byfishermen to harvest reef fish.
Other wrecks may be a danger to recreationaldivers and local fishermen. For safety reasons, theU.S. Navy recently detonated live depth chargesfound on a WWII Subchaser that had wrecked ona now popular CNMI reef.
Between 1946 and 1958, the United States usedEnewetak and Bikini Atolls in the Marshall Islandsto test 67 nuclear devices. The craters of many ofthese blasts can still be seen and the effects on reefstructure are evident in shallow waters.
Where national security training exercises andlive-fire activities have been conducted (Vieques,Puerto Rico; Farallon de Medinilla, CNMI;Kaho‘olawe and Kaula Rock, Main HawaiianIslands), managers are concerned about impacts ofbombing and unexploded ordnance on reefs.
National Assessments of Coral ReefNational Assessments of Coral ReefNational Assessments of Coral ReefNational Assessments of Coral ReefNational Assessments of Coral ReefEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystems
Every U.S. reef system has sustained impacts fromenvironmental and human disturbance, but alljurisdictions still have some reefs in good to
excellent health. Many scientists consider reefsystems in Florida and the U.S. Caribbean to be inthe poorest condition, mostly because they areclose to dense populations and have been repeat-edly hit by a series of hurricanes, diseases, andvarious chronic human-induced impacts. Pacificreefs, even around urbanized islands, are in signifi-cantly better condition. This is due in large part tothe fact that many lie off isolated islands and atollsand are surrounded by deep water with prevailingstrong currents, upwelling, high waves, and tropi-cal storms that flush the reefs with clean, coolwater.
Currently, there is relatively little quantitativeinformation available assessing temporal andspatial trends in coral reef condition. Most coralreefs have yet to be mapped and their resourcescharacterized. Little comparable data are availableon coral reef function, structure, and condition.
Prior to 2000, the comprehensive mapping andlong-term monitoring needed to prepare a nationalassessment were only available for a few loca-tions12. Since FY0213, with considerable supportfrom the U.S. Congress, NOAA started a majormapping initiative and has provided substantialgrants to island agencies to build local capacity forlong-term monitoring using comparable samplingmethods and protocols. The authors of this reporthave committed to participating in a nationally-coordinated Coral Reef Monitoring Network todevelop criteria, indicators, and metrics for a‘report card’ to track changes in the condition ofcoral reef ecosystems. It will also allow them to
Figure 8. Seabirds feeding among plastic debris (Photo:NOAA Library).
10 When established (i.e., successfully reproducing), a species purposefully or unintentionally introduced is termed alien or exotic. Alien species (and some indigenous species) that have economic, environmental, and human health impacts are also
termedinvasive.11 Fishing gear and other remnants of human activities coming from recreational and commercial vessels, storm drains, industrial facilities, and waste disposal sites.12 The Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and the Flower Gardens National Marine Sanctuary off Texas.13 The federal fiscal year; in this instance, FY02 is from October 1, 1999 to September 31, 2002.
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evaluate the effectiveness of conservation mea-sures for the next biennial report, scheduled for2004.
The following regional summaries are largelyqualitative reports by the managers and scientistswho are most familiar with the reef resources. Formore details, see the jurisdictional reports thatfollow the National Summary.
FloridaFloridaFloridaFloridaFlorida – Florida’s coral reefs are extensive. Theyhave the greatest number of tourists/visitors of anyU.S. jurisdiction, and consequently have substan-tial human impacts, particularly along the south-eastern coast and in the Florida Keys. In general,reef health is declining in southeastern Florida andthe Keys, as evidenced by species fluctuations,decreases in coral coverage, and disease. Over thepast 20 years, coral bleaching has increased in bothfrequency and duration, often with high mortality.Particularly massive bleaching events in 1990 and1997-1998 were responsible for the 80-90% mor-tality of blade fire corals on shallow-water reefs(Fig. 9).
Monitoring in the Florida Keys National MarineSanctuary showed both coral reef abundance anddiversity were declining – coral cover decreased37% over the past five years. This was preceded byeven more dramatic declines in the 1980s and early1990s. On the other hand, deeper reefs off the Tor-tugas Ecological Reserve and the Florida MiddleGrounds are in excellent condition.
In the Keys, 23 of 35 species of groupers, snap-pers, wrasses, and grunts are overfished, while fivefish species from the Florida Keys are consideredat risk of extinction. Nearby Florida Bay has
another six at-risk fish species. In BiscayneNational Park, 26 of 34 fish species are consideredoverfished.
There is evidence that Sanctuary-designated fullyprotected zones have already replenished stocksfor several over-harvested species. On these reefs,average size and abundance of large groupers,snappers, and spiny lobsters have increased in thepast few years.
Turbidity, contaminants, and nutrient enrichmentcan periodically be high and vary geographically14.Toxic contaminant ‘hot spots’ have been found inthe sediments of both Biscayne and Florida Bays.
The recreational fishing fleet in South Florida hasgrown at a near exponential rate since 1964 (a444% increase in recreational boats from 1964 to1998) with no limit on the number of boatsallowed to fish.
Puerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto Rico – Due to its rapidly growing popula-tion and thriving tourism, human pressures onPuerto Rican coral reefs are some of the mostsevere in the Caribbean. Accelerated urban andindustrial coastal development over the last fourdecades, with the corresponding coastal develop-ment, sewage discharge, and sediment runoffduring and after construction, have all degradedthe condition of nearby reefs.
Staghorn and elkhorn coral populations havedeclined in most locations over the last 25 yearsfrom hurricane damage, white-band disease, andcoral-eating mollusks. Fishery resources show theclassic signs of overfishing – reduced total land-ings, declining catch-per-unit-effort, smaller fishtaken, and recruitment failures. Reef fisheries haveplummeted during the last two decades; between1979 and 1990 they dropped 69%.
Shallow-water coral reefs off La Parguera on themain island of Puerto Rico and off the islands ofDesecheo and Vieques have the highest abundanceand cover of living corals in the Commonwealth,but even those have been stressed significantly.
U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI)U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI)U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI)U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI)U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) – Over the past 20years, near-shore coral reefs off the USVI havesuffered a series of natural disasters and beenexposed to increasing chronic impacts from islandresidents and tourists (Fig. 10). Compounding thedevastation from being hit by eight hurricanes with
Figure 9. Blade fire coral has been particularly hard hit bycoral bleaching in Florida (Photo: William Harrigan).
14 For example, higher nutrient concentrations are reported in the Middle and Lower Keys than in the Upper Keys and the DryTortugas.
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little time to recover, shallow-water reef coralshave suffered high mortality from coral diseases,particularly white-band disease. On some reefs,living elkhorn coral cover has fallen from 85% to5%. Major coral bleaching events occurred in1987, 1990, and 1998, but generally mortality wasnot high.
Macroscopic algae, covering about 5% of the bot-tom before Hurricane Hugo, are now periodicallyvery abundant, averaging over 30% cover in somemonths. This is probably the result of decreasedalgal grazing after the loss of long-spined seaurchins in the early 1980s and the overfishing ofherbivorous fishes15. Dredging, sand extraction,pier construction, and sewage effluent have allimpacted USVI reefs, especially those off St.Thomas and St. Croix.
Overfishing is a serious problem throughout theUSVI and has had a profound effect on finfish andinvertebrates. After depleting the desirable speciesof groupers16, fishers began targeting smaller spe-cies. In general, fisheries are close to collapse,even within marine protected areas.
Flower Garden BanksFlower Garden BanksFlower Garden BanksFlower Garden BanksFlower Garden Banks – The coral reefs in theFlower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuaryare in excellent condition, largely because 1) thebanks are located well offshore, 2) they generallylie deeper (the reef platform is around 55-100+ ftfrom the surface), and 3) they are far from humansettlement.
Coral cover on the bank platform averages 47%and has not significantly changed since monitoringbegan in 1972 (Fig. 11). Disease is relatively low,as is coral bleaching; neither has resulted in signif-icant mortality. Macroalgal populations have
historically been low, with cover estimates gener-ally less than 5%.
Fishing pressure is not intense at this time. Com-mercial long-line fishing for snapper and grouperoccurs along all of the continental shelf edge;target areas for this activity are typically the deeperportions of the bank structure, away from the shal-lower coral reef platform.
The Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)The Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)The Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)The Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)The Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) – With a fewexceptions and despite changes in coastal land use,near-shore reefs around the eight MHI remain inrelatively good condition. Coral reefs suffer fromdegradation related to human population growth,urbanization, and development. Major sources areocean outfalls, urbanization, massive coastal recre-ational development (hotels, golf courses, etc.),and marine invasive species, especially macroalgaeand the red mangrove. Previously, ranching, plan-tation agriculture, and military construction im-pacted reef condition.
There are strong indications of overfishing of themajority of fish and invertebrates. Recently there hasbeen concern regarding the expanding live marineornamental trade for home aquaria. Fishing pressurein heavily populated areas appears to exceed thecapacity of these resources to renew themselves.The abundance of reef fishes in areas wherefishing is allowed is substantially lower than inareas where it is prohibited. There are numerousno-take marine protected areas off MHI shores;some of the larger ones have been shown to beeffective in replenishing local fish stocks, but therest may be too small to serve as ecosystemrefuges (Fig. 12).
Figure 10. Increased tourism has brought more cruise shipsto USVI harbors (Photo: Ralph Kresge).
Figure 11. Coral cover at the Flower Garden Banks has notchanged significantly since the 1970s (Photo: Frank andJoyce Burek).
15 Fish that primarily consume plant material such as algae.16 By the 1970s, several spawning aggregations of Nassau grouper had been completely decimated.
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For almost 10 years now, highnutrient levels and algal bloomshave been recurring on reef flatsoff the southern and westerncoasts of Maui. Ship traffic,proximity of reefs to harbor en-trances, and more vessel ground-ings have resulted in more oilspills. High concentrations oftoxic chemicals have been mea-sured in near-shore sedimentsand in the tissues of a variety ofcoastal marine wildlife.
The Northwestern HawaiianThe Northwestern HawaiianThe Northwestern HawaiianThe Northwestern HawaiianThe Northwestern HawaiianIslands (NWHI)Islands (NWHI)Islands (NWHI)Islands (NWHI)Islands (NWHI) – The situationis very different in the far-dispersed, sparsely populatedislands to the northwest of theMHI. The NWHI islands andatolls are unique among Pacificreefs because of their near-pristine condition, preponderance of large fish,general lack of disease and bleaching, and theabundance of endemic17 species. High numbers ofshallow-water fish that are all but absent in theMHI as well as substantial populations of largeapex predators18, especially jacks and sharks,indicate these reefs are healthier than most.
Recent reef fish surveys throughout the HawaiianArchipelago revealed that fish abundance in theNWHI averaged 260% more than that of the MHI;the average weight of apex predators was 570%greater. By weight, most of the dominant species inthe NWHI were either rare or absent in the MHI.
The major anthropogenic impact on NWHI reefs ismarine debris, mostly nets, plastics, and other trashtransported by currents from fleets fishing in dis-tant waters (Fig. 13).
The existing Hawaiian Islands and Midway Na-tional Wildlife Refuges and now the NorthwesternHawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve,make these reefs the most highly protected.Furthermore, the State of Hawai‘i is presentlyevaluating its option of developing State fisherymanagement areas in the NWHI.
American SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican Samoa – Coral reefsoff American Samoa are recover-ing from natural disasters – acrown-of-thorns starfish invasion(1979, Fig. 14), three hurricanes(1986, 1990, 1991), and a periodof warm weather that causedmassive coral bleaching (1994).Added to this are chronic human-induced impacts in populatedareas like Pago Pago Harbor.
Coral recovery from the naturaldisturbances has been excellentthrough 2001. Information islimited, but with a few exceptions,the algae found around the islandsare indicative of a low nutrientenvironment19 and/or heavygrazing by herbivores.
Harvested species such as giantclams and parrotfish are overfished; there is heavypressure on surgeonfish, and there are fewer andsmaller groupers, snappers, and jacks. The endan-gered hawksbill turtle is in serious decline fromillegal harvest and loss of nesting habitat.
Fish are contaminated with heavy metals in someareas, particularly in Pago Pago Harbor.
GuamGuamGuamGuamGuam – The health of Guam’s coral reefs rangesfrom excellent to poor, depending on adjacent landuse, human accessibility, location of ocean outfallsand river discharges, recreational pressure, and
Figure 12. The Waikiki Marine LifeConservation District’s small size andurban location may hinder its capacityto fulfill its conservation objectives(Photo: Michael Theberge).
Figure 13. Marine debris on a coral reef at Kure Atoll (Photo:James Maragos).
17 Species with restricted geographic ranges; these rare species are unique to a specific area, such as an embayment, an island,or a group of islands.
18 Those large meat-eating species at the top of an ecosystem food chain or web.19 Indicating low pollution in these areas.20 Typhoons, crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks, and earthquakes.21 Underground water originating from upland sources of fresh water that percolates through coastal sediments along the beach
or just offshore. Where this occurs, less saline, nutrient-laden water will kill reef species.
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water circulation patterns. There are indications ofan overall reduction in Guam’s coral species diver-sity. Reefs impacted by natural disturbances20 havenot recovered in specific areas.
Apra Harbor is home to a large U.S. Naval facilityand the Guam Port Authority. Within the bay,corals and reefs have been impacted by freshwaterrunoff, sediments, grounding by ships, and thermaldischarges from the Island’s main powergeneration facilities. A variety of pollutants havebeen found in harbor sediments.
Agana, Tumon, and Piti (also known locally asTapungun) Bays have heavy human use. The innerareas of these bays are in relatively poor condition,affected by discharges from land aswell as impacts from recreationalactivities. Agana and Tumon Bays arecenters for tourism. West Agana has asewage treatment plant built on thereef flat that had a pipe discharge in60 ft of water (upgrades are under-way).Coastal aquifer discharges21
usually have high levels of nutrients22,especially at the start of the rainyseason. These are responsible forchronic algal blooms23 in Agana Bayand can cause red tides in TumonBay.
While the crown-of-thorns starfishhave occurred in small-to-moderatenumbers over the past few years, asubstantial population of juveniles now is cause forconcern about the potential for a future outbreak.
As indicators of overfishing, fish populations andcatch-per-unit-effort have declined more than 50%over the past 15 years. Large reef fish are rare.
Commonwealth of the Northern MarianaCommonwealth of the Northern MarianaCommonwealth of the Northern MarianaCommonwealth of the Northern MarianaCommonwealth of the Northern MarianaIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslands – Generally, the CNMI reef ecosystemsare in excellent to good condition. Reefs adjacentto the populated southern islands of Saipan, Tinian,and Rota receive most of human impacts from de-velopment, population growth, fishing, and tour-ism.
Although coral reef species were devastated by amajor crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak in the late1960s, most of the affected reefs appear to have
recovered. CNMI coral reefs were spared the im-pacts of the 1998 coral bleaching event; however,bleaching is now a major concern.
Based on qualitative assessments, CNMI’s popu-lated southern reefs are all overfished at somelevel; fish populations on the mostly unpopulatednorthern reefs are generally in excellent condition.
U.S. Remote InsularU.S. Remote InsularU.S. Remote InsularU.S. Remote InsularU.S. Remote Insular24 Reefs Reefs Reefs Reefs Reefs – These reefs offremote and largely uninhabited atolls and islandsremain relatively pristine. They have experiencedfew human-induced pressures outside of long-distance fishing. Disease is low; except for Pal-myra Atoll, the same is true for coral bleaching.
Since the late 1800s, there has beenlittle fishing pressure on any of thesereefs. Shallow-water reef fish com-munities exhibit high density andhave substantial populations of largesnappers, groupers, and herbivores.
Republic of the Marshall IslandsRepublic of the Marshall IslandsRepublic of the Marshall IslandsRepublic of the Marshall IslandsRepublic of the Marshall Islands –The RMI coral reef ecosystems aregenerally in good to excellent condi-tion. Even the reefs used for the 67nuclear tests have recovered well,though perhaps not as completely assome scientists have reported. Thereis little data on the diversity of reeforganisms and only recently therehave been assessments of general reefcondition.
With their low elevation (average elevation of 7ft), the entire Marshall Island chain is in danger ofbeing submerged with even moderate sea level risefrom global climate change.
Federated States of MicronesiaFederated States of MicronesiaFederated States of MicronesiaFederated States of MicronesiaFederated States of Micronesia – Reef condi-tion throughout the FSM is generally good to ex-cellent. Most of the reefs around the low islandsare quite healthy. Reefs around the populated is-lands of Pohnpei, Chuuk, Kosrae, and Yap vary incondition, but are generally good with live coralcover ranging from 20-70%.
The primary human impacts come from fishingpressure and ship groundings. Overfishing hasbeen documented as a result of foreign commercialactivities. Destructive fishing practices, including
Figure 14. Crown-of-thornsstarfish outbreak in Ameri-can Samoa (Photo: CharlesBirkeland).
22 From agricultural chemicals.23 A sudden population explosion of algae within a relatively limited area, often the result of increased nutrients in the water. A
red tide is a harmful bloom of microscopic algae (e.g., dinoflagellates) that often imparts a reddish or brownish hue to thewater.
24 Another term for island or atoll. These are the Navassa Island National Wildlife Refuge in the Caribbean near Haiti, Wake inthe Marshall Islands, and the Pacific National Wildlife Refuges of Johnston, Howland, and Baker in the Phoenix Islands;Jarvis; Johnston; and Kingman Reef and Palmyra in the Line Islands.
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the use of explosives taken from the wrecks, havecaused local reef damage.
Republic of PalauRepublic of PalauRepublic of PalauRepublic of PalauRepublic of Palau – Before the 1997-1998 bleach-ing event in Palau, the remote reefs were in goodto excellent condition, with the most diverse coralfauna of any area in Micronesia (over 425 stonycoral and 120 soft coral species). Live coral covergenerally ranged from 50-70% (Fig. 15). However,the event severely affected most shallow-waterreefs; on some reefs 30-100% of the Acroporacoral died. Crown-of-thorns starfish have also beena problem for Palauan coral species, and on manyreefs they are targeting the few Acropora coralsthat survived the bleaching event.
Reefs closer to population centers or areas wheredevelopment is occurring show signs of degrada-tion and are not as healthy as the remote reefs. Eu-trophication in Malakal Harbor has been directlylinked to fishing vessels anchored there, as fishersremain onboard with inadequate sanitation orwaste disposal facilities.
Fish populations off the main islands of Palau25 areshowing signs of overfishing compared to thesouthwestern islands where there is less fishingpressure. Around the main islands of Palau, highlydesired species of fish are either absent or presentin low numbers.
Temporal TrendsTemporal TrendsTemporal TrendsTemporal TrendsTemporal Trends – In places where there hasbeen credible long-term monitoring, there arealarming temporal trends. These include decreas-ing live reef cover, increasing coral disease andbleaching with significant mortality, and over-fishing. Mostly due to hunting over the last cen-tury, all sea turtle species and a number of marinemammal species are in danger of extinction (Fig.
16). Now these are being protected under provis-ions of the Endangered Species Act and the MarineMammal Protection Act.
Where no-take reserves have been enforced andmonitored, there are increasing numbers and sizesof harvested fish and invertebrates.
Spatial TrendsSpatial TrendsSpatial TrendsSpatial TrendsSpatial Trends – Seven tables in the main reportpresent what is known about the condition of coralreef ecosystems in the 13 jurisdictions. These willbe the baseline for future assessments and biennialreports on coral reef ecosystem condition, and maybe the basis for predicting ecosystem change.
Without a single master list of inventoried speciesand with significant information gaps on many ofthese tables, the effort to develop biennial reportson coral reef condition is limited. To remedy this,NOAA and its partners, initiated a pilot Hawaiianprototype project that should result in a computer-ized list of all U.S. coastal marine species in thenear future. Further, NOAA’s mapping initiativeand its cooperative grants to island agencies thatsupport long-term monitoring should fill many ofthe remaining information gaps.
Agency Responses to Conserve CoralAgency Responses to Conserve CoralAgency Responses to Conserve CoralAgency Responses to Conserve CoralAgency Responses to Conserve CoralReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef Ecosystems
In 1998, growing scientific evidence and globalconcerns for the health of coral reefs prompted theU.S. Government to issue a Presidential Order forthe protection of coral reefs (E.O. 13089). It alsoestablished the USCRTF.
In 2000, the USCRTF issued its National ActionPlan to Conserve Coral Reefs (National ActionPlan). Congress appropriated $8 million in FY00,$27 million in FY01, and $34 million in FY02 to
Figure 15. A Palauan coral reef with high percent coral cover(Photo: James McVey).
Figure 16. The Hawaiian monk seal and green sea turtle areboth endangered species (Photo: George Balazs).
25 The most diverse reef ecosystem under U.S. jurisdiction, with a total of 1,278 known reef fish species.
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the Department of Commerce and another $10million annually from FY00-02 to the Departmentof Interior to enhance coral reef conservationactivities. In addition, the new Coral Reef Conser-vation Act of 2000 further integrated efforts byFederal, State, and Territorial agencies to map,monitor, conduct research, restore, and manageU.S. coral reef ecosystems. The USCRTF NationalAction Plan recommended preparing biennialreports on the State of American Coral ReefEcosystems. This is the first.
The National Action Plan presented 13 action itemsthat, if followed, will improve scientific and com-munity understanding of coral reefs and reduce theadverse impacts of human activities. The agenciesof the USCRTF have made significant progress inthese areas since 2000, though much still remainsto be done.
Map all U.S. Coral ReefsMap all U.S. Coral ReefsMap all U.S. Coral ReefsMap all U.S. Coral ReefsMap all U.S. Coral Reefs – The National ActionPlan called for mapping all shallow-water coralreef ecosystems by 2009. Digital maps of shallow-water habitats off Puerto Rico, USVI, and most ofthe Florida Keys have been completed. Aerialphotographic images for portions of Hawai‘i, andsatellite images for most of the rest of the U.S.Pacific island shallow-water reefs have beenacquired, a first step for mapping these reefs. In2001, NOAA characterized and mapped habitats ofthe deep Oculina coral reefs off the eastern coastof Florida using submersibles and multi-beamsonar.
Assess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef Health – TheNational Action Plan called for a nationally-coordinated Coral Reef Monitoring Network thatwill provide regular assessments of reef health aswell as initiate new monitoring to fill informationgaps. Now in its third year of NOAA leadershipand funding, the National Coral Reef Program hasprovided cooperative grants to state and islandagencies to build local capacity for assessing andmonitoring local reefs. Other NOAA and DoIgrants have supported related research, monitoring,and education projects.
A number of shallow-water rapid ecologicalassessments (REAs) of coral reef ecosystems havebeen conducted since FY00 by agency and non-governmental scientists. Of these, the 2000 NOW-RAMP expedition was the most comprehensive(birds, marine mammals, fish, invertebrates, and
sediment contaminants were surveyed throughoutthe length of NWHI, Fig. 17). Additionally, theU.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) andNOAA conducted initial REAs of reef ecosystemsoff the U.S. Remote Insular Reefs. Also in coopera-tion with NOAA, the USFWS established sites forlong-term coral reef monitoring at each of the REAislands as well as at the Midway, Rose, andJohnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuges.
A variety of volunteer programs also monitor thereefs as part of the Coral Reef Monitoring Net-work. They enhance coverage of the monitoringconducted by agency and non-governmentalscientists.
Conduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic Research – Additionalresearch is needed to better understand coral reefecosystems and help determine what can be doneto protect and restore them. Funding for manyapplied research projects on coral reef ecosystemshas gone through the Hawai‘i Coral Reef InitiativeResearch Program, the National Coral ReefInstitute, the National Center for Coral ReefResearch, NOAA’s Sea Grant Program, several ofNOAA’s National Underwater Research Centers,and the National Science Foundation.
NOAA, USEPA, and DoI created a new CoralDisease and Health Consortium (CDHC) in 2000.The CDHC will conduct and coordinate diseaseresearch, track outbreaks of coral disease, andcharacterize disease agents impacting coral reefecosystems.
Understand Social and Economic FactorsUnderstand Social and Economic FactorsUnderstand Social and Economic FactorsUnderstand Social and Economic FactorsUnderstand Social and Economic Factors – Thesocial, economic, and cultural dimensions must beincorporated into any broader conservation
Figure 17. Diver assessing coral species at French FrigateShoals during the NOW-RAMP Expedition (Photo: JamesMaragos).
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strategy.The Global Coral Reef Monitoring Net-work released a Socioeconomic Manual for CoralReef Management, edited by NOAA staff, in Nov-ember 2000. Building on that manual, NOAA staffassisted in regional socioeconomic training work-shops in East Africa, South Asia, and in the Carib-bean.In 2001, a socioeconomic assessment of thefinancial impact of the Florida Keys NationalMarine Sanctuary’s fully protected zones on com-mercial fishing and track trends in recreationaltourism and its relationship to the local economywas completed. Another socioeconomic study hasalso been completed for the Flower Gardens BanksNational Marine Sanctuary (Fig. 18). In 2002,similar studies were commissioned for reefs offHawai‘i, American Samoa, and Guam.
Expand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedAreas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs) – There is an urgent need to protectthe most important reef habitats from further de-cline by strengthening and expanding a network ofcoral reef marine protected areas (MPAs) and no-take reserves. The goal was to protect at least 5%of all U.S. coral reefs and associated habitat typesin each major island group and Florida with no-take provisions by 2002, at least 10% by 2005, andat least 20% by 2010. Until all coral reef eco-system habitats have been mapped, the percentageof these reefs currently protected cannot be accur-ately calculated.
Significant new MPAs and no-take reserves havebeen established over the past several years offFlorida, Puerto Rico, USVI, Hawai‘i, CNMI, andin the Navassa, Palmyra Atoll, and Kingman ReefNational Wildlife Refuges (see Table 10 for a fulllisting by area and percentage, Fig. 19).
But there is still a long way to go. Currently, thereis full no-take protection for 1,329 mi2 of U.S.coral reef ecosystems; in Palau, another 25.2 mi2 ofreefs have full protection. Three jurisdictions cur-rently exceed the 2010 goal: the U.S. RemoteWildlife Refuges (30.3%), Guam (approximately28%, and the Northwestern Hawaiian Island Na-tional Wildlife Refuge (21.4%). With the exceptionof the USVI, elsewhere no-take protection is only5% or less of the total reef ecosystem.
Much has been done over the past few years byUSCRTF agencies to strengthen MPAs, but currentMPAs and new no-take areas cannot be effectivewithout enforcement. This critical need is recog-nized by all jurisdictional managers as well as themany authors and collaborators who helped pre-pare this report.
Reef Fishing and Collecting for AquariaReef Fishing and Collecting for AquariaReef Fishing and Collecting for AquariaReef Fishing and Collecting for AquariaReef Fishing and Collecting for Aquaria – TheNational Action Plan called for reducing theimpacts of fishing (e.g., overfishing, bycatch26,destructive fishing practices) and the over-harvest-ing of reef organisms for the aquarium trade (Fig.20). Since FY00, USCRTF agencies have taken anumber of important actions to reduce the impactsof fishing and aquarium collection on coral reefs,including banning the taking of live coral, prohibi-ting reef fishers from using explosives and poi-sons, and designating no-take zones. Several juris-dictions banned SCUBA spearfishing. Others areconducting studies and planning to revise regula-tions relating to the capture of live organisms foraquariums.
As an alternative to wild capture, NOAA’s Nation-al Sea Grant Program has funded research projects
Figure 18. A socioeconomic study of the Flower GardenBanks National Marine Sanctuary evaluated the economicimpact of dive tourism (Photo: Emma Hickerson).
Figure 19. A coral reef in the recently established KingmanAtoll National Wildlife Refuge (Photo: James Maragos).
26 Fish that are harvested but not sold or kept for personal use (Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act,Pub. Law 94-265, 16 U.S.C.1801 Sec. 2). It includes economic discards and regulatory discards but not fish released aliveunder a recreational catch and release fishery management program.
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in Puerto Rico, Florida, Texas,and Hawai‘i to cultivate coralreef species. Over 20 species offish, crustaceans, mollusks, andcorals are now commerciallygrown.
Reduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalUseUseUseUseUse – Federal and State permit-ting and management programsfor coastal development activi-ties that impact coral reef habi-tats must be improved. This in-cludes preventing vessel-relatedimpacts and reducing risks ofdamage to coral reefs from ac-tivities conducted, funded, orapproved by Federal agencies.
Significant actions implementedin the past two years are reducing the impacts ofcoastal use and conserving reefs. These includelimiting certain activities– prohibiting jet skis insensitive areas off Puerto Rico, imposing a mora-torium on water sports in CNMI, and banning thefeeding of reef wildlife off Florida. Also, perma-nent mooring buoys have been installed or re-placed (Fig. 21) and a national inventory of aban-doned vessels was created to aid restoration activi-ties.
To help mariners avoid anchoringin reef areas, standard symbols forNo Anchoring Areas and CoralReefs were added to the catalog ofchart symbols of the InternationalHydrographic Organization, andthe first mandatory ‘No AnchoringArea’ was established for theFlower Garden Banks NationalMarine Sanctuary. Finally, severallarge legal settlements and restor-ations were obtained for acci-dents involving coral damage.
Reduce PollutionReduce PollutionReduce PollutionReduce PollutionReduce Pollution – Another partof the National Action Plancalled for significantly reducingor eliminating the amounts, sour-ces, and cumulative impacts ofcontaminants in the water. Overthe past two years, there has beensubstantial Federal assistance for
significant conservation actions.For example, the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture signed agreementsand contracted with landownersand operators to assure the bestconservation practices will beapplied to nearly 1,776 mi2 ofagricultural lands over the next 5-10 years to reduce non-pointsource water pollution near coralreefs.
And since 2000, tons of marinedebris have been cleared fromHawaiian coral reefs and beaches.Several million people helpedclean debris from beaches
elsewhere.
Minimize Alien SpeciesMinimize Alien SpeciesMinimize Alien SpeciesMinimize Alien SpeciesMinimize Alien Species – Since alien species arean emerging issue, the Bishop Museum, NOAA,the USFWS, and other agencies and non-govern-mental agencies have prepared a variety of educa-tion materials and have committed to building anearly warning system for coastal invasive species.Through the DoD’s Legacy Program, The U.S.Navy initiated a survey of microflora in ballasttanks on its vessels in 2002.
Restore Damaged ReefsRestore Damaged ReefsRestore Damaged ReefsRestore Damaged ReefsRestore Damaged Reefs – Restoring of coralreefs injured by vessel groundingsis an important part of theNational Action Plan. Newtechniques and approaches forimproving restoration need to bedeveloped.
Federal and State agencies haveimplemented a wide range ofcoral restoration projects. In oneof the largest restoration opera-tions to date, USCG, NOAA, theDepartment of Energy, Depart-ment of Interior, and AmericanSamoa cooperated and success-fully removed nine long-linefishing vessels from Pago PagoHarbor that were grounded duringa 1991 cyclone. And in 1999-2000, USFWS contractors re-moved most of the ship debrisfrom a 1993 grounding of a
Figure 20. Globally, seahorses arehighly targeted by the marine aquariumtrade (Photo: Roberto Sozzani).
Figure 21. Installing mooring buoys atJohnston Atoll National WildlifeRefuge (Photo: James Maragos).
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Taiwanese longliner at Rose Atoll (Fig. 22). TheWaikiki Aquarium and the State of Hawai‘i areinitiating a pilot project to restore damaged coralhabitat in Kealakekua Bay on the island ofHawai‘i. NOAA and the State of Floridareconstructed four spurs of an ancient coral reef inthe Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary thathad been damaged by the grounding of a 47 mvessel.
Reduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral Reefs – TheNational Action Plan called for diverse activities toprotect and conserve reefs internationally, with anemphasis on capacity-building and technical assis-tance. The United States assisted 25 countries inthe wider Caribbean, Central America, South EastAsia, South Pacific, East Africa, and Middle Eastregions to improve their capacity for sustainablemanagement and conservation.
Additionally, a number of international activitiesreceived U.S. funding and technical assistance, in-cluding support for Mexico’s first National MarinePark. Jamaica’s Ridge to Reef Project receivedfunding to integrate land-based management prac-tices with coastal water quality. NOAA strengthen-ed the International Coral Reef Initiative and sup-ported several Global Coral Reef Monitoring Net-work initiatives.
Reduce Impacts from International Trade inReduce Impacts from International Trade inReduce Impacts from International Trade inReduce Impacts from International Trade inReduce Impacts from International Trade inCoral Reef ResourcesCoral Reef ResourcesCoral Reef ResourcesCoral Reef ResourcesCoral Reef Resources – The United States is theprimary consumer of live coral and marine fishesfor the aquarium trade, and coral skeletons andprecious corals for curios and jewelry. ExecutiveOrder 13089 and the National Action Plan chargethe USCRTF with addressing the degradation andloss of coral reefs arising from commerce in coralreef species and products.
The USCRTF International Working Group dev-eloped and recommended that Congress adopt newregulations for a comprehensive strategy to reduceadverse impacts of trade. Among other activities,the United States provided financial and technicalsupport for the Pacific Regional Workshop “Sus-tainable Management of the Marine OrnamentalTrade” held in Fiji, and the “International CoralTrade Workshop; Development of SustainableManagement Guidelines” held in Jakarta, Indo-nesia.
Create an Informed PublicCreate an Informed PublicCreate an Informed PublicCreate an Informed PublicCreate an Informed Public – The NationalAction Plan called for a focused, multi-leveloutreach campaign to prevent further declines incoral reef health. Since FY00, USCRTF State andTerritorial agencies have expanded their educationand public outreach projects for coral reef conser-vation and protection (Fig. 23). Many have beenassisted by Federal grants. For example, Hawai‘i,Guam, and the CNMI produced State of the Reefreports and coral reef educational CDs.
Improve Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and Accountability –Primarily, the USCRTF was created to improvecoordination and accountability among FederalAgencies responsible for coral reefs. The NationalAction Plan established a small, interagency staffto coordinate the shared Federal agency tasksidentified in the Executive Order.
Since FY00, this staff has coordinated the submis-sion of annual agency annual program reports andaccomplishments, crosscutting budget initiatives oncoral reef conservation. It also developed theprocess for the public inquiry about the agencyresponse to issues and concerns relating to Federalagency actions for coral reef protection. This samegroup has facilitated each Task Force meeting and
Figure 22. A diver inspects the engine of the Taiwaneselongliner fishing vessel that grounded on Rose Atoll (Photo:James Maragos).
Figure 23. Elementary school children learn about coral reefsthrough an educational program (Photo: FGBNMS).
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helped implement specific USCRTF-related actionsat regional and local levels to strengthen thecohesive national strategy for coral reef conser-vation.
The Coral Reef Conservation Fund (The Fund)The Coral Reef Conservation Fund (The Fund)The Coral Reef Conservation Fund (The Fund)The Coral Reef Conservation Fund (The Fund)The Coral Reef Conservation Fund (The Fund) –The Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 author-ized NOAA to enter into an agreement with theNational Fish and Wildlife Foundation, a non-profit organization, to establish and administer afund to support coral reef conservation. In 2001the Fund provided approximately $2 million in
grants to support the development of education andpublic outreach projects.
Recommendations and ConclusionsRecommendations and ConclusionsRecommendations and ConclusionsRecommendations and ConclusionsRecommendations and Conclusions
Critical information is needed to conserve andprotect U.S. coral reefs. Basic mapping has yet tobe done for over 85% of all U.S. reefs. As a result,data in this report referring to the area covered bycoral reefs, including the percent under no-takeprovisions, are mostly estimates from a variety ofsources. The figures vary widely mostly because ofinadequate and inaccurate base maps and charts.
Aside from ongoing mapping efforts, many reefareas need basic assessment and biotic inventories.Comparable long-term monitoring needs to besponsored and integrated across regions. Managersof reefs with recognized high threats need moreresources to mitigate impacts from degraded waterand substrate quality, overfishing, invasive species,or other anthropogenic stresses. They must beprepared to take bold conservation measures toreverse present trends.
To track changes in ecosystem health and evaluatethe effectiveness of conservation measures, grants
to State and Territorial agencies need to be contin-ued for the next 5-10 years. Public awareness andeducation and efforts need to continue at a highlevel to encourage a new ethic of sustained use ofcoral reef ecosystems.
This report finds that:
• U.S. coral reef areas are extensive.• Healthy reef ecosystems are critical for local
and regional economies.• All jurisdictions still have some reefs in good
to excellent health (Fig. 24). These need con-servation.
• All shallow reefs near urbanized coasts aredegraded to some extent. These need restora-tion.
• Areas next to densely populated shorelinesgenerally have poorer water quality than thosefar from human habitation. Where water qual-ity is fair to poor, reef ecosystems are degra-ded. Water quality needs to be improved inthose areas, and measures taken to maintainthe water quality of areas where reef conditionis now deemed good to excellent.
• Coastal development, runoff, and sedimenta-tion have impacted reefs around most highislands. This needs to be minimized.
• Fishing pressure has been a primary factorimpacting reef ecosystems for decades. Thereis evidence that overfishing has changed eco-system structure and function. Different andeffective methods of management need to beimplemented.
• Remote reefs with little coastal development,good water quality, and low fishing pressureare in excellent health, as characterized bymany large fish and generally high speciesdiversityy. These need to be studied andpreserved.
• Marine refuges with no-take provisions pro-duce more and larger fish. With enough time,they can conserve reef communities and long-lived species, producing trophy-sized apex pre-dators. More no-take areas need to be imple-mented within MPAs to reach the USCRTFgoal of 20% protection.
• Some existing marine protected areas are notprotecting reefs. Regulations within these needto be strengthened and adequately enforced.
• Enforcement is critical. It needs to be expan-ded and made more effective.
Figure 24. Staghorn coral thickets off of Southeast Floridaseem to be in good condition despite their proximity tohighly populated areas (Photo: NCRI).
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NATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARY
BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground
Environmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental Pressures
National AssessmentsNational AssessmentsNational AssessmentsNational AssessmentsNational Assessments
Agency ResponsesAgency ResponsesAgency ResponsesAgency ResponsesAgency Responses
Recommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationAction and ConclusionsAction and ConclusionsAction and ConclusionsAction and ConclusionsAction and Conclusions
NATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARYNATIONAL SUMMARY
BackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackgroundBackground
Environmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental Pressures
National AssessmentsNational AssessmentsNational AssessmentsNational AssessmentsNational Assessments
Agency ResponsesAgency ResponsesAgency ResponsesAgency ResponsesAgency Responses
Recommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationRecommendations for ConservationAction and ConclusionsAction and ConclusionsAction and ConclusionsAction and ConclusionsAction and Conclusions
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This is the first in a series of biennial reports ontheState of Coral Reef Ecosystems of the UnitedStates and the Pacific Freely Associated States.The National Ocean Service led the development,but it is the product of the 38 coauthors, and theyare responsible for its content. It is the result of anationally-coordinated effort by the USCRTF toassess the condition of coral reef ecosystems. Theworking group was comprised of the USCRTFGovernors’ Points of Contact, members from all ofthe USCRTF working groups, and the managersand scientists from participating Federal agenciesand U.S. States, Commonwealths, and Territories,and the Pacific Freely Associated States27.
Coral reefs are the most diverse, productive, andeconomically important habitats found in tropicaland semitropical oceans. But little specific scienti-fic information is known about the function, struc-ture, and condition of these ecosystems. Most haveyet to be mapped and their biotic resources inven-toried. This report is the beginning of gatheringconsistent, comparable scientific information on allthe reefs in the United States and the Freely Asso-ciated States, so the condition of these resourcescan be reliably assessed and conserved.
Coral reefs discussed in this report are found alongthe Western Atlantic and the continental shelf of thenorthern Gulf of Mexico, and around Caribbean
and Pacific islands (Fig. 25). Western Atlantic andCaribbean shallow-water coral reefs are off theState of Florida, the Commonwealth of PuertoRico, the Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands(USVI), and the Navassa Island National WildlifeRefuge. Deeper reefs in the Northern Gulf ofMexico and the Western Atlantic are also covered.Shallow-water reefs off the U.S. Pacific islands areextensive and include the Main and NorthwesternHawaiian Islands, the Territories of AmericanSamoa and Guam, the Commonwealth of theNorthern Mariana Islands (CNMI), and sevenremote, unincorporated Pacific island areas28. Alsoincluded in this report are Indo-Pacific reefs aroundthe Freely Associated States. These are among themost biologically diverse coral reef ecosystems inthe world.
With their habitat complexity and species richness,coral reefs protect coastlines from storms and are asource of food and recreation for millions of peo-ple. Many near-shore coral reef ecosystems areinextricably linked to coastal human populations,water-based activities, and economics. In general,coral reefs provide livelihoods for hundreds ofthousands of people in all U.S. affiliated areas.However, human activity is rapidly degradingmany near-shore reefs. If coral reef ecosystems areto continue to support abundant, diverse wildlife,
as well as the humans thatappreciate and depend on them,then they need to be conserved.
The mapping, assessment, mon-itoring, and other conservationactivities presented in this re-port are the beginning of a com-prehensive management strate-gy to conserve reef resourcesand to report biennially on theeffectiveness of those conserva-tion measures.
Figure 25. Map of coral reefs of the world with U.S. reefs highlighted in red (basedon Bryant et al. 1998).
27 The Freely Associated States were formerly a part of the United States Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands for nearly 40years following World War II. Three former territories, the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM), Palau, and the Republic ofthe Marshall Islands (RMI), are now independent nations that retain close association with the United States. Associates ofthe USCRTF, they requested to be included in this report.
28 Baker, Howland, Jarvis, Johnston, Kingman, Palmyra, and Wake.
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managers of coral reefs consider important for thecontext of statements they make on the conditionof corals and other aspects of this valuable aquaticecosystem. These topics provide background forthe classic presentation of sections that follow theBackground (i.e., Pressures on the Ecosystem,State, or condition, of the Reefs, and Responses byAgencies to conserve coral reef resources).
Coral ReefsCoral ReefsCoral ReefsCoral ReefsCoral Reefs
Although deep-sea coral reefs with three-dimen-sional structure exist in cooler waters, the familiarreefs are in the shallow, clear turquoise-blue watersof tropical and subtropical seas. Reefs generally siton continental shelves and submerged bases ofvolcanoes in depths ranging from emergent on lowtides to around 150 ft. Shallow-watercoral reef development is optimumwhere sea temperatures are warmest,between 30oN and 30oS, whichroughly coincides with the 20oC(68oF) isotherm (lines drawn on amap that connect points of equaltemperature). Most corals cannotsurvive temperatures much below 60-65oF (16-18oC) even for a few weeks.
Coral reefs are the largest biologicalstructures on earth, with millions ofcoral colonies, each made up of thou-sands of tiny interconnected corals.There are three general types ofreefs, with many gradations andvariations (Fig. 26)6. Fringing reefs
grow seaward from the rocky shores ofislands and continents. Barrier reefs areparallel to shorelines of continents andislands and are separated from land byshallow lagoons. Barrier reefs off oceanicislands originate from fringing reefs in aprocess that is similar to the formation ofatolls.Atolls are ring- or horseshoe-shapedcoral reefs and coral islets surrounding alagoon. An atoll lagoon is formed whenthe volcano that is the reef’s foundationsinks into the ocean, leaving only theupward-growing reef near sea level. Atolland barrier reef lagoons are usually con-nected to the open sea by breaks or passesthrough the reef, and may hold clusters ofisolatedpatch reefs (small reefs that were
gradually separated from associated land massesbecause of island subsidence or rising sea levels).
In addition to shallow reefs, certain corals can alsoform reef-like structures or banks in deeperwaters. These structures may play similar roles toshallow reefs, but they have been little studied andare generally not included in this report.
The United States and over 100 other countriesclaim sovereignty over coral reefs (Birkeland1997a). Spalding et al. (2001) estimated the areacovered by shallow coral reefs (less than 200 ft.)worldwide to be 109,800 mi2 (284,300 km2). Theirestimate of shallow reefs comprises less than 1.2%of the continental shelf area and only 0.9% of theworld’s oceans. Reefs in sovereign U.S. waterscover an estimated 7,607 mi2 (19,702.4 km2, Fig.
Fringing ReefFringing ReefFringing ReefFringing ReefFringing Reef
Barrier ReefBarrier ReefBarrier ReefBarrier ReefBarrier Reef Atoll Atoll Atoll Atoll AtollFigure 26. Three types of coral reef formations (Photos: Kip Evans,James Maragos, and the NOS Photo Gallery) .
Figure 27. Estimated area covered by coral reefs in the United States andPacific Freely Associated States.
29 The numbers were computed using informmation from Hunter 1995, FMRI/NOAA 1998, Ault et al. 2001, Florida Fish andWildlife Conservation Commission 2001, Kendall et al. 2001, S. Gittings pers. comm., and S. White pers. comm.).
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27)29. Estimates for the reefs off the Freely Asso-ciated States range from 4,479-31,470 mi2 (11,600-81,500 km2, Holthus et al. 1993, Maragos andHolthus 1999, Spalding et al. 2001).
Reef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef Ecosystems
Ecosystems are composed of biological communi-ties and habitats. Biological communities areinteracting populations of individual species.
Coral reef ecosystems include the species residingin these habitat types. They also include aquaticresidents of associated sand, macroalgae, seagrass,and mangrove habitats. Species have specializedroles (niches) within habitats. Basically, organ-isms can be grouped into three general categories –planktonic (floating), benthic (bottom dwelling),or nectonic (swimming).
An ecosystem includes all the energy, material/nutrient cycling, and behavioral interactions, link-ing organisms in a community together and withtheir environment (Smith 1992). Monitoring com-ponents of coral reef ecosystems are key to bothunderstanding their structure and function andwisely managing reef resources. This includes bio-logical factors such as species abundance, size,distributions, diversity, and human-use patterns,along with non-biological factors such as coastaldevelopment, sedimentation, and pollution.
Corals and Reef CommunitiesCorals and Reef CommunitiesCorals and Reef CommunitiesCorals and Reef CommunitiesCorals and Reef Communities
Corals are ancient animals that evolved into themodern reef-building forms over the last 25million years (Allen and Steene 1996). They
initially appeared as solitary forms in fossils morethan 400 million years ago.
The primary building blocks of a reef are polyps ofstony coral species (also called scleractinian orhermatypic corals). Each polyp is generallysessile (attached to the substrate), with a smallcylindrical body and prey-capturing tentacles sur-rounding the opening or mouth (Fig 28). The pol-yps of stony corals deposit a calcium carbonateskeletal cup around themselves. A coral reef iscomprised of millions of these calcified polypsmaking up individual coral heads. Coral heads areoften cemented together by coralline (coral-like,calcareous) algae (Fig. 29).
Symbiotic30 photosynthetic, single-celled algae,calledzooxanthellae live in the tissues of eachstony coral polyp. Reef-building corals cannot livewithout them. They depend on these microscopicplants for part of their nutrition, so are limited bytheir symbiont requirements to the maximum depthlight penetrates in clear, oceanic waters (around150 ft). This symbiosis enhances the growth rateand calcium deposition of shallow-water stonycorals and contributes toward coral reefs being themost diverse marine ecosystems on earth.
Organisms within coral reef communities can bedivided into four main groups.31 First, the epiben-thos (sessile organisms, the living substrate) pro-vides the complex structure of the reef itself. Theseare the coralline and fleshy algae, hard and softcorals, and sponges. Second, plankton (tinyfloating plants and animals, most are microscopic)provides food for the reef filter feeders32. Third,thesuprabenthos are the larger mobile animalsthat swim over and around the reef. These are the
Figure 28. Coral polyp (Photo: James McVey).
Figure 29. Crustose coralline algae (Photo: James Maragos).
30 From symbiosis, a term for a beneficial relationship between two organisms. Usually the smaller organism is the symbiontand the larger is the host.
31 Modified from the three coral reef components proposed by Reaka-Kudla (1997).32 Organisms feed by filtering plankton from the water column. This includes much of the plankton itself, corals, clams, some
fish, and baleen whales.
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herbivores (those that feed on plants), coral-livores (those that feed on corals), carnivores(those that eat other animals), and detritivores(those that feed on dead and decaying matter).Fourth, the cryptofauna33 bores into the substrateand nestles in holes and reef crevices. These bryo-zoans, sponges, tunicates, and polychaetes furtherincrease reef habitat complexity (Fig. 30).
Coral reefs are unique, biologically diverse sys-tems34. Their productivity rivals the tropical rainforests. Although a comprehensive inventory of thebiological diversity of coral reef species has yet tobe done for the United States and the Pacific Free-ly Associated States, healthy coral reefs support anabundance of life. Only about 5% of the globalcoral biota has been described and about 93,000species of coral reef organisms identified. Basedon that, Reaka-Kudla (1997) estimated the ‘truenumber of species on global coral reefs is at least950,000.’ Using another broad assumption, inclu-ding the premise that only 10% of the organismson coral reefs have been described, Spalding et al.(2001) estimated a global total of 1-3 millionspecies inhabit coral reefs and associated habitats.
Sand, algae, seagrass, and mangrove habitats areintegral parts of the reef ecosystem, providingcritical nursery areas and essential habitat for reef
invertebrates and fish (Fig. 31). Marine organismsrely on the different habitats of the coral ecosystemat different life stages, and the loss or degradationof any of those habitats can have serious effects onthe reef. Corals, most fishes, and other reef organ-isms have planktonic larval stages. Floating withocean currents, these larvae link different ecosys-tems, often over large distances. Therefore, thehealth of a reef partly depends on the condition ofecosystems ‘upstream’ from which reefs deriverecruits (juvenile and adult organisms that settleout of the plankton or migrate into the reef com-munity).
A number of reef-associated species have beenlisted as threatened or endangered under the U.S.Endangered Species Act (Fig. 32). These includeall the sea turtles35, and the Hawaiian monk seal(Monachus schauindslandi). The Caribbean monkseal (M. tropicalis), also listed as endangered, isprobably extinct. Populations of endemic species(unique to a specific area, such as a single island)may be especially at risk for extinction36.
There is also strong international concern thatcertain coral reef species are threatened or maybecome threatened through trade. The Convention
Figure 30. Polychaete worm on a coral reef (Photo: JamesMcVey).
Figure 31. Juvenile fish swimming around mangrove roots(Photo: Matt Kendall).
33 Richter et al. (2001) described the cryptofauna as a microcosm within a “swiss-cheese” reef. Inside a reef, there is 2.5-7.5times the surface area of the outside. These internal areas are crammed with sponges, bacteria, sea squirts, and more. Onlyabout half of the species they encountered were known to science. These authors postulate the cryptofauna filter up to 60%of the plant and animal plankton passing through the reef. The nitrogen and phosphorus they excrete after digesting theplankton fertilizes the corals and allows them to thrive in nutrient-poor waters.
34 For example, Grassle (1973) reported that a single head of cauliflower coral (Pocillopora damicornis) contained 103 speciesof polychaetes (segmented worms with paddle-like appendanges). He also found numerous decapod crustaceans (crabs andshrimp),amphipods and isopods (small shrimp-like crustaceans), sipunculids (peanut worms), oligochaetes (earthworm-like segmented worms), and ophiuroids (brittle stars, a type of starfish).
35 Green (Chelonia mydas), loggerhead (Caretta caretta), and olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea) sea turtles are listed as threatened throughout their range. Hawksbill (Eretmochelys imbricata), leatherback (Dermochelys coriacca), and Kemps ridley (Lepidochelys kempii) are listed as endangered throughout their range.
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on the International Trade in Endangered Speciesof Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) lists those spe-cies. Currently, CITES protection has been extend-ed to a number of reef species, many of which arecommercially desirable37. CITES also warns thatreef sharks are being rapidly depleted because ofthe global harvest of shark fins.
Cultural Value of ReefCultural Value of ReefCultural Value of ReefCultural Value of ReefCultural Value of ReefEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystems
Coral reefs are a significant partof a country’s natural heritage.Some of the largest individualcoral colonies found on reefstoday were thriving centuriesbefore human colonization.Rivaling old growth forests, well-developed reefs reflect thousandsof years of growth and develop-ment. For centuries, coral reefshave provided sustenance andshoreline protection to indigenous
peoples.
Uses of reef resources are woveninto the social and cultural fabricof coastal communities. Reefs
provide three general types offishing opportunities: artisanal(small village-based fisheriesfor personal or communityconsumption),recreational(fishing for sport or pleasure),andcommercial (fishing forcommerce through sale, barter,or trade).
Native peoples of the PacificIslands have a strong culturaland economic dependence oncoral reefs and marine resour-ces. Each island or island grouphad its own language, customs,local government, and a reeftenure system controlled at thevillage level.
One example of reef tenure sys-tems still operating in Pacific Island rural regionsis the traditional harvest system in Hawai‘i38. Priorto the 1800s, there were social and cultural con-trols on fishing with a strictly enforced code ofconduct (Fig. 33). Harvest management was notbased on the amount of fish, but on identifying thespecific times and places where fishing couldoccur. This kept the fishers from disturbing the
basic processes and habitats ofimportant food resources(Friedlanderet al. in press).
In 1994, the Hawai‘i Legislaturecreated a process for designatingcommunity-based subsistencefishing areas. These are beingcreated on Moloka‘i, Kaua‘i, andHawai‘i. One community, resid-ing in the Ho‘olehua HawaiianHomesteads on the northwestcoast of Moloka‘i, depends onfood from the ocean for much oftheir diet. They prepared a fish-eries management plan (HuiMalama o Mo‘omomi 1995), pro-posing to 1) integrate traditionalobservational methods andscience-based techniques;
Figure 32. Some examples of Hawaiian species covered under the EndangeredSpecies Act include: (a) the Humpback whale, (b) the green sea turtle, (c) theHawaiian monk seal, and (d) the Laysan duck (Photos: Joseph Mobely, NMFS, DonnaTurgeon and J. Marks).
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Figure 33. A ‘hukilau’ is a traditionalHawaiian fish gathering method(Photo: Jeff Alexander).
36 Endemism is a major concern for some Pacific Islands, particularly so for the State of Hawai‘i where about 25% of the reef organisms are endemic, the highest of any coral reef area worldwide (Maragos and Gulko 2002). It is one of the main reasons why many Hawaiian species are endangered or already presumed extinct.37 All species of stony corals, black coral (Antipathes species), all giant clams (Tridacna species), black-lipped pearl oysters (Pinctada margaritifera), queen conch (Strombus gigas), coconut crab (Birgus latro), bumphead parrotfish (Bolbometopon muricatum), humphead or Napoleon wrasse (Cheilinus undulatus), some groupers, and the above sea turtles species.38 This is the traditional spelling. It is used throughout this report. Similar traditional spellings are also used.
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2) foster consensus about how fishing would beconducted to restore community values and stew-ardship; and 3) revitalize a locally-sanctioned codeof fishing conduct. Now implemented, it is havingan impact. Owing to its isolation and strong com-munity conservation ethics, Friedlander et al. (inpress) concluded fisheries resources at Mo‘omomiare very healthy compared with most areas aroundthe state.
In the past few decades, the lure of balmy climatesand beautiful coral reefs has drawn an increasingnumber of new residents and tourists to nearbyseashores. As a result, many of the fragile coralhabitats that play an integral role in communitydynamics are being affected by human activitieswith far-reaching consequences. For example,impacts to reef fish communities from overfishingaffect not only fishers and theirfamilies who depend on fish fortheir livelihoods, but also resi-dents and tourists who indulgein fresh seafood served at localrestaurants, seafood wholesalersand retailers, and exporters offresh and frozen fish to marketsworldwide. Coastal develop-ment and reef degradation nowthreaten their existence.
Economic Value of ReefEconomic Value of ReefEconomic Value of ReefEconomic Value of ReefEconomic Value of ReefEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystemsEcosystems
Coral reefs are an integral com-ponent of local and regionaleconomies. Reefs provide pro-tection from storm wave action,reducing erosion, propertydamage, and loss of life. They
protect highly productive coastalwetland and mangrove habitats,as well as coastal communities,ports, and harbors. Costanza etal. (1997) estimated reef habi-tats globally provide $375 bil-lion each year to humans fromliving resources (fish and otherfood) and ecological services(tourism and coastal protection).Cesar (1996) calculated the cost
over a 25-year period of destroying 1 km2 (about247 acres) of reef ranged between $0.6-2.5 millionwhen the value of fishery, tourism, and protectionwas considered.
The environment and the economy are inextricablylinked, making the management and protection ofcoral reef resources critical. Coral reefs support aburgeoning coastal population and are a Mecca fortourists, adding millions of seasonal and temporaryvisitors (Table 1). The U.S. Census (2002) reportedover 10.5 million people resided in U.S. coastalcounties and islands adjacent to shallow coral reefecosystems in 2000, with another 203,000 resi-dents living on the islands of the Pacific FreelyAssociated States. Each year, 45 million visitors39
are drawn to U.S. seaside and live-aboard accom-modations to fish, dive, and otherwise enjoy coral
reefs (Fig. 34). Another 113,000tourists visit the tropical isles ofthe Pacific Freely AssociatedStates.
The only region where a surveyand market analysis of reef usehas been done is the four-countyarea of South Florida40. When theseasonal and temporary visitorsare considered, the region’s 5.09million residents are increased toa functional daily population41
between 5.56-5.92 million, de-pending on the season (Johns etal. 2001). According to thoseauthors, South Florida residentsand visitors spent 18.1 millionperson-days fishing and divingaround natural coral reefs as wellas viewing them from glass-bottom boats. They used these
Figure 34. Tourists at Sanibel IslandBeach, Florida (Photo: South FloridaWater Management District).
Table 1. Population and tourism statistics for the U.S. coral reef areas and theFreely Associated States. *This includes only Broward, Dade, Monroe, and PalmBeach Counties.
39 This figure was compiled from Stewart 1997, U.S. Office of Insular Affairs 1999, Puerto Rico Planning Board 2000, Dittonand Tahiling 2001, Johns et al. 2001, UNESCAP 2002, and the respective regional reports that follow this NationalSummary.
40 Broward, Palm Beach, Dade, and Monroe counties.
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and monetary compensation for past use of severalatolls for nuclear weapons testing.
Bioprospecting (the harvest of biological organ-isms for medical and other applications) wildlifefound on coral reefs offers economic promise.Already, biochemicals produced by many reefspecies are being used in health care products (e.g.,sun blocks), medical procedures (e.g., bone grafts),and pharmaceuticals for treating viral infectionsand other medical conditions. Ongoing medicalresearch indicates that other biochemicals extract-ed from reef-associated species may offer treat-ments for leukemia, skin cancer, and other diseases(Birkeland 1997a). There are concerns amongcoral reef managers that it may be a new threat toU.S. coral reef ecosystems, so they caution thatbioprospecting must be carefully managed.
Global ConcernsGlobal ConcernsGlobal ConcernsGlobal ConcernsGlobal Concerns
U.S. coral reefs share many problems with reefsaround the world. In 2002, the world populationwas 6.2 billion people (U.S. Bureau of the Census2002) with almost 0.5 billion people living within60 mi of some coral reef (Bryant et al. 1998, Hen-richsen 1999). Coastal residents and the influx oftourists place increasing demands on these com-plex and fragile ecosystems. Some can no longer
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and other figures to place theannual economic value of SouthFlorida’s natural reef ecosystemat nearly $228 million for non-market economic use and at$7.6 billion for its asset value42.
They also calculated that SouthFlorida’s natural reefs suppor-ted 44,500 jobs, providing atotal annual income of $1.2billion. A similar study was alsodone for the Flower GardensNational Marine Sanctuary inthe Gulf of Mexico off the TexasCoast. Economic studies like thesehave been recently commissioned forreefs off Hawai‘i, American Samoa,and Guam.
Comparable data for other reef regions is lackingfor a number of reasons. Value of catch comes ingross receipts, dockside value, or is calculatedusing economic multipliers, none of which can bedirectly compared. Likewise, States or coastalcounties cannot be compared to local beaches ormarkets. Ultimately, the data may not even becollected. Even without definitive data, in theUnited States, tourist expenditures in areas withcoral reef ecosystems account for at least $17.5billion43. In the Pacific Freely Associated States,tourist expenditures exceed $84.8 million44.
U.S. coral reefs support commercial ex-vessellandings (value of the catch paid to fishermen) ofover $137.1 million45 (Fig. 35). The gross valueestimate for commercial fisheries in the FreelyAssociated States is $109.8 million. Except forSouth Florida, there are no estimates for the valueof recreational fisheries within U.S. coral reefs.
Aside from tourism and fisheries-based sources ofincome, the Compacts of Free Association with theUnited States provide additional funds, services,and technical assistance to the Freely AssociatedStates. The governments and some residents of theMarshall Islands also receive lease rents for U.S.use of Kwajalein Atoll as a missile testing facility
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41 All the people in a given area on a given day that demand local services (e.g., fresh water, sewage and solid waste disposal,electricity, and transportation).
42 The amount someone would pay to purchase the reefs and receive the $228 million in income annually.43 Compiled from regional figures from Stewart 1997, U.S. Office of Insular Affairs 1999, Hawai‘i DBEDT 2000, Puerto Rico
Planning Board 2000, Johns et al. 2001, UNESCAP 2002, B. Ditton pers. comm.44 From U.S. Office of Insular Affairs statistics.45 Computed from information in Caribbean Fisheries Management Council (1998), Leeworthy (2001), and NMFS (2001).
Figure 35. Estimates of the ex-vessel value of commercial fisheries by region.
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sustain such pressures. Given the declines infisheries worldwide (Fig. 36), harvesting fish usingunsustainable practices (e.g., dynamiting, poisons,overfishing) is destroying marine fisheries andcoastal ecosystems (FAO 1995, Fig. 37). Sixtypercent of commercial stocks are either fully har-vested to the quota or overfished. This has directand indirect implications for coral reef ecosystemsandcan be illustrated with the fisheries of theHawaiian Islands.
The Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI) arerelatively pristine and have little fishing pressure,while the Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI) have someof the densest populated islands in the Pacific46
with attendant heavy fishing of coral reef species.As a result, scientists have found the NWHI coral
reef fish community to be dominated by carnivoresthat are larger and more abundant than the fishcommunity off the populated areas of the MHI(Okamoto and Kawamoto 1980, Hobson 1984,Parrishet al. 1985, Friedlander and DeMartini2002). Those authors reported one jack and threesharks47 comprised 94% of the predator biomass at106 coral reef stations in the NWHI, but were allbut missing in the MHI (Fig. 38). Collectively, oneparrotfish and two species of chubs48 contributednearly 50% of the herbivore biomass49 in theNWHI, but were less than 7% of the biomass in theMHI. Only the black triggerfish (Melichthys niger),which is rarely targeted by fishers in the MHI, hadgreater relative abundance and biomass than that ofthe NWHI. Most likely these differences are fromthe near re-moval (over-fishing) of toppredators andheavy exploita-tion of lowertrophic levelsin the MHIcompared tothe largely un-fished NWHI.
Overfishing isonly part of theworld-wide degradation of reefs over the pastdecade. Bryant et al. (1998) estimated 36% of allreefs were potentially threatened by overexploita-
tion, 30% by coastal development,22% by inland pollution anderosion, and 12% by marinepollution. Combined, 58% of theworld’s reefs face medium or highrisk of degradation from humanactivities. This is similar to otherestimates. Wilkinson (2000) found66% of coral reefs are degra-dedglobally. The Global Coral ReefMonitoring Network’s Status ofCoral Reefs of the World 2000(Wilkinson 2000) estimated thatbefore 1998, about 11% of theworld’s reefs may already bebeyond recovery from anthropo-genic (human-induced) impacts(Fig. 39). The extensive climate-
Figure 36. Coral reefs in Bali, Indonesia are some of theworld’s most diverse reefs, as well as the most threatened(Photo: Jim Hendee).
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Figure 37. Cyanide fishing is an unsus-tainable practice and a serious concernfor reefs in South East Asia (Photo:International Marinelife Alliance).
Figure 38. Biomass of dominant fish species in the Main and the NorthwesternHawaiian Islands (Source: Friedlander and DeMartini in press).
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related mortality of corals in 1997-199850 destroyed an additional 16% ofthe world’s reefs, with the worstimpacts in the Indian Ocean(Wilkinson 2000). A detailed discus-sion of the impacts of an-thropogenicand natural pressures on reef ecosys-tems will be presented in Environ-mental Pressures.
Large marine vertebrates – whales,manatees, turtles, groupers, and sharks – have beenharvested systematically by humans over the past500 years and are now effectively absent frommost coastal ecosystems (National ResearchCouncil 1995, Jackson et al. 2001, Pitcher 2001,Fig. 40). Populations of species important to manymarine ecosystems are now so low they cannotexert their former ecological role; some are nearextinction (Dayton 1998). The indirect effects areunknown because no baseline data exist forcomparison (Dayton et al. 1998). Modern studiesof marine ecosystems began long after enormouschanges in these systems had occurred (Jackson1997, Jackson et al. 2001), and the ‘shiftingbaseline syndrome’ (Pauly 1995, Sheppard 1995)makes it difficult to determine what constitutes anatural ecosystem. Because of this, it is alsodifficult to determine how to properly managethese ecosystems.
Predator-dominated coral reef ecosystems maywell be the natural state (Fig. 41), but predaceousspecies are the most susceptible to, and mostrapidly removed by human activities. Thus, thenatural state is difficult to observe. The exceptionis the NWHI because limited human population
and fishing activity meansminimal human impact(Friedlander and DeMartini inpress). These reefs are among thefew remaining large, intact, pred-ator-dominated reef ecosystemsin the world.
The NWHI is one of the few reefecosystems that is sufficientlypristine to study how unaltered
sys-tems are structured, how they function, andhow they can be effectively preserved (Friedlanderand DeMartini in press). They offer a chance todeter-mine what could occur if larger and moreeffec-tive no-take marine protected areas wereused other places.
Figure 40. The populations of manatees have been reducedby a long history of harvesting (Photo: Laurel Canty-Ehrlich,FKNMS).
Figure 41. Predator-dominated coral reef ecosystem in theNorthwestern Hawaiian Islands (Photo: NOW-RAMP Expedi-tion/Bishop Museum).
48 The chubs (Kyphosus bigibbus and K. vaigiensis) and the endemic spectacled parrotfish (Chlorurus perspicillatus).49 Biomass is the weight or mass of a taxonomic group (i.e., species) in a given area (e.g., sample transect, habitat).50 See the section on Climate Change and Coral Bleaching for a full discussion of this event.
Figure 39. Reports on world-widecoral reef degradation.
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In general, there are two types of environmentalpressures on reefs (or any ecosystem) – naturalforces and human impacts. Natural forces haveshaped the distribution of coral reefs over the ages.A broad range of temperature and sea-level chang-es occur over hundreds and thousands of years.Diseases, storms, and predation are more intensebut have shorter-term impacts.
On top of natural forces, human-induced pressurescome from a myriad of activities (A. Bentivogliopers. comm.). These include the following.
• Coastal development with the resulting runoffand sedimentation
• Chemical water pollution (toxic contaminantsand nutrient enrichment)
• Over-harvesting of fishery resources anddestruction of reefs and associated habitats
• Direct harvest of coral colonies and live reeffish
• Ship and boat groundings and anchor damage• Tourism and recreation
• Alien invasive species• Marine debris
Every coral reef ecosystem under U.S. jurisdictionhas suffered from human disturbance to some de-gree. Because they are close to population centers,portions of reefs off Florida, Puerto Rico, theUSVI, the Main Hawaiian Islands, Guam, and theCNMI have been degraded by multiple en-vironmental and human-induced stresses. In con-trast, the Flower Garden Banks National MarineSanctuary, Navassa Island, the remote PacificIsland refuges, and the NWHI, have few human-induced pressures and remain relatively pristine.Table 2 compares the environmental threats tocoral reef ecosystems as perceived by over reef 60managers from the United States and PacificFreely Associated States51.
Adding human pressures to natural variability maydegrade local reef ecosystems faster. Given time,corals and reef communities mostly recover fromacute (short-term and often dramatic) natural
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES
NATIONAL SUMMARY;NATIONAL SUMMARY;NATIONAL SUMMARY;NATIONAL SUMMARY;NATIONAL SUMMARY;ENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURESENVIRONMENTAL PRESSURES
Table 2. Summary of concerns about natural and anthropogenic pressures on coral reef ecosystems in the United States andPacific Freely Associated States (Source: Priorities of reef managers for the United States and Freely Associated States).
51 Information for this table and the basis for conclusions stated in the following subsections are in the regional reports that follow this National Summary.
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. Virg
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Global warming and bleaching H M M L L L M L M H M H MDiseases H H H L L L L L L L L L LTropical storms M L H L L L M M M M L L LCoastal development and runoff H H H L H L H H H M H H LCoastal pollution H H H L H L H H H L M H LTourism and recreation M M M L H M L M M L L M LFishing H H H L H M H M M M H M MTrade in coral and live reef species M H L L H M M L L H L L LShips, boats, and groundings H M H M H H M M M L H M MMarine debris M M L L M H L L M L H M MAlien species M L L M H H M L L H L M MOther physical impacts L H L L M L L L H M L L HOffshore oil and gas exploration L L L M L L L L L L L L L
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. Rem
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High concern Medium concern Little-to-no concern
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stresses after the condition abates. However, thesestresses may make key organisms more vulnerableto chronic (long-term, low-level, and perhaps un-detectable52) stresses created by human populations(sedimentation, nutrification, overfishing, etc.).Moreover, natural and human stresses may interactsynergistically, combining substances or factorswhich separately may be relatively harmless, butwhen added together can be more potent andmagnify impacts in unpredictable ways.
Global Climate Change and CoralGlobal Climate Change and CoralGlobal Climate Change and CoralGlobal Climate Change and CoralGlobal Climate Change and CoralBleachingBleachingBleachingBleachingBleaching
All coral reef managers considered global climatechange a major, yet largely unmanageable threat tothe survival of coral reef ecosystems. Managersfrom Florida, the RMI, and Palau, however,consider global climate warming and coralbleaching a major threatto their local reefs. Thosefrom Puerto Rico, theU.S. Virgin Islands,American Samoa, CNMI,the Federated States ofMicronesia, and the U.S.remote insular reefsconsidered these factors amedium threat (Table 2).
According to the ThirdAssessment Report of theIntergovernmental Panelon Climate Change (IPCC2001), the 1990s was thewarmest decade of the century and 1998 the warm-est year on record (1861-2000). In the 1990s, con-centrations of greenhouse gases and aerosolsreached the highest recorded levels since the pre-industrial era. In its conclusions, the Panel blamedhuman activities for increasing atmospheric con-centrations of key greenhouse gases53, primarilyfrom the combustion of fossil fuels, agriculture,and coastal development.
This Third Assessment Report presents the scien-tific consensus for changes over the next century.
• Globally averaged, CO2 concentrations in the
atmosphere are projected to range between540-970 ppm in 2100, more than doubling the
pre-industrial age average of 280 ppm and wellabove the 2000 average of 368 ppm.
• Globally averaged, sea surface temperaturesare projected to increase 2.5-10.4oF (1.4-5.8oC)between 1990 and 2100.
• Globally averaged, annual precipitation isprojected to increase during the 21st century;regionally, both increases and decreases of 5-20% are projected.
• Global mean sea level is projected to rise by0.3-2.9 ft between the years of 1990 and 2100,with regional variation.
With confidence, the IPCC (2001) predicts ecolog-ical productivity and biodiversity will be affectedby climate change and sea-level rise, increasing therisk of extinction for some vulnerable species.
Changes in sea level from long-term climatechange, have directimplications for coralreefs, as well as humanpopulations that inhabitislands or shores withlittle elevation (Fig. 42)54.There could be severesocial and economiceffects, as resources criti-cal to island and coastalpopulations would alsobe at risk (beaches, fresh-water, fisheries, atolls,and wildlife habitat).Using historical evidence,Shinn (1988) showed
changes in reef communities as a result of sea levelrise and flooding of shallow inshore bays offsoutheastern Florida (Florida Key West to PalmBeach).
Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases areexpected to change the frequency, intensity, andduration of extreme events. There will be more hotdays, more heat waves, more heavy precipitation,and fewer cold days. Besides inundating low-lyingcoastal areas from the melting polar ice, potentialclimate change impacts include increased sedimen-tation of coral reefs caused by drought followed byheavy rains. The rising sea level could eliminatedeeper reefs because the sunlight needed for photo-synthesis would be too low.
Figure 42 Majuro, the capital of the Marshall Islands, isa low-lying coral atoll that could be submerged by a risein sea level (Photo: James McVey).
52 For example, chronic sediment stress could be causing the loss of a small percentage of coral cover on near-shore reefs every year that would be undetectable with most of the existing monitoring programs.53 Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and tropospheric ozone.
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If these predictions hold, thenincreased damage to shallow-water corals is likely at thephysiological level. First, acoral reef is the net accumu-lation of calcium carbonatefrom corals and other calci-fied organisms. The rate ofcalcification partly deter-mines the growth of the reef.If calcification efficiencydeclines, reef-building capa-city also declines. This could happen with in-creased atmospheric CO
2 because coral reef calci-
fication depends on saturation of the carbonatemineral aragonite in surface waters. Kleypas et al.(1999) predicted that increased CO
2 levels would
decrease both the aragonite saturation in the trop-ics by 30% and biogenic (biologically derived)aragonite precipitation by 14-30%. According tothese scientists, current atmospheric concentrationsof CO
2 have already reduced the average deposi-
tion rate of calcium carbonate in the tropics.
Second, increased surface temperatures and ultra-violet light may cause coral bleaching (Fig. 43)that can kill polyps and entire coral colonies. Frommodels of global climate change, Hoegh-Guldberg(1999) predicted that temperature would exceedthe thermal tolerance levels of reef-building coralsevery year for the next several decades. In otherwords, coral bleaching at the level of the 1997-1998 global event is likely to be commonplaceover the next 20 years.
Right now, many corals al-ready live close to their uppertemperature limit. These couldbe bleached with even periodicincreases of a few degrees.
Coral bleaching and diseasehave been documented tocoincide with elevated watertemperatures associated with ElNiño and La Niña events.Worldwide, the worst coral-bleaching episode began in late1997 during an El Niño event,and continued well into 1998(Pomerance 1999, Wilkinson1998). In the Caribbean, it
coincided with the hottest sum-mer/fall seawater temperatureson record, affecting extensiveareas of shallow-water reefs offFlorida, Puerto Rico, and theUSVI. In the Pacific, the impactwas spotty, but intense. Reefsaround Palau, particularlyocean-facing slopes, experien-ced severe coral bleaching, withan estimated one-third of allcorals affected, especially the
Acropora corals. One area in Micronesia had reefswith 20% of corals bleached to 60 ft, including awide variety of hard and soft corals. Yet other partsof Micronesia reported only minor bleaching.
Since 1997, NOAA has predicted coral bleachingfrom surface water temperatures gathered fromsatellites and in situ buoys (NOAA 2001, Fig. 44)and placed the information on their web site(NOAA 2002). NOAA satellite data confirmed thatPalmyra Atoll in the U.S. Line Islands experiencedtemperatures over 86oF (30oC) in late 1997 (A.Strong pers. comm.). This could have been respon-sible for the reduction in live coral (from 100 to10% cover) along the southern and western reefsthat was reported in a subsequent assessment (J.Maragos pers. obs.).
Coral bleaching as a factor impacting the conditionof U.S. reef ecosystems has varied regionally andlocally within reefs and among species. Generally
Figure 43. Coral bleaching in Guam (Photo:Robert Richmond).
Figure 44. NOAA satellites track global “hot spots” where coral reef bleaching islikely to occur. In this map of the 1998 global bleaching event, places with elevatedsea surface temperatures (SSTs) are marked in orange and red (Photo: NOAA/National Environmental and Satellite Data and Information Series).
54 The average elevation of the RMI is 7 ft. Even a moderate rise in sea level would probably eliminate some islands entirelyand reduce the available area on others.
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the shallower reefs are most af-fected. Except for shallow reefsoff Florida, the CNMI, Palau,and Palmyra, mortality frombleaching episodes has generallybeen low. On the other hand,current marginal subtropicalreefs where coral calcificationtemperatures are below opti-mum may not only survive, butbenefit from global climatechange (J. Maragos and D. Sicil-iano pers. comm.). Cooler waterreefs off the NWHI and perhapsdeeper reefs such as the FlowerGarden Banks should be buf-fered from the effects of coralbleaching when surface waterswarm.
DiseasesDiseasesDiseasesDiseasesDiseases
Where diseases have wreakedhavoc – Florida, Puerto Rico, and the USVI – thecoral reef managers consider disease a prime threatto reef health (Table 2).
Over the past two decades, there has been a world-wide increase in reports of disease affecting coralreef organisms. In the Western Atlantic, diseaseoutbreaks have contributed to die-offs of seagrass-es, corals, sea fans, sea urchins, sponges, fish, andother organisms. Disease has modified the struct-ure and composition of reefs by removing commonand locally abundant species. Indirect evidencesuggests that disease outbreaks in marine environ-ments are becoming more frequent (Harvell et al.1999). Diseases are reported from Pacific reefs, butthe incidence is lower than in the Caribbean (Workand Rameyer 2001).
Coral disease appears to be more prevalent nearpopulation centers. Changing environmentalconditions from climate variability coupled withhuman impacts may weaken corals, making themmore vulnerable to disease (Green and Bruckner2000). Coral diseases have been recorded by 54different nations, with most records (66%) fromthe wider Caribbean, including reefs in Florida,Puerto Rico, and USVI (Green and Bruckner2000). Of 29 diseases reported in the literature,about 80% of the reports are for white-banddisease, black-band disease, and white plague.
White-band disease has been themost significant cause of mor-tality to staghorn (Acropora cer-vicornis), elkhorn (Acroporapalmate), and fused staghorn(Acropora prolifera) coralsthroughout the Caribbean. Theirpopulations declined as much as95% in the 1980s and early1990s (Aronson and Precht2000).
Black-band disease, first identi-fied in 1972, occurs at lowlevels on most Western Atlanticreefs and may increase season-ally during warm periods (Fig.45). Although black-band dis-ease occurs worldwide, severeoutbreaks have only been repor-ted from the Caribbean, includ-ing U.S. reefs (Antonius 1973,Edmunds 1991, Kuta and
Richardson 1997, Bruckner 1999).
White plague disease was first reported in theFlorida Keys (Dustan 1977). A new, more virulentform (plague type II) emerged in the mid 1990s,and since then outbreaks have occurred in theFlorida Keys, southwestern Puerto Rico, CulebraIsland, and parts of the USVI (Bruckner andBruckner 1997, Richardson 1998, Hernandez2001, Miller et al. 2001). Particularly severeoutbreaks were also observed in the spring andsummer of 2001, impacting the important massivereef-building corals55. White plague may havesevere impacts on reef ecosystems, as this diseaseaffects a large number of coral species and killstissue at rates up to 0.8 inches2 a day (2 cm2/day).
In a growing list of new coral diseases and othersyndromes, yellow-blotch disease is of particularconcern. This disease selectively infects slow-growing, massive corals, some of the most impor-tant reef-builders found on Caribbean reefs today.Once infected, the disease slowly kills the colonyover several years (Green and Bruckner 2000).
In addition to scleractinian coral diseases, scien-tists have recently identified diseases and patho-gens (disease-causing organisms) in colonialanemones and soft corals (soft-bodied sessileorganisms that are in the same class as stonycorals). Also, a fungus of terrestrial origin (Asper-
March 15March 15March 15March 15March 15
March 22March 22March 22March 22March 22
Figure 45. Black-band disease devours aknobby brain coral over a one-weekperiod (Photo: Andrew Bruckner).
55 Such species as the boulder brain coral (Colopophyllia natans) and the boulder star coral (synonomyzed, or renamed as onespecies,Montastraea annularis; some authors still recognize M. faveolata and M. franksi).
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gillus) has caused tissue destruction, skeletal eros-ion, and in some cases, death of Caribbean sea fans(Smithet al. 1996). The pathogen may be comingfrom upland soils from the altered patterns of landuse moving seaward during storms. This providesadditional evidence for a link between disease andhuman activity.
An invertebrate disease decimated the long-spinedsea urchin (Diadema antillarum) in the early 1980s(Fig. 46). In the Caribbean Sea and Western Atlan-tic, populations of mature urchins were reduced toaround 3% of their original size (Lessios et al.1984, Vicente and Goenaga 1984, Lessios 1988,Ritchieet al. 2000). Long-spined sea urchin pop-ulations have been slow to recover, possibly be-cause remaining individuals are too far apart toensure successful fertilization of gametes that arebroadcast into the water (Levitan 1991). In somelocations, particularly the shallow reef crests andfore-reefs, urchin numbers remain especially low,only about 1% of the pre-1983 levels.
Ecological impacts on the reefs from the die-off ofthe urchins have been profound. Urchins are herb-ivores, eating macroalgae (large attached algae orseaweed). After the die-off, there was a dramaticincrease of algal cover, since grazing on the algaewas much reduced. Some areas recovered betterfrom this than others.
In the Flower Garden Banks National MarineSanctuary, algal populations returned to priorlevels within two years, perhaps due to an increasein other herbivores (Gittings and Bright 1986). Butthe rest of the Caribbean has yet to recover. Formost U.S. reef ecosystems, the shift in coral-algalbalance was further exacerbated by a die-off ofelkhorn and staghorn corals. Once the coral diedfrom other causes, algae took over.
Scheffer et al. (2001) postulated the shift from ahealthy coral to a fleshy macroalgae-dominatedsystem results from a combination of factors thatmake the system vulnerable to events triggering theshift. These factors include increased nutrientloading from land-based runoff and discharges andintensive fishing which reduces the numbers oflarge fish and subsequently the smaller herbivorousspecies (Aronson and Precht 2000, Scheffer et al.2001). Once herbivorous fish became rare, thereefs rapidly became overgrown by fleshy brownalgae. Scheffer et al. (2001) commented that thischange will be difficult to reverse for two reasons:1) mature algae are less palatable to herbivores and2) algae-covered substrates prevent settlement ofcoral larvae.
Tropical StormsTropical StormsTropical StormsTropical StormsTropical Storms
With eight major hurricanes in the past 20 yearsnearly exterminating shallow-water Acropora coralpopulations, USVI managers consider tropicalstorms a major threat to their reef systems; anotherfive managers from U.S. regions consider tropicalstorms a medium-level concern (Table 2, Fig. 47).If global climate change is underway and hurri-canes occur with more frequency, then all thenation’s managers have concerns that reefs wouldnot have sufficient recovery time.
Reefs grow in areas subject to hurricanes andtyphoons. In general, reefs have great structuralresilience and recover from storms. There is alsogood evidence that that such disturbances helpkeep reef diversity high (Rogers 1993, J. Ogdenpers. comm.). For example, sand and rubble keysand coral islets on atolls are notorious for formingand eroding during tropical storms, as fragmentsbreak loose and are deposited toward land or in
Figure 46. Long-spined sea urchin (Photo: Emma Hickerson).
Figure 47. Damage from Hurricane Andrew in Florida (Photo:NOAA).
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lagoons (Maragos et al. 1973). Hurricanes mayalso be beneficial because they fragment fast-growing branching corals that monopolize thesubstrate, freeing space for the slower-growing,massive species.
In the Caribbean and American Samoa, hurricanesmake landfall on average every 15-20 years. Butthe CNMI and Guam are hit by about half thetyphoons that develop in the Pacific because theylie in the Western Pacific monsoon trough. Guamhas felt the impact of 52 major typhoons in the last48 years. When typhoons pass nearby, the reefsreceive the full impact of heavy wave action.
Contrary to what might be expected, typhoons inthis region affect reefs to a lesser extent (Randalland Eldredge 1977) than hurricanes in theCaribbean (Tilmant et al. 1994) because thenormal heavy wave action in the Pacific regularlyremoves the relatively fragile vertical branches.By doing this, the reef structure favors theencrusting or massive growth forms (Fig. 48).Typhoons, hurricanes, or cyclones have lessimpact on low-growing encrusting corals than theydo on high-profile forms. Areas such as AmericanSamoa and Palau, where storms are less frequent,have the higher-growing forms (Hubbard 1997).
Coastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and RunoffCoastal Development and Runoff
Reef managers from nine regions consider coastaldevelopment, runoff, and sedimentation majorthreats to their coral reef ecosystems (Table 2).These areas include coral reefs off largecontinental population centers and close-to-shore
reefs off urbanized islands (Fig 49). Near-shorereefs off high islands with relatively low humanhabitation56 also experience substantial runoff andsedimentation during tropical storms.
In the United States, over 10.5 million people livein coastal counties and on islands near coral reefs,particularly in Florida, Puerto Rico, and much ofthe Main Hawaiian Islands. The Pacific FreelyAssociated States has another 203,000 islandresidents.
Infrastructure development is necessary to supportcoastal residents and the expanding reef tourismindustry. This includes a myriad of activities:filling in wetlands to increase land area, dredgingsand to replenish beaches, building causeways andbridges over existing reef habitats, dredgingchannels, erecting marinas and other supportfacilities along tidal shorelines, and destroyingupland vegetation.
The impact of increasing human population on reefcondition can be both acute and chronic. Reefs andrelated habitats suffer acute physical damageduring construction, when such activities such asdredging to maintain deep-water draft for ships,erecting shoreside docks, and building marinasnear or over coral reefs are in progress. Theresulting runoff, plumes of sediment, and turbid(discolored, opaque) water from these activitiescan destroy a much broader area of reef habitat.
After coastal development is completed, thestructures that were built and the activities related
Figure 48. The shape of coral rock terraces in Guam reflectthe dominance of encrusting and low profile growth forms(Photo: Ben Mieremet).
Figure 49. The population of the Florida Keys has growndramatically, resulting in increased development near or oncoral reef ecosystems (Photo: NOS Photo Gallery).
56 These include islands in American Samoa, CNMI, and the Freely Associated States.57 Agricultural pollutants include fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, hormones, and antibiotics.58 Bases were built on Wake, Midway, Johnston, Palmyra, Howland, Jarvis, and Baker islands in the central Pacific. The Japanese established bases on Enewetak, Kwajalein, Chuuk, Yap, Peleliu, Koror, and other islands in the RMI and Caroline Archipelago.
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to them often have chronic, long-term impacts.These include increased treated sewage effluent,water pollution from all the chemicals necessary tomaintain boats and other apparatus necessary fortourists, and storm runoff from paved surfaces.There is also contaminant-laden runoff from indus-trial and agricultural57 operations (Fig. 50). Alldegrade and can destroy sensitive reef, seagrass,and mangrove habitats.
Compounding these problems, deforestation andstripping vegetation on high islands for agricultureand housing results in extensive land and river run-off during rainstorms. Chronic turbidity and siltdeposition smothers sessile invertebrates, creatingbiologically barren areas.
Large sediment plumes and turbid water from con-struction activities taking weeks or months to com-plete may substantially reduce the light to belowthe level needed for survival of coral reef plantsfor weeks or months. When water is turbid, lightcannot penetrate as far down the water column, sothe stony coral symbionts (the zooxanthellae) canonly marginally survive, if at all, and coral bleach-ing results. Death of entire coral colonies maysoon follow.
Besides runoff, there are additional concerns aboutseepage and current storm water control practices.Bacteria, disease, hormones, and other chem-icalsin the water potentially alter coral polyp develop-ment, inhibit successful settlement onto solid sub-strate, and even impact the social, territorial, andfeeding behaviors of other reef organisms. Widevariations in salinity that damage near-shore reefscould become more commonplace if global climatebrings more storms and flooding.
Beaches erode from storms and natural wave ac-tion. Dredging to replace sand on bathing beachesis a most destructive activity. Silt from dredgingactivities buries corals and suffocates sensitive reeforganisms. Replenishment degrades water qualityduring the operation. Not only costly, it affectseverything within the areas where the sand is takenfrom as well as where it is deposited, and must berepeated every 5-10 years.
On some Pacific coral reef islands and atolls,coastal development has been influenced by theirlong history as strategic staging areas for nationaldefense. In the late 1930s, the Japanese British,French, Americans, New Zealanders, and
Australians began to fortify many islands in thecentral Pacific with garrisons, airfields, docks, andairplane refueling stations. All of these changed thestructure of adjacent reefs (Woodbury 1946,Dawson 1959, Maragos 1993).
Bases were established on many islands58. Whileremnants of this construction remain, most reefpopulations have recovered. Battles and bombingraids during World War II also damaged reefs59
(Maragos in Grigg and Birkeland 1997). Postwarreconstruction resulted in additional damage toreefs from dredging, filling, and causewayconstruction60 (Brock et al. 1965, 1966). Ballisticmissile testing at Johnston and Kwajaleinstimulated additional construction, shore
protection, and land reclamation (Maragos 1993,Smith and Henderson 1978).
Coastal PollutionCoastal PollutionCoastal PollutionCoastal PollutionCoastal Pollution
Optimum coral reef development is strongly cor-related with clean, clear waters. Reef managersfrom eight jurisdictions consider coastal pollution(e.g., excess nutrients, toxic contaminants, and forthe Marshall Islands, radiation) a high threat totheir coastal ecosystems (Table 2).
The USEPA estimates that 60% of water pollutioncomes from non-point sources of contamination(input from a general area rather than a singlepoint like a discharge pipe) such as storm-waterrunoff from urban areas and agriculture (Eichen-berg 1999). More than 75% of the pollutantsentering oceans are from non-point, land-basedsources (YOTO 1998). Non-point pollution from
Figure 50. Agricultural runoff can transport sediments,nutrients, and pesticides to coral reefs (Photo: NOS PhotoGallery).
59 At Chuuk, Peleliu, Enewetak, and Kwajalein, for example.60 At Majuro, Enewetak, Bikini, Tarawa, and Johnston islands.
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agricultural operations and elsewhere, urban run-off, and even atmospheric discharges of soot andtoxic chemicals can impact the diversity of reefwildlife. Agriculture is the leading source.
Nutrification of near-shore waters is a problem formany reefs. High nutrient levels encourage growthof algae over coral (Smith et al. 1981, Maragos etal. 1985, Lapointe 1991, Fig. 51) and can createphytoplankton blooms that limit the sunlight stonycorals need to survive.
Since 1972, industry and government agencieshave spent more than $200 billion on reducingpoint-source contamination (specific points ofdischarge) – pipes dumping sewage and industrialpollutants and toxins directly into coastal water-ways (Eichenberg 1999, Fig. 52). Harbors and ur-banized, enclosed bays concentrate a wide varietyof contaminants61 (Hunter et al. 1995, U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service 1996, Green 1997).
Point-source pollution creates hot spots (relative-ly small contaminated areas) that impact shallow,near-shore coral reefs off Florida, Puerto Rico, theUSVI, the Hawaiian Archipelago (e.g., O‘ahu,Midway, Kure), American Samoa, Guam, CNMI,and Palau.
The volume of human-related discharges fromland-based activities, boating, and aviation hasmushroomed, according to a recent report (Com-mittee on Oil in the Sea 2002). Those authorscalculated 29 million gallons of petroleum escapeinto North American waters each year from humanactivities. Of this, 85% are gasoline and oil spillsinvolving land-based runoff from cars and trucks,
fuel dumping by commercial airline pilots, andemissions from small boats and personal watercraftsuch as jet skis.
Although contaminants are a problem for coral reefecosystems off urbanized areas, there has been lit-tle research on the fate or action of potential toxi-cants on reef species. One study conducted inKane‘ohe Bay (Hawai‘i) by Peachey and Crosby(1995) shows the potential for unintended syner-gestic interactions between chemicals or classes ofchemicals and other factors in the environment. Inthis study, when PAHs62 in seawater are exposed tosurface ultraviolet radiation from sunshine, theserelatively unstable compounds become toxic andcan kill crustaceans, polychaetes, and coral larvae.PAHs are common constituents of municipalwastes and urban runoff, particularly oils used inroadway pavement and gasoline products used invehicles and airplanes. PAH toxicity has the poten-tial to reduce overall reef biodiversity in harborsand wherever storm runoff from urban centersdischarges directly into coastal waters.
Then there are radiation concerns. Between 1946and 1958, the United States used Enewetak andBikini Atolls in the Marshall Islands to test 67nuclear devices (National Biodiversity Team RMI2000). Both the physical blast and the radioactivitydamaged the land and shallow lagoons. The Bravoblast in 1954 sent millions of tons of sand, plant,and sea life from Bikini reef, three nearbyislands65, and surrounding lagoon waters high intothe air. Radioactive fission products, particle-acti-vated products, and unspent radioactive fuel con-taminated the debris. This radioactivity entered theaquatic environment of the atolls (Donaldson et al.
Figure 51. Macroalgae overgrowing sea fans and severalcoral species (Photo: Brian Lapointe).
Figure 52. Point-source contamination in Chuuk, FSM (Photo:James McVey).
61 Chemicals from such things as marinas, canals, harbors, boat anchorages, airports, and sewage disposal sites.62 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, a class of organic compounds found in petroleum products.63 Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, Nam
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1997, Simon 1997, Walker et al.1997, Robison and Noshkin 1999,Niederthal 2001). And atmosphericnuclear fallout rained on the inhabi-ted atolls of Rongelap and Utirik,the uninhabited atoll of Rongerik,and other downwind atolls.
Part of the U.S. government’s ra-diological cleanup activities onEnewetak involved mixing part ofthe contaminated soil, mostly fromRunit Island, with cement and sub-merging it in nearby Cactus Crater(formed by a nuclear explosion in1958). The remainder of the soil was mixed withconcrete and made into a dome above the crater. Anon-contaminated concrete cap was then con-structed over the dome. A National Academy ofSciences committee examined the dome and con-cluded that the containment structure and its con-tents presented no credible hazard to the people ofEnewetak, either now or in the future (Noshkin andRobison 1997).
From the studies done to date, the RMI marineecosystem is considered essentially recovered (N.Vander Velde pers. comm.). But the MarshallIslands land environment has not been totallyrestored, despite the government’s cleanup. TheU.S. Department of Energy advises people not tovisit Runit Island or the northern islands, whichremain too radioactive because they were not in-cluded in the cleanup effort focused primarily onthe three southern islands (G. Johnson pers.comm.). The southern islands are now inhabitedand used for growing food.
Tourism and RecreationTourism and RecreationTourism and RecreationTourism and RecreationTourism and Recreation
Over 75 million Americans engage in on-the-wateractivities (Lydecker and Podlich 1999, Leeworthy2001). Recent data show over 90 million U.S. resi-dents age 16 or older frequent coral reefs for someform of recreation (Leeworthy 2001, Leeworthyand Wiley 2001, Fig. 53). Over 11 million Ameri-cans participate in snorkeling or SCUBA diving,spending over 115 million person-days diving inU.S. coastal waters (Leeworthy and Wiley 2001).Many coral reefs in the United States and the Paci-fic Freely Associated States are heavily visited,particularly those along the shoreline and withineasy cruising distances (Fig. 54).
With so many tourists visiting coasts and coralreefs, managers from the Main Hawaiian Islandsconsider the impacts from tourism and associatedrecreational activities a major threat to near-shorecoral reef ecosystems, while managers from ano-ther seven jurisdictions consider it a mediumconcern (Table 2).
Damage to coral reef ecosystems from touristactivities is inevitable. Impacts range from coastaldevelopment (e.g., hotels, marinas) to boating andother recreational activities. Rental boats are aproblem, as tourists unfamiliar with piloting ves-sels in and around shallow waters with coral reefsrun aground or collide with corals. SCUBA divers,snorkelers, underwater tours using surface-sup-plied equipment, and a large number of personalwatercraft (i.e., jet skis) have all affected reefs andwater quality.
Harmful as they may be, damage from underwaterreef-snorkeling tours and anchoring in most areas
Figure 53. Recreational fishing and scuba diving are both popular activitiesthat occur in coral reef areas (Photos: NOAA and Rusty Brainard).
Figure 54. Waikiki Beach on O’ahu, Hawai’i is a prime touristdestination (Photo: NOAA Corps).
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is small when compared to natural disasters, sedi-mentation, pollution, and overfishing.
FishingFishingFishingFishingFishing
A tremendous cultural and economic asset, a widerange of reef species are harvested from coral reefecosystems for artisanal use, recreational enjoy-ment, and the commercial market. While too latefor many of these ecosystems, managers and scien-tists now know that reef resources are not limitlessand the capacity to harvest these species has beenexceeded on most reef systems. Along with urbani-zation of coastal regions, non-point source pollu-tion, and sedimentation from upland development,overfishing is a widespread factor that negativelyimpacts coral reefs (Fig. 55).
With the exception of the Flower Garden BanksNational Marine Sanctuary, managers from theremaining 12 jurisdictions consider overfishingand gear impacts64 a medium-to-high threat to theoverall condition of coral reef resources (Table 2).Of particular concern to managers in Florida,Puerto Rico, USVI, Hawai‘i, and the offshore coralbanks in the Gulf of Mexico, certain types of fish-ing gear, such as fish and lobster traps and largegill nets, have damaged reef fish habitats (Fig. 56).Illegal or inadvertent trawling over reefs or anchor-ing on the reef is also a concern.
Many desirable reef fish grow relatively slowly,mature later, and have irregular recruitment (the
process whereby annual adult spawning activityproduces sufficient young fish that mature intoreproducing adults year after year). All of thesemake depletion more likely. Generally, the high-value resources – particularly lobsters, giant clams,large fish (groupers and snappers), and sharks – areremoved first. To compound the problem, mostreef fisheries in U.S. waters are small-scale, inade-quately monitored and managed, and lack consis-tently enforced regulations.
Over 50% of all federally managed species of fishdepend on coral reefs for at least part of their lifecycle (USCRTF 2000). Unfortunately, many ofthese species have been greatly diminished byoverfishing.
In 2000, 23 federally-managed reef fishes werelisted as overfished in the South Atlantic, Gulf ofMexico, and the Caribbean65. Another 22 speciesof Atlantic sharks that visit or reside around coralreefs have been overfished (NMFS 2001). For thisregion, NMFS (2001) lists the status of another 58species of South Atlantic reef snapper-groupers asunknown, 36 Gulf of Mexico reef-fish stocks asunknown, and 138 species of Caribbean reef fishesas unknown.
In the Pacific, reef fish fisheries are mostly man-aged within state and territorial waters. Althoughhard data were not available for this report, sharks,groupers, giant clams, bumphead parrotfishes (Fig.57), humphead or napoleon wrasses, coconut
Figure 55. Spearfishing is a common fishing technique thatcan negatively impact reef species (Photo: USAID).
Figure 56. A snorkeler untangles a fish trap from asubmersible’s arm. These traps continue to catch marine lifelong after they are abandoned (Photo: OAR/NURP).
64 These include trawling, dredging, and ghost fishing (a term for untended nets that can be miles in length, capturing fish, seaturtles, marine mammals, and diving birds as they drift along with the current).
65 There are 14 South Atlantic species that are overfished: goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara, formerly the jewfish), Nassaugrouper (E. striatus), vermillion snapper (Rhomboplites aurorubens), red porgy (Pagrus pagrus), gag (Mypteropercamicrolepis), red snapper (Lutjanus campechanus), speckled hind (E. drummondhayi), snowy grouper (E. niveatus), Warsawgrouper (E. nitrigus), golden tilefish (Lopholatilus chamaeleonticeps), yellowtail snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus), red grouper(E. morio), black grouper (M. bonaci), and red drum (Sciaenops ocellatus). There are 6 Gulf of Mexico over-fished species:king mackerel (Scomberomerus cavalla), red snapper, red grouper, Nassau grouper, goliath grouper, and red drum. There are3 Caribbean overfished species: Nassau grouper, goliath grouper, and queen conch.
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crabs, and black-lipped pearl oy-sters, have been depleted through-out much of the Indo-Pacific re-gion (J. Maragos pers. comm.).
Somereef species, like groupers andsnappers, migrate great distances tospecific spawning grounds and ag-gregate in unusually large numbersto reproduce. This makes themhighly vulnerable because fishersknow when and where they aggre-gate. For protection, a number ofspawning aggregation areas inU.S. waters have been closed tofishing (e.g., one off St. ThomasIsland, USVI in 1990, anotherwithin the fully protected TortugasEcological Reserve in 2001).Results indicate that protection ofspawning aggregations is a soundmanagement strategy for reversingimpacts of overfishing.
During the 1970s, a spawning aggregation site forNassau grouper off southern St. Thomas was over-fished to complete collapse (Beets and Friedlander1992). With that loss and evidence of a decline in arelated species, a red hind (E. guttatus) spawningaggregation closure was implemented in 1990 offSt. Thomas66, based on a demonstrated decline incatch-per-unit-effort and average length of redhind. Red hind also showed a very skewed sexratio, about 15 females per male (Beets and Fried-lander 1992). A recent evaluation by Beets andFriedlander (1999) showed a significant increase inaverage size of red hind and great improvement inthe sex ratio (approximately 4 females per male).There were also many large males.
Overfishing has resulted in four species of WesternAtlantic groupers becoming candidates for listingunder the U.S. Endangered Species Act67. Fishersin areas characterized by overfishing and serialdepletion (harvesting the most desirable speciesuntil these are depleted, then overfishing the nextmost desirable species, and so on) eventually pro-gress to catches of small herbivores like parrotfishand surgeonfish. This may moderate the socio-economic effects of overfishing high-value fishes,
but at the same time it poses a newrisk to reefs, as overfishing canchange the ecological balance of thereef. Removal of predatory fish ac-celerates the bioerosion of corals(boring into, biting, or eating livingtissue) by invertebrate prey. Theseinvertebrates are held in check bypredaceous fish. Overfishing hasalso been implicated as a primarycause for macroalgae overgrowingcorals. When the herbivorous fishare removed, there is little to keepthe fast-growing algae in check andthe algae takes over.
Harvest and Trade inHarvest and Trade inHarvest and Trade inHarvest and Trade inHarvest and Trade inCorals and Live ReefCorals and Live ReefCorals and Live ReefCorals and Live ReefCorals and Live Reef
SpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpeciesSpecies
Most of the marine ornamental fishand invertebrates originating in U.S. waters comefrom reefs off Hawai‘i, Florida, Puerto Rico, andGuam. Managers from Puerto Rico, Hawai‘i, andRMI consider the trade in coral and live reefspecies a high concern, whereas managers fromFlorida, NWHI, and American Samoa consider it amedium threat (Table 2). In the Hawaiian Islands,some relatively rare species68 are more common inthe NWHI but considered to be vulnerable andinneed of protection.
The United States is the primary consumer of livecoral for the aquarium trade as well as coral skele-tons and precious corals for curios and jewelry(International Trade Subgroup 2000). Over athousand tons (70-95% of the global trade) of hardcorals and live rock69, and 15-20 million coral reeffishes are imported each year for U.S. saltwateraquariums. This is increasing 10-30% each year.
Even though the United Stated is the largest impor-ter of coral and live rock, the extraction of hardcorals is prohibited or strictly regulated in mostFederal, State, Commonwealth, and Territorywaters because of widespread concerns theseanimals are vulnerable to over-exploitation. TheCNMI permits coral collection for cultural pur-poses (production of lime). In Micronesia, livecoral is collected and burned to create lime for
Figure 57. Bumphead parrotfishes,like this one caught in the 1970s,are now depleted through much oftheir range (Photo credit: NOAA).
66 Federal regulations were published in 1990 by the Office of the Federal Register at 50 C.F.R. Section 669.67 This law and implementing regulations are the authority for DoI and NOAA. They list those species that are deemed
threatened or endangered by extinction for protection.68 Species such as the masked angelfish (Genicanthus personatus), dragon eel (Enchelycore pardalis), and the Hawaiian
lionfish (Pterois sphex), now relatively abundant in some NWHI areas, require management to prevent over-exploitation.69 Removing living coral, chunks of reef substrate, and all the small plants and animals in these habitats for aquaria.
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chewing betel nut70, a widespread cultural practicein Palau, Yap, and other areas (J. Maragos pers.comm.). Additionally, coral and live rock can becollected for research purposes in most areas of theCNMI (M. Trianni pers comm.).
Over 1,000 species of marine fishes and inverte-brates are traded. Particular species are targeted.For example, there is extensive trading in sea-horses – at least 46 nations and territories includ-ing the United States (Fig. 58). The more than 20million seahorses captured annually (Vicente 1996)are sold for the pet and curio trade and used intraditional medicines. Between 60-80,000 giantclams are traded internationally each year withover 70% destined for the United States. In recentyears, however, most imported giant clams aresmall specimens that have been captive-bred forhome aquaria.
Recent studies have shown that aquarium collect-ors have had a significant negative impact on thedominant reef species (Tissot et al. 2000). Part ofthe impact is how the fish are collected. For livecapture, collectors often use cyanide and otherpoisons to stun reef fish, damaging their internalorgans. It also kills other small fish, corals, andinvertebrates not being collected.
Although cyanide fishing is generally not thoughtto occur in U.S. waters, other fish poisons includ-ing chlorine bleach, quinaldine, and plant toxinshave been reported from Puerto Rico, Hawai‘i71,American Samoa, and one state in Micronesia. Useof quinaldine has been reported on reefs off Guam,and plant toxin use has been observed on reefs offthe Freely Associated States (K. Foster pers.comm.).
Concerned about the impact of removing speciesand the methods of collection, the State of Hawai‘i
has designated Fisheries Replenishment Areas forthe ornamental trade and is conducting relatedresearch in these and adjacent areas. The State ofFlorida imposed regulations on its 100-125 full-time aquarium fish collectors. These includelicense requirements, bag limits, minimum andmaximum size limits, and allowable gear.
In the early 1990s, Puerto Rico exported as manyas 200,000 reef fish and invertebrates each year.Ornamental organism collectors were not consider-ed fishers, so this was unregulated until 1998, whena new law was issued that required collectors toobtain permits. At the present time, ornamentalcollection and exportation is the subject of litiga-tion and controversy. Reliable information isscarce, data on exported invertebrates is unavail-able, and the number of full-time and part-timecollectors is unknown. Currently, only eightexporters have been identified with a reported totalcatch of 82,290 reef fish from 92 species (Ojeda-Serrano and Aguilar-Perera 2001). The first stageof an in-depth study of this industry will be com-pleted by October 2002.
Boats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and GroundingsBoats, Ships, and Groundings
Over 23 million Americans over 16 spend 290million boating days in coastal waters (Leeworthyand Wiley 2001). With 16.8 million boats nation-wide, recreational vessels comprise America’slargest fleet (Lydecker and Podlich 1999), withmost activity in near-shore ocean waters. There isparticularly heavy use over shallow coral reefsnear urban centers, such as those off Florida,Puerto Rico, the USVI, Hawai‘i, and Guam. There-fore, managers of shallow coral reef systems off
70 Live coral is preferred because it tastes better than dead coral that has been invaded by algae, sponges, and other organisms.71 Use of chlorine for fishing has been substantiated by court cases in the last couple years (D. Gulko pers. comm.).72 For example, Miami, Port Everglades, Palm Beach, Florida; San Juan, Puerto Rico; Honolulu, Barbers Point, Pearl Harbor,
Hawai‘i; Pago Pago, American Samoa; and Apra Harbor, Guam.
Figure 58. Seahorses are frequently targeted by the marineaquarium trade (Photo: Roberto Sozzani).
Figure 59. One of the many boats that have grounded in theFlorida Keys (Photo: FKNMS).
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Florida, the USVI, the Main and NorthwesternHawaiian Islands, and FSM consider recreationalboating a serious issue (Table 2).
Boat traffic threatens reef structure and associatedwildlife. Propellers speeding through shallowwaterways have broken corals, scarred seagrassbeds, and killed endangered marine mammals andsea turtles. Groundings and anchor damage areconsidered some of the most destructive chronichuman factors, causing significant localized dam-age to shallow-water coral reefs (Precht 1998).
Coral reef damage associated with ship groundingsincludes the direct loss of corals and other benthicinvertebrates when they are dislodged, fractured,and crushed. Groundings also increase the risk ofcontamination from oil and toxic chemical spills.
Large ports located near shallow-water reefs72 with heavy trafficincrease the probability of vesselcollisions with reefs. Also, shipsfrom foreign ports can introducealien species into coastal waters73.
Over the past decade, moderate tosevere large vessel groundingshave occurred. In the Caribbean, anumber of groundings severelydamaged the reef structure offsoutheastern Florida, Puerto Rico,and the USVI (Fig. 59). For moreinformation on groundings andtheir impacts, see the jurisdictionalreports following the NationalSummary.
In the Pacific, the U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)reported 48 ship groundings in Hawai‘i between1993-1996, including passenger and fishing boats,freighters, towboats, and industrial, military, andoffshore supply vessels. In the NWHI, a fishingvessel grounded in 1999 at Kure and another in2000 at Pearl and Hermes Atoll. In AmericanSamoa nine longline-fishing vessels were blownonto a reef in Pago Pago Harbor during a hurricanein 1991, and in 1993 another longliner ran agroundon Rose Atoll (Fig. 60). In addition, several otherfishing vessels, yachts, and a tugboat grounded onother Samoan reefs. In Guam, there were at least15 groundings and 13 sinkings between 1992 and1996, including a research vessel. In 1999, anotherpassenger vessel attempting to land illegal immi-grants at Guam ran aground on the reefs of theGuam National Wildlife Refuge.
Marine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine Debris74
All sorts of material is discarded from boats andvessels (Fig. 61). Currents transport some of thisdebris long distances and wave action washes itback and forth across shallow coral reefs, ulti-mately depositing it along shorelines. Marinedebris is considered a medium-to-high threat bythe coral reef managers in Florida, Puerto Rico,the Hawaiian Islands, particularly the NWHI, theCNMI, the U.S. remote insular (island) reefs, theFSM, and Palau (Table 2).
In the NWHI, derelict fishing netsfrom commercial fishing activitiesfar away in the North Pacific havehad a major impact on shallow reefsystems, dislodging and breakingcoral colonies. They also entangleHawaiian monk seals75 and othermarine mammals, sea turtles, corals,fish, and seabirds, often killingthem. Exotic species attached todrifting marine debris can be trans-ported far from their place of originand introduced to remote reefs.
Some of the largest marine debris(e.g., planes, ships, and tanks) onPacific islands and in lagoons dateback to World War II battles and
Figure 61. Plastic marine debris ona Florida coral reef (Photo: WilliamHarrigan).
Figure 60. Grounded Taiwanese longliner on Rose Atoll(Photo: Jim Maragos, USFWS).
73 One example: the elephant ear sponge (Ianthella basta), a resident of New Guinea and Indonesian reefs, is now anestablished alien species in Guam’s Apra Harbor.
74 Fishing gear and other remnants of human activities coming from recreational and commercial vessels, storm drains,industrial facilities, and waste disposal sites.
75 In 2000, about two dozen endangered Hawaiian monk seals were found entangled in nets off NWHI islands and atolls (R.Brainard pers. comm.).
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bombing raids. They are nowdesignated historical parks andmonuments or are popular divesites and artificial reefs (Fig. 62).
Removing marine debris is a ma-jor task. To date, 132 tons76 ofdebris have been removed out ofan estimated 1,000 total tonsencountered on NWHI reefs andbeaches (R. Brainard pers.comm.).
Alien SpeciesAlien SpeciesAlien SpeciesAlien SpeciesAlien Species
Alien species, along with theirassociated symbionts and dis-eases, have had devastating ef-fects on native biota globally. Inthe United States, Hawai‘i hasbeen impacted the most. Mana-gers of Hawaiian Island and RMIland and marine resources consider alien species tobe one of the greatest threats to native wildlife andhabitats, whereas managers from five otherjurisdictions consider alien species a mediumpriority (Table 2).
Wagneret al. (1990) reported Hawaiian terrestrialhabitats now contain more alien species than nativeones. On both land and sea, a spectacular numberof invasive species have become establishedthroughout the islands.
Some 19 species of marine macroalgae have beenintroduced to Hawaiian coastal waters since 1950,four of which have been highly successful. Recent
studies have shown overgrowthand killing of coral by an alienred alga (a species ofKappaphycus) in Kane‘ohe Bay,O‘ahu. This alga is thought tohave caused the shift from apredominantly multi-speciescoral habitat to a monoculturealgae habitat in some areas of thebay (Woo 2000). This may affecteverything from fish recruitmentto trophic interactions and havewidespread impacts such ascommercial fishing and tourism.
Two invasive algae, a brown anda green alga (Hypnea musiformisandCladophora sericea), areovergrowing reef corals off west-ern Maui (Fig. 63). These devel-op into algal blooms and are
displacing native and endemic algae. Moresignificantly, the algae being replaced are theprimary food for the threatened green sea turtleand provide critical habitat for the endangeredhawksbill sea turtle (Gulko in press).
Over 250 species of marine invertebrates havebeen introduced into Hawaiian waters (Eldredgeand Englund 2001). The effect on coral reefs formost of these has not been documented. Aliensponges however, have been observed growingover corals in Kane‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu, and concernshave been raised about the introduced snowflakecoral (Carijoa riisei) competing with shade-adapted corals in some areas (L. Eldredge pers.comm.).
Thirty-four species of marine fishes have beenintroduced into Hawaiian waters; not all are suc-cessfully established. Of the established species,13 species were intentionally released and at leastseven species were accidental introductions(Englund and Eldredge 2001).
NOAA, the Hawai‘i Department of Land andNational Resources (DLNR), USFWS, NationalPark Service (NPS), the U.S. Geological Survey(USGS), the Bishop Museum, the University ofHawai‘i, and other partners initiated a HawaiianPilot Study in 2001 to list all coastal marinespecies (native and alien) and build an earlywarning system for invasive and alien species.
Figure 63. Sea turtle swimming through an invasive algalbloom (Cladophora) in Honokowai, West Maui (Photo: UrsulaKeuper-Bennett and Peter Bennett).
Figure 62. Sunken debris from WorldWar II in Chuuk Lagoon, FSM (Photo:Tim Rock).
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Other Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral ReefsOther Physical Impacts to Coral Reefs
Besides the environmental pressures on reef eco-systems already mentioned, there are other types ofdirect physical impacts to reef structure. Activitiesinvolving explosives or heavy machinery nearcoral reefs can damage these fragile, living eco-systems. Although not legal in U.S. coastal waters,dynamiting reefs has been used to collect fish. Inthe CNMI, dynamite fishing using WWII ordnancewas prevalent in the past, but this practice appearsto be nonexistent today. Elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific, however, there is evidence this practicecontinues (Fig. 64).
Not all the war-time relics mentioned in the discus-sion of marine debris are safe. In 1996, the CNMIGovernor asked the U.S. Navy to detonate livedepth charges found on a wrecked WWII Subchas-er, as they posed a hazard to recreational divers
and fishermen (Worthington and Michael 1996).Although the force of the detonation damaged reefstructure at the popular Coral Gardens dive siteand a nearby fish reserve, killed wildlife, andcreated an extensive sediment plume, those reefsare now safe (Trianni 1998).
Managers from Puerto Rico and the Common-wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands whereactive security training exercises are being con-ducted, expressed high concern about the impact ofbombing and live-fire activities on coral reefs.Managers from the Hawaiian Islands, where therewere such activities in the past have moderateconcerns for the condition of nearby reefs (Table 2).
Figure 64. A diver swims past corals broken by dynamitefishing (Photo: Nancy Daschbach).
76 This number includes debris collected by the annual multi-ship (i.e., NOAA ship Townsend Cromwell, the USCG CutterKukai, and others) cleanup efforts conducted throughout the NWHI from 1999 through 2001.
DoD Military Services (i.e., the Air Force, Army,Navy, and Marine Corps) generally avoid coralreef areas in their normal operations except forsome mission-essential ashore and afloat activities(DoD 2000). Wherever possible, it is DoD’s policyto avoid adversely impacting coral reefs duringtraining exercises. At military installations, theServices work to minimize activities that maynegatively impact coral reef ecosystems.
To ensure that its Puerto Rico operations andtraining exercises do not negatively impact coralreefs and other marine resources, the Navy iscooperating with the USGS Biological ResourcesDivision to update mapping coral reefs and sea-grass beds near Naval Station Roosevelt Roads,Isla Pineros, Cabeza de Parro, and Vieques.
In the CNMI, the Navy considers its bombingrange at Farallon de Medinilla a vital asset for thecontinued security training exercises for militaryreadiness missions. To monitor the condition of thereefs, annual marine surveys are conducted by sci-entists from NOAA, the USFWS, and the CNMIDivision of Fish and Wildlife Division of Environ-mental Quality. From those surveys, the Navy hasconcluded that there have been no significantimpacts on marine communities, endangered andprotected species, fishery resources, and existingcoral (DoD 2000).
Offshore Oil and GasOffshore Oil and GasOffshore Oil and GasOffshore Oil and GasOffshore Oil and Gas
Only a small fraction (8%) of all the petroleumescaping into North American ocean waters is frompipeline ruptures or massive tanker spills – a totalof 2.7 million gallons (Committee on Oil in the Sea2002). An even smaller amount (3%) is fromoffshore oil exploration and extraction activities.Fortunately, no major oil spills or other incidentsoff the reefs of the United States or the PacificFreely Associated States have occurred.
Only the managers of the Flower Garden BanksNational Marine Sanctuary have expressed moder-ate concern over offshore oil and gas threats tocoral reef systems in the near future (Table 2).Protective measures enacted by the Minerals Man-agement Service (MMS) have been successful sofar in minimizing impacts from this activity aroundthe Flower Garden Banks National Marine
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Figure 65. The High Island 389 natural gas platform islocated one mile east of the East Flower Garden Bank(Photo: Frank and Joyce Burek).
Sanctuary. In spite of the intense activity, long-term monitoring studies indicate no significantdetrimental impact to the coral reefs from nearbyoil and gas development (Gittings 1998).
Petroleum production from offshore Federal landspresently comprises 20% of domestic oil produc-tion and 27% of domestic natural gas production(Kelly 1999). Most of this is centered in the north-ern Gulf of Mexico. It is one of the most activeareas for oil and gas exploration and developmentin the world.
By the end of 1995, approximately 5,000 produtionplatforms had been installed, 32,000 wells drilled,and over 30,000 mi of pipeline installed (Deslarzes1998). This activity on the Gulf of Mexico Conti-nental Shelf waters and the nearby land also haveoil refineries, storage facilities, and shipping lanesfrequented by oil tankers.
Potential impacts from offshore oil and gas explor-ation and development include accidental spills,contamination by drilling-related effluents and dis-charges, anchoring of vessels on coral reefs, seis-mic exploration, use of chemical dispersants in oilspill mitigation, and platform removal. About1,000 of the platforms have already been removed,and another 1,000 platforms will need decommis-sioning in the coming decade (Kelly 1999).
For the United States, 72% of the oil and 97% ofthe natural gas produced in offshore U.S. waterscomes from the northwestern Gulf of Mexico(MMS 2002). Within a 4 nmi radius of the FlowerGarden Banks National Marine Sanctuary there are10 production platforms and approximately 100 miof pipeline. Half of the pipeline is dedicated for oil(Deslarzes 1998). And there is one gas productionplatform (High Island 389A, Fig. 65) located with-in the boundary of the East Flower Garden Banks.
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There are three sets of national assessments withinthis section. First, gaps in the mapping and monito-ring data are identified and their impact on devel-oping an assessment of the national condition ofcoral reef ecosystems is discussed. Second, there isa national assessment on the current status of coralreef ecosystems by jurisdiction. Since much of thedata has yet to be gathered, these are mostlyqualitative, brief summaries (three pages or less)and were derived from the jurisdictional reports.Third, a national assessment of temporal and spa-tial trends in coral reef ecoystems concludes thesection.
Mapping and monitoring thecoral reefs to 1) fill in datagaps and 2) create a compar-able set of data for all juris-dictions is the core of theprogram and vital to assess-ments of status and trends.The USCRTF initiatives toprovide this informationbegan in 2000 but have along way to go. Mappingshould be completed in2009; monitoring is a long-term commitment. Until thatinformation is available,rough estimates compiledfrom a variety of sources canbe used to compare dataamong jurisdictions.
Gaps in Habitat Mapping Gaps in Habitat Mapping Gaps in Habitat Mapping Gaps in Habitat Mapping Gaps in Habitat Mapping – Until recently, not asingle State, Commonwealth, or Territory had itscoral reef resources characterized and mapped withaerial photography and ground verification. Theextent of the coral reefs and characterization ofassociated benthic habitats off the U.S. and FreelyAssociated States is essentially unknown. This lackof statistically comparable spatial data preventsdirect comparison of other data as well.
• Credible, comparable maps of reef and asso-ciated benthic habitats were completed for
Puerto Rico and the USVI by NOAA and itspartners in 2001. Those were used for thisreport.
• About half of Florida’s entire coral reef eco-system has been mapped using methods simi-lar to those for Puerto Rico and the USVI (Fig.66). Mapping efforts covered the originalboundaries of the Florida Keys NationalMarine Sanctuary in the 1990s (FMRI/NOAA1998). Recently, a portion of the Dry Tortugasregion was characterized (Schmidt et al. 1999).The rest of Florida’s coral reef ecosystem has
yet to be mapped. For thisreason, the Florida valuesreported in this section and inthe regional report thatfollows, where indicated, arefor the FKNMS and not state-wide.
• Elsewhere, benthic habitatmapping is underway. Esti-mates of coral reef area forthese regions were taken fromthe literature.
Literature estimates varywidely. For example, pub-lished estimates for total coralreef habitat of the NWHIrange from 3,475-4,247 mi2
(9,000-11,000 km2) (e.g.,Hunter 1995). Most available
estimates were calculated from bathymetry77. Themaps from which those estimates were derived hadvarying levels of detail and accuracy.
Differences among regions may also be biased inthe methodology and a general lack of information.Some of the literature estimates were based on the100 m bathymetric line (i.e., the entire area equalto or less than 300 feet, regardless of habitat type),significantly over-estimating the shallow reefs78
within a region. Where this is the only data avail-able, it was used for this first report.
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTS
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTSNATIONAL ASSESSMENTS
Figure 66. Aerial photographs have beenacquired and interpreted to produce benthichabitat maps (Photo: National Ocean Service).
77 Lines connecting equal depths on printed maps.78 Those in water less than 150 ft.
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Reliable data on benthic communities is beingdeveloped, primarily from the USCRTF/NOAAbenthic mapping effort. In 2000, NOAA initiated aprogram to map U.S. coral reef ecosystems andrelated benthic habitats by 2009 (USCRTF 2000).As mentioned before, by the end of 2001, NOAAhad completed mapping benthic underwater habi-tats off Puerto Rico and the USVI. They have beenmapping habitats off the Main Hawaiian Islandssince 2000. By the end of 2002, there should bebenthic habitat maps for about one third of theHawaiian shoreline. The remaining two-thirds andpossibly an update of the 2002 maps will be com-pleted in 2005 (Fig. 67). In 2002, mapping activi-ties are scheduled to begin in American Samoa,Guam, and the CNMI using IKONOS satelliteimagery for initial map development.
Gaps in Ecosystem MonitoringGaps in Ecosystem MonitoringGaps in Ecosystem MonitoringGaps in Ecosystem MonitoringGaps in Ecosystem Monitoring – To be able tofollow the status and trends ofthe changing condition ofcoral reef ecosystems, com-parable long-term monitoringis needed. Not all jurisdic-tions have the same capacityto conduct monitoring pro-grams. This varies for boththe geographic area and theparameters monitored. As aresult, data from some areasis more definitive than fromothers.
The most extensive spatialand long-term temporal
monitoring is conducted over much of the FloridaKeys National Marine Sanctuary. Sanctuary-widemonitoring of water quality, seagrasses, and coraland hard-bottom communities began in 1994 undera Water Quality Protection Program jointly under-taken by NOAA and the U.S. Environmental Pro-tection Agency (USEPA). In 1997, the FKNMSimplemented a network of fully protected zones79
and a zone monitoring program. The program wasinitiated to determine whether the zones met theobjectives of reducing pressure on heavily usedreefs, preserving biodiversity, facilitating research,and reducing conflicts among resource users. Itmonitors many parameters at around 100 sites.
Hawai‘i has the next best monitoring coverage andprogram longevity. Since 1999, a collaboration ofthe University of Hawai‘i, the Hawai‘i Departmentof Land and Natural Resources, federal agencies,and NGOs, the Coral Reef Monitoring and Assess-ment Program (CRAMP) has been monitoring atleast 30 coral reef sites off the Main HawaiianIslands.
Although there has been long-term monitoring at anumber of reef sites on other U.S. islands (e.g.,sites off the USVI and American Samoa), bothspatial coverage and parameters are far less com-prehensive.
With considerable support from Congress, theUSCRTF agencies80 are taking the necessary stepsto build capacity for long-term monitoring usingconsistent, comparable sampling methods andprotocols. Since 2000, substantial grants support avariety of projects undertaken by island agencies81
to map, conduct ecological assessments, character-ize benthic habitats, and inven-tory the species that depend onthem, monitor ecosystemhealth, and conserve reef res-ources (Fig. 68). Funding formanagers of marine protectedareas with coral reefs82 wasenhanced during FY01 andFY02 to initiate or continuemonitoring efforts. In 2002,similar assistance is plannedfor the Freely AssociatedStates. The nation’s managershave committed to buildinglong-term monitoring capacity.
Figure 67. Landsat 7 satellite imagery is being used to mapthe remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (Imageryprocessed by NOS Coral Reef Mapping Team).
Figure 68. New monitoring is being supportedby USCRTF grants (Photo: James Maragos).
79 Also called no-take marine reserves.80 Particularly the DoI and the DoC.
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Status of Coral Reef EcosystemsStatus of Coral Reef EcosystemsStatus of Coral Reef EcosystemsStatus of Coral Reef EcosystemsStatus of Coral Reef Ecosystems
For this first report, assessments are presented as11 short summaries on the condition of coral reefsin the United States and the Pacific Freely Associa-ted States. For the most part, these reports arebased on information contained within the jurisdic-tional reports that follow this National Summary.
Condition of Florida’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Florida’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Florida’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Florida’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Florida’s Coral Reef Ecosystems –Florida’s coral reefs are extensive and interspersedwith sand, seagrass, and hardbottom communities,from off southeastern shores (Vero Beach to MiamiBeach), westward through the Florida Keys to theDry Tortugas. Coral reef habitat is almost continu-ous along the Florida Reef Tract, parallelling theKeys for 220 mi from Fowey Rocks near Miamiand terminating west of the Dry Tortugas. Discon-tinuous and less biologically diverse coral reefcommunities continue northward along westernFlorida shores to the Florida Middle Grounds, aseries of submerged pinnacles rising to within 60-80 ft of the surface, about 100 mi northwest of St.Petersburg (Fig. 69).
Florida’s total coral reef and colonized hardbottomarea covers 1,172 mi2 (3,035 km2), of which 495mi2 (1,281 km2) lies within the Upper,Middle, and Lower Keys (FMRI/NOAA 1998); 129 mi2 (335 km2) inthe Dry Tortugas (Ault et al. 2001);63 mi2 (164 km2) along the south-eastern coast of Florida; 24 mi2 (62km2) in the eastern Gulf of Mexico(excluding the Florida MiddleGrounds); and 461 mi2 (1,193 km2) isattributed to the Florida MiddleGrounds (Florida Fish and WildlifeConservation Commission 2001).Coral reefs and adjacent habitatsinclude nearshore patch reefs, mid-channel reefs, offshore patch reefs,bank or transitional reefs, deep reefs,sand/soft bottom areas, seagrass beds,and fringing mangroves.
Florida Keys – The Florida Keys arehome to the third largest shallow-water coral reef in the world and theonly emergent reef ecosystem foundoff the continental United States.This unique marine habitat is under
81 Puerto Rico, USVI, Hawai‘i, American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI.82 For example, the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary and the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem
Reserve.
protection, with the extreme northern end managedby the Biscayne National Park and the remainderof the reef tract managed by NOAA and the Stateof Florida as the Florida Keys National MarineSanctuary (FKNMS or Sanctuary), and the DryTortugas National Park.
The Florida Keys has historically supported di-verse and healthy marine communities despitebeing located at the northernmost range of manyCaribbean coral species. At this time, the coralreefs of the region are in decline, as evidenced bydecreases in coral coverage, species fluctuations,and disease (Jaap et al. 2001). One program docu-mented a 36.6% decline in coral cover at monitor-ing stations during the period between1996 and2000 (Jaap et al. 2001). Significant gains and los-ses of several stony coral species have occurred aswell, but to date no loss of species has occurredSanctuary-wide.
While it is difficult to ascertain the exact causes ofcoral mortality and community change in the Sanc-tuary, declines may generally be attributed to nat-ural and anthropogenic impacts. Over the past twodecades the reef tract has been hit by a succession
EvergladesNational Park
BiscayneNational Park
Florida Keys NationalMarine Sanctuary
Dry TortugasNational Park National Key Deer
Wildlife Refuge
Great While HeronNational Wildlife Refuge
Key West NationalWildlife Refuge
28°
24°
86° 84° 82° 80°
26°
Florida MiddleGrounds Bank Habitat
Area of ParticularConcern
Figure 69. Map of South Florida and its MPAs (Photos: Biscayne and Ever-glades National Parks and FKNMS). For all maps, yellow stars denote MPAs,red stars are no-take Reserves, and blue lines delineate the larger MPAs.
Steamboat LumpsSpawning Site
Madison-SwansonSpawning Site
Oculina BanksHabitat Area ofParticular Concern
Lignumvitae KeyBotanical State Park
JohnPennekampCoral ReefState Park
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of natural disasters, including hurricanes, diseases,and coral bleaching. Hurricanes have had visibleeffects on populations of attached bottom animalsand algae in most areas (Aronson et al. 2001). Thenumber of new diseases and the extent of infectionhave been increasing since 1996 in shallow areas;in particular, there is increased coral mortalityfrom a complex of diseases (e.g., white-plague,white-band, and white-pox) (Dustan 1999, Jaap etal. 2001).
Coral bleaching in the past 20 years has resulted insignificant mortality. For example, the blade firecoral suffered 80-90% mortality following a 1997-1998 bleaching episode off the Florida Keys (W.Jaap pers. comm.); the population has remainedlow throughout most of the area. Mortality frombleaching often occurs with massive kills of otherinvertebrates and fishes. Ex-treme mortality events, such asthe 1983 Caribbean-wide die-off of the long-spined seaurchin, have indirectly affectedcorals by the loss of an impor-tant algal grazing species.
Direct destruction of corals,seagrasses, and hardbottomcommunities caused by inad-vertent human actions, hasincreased dramatically over thelast several decades. Boatgroundings, propeller scarring(Fig. 70), careless anchoring,and direct contact by snorkelersand divers have damaged hun-dreds of miles of sensitive mar-ine habitats in the Florida Keys,further stressing an ecosystem
already struggling to withstand natural impacts.Most of these pressures stem from the threemillion annual visitors (Leeworthy and Vanasse1999) and 80,000 year-round residents of theFlorida Keys. The residents and tourists in adjacentMiami-Dade county (2.49-2.56 million) placeadditional pressures on the fragile reefs of the
Florida Keys.
In addition to habitat loss, declining water qualityaffects the Florida Keys marine environment.Inadequate wastewater and stormwater manage-ment degrade nearshore areas. Eutrophication is adocumented problem. Though several improve-ments have been undertaken, such as an upgradefrom an ocean outfall to deep well injection oftreated wastewater for the City of Key West,additional advancements are needed Keys-wide tocomprehensively address this problem. Reducedfreshwater flows to Florida Bay from upstreamwater management have increased planktonblooms, sponge and seagrass die-offs, and fishkills, impacting critical nursery and juvenile hab-itat for a variety of reef species.
Serial overfishing has dramatically altered fish andother animal populations on the reef, contributingto an imbalance in the relationships that are criticalto sustaining a diversity of organisms (Ault et al.1998). Five species of fish in the Florida Keys andanother six species in Florida Bay are at risk of
extinction (Musick et al. 2000).Those authors contend thesespecies are threatened becausethe Florida Keys has undergoneextensive development over thelast 30 years, with much of theoriginal habitat degraded ordestroyed, while Florida Bayhas experienced increasedturbidity and altered freshwaterinflux.
The Florida Keys National Mar-ine Sanctuary was designated in1990 in an attempt to offsetimpacts from these and otherenvironmental pressures andreverse trends in reef degrada-tion. Through the developmentand implementation of a com-prehensive management plan,
Figure 70. Prop scar damage to seagrass (Photo: HaroldHudson).
Figure 71. Staghorn coral spawning off thesoutheastern coast of Florida (Photo:National Coral Reef Institute).
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key problems such as degradation of habitats andwater quality are addressed Sanctuary-widethrough regulatory and non-regulatory strategies. Anetwork of marine zones that includes 24 fullyprotected marine reserves has been implemented toprovide additional protection to sensitive speciesand habitats. The fully protected zones encompassapproximately 65% of shallow coral reefs in theSanctuary. Initial monitoring of these areas sug-gests improvements in some key reef species(snappers, groupers, and spiny lobsters; Bohnsacket al. 2001).
Southeastern Coast – Characterized by three linesof discontinuous reefs that run parallel to theshoreline, this reef system is covered by algae andsmall soft corals, with an Anastasia limestone sub-strate and worm reef (Phragmatopoma). The stonycoral cover and diversity is lower here than in theFlorida Keys.
The outermost reef has a complex three-dimen-sional structure with a high diversity of stony(scleractinean) corals and an abundance of octo-corals and large barrel sponges (Xestospongiamuta). For the past three years, sexual spawninghas been observed on outcrops of staghorn coral(Vargas-Ángel and Thomas in press, Fig 71).
Based on the condition of coral and fish popula-tions, reef communities on the southeastern coastof Florida are in relatively good condition, butthere are issues. The Florida Current (the GulfStream) occasionally brings algal blooms onto thereefs. Since 1989, algal blooms of an invasivegreen alga called dead-man’s fingers (Codiumisthmocladium) to the north and a cyanobacterium(Mictocoleus lynbyaceus) to the south are com-monly found. Blooms of dead man’s fingers havereached massive proportions on some reefs offPalm Beach County.
Besides overfishing, fish kills and disease havebeen recurring problems for reef populations on thesoutheastern coast. Fish kills are common duringcold-water upwelling events. In June 1980, hun-dreds of thousands of reef fish died within a veryshort time throughout the region, apparently fromBrooklynella, a disease that continues to plaguereef fish. There were severe outbreaks again in1997, 1998, and 2000.
Within the past decade, a growing number of alienspecies have been identified from embayments and
reefs in South Florida and the Gulf of Mexico.Most of these species are foreign to North Amer-ican waters and were introduced by either ship hullfouling or ballast water dumping (USGS 2002).The majority of Florida’s marine fish introductionscomes from released aquarium fish, with occa-sional reports of various exotic species amongnative reef fish.
Throughout Southeast Florida, dredging for beachrenourishment, channel deepening, and waterwaymaintenance have degraded water quality withinreef habitats (Fig. 72). Most dredging occurs fromDade to Martin Counties (Miami to Vero Beach).In addition, ocean outfalls dump millions ofgallons of treated sewage into coastal waters eachday. Water control priorities in the larger SouthFlorida region often put near-shore reefs at riskwhen millions of gallons of fresh water aredumped into the ocean through coastal canals.
Biscayne National Park, one of the largest parks inSouth Florida with beautiful coral reef and man-grove ecosystems, is also in danger. In or adjacentto Biscayne Bay, including Miami-Dade Countyand a sprawling suburbia, are threats from toxiccontaminants, runoff from a huge municipal dump,a nuclear power plant, and heavy small vessel traf-fic with resulting groundings.
Florida Middle Grounds – These bank formationsconsist of two north-to-northwesterly parallelridges separated by a valley. Most tropical speciescannot live in these habitats because of the region’scooler water temperatures. Biologically, they areequally temperate and tropical, differing from the
Figure 72. Turbid water from dredging (Photo: NationalOcean Service Photo Gallery).
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reefs of the FloridaKeys and FlowerGarden Banks in thewestern Gulf. Coralcover may be ashigh as 30% onsome reef pinnacles.
Recent SCUBA andsubmersible expedi-tions to the FloridaMiddle Groundsexamined a numberof reef structuresand found themapparently healthy(W. Jaap pers. obs.).The isolation anddistance of this area from populated shorelineslikely provide protection from pollutants andheavy recreational fishing activity.
Condition of Puerto Rico’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Puerto Rico’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Puerto Rico’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Puerto Rico’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Puerto Rico’s Coral Reef Ecosystems –The islands of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico,with a combined total land area of about 3,435 mi2
(8,897 km2, roughly the size of Rhode Island) anda linear coastline of 385 mi, are the easternmostislands of the Greater Antilles, located between LaHispaniola and the Virgin Islands (Fig. 73). Theislands lie on a submarine platform and includePuerto Rico, Vieques, Culebra, Culebrita,Desecheo, Mona, and Monito.
With the exception of Monito Island, NOAA re-cently mapped Puerto Rico’s coral reef ecosystemand associated benthic habitats to about 65 ft. The
mapping delineated a total coral reef ecosystemarea of 1,934 mi2 (5,009.6 km2). Coral reef andcolonized hardbottom habitat comprised 292 mi2
(756.2 km2, 15.1% of the total reef ecosystem),total seagrass habitat covered 241 mi2 (624.8 km2,12.5% of the ecosystem), macroalgal-dominatedareas covered 37 mi2 (96.7 km2, 1.9%), and themangroves fringing the islands covered 28 mi2
(72.6 km2, 1.4%).
Coral reefs off Puerto Rico near La Parguera,Desecheo Island, and Vieques Island have thehighest abundance and percent cover of livingcoral (Fig. 74), although these reefs have beendegraded by a host of human and natural impacts.Results from recent studies of Desecheo Islandindicate its coral reefs are probably the best-developed and healthiest in Puerto Rico, withabout 70% coral cover and high water clarity(Armstrong et al. 2001).
Throughout the area, staghorn and elkhorn coralpopulations have declined over the last 25 yearsfrom hurricane damage, white-band disease, andcorallivorous mollusks (Goenaga 1991, Bruckneret al. 1997, Williams et al. 2000). Extensive thick-ets of elkhorn coral formerly dominated manyshallow coral reef habitats (0-16 ft).
White-band disease has had a devastating impacton what had been vast stretches of apparentlyhealthy elkhorn coral off the eastern coast ofPuerto Rico (Goenaga and Boulon 1992). A fewouter reefs still had extensive elkhorn thickets asrecently as 1998, but Hurricane Georges heavily
67° 66°19°
18°
Desecheo Island MarineReserve
Mona Island NatureReserve
Tourmaline NatureReserve
Boqueron WildlifeRefuge
La Parguera NatureReserve
Guanica NatureReserve
Isla Caja de MuertoNature Reserve
Jobos Bay NationalEstuarine Research
Reserve
Cayos de la CordilleraNature Reserve
Luis Peña MarineReserve
Figure 73. Map of Puerto Rico and its MPAs (Photos: John Christensen, USFWS, and NOAA).
Figure 74. Reef with a large amount of coral cover off LaParguera, Puerto Rico (Photo: Matt Kendall).
ViequesViequesViequesViequesVieques
Puerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto Rico
CulebraCulebraCulebraCulebraCulebra
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damaged those (Morelock et al. 2001). Staghorncoral, also damaged by Hurricane Georges, hasrecovered considerably from white-band disease.Although the disease is prevalent, flourishingstands can be found in shallow back-reef sites offSan Cristóbal. But on reefs off La Parguera wherelarge numbers of staghorn coral were lost duringthe 1980s and early 1990s (Williams et al. 2000),populations have continued to decline over the lastdecade (Bruckner et al. 1997, Morelock et al.2001). The disease is also prevalent among elkhorncoral colonies.
Black-band disease was first observed in PuertoRico in 1972 but occurs less here than elsewhere.White plague type II disease affects more than50% of the brain coral population on one inner reefnear La Parguera (Bruckner and Bruckner 1997).Yellow-blotch disease was first recorded in 1996,and by 1999 had affected 50% of the massiveboulder star corals off the western coast of Mona.Now it affects all reefs in that area (Bruckner andBruckner 2000). Most other diseases reported inthe literature have been observed as well (A.Bruckner unpub. obs).
Overgrowth by sponges and other invertebrates hasbeen a minor source of coral mortality on reefs thatwas first noted by Vicente (1978). The encrustingsponge (Cliona spp.) has covered substratespreviously covered by elkhorn coral and is nowovergrowing many other species of corals in anumber of locations.
Hurricanes and tropical storms have damaged thereefs over the past 20 years. Hurricane Georges inSeptember 1998 devastated the elkhorn corals andother shallow reef environments near La Parguera(Morelock et al. 2001). While Hortense in 1996,Marilyn in 1995, and Hugo in 1989 had weakerwinds, they had heavier rains, impacting the shal-low reefs with freshwater.
To date, fishery resources off Puerto Rico haveshown the classic signs of overfishing. Reef fish-eries are now only 31% of what they were in 1979(C. Lilyestrom unpub. obs.).
The decline in abundance of large fish and themassive mortality of the long-spined urchin repre-sent a major shift in community structure of thePuerto Rican reefs. Likewise, heavy fishing of thespiny lobster has substantially reduced its numbers
(Fig. 75), affecting populations of corallivorousmollusks, one of its prey.
Activities related to urbanization have degradedcoastal water quality in Puerto Rico. Sedimentationand high turbidity have been associated with devel-opment have degraded a variety of reef systemsaround the island. In their qualitative inventory ofreefs, Goenaga and Cintrón (1979) noted a highamount of sedimentation affected reefs of thenorthern coast and in bays used for ocean cargo onthe southern and western coasts (e.g., Guayanilla,Mayagüez).
A periodic problem for near-shore water quality isillegally discharged wastes. Since 1991 on a yearlybasis, the USEPA has provided compliance assis-tance to hundreds of regulated businesses and facil-ities (USEPA 2002). This is still a problem inparticular areas. A major rum processing plantregularly exceeds permit limits for oxygen demandand solids in its stormwater runoff flowing into SanJuan Bay (ten months between 1997 and 2000).Additionally, this company has been cited by theUSEPA for discharging rum effluent directly intothe Bayamon River Channel.
Condition of USVI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of USVI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of USVI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of USVI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of USVI’s Coral Reef Ecosystems –The U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) lie approximately1,000 nmi southeast of Miami and 45 nmi east ofPuerto Rico, and include the primary islands of St.Croix, St. John, and St. Thomas, as well as off-shore cays. Around the islands are fringing, deepwall and shelf-edge, and patch reefs, some withspur-and-groove formations. Only St. Croix hasbarrier reefs. Bank reefs and scattered patch reefs
Figure 75. The spiny lobster has experienced heavy fishingpressure in Puerto Rico (Photo: NOAA OAR/NURP).
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with high coral diversity occur on geologicalfeatures offshore at greater depths (Fig. 76).
Recently NOAA mapped USVI coral reef eco-systems and associated habitats to about 70 ft anddelineated a total coral reef ecosystem area of 350mi2 (906.3 km2, Kendall 2001, Monaco et al.2001). Deeper water reef habitats off the USVIislands have yet to be mapped.
A diverse array of stresses have degraded USVIcoral reefs, associated marine ecosystems, and thefishery resources dependent on them. Natural dis-asters have also degraded USVI reefs. Eight hur-ricanes over the past 20 years have had dramaticimpacts and given the reefs little chance to recover.Hurricanes David and Hugo were especially dam-aging, killing coral and impacting reef tracts.
Macroscopic algae are periodically abundant, in-creasing after storms and disease had killed corals.Although long-term data exists only for St. John,large, dense seagrass beds have dramatically de-clined, all but disappearing in popular anchorages.
Coral mortality from disease has been substantialover the past two decades. White-band disease,
black-band disease, plague type II, a sea fandisease, and possibly other undetected diseases allhave impacted coral reef health.
Most dramatic has been the demise of the elkhorncoral. Impressive stands reported in the 1970s and1980s are now graveyards from storms and white-band disease (Fig. 77). Branches and fragments aredead, interspersed with algal-covered skeletonsstill in position. In places, living elkhorn coralcover has fallen from 85% in 1976 to a low of 5%in 1988.
Plague type II and a fungus also affect these reefs.While it does not always advance so quickly,plague type II can progress up to 0.5 cm/day onstony coral. Corals infected with this diseaseusually do not recover; instead, they die and areovergrown with algae.
Another major impact on USVI coral is bleaching.Major bleaching events occurred in 1987, 1990,and 1998. These affected 16-47% of the corals inany given event or location. Severe coral mortality,however, has not been associated with USVI coralbleaching. Since bleaching is related to increasedwater temperatures, increased warming shouldcontinue to have an effect.
An epidemic in 1983-1984 decimated the long-spined sea urchin, reducing populations as much as90% around the Caribbean. They are recovering,but slowly. Loss of this herbivore is significantbecause it feeds on macroscopic algae and plays amajor role in reef ecology by keeping algal abun-dance in check.
Fish and large mobile invertebrates have beenaffected by human activities. The queen conch
65°
18°
Virgin Islands National Park &Coral Reef National Monument
Cas Cay/Mangrove LagoonMarine Reserve
St. James MarineReserve
Buck Island NationalMonument
Salt River Bay NationalHistorical Park &
Ecological Reserve
Green Cay NationalWildlife Refuge
Figure 76. Map of the U.S. Virgin Islands and its MPAs(Photos: Matt Kendall, NPS, and USFWS).
Figure 77. Elkhorn coral with white-band disease (Photo:Andy Bruckner).
St. CroixSt. CroixSt. CroixSt. CroixSt. Croix
St. JohnSt. JohnSt. JohnSt. JohnSt. JohnSt. ThomasSt. ThomasSt. ThomasSt. ThomasSt. Thomas
Hind BankMarine
ConservationDistrict
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population abundance is much reduced, from boththe loss of habitat and overfishing.
Overfishing has changed the abundance and com-position of fish inhabiting USVI reefs. Fisheriesare close to collapse; even those within the marineprotected areas are deteriorating (Beets 1996,Garrison et al. 1998, Wolff 1996, Beets and Rogersin press). According to Beets and Rogers (inpress), groupers and snappers are now far lessabundant, the proportion of herbivorous fishes hasincreased, individuals of many fish species aresmaller, and spawning aggregations have beendecimated.
Accelerated development of uplands, increases inpoint and non-point discharges, and poor landmanagement impact near-shore water quality andthe reef ecosystem. Runoff from the numerousunpaved roads probably contributes the largestamount of sediment to near-shore waters(Anderson and MacDonald 1998). Near-shorehabitats, mostly mangroves, salt ponds, andseagrasses have been degraded and in placesdestroyed from coastal development, contaminantdischarges, and sediment-laden runoff. Long-shoreturbidity plumes are common after rainstorms.
Some regulations are in place, but current fishingregulations do not provide enough protection. Inaddition to inadequate enforcement of fishing reg-ulations, regulations for zoning and erosion controlare also not fully enforced, with negative conse-quences for the condition of USVI coral reef eco-systems.
Condition of FGBNMS Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of FGBNMS Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of FGBNMS Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of FGBNMS Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of FGBNMS Coral Reef Ecosystems –In the Gulf of Mexico, these well-developed coralreefs are found approximately 192 km south of theTexas/Louisiana border (Fig. 78). These reefs,given federal protection in 1992 and now known asthe Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanct-uary (FGBNMS), encompass 56 mi2 (146 km2) ofbanks and coral reef habitats that were formed atopsalt domes on the sea floor. Also part of theFGBNMS, Stetson Bank, a separate claystone/siltstone bank 30 mi away, harbors a low diversitycoral community. The East Flower Garden Bank is25.4 mi2 (65.8 km2) and contains about 247 acres(1 km2) of coral reef. The West Flower GardenBank is separated from the East Bank by 12 mi andcovers about 30 mi2 (77.2 km2), of which 100 acres(0.4 km2) are coral reefs.
The reef platform on the top of both banks is rela-tively flat with uniform coral growth. The FlowerGarden Banks reef platform contains large, closelyspaced coral heads. Between groups of coral heads,there are many sand patches and channels. Thebank slopes steeply from surrounding deep reefbases to the relatively shallow reef platform.During the time scientists have studied these reefs,coral communities appear stable and in excellentcondition. Coral cover (approximately 50%) hasnot significantly changed (Gittings 1998). Growthrates and other indicators of coral health showsimilar consistency.
Both disease and bleaching are relatively low.Bleaching only occurs when temperatures exceed86o F (30o C) and most colonies recover (Dokken etal. 1999). Other impacts affecting coral conditionare isolated incidences of anchor damage, tow andseismic cables, and illegal fishing gear.
Algal cover has remained less than 5% in the shal-lower reef areas. The biggest change in algal coverwas associated with the die-off of the long-spinedsea urchin in 1983-1984, but cover returned to nor-mal a few years afterward. Along with sponges,algae are a primary component in the deeperwaters below 98 ft.
The fish population includes both resident tropicalspecies and migratory pelagic species. Planktivoresand benthic invertebrate feeders dominate the 266
95° 94° 93°
28°
29°
West Flower Garden Bank
East FlowerGarden Bank
Stetson Bank
Figure 78. Map of the Flower Garden Banks National MarineSanctuary (Photos: Frank and Joyce Burek and StephenGittings).
TexasTexasTexasTexasTexas
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fish species found around the reefs (Pattengill etal. 1997). Compared with other reefs in the southAtlantic and Caribbean, fish diversity is low(Pattengill-Semmens 1999).
The impacts of commercial fishing and associatedactivities are not well known, but fishing pressureis not intense at this time. There is concern that thelimited area of hardbottom on and around theBanks do not support current fishing levels. Theprimary commercial fish species have been snap-per and grouper (Fig. 79). While density informa-tion for fish has only been available in the last 30years, anecdotal information suggests a decline ofgrouper.
There is also evidence that these reefs may serve asan important spawning and aggregation area forcertain species of grouper. Targeted fishing, evenwhat is allowed under current regulations, couldhave a significant impact on these populations.
As with other reefs, anchor damage has occurredon the Flower Garden Banks. Large oil industryvessels, freighters, fishing vessels, (Gittings et al.1992) and foreign-flagged cargo vessels not awareof the restrictions in the area, have all damaged thereefs. The FGBNMS was recently designated theworld’s first ‘No-Anchoring Area’ by the Interna-tional Maritime Organization.
Water quality is good. Salinity and temperaturevariations are well within the range needed foractive coral growth. Turbidity is generally verylow (Deslarzes 1998), but there are indicators ofsome concern. Stable nitrogen isotope analysisindicates coastal pollution is reaching StetsonBank, and discoloration from turbidity isperiodically seen at the Flower Garden Banks.
Additionally, oxygen-depleted areas have beenidentified in a large area of the northern Gulf andmay be moving toward the outer Continental Shelfand nearer the Banks.
Primary sources of potential degradation of waterquality include coastal runoff and rivers, atmos-pheric contributions, and effluent discharges fromoffshore activities such as oil and gas develop-ment, and marine transportation (Deslarzes 1998).
Condition of Navassa Island’s Coral ReefCondition of Navassa Island’s Coral ReefCondition of Navassa Island’s Coral ReefCondition of Navassa Island’s Coral ReefCondition of Navassa Island’s Coral ReefEcosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem Ecosystem – Navassa is a small 2-mi2 uninhabitedU.S. protectorate (since 1857) located betweenJamaica and Haiti in the Caribbean (Fig. 80). In1999, the Secretary of the Interior transferred fulladministration of Navassa to the USFWS. TheNavassa Island Wildlife Refuge is managed as aremote unit of the Caribbean Islands NationalWildlife Refuge, including the island and sub-merged lands out 12 miles offshore by statute.Entry into the refuge is by permit only; howeversubsistence fishing is allowed.
The cliffs that surround the island are vertical,extending straight down to a largely sand-rubbleshelf at about 75 ft, where there is dispersed patch-reef habitat. The nearly vertical reefs at depths lessthan 75 ft have high live coral cover (20-26%) anda high degree of architectural complexity thatmakes these reefs particularly valuable as reef fishhabitat. Besides scleractinian corals, sponges (7-27%) and fleshy brown macroalgae (10-23%, pri-marily Dictyota and Lobophora spp.) accounted formost of the remaining reef cover. The long-spinedsea urchin, now scarce throughout most of theCaribbean, was moderately abundant (averaging
Figure 79. Tiger groupers are commercially targeted at theFlower Garden Banks (Photo: Frank and Joyce Burek).
80° 70°75°
20°
25°
Navassa IslandNational Wildlife
Refuge
CubaCubaCubaCubaCuba
JamaicaJamaicaJamaicaJamaicaJamaica
FloridaFloridaFloridaFloridaFlorida
HaitiHaitiHaitiHaitiHaiti DominicanDominicanDominicanDominicanDominicanRepublicRepublicRepublicRepublicRepublic
Figure 80. Map of Navassa Island (Photo: Bob Halley and DonHickey).
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2.9 adults per 98.4 ft (30 m)transect) at all sites.
Despite its remoteness, thereis active fishing by Haitianson these reefs, both trap andhook-and-line. Even so,shallow reef fish communi-ties exhibit high density andretain representation bylarge snapper, grouper, andherbivores, which aredepleted at nearby Carib-bean reefs with high fishingpressure.
Other than possible current-deposited marine debris andanchoring of the artisanalHaitian boats, there is noevidence of degradation ofthe reefs surrounding this island.
Condition of Hawaiian Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Hawaiian Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Hawaiian Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Hawaiian Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Hawaiian Coral Reef Ecosystems –The Hawaiian Archipelago, roughly 1,296 nmi(2,960 km) in length, straddles the Tropic ofCancer in the north central Pacific Ocean along anorthwest-southeast axis. The Archipelago consistsof eight large islands to the southeast (the MainHawaiian Islands – MHI) and 124 small islands,reefs, and shoals to the northwest (the Northwest-ern Hawaiian Islands – NWHI).
Reef habitats progress from individual coral headscolonizing geologically recent basalt substrates tocomplex reef habitats off sand-covered atolls andin protected lagoons. For waters less than 300 ft,Hunter (1995) estimated a total coral reef area of979 mi2 (2,536 km2) for the MHI and 4,461 mi2
(11,554 km2) for the NWHI. These values couldchange significantly when the shallow-water coralreef ecosystem is characterized and mapped.
Main Hawaiian Islands – The MHI are high vol-canic islands. They range in age from seven mil-lion years old (Kaua‘i Island) to less than a day onthe eastern side of the island of Hawai‘i wheremolten lava continues to solidify into basaltic rock.Around the islands are non-structural reef com-munities, fringing reefs, and two barrier reefs (Fig.81). Recent partial analysis of data by the Hawai‘iCoral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program
suggest live coral cover averages around 18%,ranging between 4-50%, at over 30 sites surveyed.
Despite changes in coastal land use, the consensusof many ecologists is that, with a few exceptions,the health of the near-shore reefs around the MHIremains relatively good. As with most reefs nearpopulated areas, reefs in the MHI suffer fromdegradation resulting from human populationgrowth, urbanization, and coastal development83.
This is reflected in the health of the organisms thatmake up the reefs and the plants and animals livingaround them. General necroses (lesions) and ab-normal growth (tumors) are relatively commoncoral diseases (Hunter 1999).
No major coral bleaching was observed in Hawai‘iduring the 1997-1998 bleaching event. Currently,this is not a major concern.
The majority of food fish and invertebrates in theMHI are overfished (Shomura 1987, Harman andKitakaru 1988). Fishing pressure in heavily pop-ulated areas of the MHI appears to exceed the ca-pacity of these resources to sustain themselves(Smith 1993). The abundance of reef fish in unpro-tected areas is substantially lower than areas wherefishing is prohibited (Grigg 1994).
A wide variety of Hawaiian invertebrates are cur-rently harvested for the marine aquarium trade.The harvest of live sessile benthic invertebrates,
Kilauea Point NWR
Hawaiian IslandsHumpback Whale NMS
Coconut Island MarineLaboratory Refuge
Hanauma Bay MLCDPupukea MLCD
Waikiki Bay MLCD/Waikiki Island-
Diamond Head FMA
Honolua-Mokuleia Bay MLCD
Molokini Shoal MLCD
Manele-HulopoeMLCD
Kalaupapa NHP
20°
160° 155°
Figure 81. Map of the Main Hawaiian Islands and their MPAs. Abbreviations: FMA –Fisheries Management Area; FRA – Fish Replenishment Area; MLCD – Marine LifeConservation District; NAR – Natural Area Reserve; NHP – National Historical Park;NMS – National Marine Sanctuary; NWR – National Wildlife Refuge (Photos: MarcHodges, Barbara Maxfield, Jean Souza, and the NPS).
18 MCLDs, FRAs, and FMAs
Ahihi-Kinau NAR
KahoolaweIsland Reserve
83 Ocean outfalls, urban construction, and coastal recreational complexes (e.g., hotels, golf courses) are major sources of reefdegradation (Jokiel and Cox 1996).
Hawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’i
Kaua’iKaua’iKaua’iKaua’iKaua’i
O’ahuO’ahuO’ahuO’ahuO’ahu
MauiMauiMauiMauiMaui
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especially the featherduster worm (Sabellastartesanctijosephi), for the aquarium trade often causesdestruction of reef habitat during collection.
Increasingly, alien species are a problem. Alienseaweeds are invading coral reefs, rocky shores,tidepools, and sandy beaches (Staples and Cowie2001, Fig. 82). Thickets of mangroves not native tothe Islands are forming along sheltered bays,ponds, and inlets, frequently overgrowing tradi-tional Hawaiian fishponds, mudflats, and inshorereef flats. Many alien fish species, intentionallyintroduced, have established viable populationsand, in some cases, are thriving. Over 250 speciesof invertebrates have also been introduced, but sofar there is no documented evidence of their effecton coral.
Hawaiian green sea turtles have shown a dramaticincrease in tumors, a condition almost unknown 15years ago (Fig. 83).
Most MHI shallow-water coral reefs are extremelyclose to the majority of the State’s 1.2 millionhumans – within a mile from major coastal urban-ization and development (Fig. 84). This makesthem prone to pollution. For example, secondary-treated sewage from urban areas is discharged
primarily through deepwater outfalls on O‘ahu andthrough injection wells on Maui and Hawai‘i(Kona District). Nutrient leaching from injectionwells on Maui is attributed to the algal bloomsoccurring there.
Sediment runoff in the MHI has been estimated atmore than a million tons per year from agricul-tural, ranching, urban, and industrial activities(USFWS in Green 1997a). Livestock grazing andagriculture have been the predominant land usesfor over 100 years on O‘ahu, Maui, Moloka‘i, andLana‘i, contributing to chronic erosion and sedi-mentation on fringing reefs. Further, reef habitathas been lost to dredging and filling near-shorereefs.
A number of recent shore-based chemical spillsfrom industrial and aquaculture (Clark and Gulko1999) in the MHI have put large amounts of sul-furic acid, PCBs, and refrigerants onto near-shorereefs. On top of that, the USCG has recorded a200% increase in oil spills from 1980 to 1990(Pfund 1992).
High concentrations of dieldrin and chlordanewere found in oyster tissues sampled near stream
Figure 84. Honolulu is located near two marine protected areas with coral reefs (Photo: Donna Turgeon).
Figure 82. Alien algae overgrowing corals in Kane’ohe Bay,Hawai’i (Photo: Donna Turgeon).
Figure 83. Turtle with large tumors (Photo: Ursula Keuper-Bennett and Peter Bennett).
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mouths in Kane‘ohe Bay in 1991, five years afterthe ban on pesticides went into effect. Elevatedlevels of lead, copper, chromium, and zinc havebeen found in a number of tissue samples, particu-larly near the southern, more urbanized, water-sheds of the bay (Hunter et al. 1995).
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands – Among 124small islands, reefs, and shoals, the NWHI has 10primary, mostly uninhabited, atolls and islands and30 submerged banks. The NWHI extend more than1,300 nmi to the northwest of the island of Kaua‘ifrom Nihoa to Kure Atoll (Fig. 85).
Recent research found coral cover high off manyatolls (Maragos and Gulko 2002, J. Parrish and J.Maragos pers. comm.), and at Neva Shoals nearLisianski Island (R. Brainard pers. comm.).
In general, the NWHI reef ecosystem is in excel-lent condition. While there is little information oncoral disease and infections, observed disease waslow during 2000-2001 surveys. There is even lessinformation on diseases for other reef species. Noturtles with tumors have yet been observed in theNWHI. Since fishing and other human impacts arerelatively limited, these reefs are among the fewremaining large-scale, intact, predator-dominatedreef ecosystems anywhere (Friedlander andDeMartini 2002).
Surveys in the mid-1970s, 1980s, and 1990s foundthe coral reef fish community to be dominated bycarnivores84. The latest study (Friedlander andDeMartini 2002) found more than 54% of the totalfish biomass consists of apex predators85, followedby herbivores (28%), lower-level carnivores
(18%), and an assortment ofsmall-bodied species (Fig.86).
Prized fish species tend tobe larger and more abun-dant compared to populatedareas of the MHI (Okamotoand Kawamoto 1980,Hobson 1984, Parrish et al.1985). More quantitativestudies at French FrigateShoals and Midway Atolldocumented biomass esti-
mates of non-apex carnivorous and herbivorousfishes on shallow reefs almost twice that of theMHI, probably reflecting differences in fishingpressure (DeMartini et al. 1996).
The commercial lobster fishery is closed through-out the NWHI. Fishing for the black-lipped pearloyster closed after only a couple years because ofconcerns for the harvest sustainability of this stock.
Alien species were not conspicuous in the NWHIduring 2000-2001 surveys. The majority of alienspecies have been reported at Midway Atoll (L.Eldredge pers. comm.), most likely arriving thereattached to the hulls of the ships docked in theharbor. Midway National Wildlife Refuge is aformer U.S. Navy Base, the only island in theNWHI that had an active public use program86.Since the 1940s, Midway Atoll has had an activeport and airstrip used for bringing supplies andtourists from the MHI and other areas.
25°
175° 165°
Kure Atoll StateWildlife Refuge
Midway NationalWildlife Refuge
Hawaiian Islands NationalWildlife Refuge
Figure 85. Map of the NWHI and its MPAs (Photos: James Maragos).
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands CoralReef Ecosystem Reserve
NeckerNeckerNeckerNeckerNecker NihoaNihoaNihoaNihoaNihoa
FrenchFrigate Shoals
GardnerGardnerGardnerGardnerGardnerMaroMaroMaroMaroMaroLaysanLaysanLaysanLaysanLaysan
LisianskiLisianskiLisianskiLisianskiLisianski
Pearl &Pearl &Pearl &Pearl &Pearl &HermesHermesHermesHermesHermes
84 Mostly jacks, sharks, goatfishes, scorpionfishes, bigeyes, and squirrelfishes.85 Primary apex predators were the sharks and jacks; the herbivores were mostly parrotfishes and surgeonfishes.86 The public use program at Midway National Wildlife Refuge was temporarily suspended in December 2001, but the USFWS remains committed to appropriate public use as soon as possible.
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Figure 86. Biomass of reef fishes in the MHI and the NWHI(Source: Friedlander and DeMartini in press).
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High levels oftoxic contam-inants havebeen reportedfrom wildlifetissues andfrom sedi-ments col-lected atseveral near-shore sites inthe NWHI.PCBs have
been measured both in Hawaiian monk seal bloodand blubber, moray eels, and albatrosses (Tummon2000, L. Woodward pers. comm.). The analysis of36 sediment samples for over 100 toxic contam-inants (Turgeon in Maragos and Gulko 2002)revealed unexpectedly high concentrations of afew chemicals87 from NWHIsediments.
Condition of American Samoa’sCondition of American Samoa’sCondition of American Samoa’sCondition of American Samoa’sCondition of American Samoa’sCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef Ecosystems –There are five volcanic islandsand two atolls that make upAmerican Samoa (Fig. 87a-c).Located in the central SouthPacific Ocean, the islands aresmall, the largest being 55 mi2
(Tutuila). The islands aresteep, sometimes reachingover 2,500 ft within one mile from shore. Fringingreefs predominate. The total area of coral reefswithin the 328 ft (100 m) bathymetric line has beencalculated as 114 mi2 (296 km2) (Hunter 1995).Mapping of American Samoa’s reef ecosystem willbegin in 2003.
In the past 20 years, between hurricanes, a crown-of-thorns starfish invasion, a period of warmerthan usual seawater temperatures, and coralbleaching, the reef ecosystem has been fairlystressed. In some places, there have also beenchronic human impacts. But by 1995, the coralswere beginning to recover, and now some reefs areconsidered ‘recovered’ (C. Birkeland pers. comm.).Removing a number of shipwrecks and banninglive rock collection for aquariums has also helped.
Macroalgal cover is generally low around theislands, indicating that available nutrient con-
centrations may be relatively low, hervbivoregrazing may be high, or both. Low nutrients couldbe the result of the constant ocean flushing thatkeeps the waters clear and prevents nutrientbuildup. Encrusting coralline algal (Porolithon)cover is high (40-50%) helping to cement andstabilize the loose surface below (Birkeland et al.1997).
While the coral community may be recoveringnicely from adverse natural and man-made events,recovery by fish and invertebrates has been slower.A number of commercially desirable species havebeen overfished. Harvested species such as giantclams and parrotfish are overfished in AmericanSamoan near-shore waters, and there is heavyfishing pressure on surgeonfish (Craig et al. 1997,Page 1998, Green and Craig 1999). Many villagefishermen and elders are convinced there are fewer
and smaller groupers, snap-pers, and jacks than there werejust a few decades ago (Tuilagiand Green 1995). A recentlyimposed territorial ban onSCUBA fishing should helpthis situation.
The endangered hawksbill seaturtle is rapidly approachingextinction in the Pacific(Eckert et al. 1998). The pop-ulation of these turtles thatnest on American Samoan
reefs has seriously declined from illegal harvestingand loss of nesting habitat (Tuato‘o et al. 1993).
Water quality throughout the islands is generallygood except for three things: turbid water andsedimentation, nutrientenrichment, and toxiccontaminants within theharbor. Fish tissues andsubstrates collectedfrom Pago Pago Harborhave been reported withabove ambient levels ofheavy metals and otherchemicals (AECOS1991). Until the early1990s, nutrient loadingfrom cannery wastes inthe inner harbor caused
170.8° 170.7° 170.6°
14.2°
14.3°
14.4°Fagatele Bay NMS
National Park ofAmerican Samoa
Figure 87A. Tutuila Island and its MPAs.Abbreviation: NMS – National MarineSanctuary (Photo: Fagatele Bay NMS).
AAAAA
14.60°
14.61°
168.14° 168.13°
Rose Atoll NationalWildlife Refuge
Figure 87C. Rose Atoll and itsMPA. A no-take reserve areais marked in red (Photo: JimMaragos.
CCCCC
14.3°
14.2°
169.6° 169.5° 169.4°
National Park ofAmerican Samoa
Figure 87B. Islands of the Manua Group andtheir MPAs (Photo: Chris Stein).
BBBBB
Va’oto TerritorialPark
87 ×DDTs, ×PCBs, ×PAHs, arsenic, copper, and nickel were above the 85th percentile of all sediments monitored by theNOAA National Status and Trends Program. The × symbol indicates similar toxic organic chemicals have been groupedtogether.
TutuilaTutuilaTutuilaTutuilaTutuila
Ta’uTa’uTa’uTa’uTa’u
OfuOfuOfuOfuOfuOlosegaOlosegaOlosegaOlosegaOlosega
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perpetual algal blooms and occasional fish killsdue to oxygen depletion. Since then, cannerieshave been required to dispose of wastes beyond theinner harbor, so nutrient loading has generallydecreased.
Condition of Guam’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Guam’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Guam’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Guam’s Coral Reef Ecosystems Condition of Guam’s Coral Reef Ecosystems –A U.S. territory, and the southernmost and largestisland in the Mariana Archipelago, Guam is 216mi2 and has a maximum elevation of 1,330 ft (Fig.88). The northern half of the island is relatively flatand consists of uplifted limestone; the south is pri-marily volcanic, more rugged and with large areasof erosion-prone lateritic soils.
The island has fringing, patch, submerged, andbarrier reefs, along with offshore banks. Thefringing reef flats vary from 30 ft wide on thewindward side to well over 300 ft elsewhere. Thecombined area of coral reef and lagoon is approx-imately 27 mi2 (69 km2) in nearshore watersbetween 0-3 mi, and an additional 42 mi2 (110 km2)in federal waters greater than 3 mi offshore (Hunter1995). Guam lies close to the center of high coralreef biodiversity in the western Pacific. Right in themiddle of the tropical Pacific typhoon belt, it aver-ages one substantial typhoon each year. Shallow-water coral reefs play a major role in protecting theland from storm waves.
In general, the condition of Guam’s coastal reefscontinues to decline, primarily as a result of land-based activities. There is evidence of an overalldecline in coral species diversity over the past 30years. Coral recruitment data also support theobservations (Fig. 89). In a little over 10 years,recruitment dropped significantly. Increases inblue-green algae (overgrowing corals), junenile
crown-of-thorns starfish, coral diseases, the darkgray to black encrusting sponge (Terpios hoshioto),and coralline algal lethal orange disease have allbeen observed on Guam’s reefs. None seem to beat a critical level at this time. However, each canhave a major impact on these reefs.
Statistics collected by the Guam Department ofAgriculture’s Division of Aquatic and WildlifeResources indicate fish populations and catch-per-unit-effort (DWAR) have declined over the past 15years. Total finfish harvest between 1985 and 1999dropped almost 60%. Catch-per-unit effort hasdropped and large reef fish are rare. Fishingpractices, including the use of unattended gill nets,the use of bleach to stun and capture live fish,SCUBA spearfishing, and fish traps have contrib-uted to the problem. However, habitat loss due tosedimentation, pollution, and physical damage hasalso been responsible for reduced fish populations.Regulations and protected reserves are beingenforced to deal with this problem.
Reefs impacted by natural disturbances, includingtyphoons, crown-of-thorns outbreaks, and earth-quakes are not recovering in specific areas. Thecondition of local reefs is variable, ranging fromexcellent to poor, depending on adjacent land use,accessibility, location of ocean outfalls and riverdischarges, recreational pressure, and circulationpatterns. Coral cover on the good-to-excellent reefs
Figure 88. Map of Guam and its MPAs (Photos: USFWS, JayGutierrez, and Danko Taborosi).
13.75°
13.5°
13.25°
144.5° 144.75° 145°
Guam NationalWildlife Refuge
Pati PointPreserve andNatural Area
AnaoConservation
Reserve
Achang ReefFlat Preserve
Orote PeninsulaEcological Reserve
Area
Piti Bomb HolesPreserve
War in thePacific NationalHistorical Park
Haputo EcologicalReserve Area
Guam TerritorialSeashore Park
Sasa Bay Preserve
Tumon BayPreserve
Figure 89. Coral spawning (Photo: Robert Richmond).
ranges from 35-70%, while the most damaged siteshave less than 10% coral cover, with fleshy algaeand sediment dominating.
Guam’s northern reefs are generally in better con-dition because there is limited erosion and sedi-mentation from the limestone landmass (no surfacerivers or streams), but there is some aquifer dis-charge and associated eutrophication damaging thereefs. Coral cover and diversity are generally high-est on the northeastern, windward exposures.
Most of the fringing reefs off the southern andsouthwestern shores remain in fair-to-poor con-dition. Clay sediments and freshwater runoffheavily influence reefs off the eastern, central, andsouthern sides of the island during the rainy season.During the early 1990s, a road project in the southresulted in particularly heavy sedimentation on thefringing reefs and high coral mortality. The sedi-ment accumulation on reefs has been documentedto substantially reduce coral diversity and abun-dance (Randall and Birkeland 1978b).
Corals in the inner areas of Agana, Tumon, and PitiBays, centers of tourism and recreation activities,are in relatively poor condition, affected by dis-charges from land and the impacts of recreationalactivities (Fig. 90). A variety of industrial impactshave damaged corals within Apra Harbor, home toa U.S. Navy Base and the commercial port for theisland, but fringing and patch reefs near the harbormouth are in relatively good condition. Pollutantshave been found in sediments of Apra Harbor,including PCBs, heavy metals, and PAHs. Toxicpollutants from other human found in the sedi-ments raise concerns over the start of a harbordredging project.
During periods of heavy rain, the sewage treatmentplants divert stormwater mixed with wastewaterdirectly into the ocean, with only primary treat-ment. Guam’s aquifer discharge adds to eutrophi-cation due to leaky sewage pipes, fecal materialfrom animals, decomposing vegetation, and agro-chemicals (fertilizers).
Guam’s main power plants are located on CabrasIsland, in the northern portion of Apra Harbor.Elevated temperatures, caused by the discharge ofseawater used to cool the generators, have resultedin coral mortality. The discharge of cleaningchemicals has also occurred, with subsequentnegative impacts on local coral populations.
Condition of CNMI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of CNMI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of CNMI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of CNMI’s Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of CNMI’s Coral Reef Ecosystems –A U.S. territory, the Commonwealth of the North-ern Mariana Islands (CNMI) is a chain of 14islands located in the Marianas Archipelago in thenorthwestern Pacific Ocean about 100 nmi north-east of Guam (Fig. 91A-C). The five southernislands are primarily raised limestone and havewell-developed fringing coral reefs. The ten largelyuninhabited northern islands are mostly volcanicand have less reef development, mainly because
Figure 90. Urban development around Agana Bay. Adjacentcoral reefs can be seen in the lower right-hand corner of thephotograph (Photo: Guam DAWR).
Figure 91A. Map of CNMI (Photos: Americopters, Inc.,Larry Lee, Marianas Visitors Authority, and Eran More).
15°
20°
145°
RotaRotaRotaRotaRota
SaipanSaipanSaipanSaipanSaipan
AnatahanAnatahanAnatahanAnatahanAnatahan
PaganPaganPaganPaganPagan
AgrihanAgrihanAgrihanAgrihanAgrihan
AsuncionAsuncionAsuncionAsuncionAsuncion
MaugMaugMaugMaugMaug
Farallon de PajarosFarallon de PajarosFarallon de PajarosFarallon de PajarosFarallon de Pajaros
TinianTinianTinianTinianTinian
AguijanAguijanAguijanAguijanAguijan
SariganSariganSariganSariganSarigan
GuguanGuguanGuguanGuguanGuguan
AlamaganAlamaganAlamaganAlamaganAlamagan
AAAAACCCCC
BBBBB
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they are younger and have steepshorelines.
Barrier reefs and well-developed fringing reefs tend toform along the western coastsof the southern islands, whileeastern coasts are rockier withsteep cliffs (UNEP/IUCN1988). Extensive fringing andapron reefs are found on thenorthern and eastern sides ofthe island.
In addition to coral reefs sur-rounding the main islands, thereare a number of submergedseamounts and shoals surround-ing the CNMI that areconsidered reef banks. The totalcoral reef area in the CNMI has been estimated at224 mi2 (579 km2, Hunter 1995); but benthichabitats have yet to be mapped. The Hunterestimate is probably high, since it includedoffshore banks and shoals (M. Trianni pers.comm.).
CNMI reef ecosystems are in good-to-excellentcondition. The reefs adjacent to the southernpopulated islands of Saipan, Tinian, and Rotareceive the bulk of human impacts from populationgrowth, coastal development, fishing, and tourism.They are generally the most degraded.
Although coral reefs in the CNMI were spared theimpacts of the 1998 coral bleaching event, shallowreefs off the CNMI (less than 10 ft) recently exper-ienced bleaching as deep as 66 ft (1994, 1995,1997, and 2001). High mortality was only docu-mented for the 2001 event. There has been noquantitative assessment of bleaching effects forany of these events.
The CNMI Marine Monitoring Team is investiga-ting disease incidences and potential impacts ofthree common diseases infecting CNMI coral reefspecies: coralline lethal orange disease, tumors,and black-band disease.
The southern islands experienced a crown-of-thorns outbreak in the late 1960s (Marsh and Tsuda1973). There were smaller outbreaks associatedwith coral mortality at some reefs around Saipan in
the mid-1980s. Most reefs appearto be recovering. Terpios hoshinotoa sponge that can overgrow and killlive coral, is present on CNMIreefs, but is not currently a majorproblem.
Reefs off southern populatedislands are all overfished at somelevel. The local people consider thenorthern reefs relatively pristinebecause the population is low there.Some analyses of old data showcatch from spearfishing andSCUBA off Tinian were smallerand had a lower catch-per-unit-effort (M. Trianni pers. comm.).
The impact of pollution sources onmarine water quality in general,
and coral reef resources in particular, is not wellquantified. Sedimentation and turbidity impacts thewater quality of all three southern islands andseveral of the high northern islands, yet little quan-titative data on sedimentation has been collected.After periods of heavy rain, sediment washes downunpaved secondary roads on the three southernislands, creating sediment plumes that degradenear-shore water quality. Some major constructionprojects are reported to have increased sediment inlocal waters.
Increased nutrients impact reefs adjacent to popu-lated southern islands and several northern islandsbecause of feral goats. The CNMI Division of
Sasanhaya Bay Fish Reserve
Managaha MarineConservation Area
Bird Island Marine Sanctuary
Tank BeachTrochus Reserve
Forbidden IslandSanctuary
LighthouseTrochusReserve
Lau Lau Bay SeaCucumber Sanctuary
Figure 91B. and C. Maps of establishedMPAs on the islands of Saipan and Rota.
BBBBB CCCCC
SaipanSaipanSaipanSaipanSaipan
RotaRotaRotaRotaRota
175° 170° 165° 160° 155°
15°
10°
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0°
Kingman ReefKingman ReefKingman ReefKingman ReefKingman Reef
Wake AtollWake AtollWake AtollWake AtollWake Atoll
Johnston AtollJohnston AtollJohnston AtollJohnston AtollJohnston Atoll
Palmyra AtollPalmyra AtollPalmyra AtollPalmyra AtollPalmyra Atoll
Jarvis IslandJarvis IslandJarvis IslandJarvis IslandJarvis Island
Baker IslandBaker IslandBaker IslandBaker IslandBaker Island
Howland IslandHowland IslandHowland IslandHowland IslandHowland Island
166.75°
19.25°
Figure 92. Map of Pacific Remote Insular Reefs (Photos: JimMaragos).
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Environmental Quality monitors microbial viola-tions most likely associated with runoff fromseptic/sewage systems and animal waste.
Condition of U.S. Pacific Remote InsularCondition of U.S. Pacific Remote InsularCondition of U.S. Pacific Remote InsularCondition of U.S. Pacific Remote InsularCondition of U.S. Pacific Remote InsularReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef EcosystemsReef Ecosystems88 – In addition to the Midway,Hawaiian Islands, and Rose Atoll National WildlifeRefuges (NWR) covered elsewhere in this report,the USFWS administers six other remote NWRs89
in the Pacific Region (Fig. 92). Johnston Atoll islocated 800 nmi (1,500 km) southwest of Honoluluand is under joint USFWS and Department ofDefense (DoD) management. Howland, Baker, andJarvis Islands are low equatorial, arid coral islands.Howland and Baker are in the Phoenix Islands,about 1,620 nmi (3,000 km) southwest of Hawai‘i.Jarvisis is 1,350 nmi (2,500 km) south of Hawai‘iin the Line Islands. All three are surrounded bynarrow fringing reefs. Kingman Reef and PalmyraAtoll are the northernmost of the Line Islands, atabout 1,000 nmi (1,500 km) southwest of Hono-lulu. Wake Atoll is the only U.S. remote islandthat is not an NWR, and is co-administered by theDoI and DoD. It is the northernmost of the Mar-shall Islands, about 1,620 nmi (3,000 km) west ofHawai‘i, and the northernmost of the U.S. atollslocated 270 nmi (500 km) north of Bokaak Atoll.
The area covered by coral reefs around theseislands is given in Table 3, using official USFWSrecords based on the 100-fathom bathymetric lineof refuge boundaries (S. White pers. comm.). Theestimates total 181 mi2 (468 km2), differing sig-nificantly from the 274 mi2 (709 km2) estimatedfor these same areas by Hunter (1995).
All the coral reefs are generally in excellent-to-good condition. In 2000-2002, NOAA and theUSFWS co-sponsored three expeditions to How-
land, Baker, Jarvis, Kingman, and Palmyra, andcompleted the first-ever detailed marine biolog-ical survey of these islands. Due to their smallsize and geographic isolation, Jarvis, Johnston,and Wake support about 40 species of stonycorals. Howland and Baker Islands have 80-90stony coral species each because they are furtherto the west where species biodiversity is greater.Kingman and Palmyra Atolls have the highestdiversity (140-155 species) because they are largeatolls with more reef area and greater habitatvariety (Fig. 93). Seasonally, the Equatorial Coun-tercurrent flows past, providing them with thelarvae of species from western reefs, in addition tolarvae coming from the east during other seasonswhen the North and South Equatorial Currents flowpast the reefs.
Coral bleaching has killed corals and affected reefsat most of the equatorial islands within the pastfive years – Howland, Baker, Jarvis, Palmyra, andlikely Kingman (J. Maragos pers. comm.).
The remote NWRs are fully protected by no-takeprovisions, except for Johnston and Palmyra wherecatch-and-release fishing is allowed. Invertebrateand finfish populations are in excellent condition.Fish and other wildlife may be as undisturbed asthey were thousands of years ago, although there isevidence of recent unauthorized shark fishing atmost islands except Jarvis and Wake (J. Maragosand P. Lobel pers. comm.).
Water quality is not an issue since all of the atollsand islands are at least 150-1,000 miles from anypopulation center.
Table 3. Coral reef area on the Pacific Remote Insular Reefs(Source: S. White pers. comm.). *Within protected sub-merged lands; **Data from Hunter 1995.
Figure 93. A. Pearl oysters. B. brown boobies. C. coconut crabs.D. green sea turtles. All are threatened species protected bythe Palmyra Atoll NWR (Photos: Stan Butler, Beth Flint, JimMaragos, and Robert Shallenberger).
AAAAA B B B B B
CCCCC D D D D D
88 Much of the information in this section on U.S. Pacific Remote Insular Reefs was provided by J. Maragos (pers. comm.).
Location
ProtectedSubmerged Lands
(km2 )
Coral Reef
Habitat (km2) *
Baker Island 1 2 3 1 2Howland Island 1 3 0 8J arvis Island 1 4 3 7J ohnston Atoll 4 8 0 2 3 9Kingman Reef 1 , 9 5 7 1 0 5Palmyra Atoll 2 , 0 8 5 6 5Wake Atoll* * Not available 3 2Total 4 ,918 4 6 8
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Condition of the PacificCondition of the PacificCondition of the PacificCondition of the PacificCondition of the PacificFreely Associated StatesFreely Associated StatesFreely Associated StatesFreely Associated StatesFreely Associated States –These nations are the Republicof the Marshall Islands (RMIor Marshalls), the FederatedStates of Micronesia (FSM),and the Republic of Palau(Palau). These Indo-Pacificcountries became independentfrom the United States 15-25years ago, but maintain strongpolitical and economic ties.
The FSM and Palau are knownas the Caroline Islands. Over1,553 miles (2,500 km) inlength, they are one of thelongest island chains. Eachisland group has its own language, customs, localgovernment, and reef tenure system.
Republic of the Marshall Islands – The RMI has1,225 islands with a land mass less than 0.01% ofits total 749,800 mi2 ocean area (1,942,000 km2,Fig. 94). Islands range from tiny, barely emergentislets to Kwajalein, the world’s largest atoll (about6 mi2 of dry land with an 839 mi2 lagoon). Someislands have significant rainfall, but many in thenorth have little or, in dry years, no rain. Typhoonsare rare.
Despite the 67 nuclear tests detonated between1946 and 1958, the reefs overall are in goodcondition (National Biodiversity Team of the Mar-shall Islands 2000). Even reefs used for testinghave recovered well, though perhaps not as com-pletely as some observers have reported recently.
There is little data on the diversity of coral andrelated organisms. Many early RMI assessments
89 Howland Island National Wildlife Refuge, Baker Island National Wildlife Refuge, Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge, Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge, Kingman Reef National Wildlife Refuge, and Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.
were trying to determineimpacts of nuclear testing.Recently though, someindependent surveys havebeen done. Fish diversityappears to be relatively high,with a number of speciesendemic to either the Mar-shalls or nearby areas.
Besides historical nuclearactivity, the usual human-induced stresses occur – boatanchoring, fishing geardamage, and occasional shipgroundings with resultingfuel spills, and trash andwaste in the water.
With low elevation (atolls and low coral islandshave an average elevation of 7 ft), some or all ofthe Marshall Islands could be submerged if climatechange moderately raises the sea level. Further,with warmer temperatures, shallow-water reef-building corals could be impacted. A temperatureincrease of even 1.8o F (1o C) could cause coralmortalities and affect overall reef growth.
While most of the obvious effects of the nucleartests are gone, there are other potential impacts.Long-lived radionuclides in the fine sediments ofthe lagoon bottoms are yet a concern for marineecosystem food chains. While reports state the fishare again safe to eat, the physiological impacts ofradiation on the genetic material of all the organ-isms, particularly to the humans that may haveeaten those fish, has not been determined yet.
The Federated States of Micronesia – The FSMhas four states (Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk, and Yap,
Fig. 95). Each state supportspopulation centers on highvolcanic islands. FSM hasboth high islands and lowatolls. The people of FSMhave a strong dependence oncoral reefs and marine resour-ces, both economically andculturally.
Reefs in the FSM are gen-erally in good shape. As withother high volcanic islands,
170°165°
10° Ratak ChainRatak ChainRatak ChainRatak ChainRatak ChainRalik ChainRalik ChainRalik ChainRalik ChainRalik Chain
Majuro
Kwajalein
Arno
BikiniEnewetak
Figure 94. Map of the Republic of the MarshallIslands (Photos: James McVey and the RMIEmbassy).
140° 150° 160°
10°
Yap ProperYap ProperYap ProperYap ProperYap Proper
Chuuk LagoonChuuk LagoonChuuk LagoonChuuk LagoonChuuk LagoonPohnpeiPohnpeiPohnpeiPohnpeiPohnpei
KosraeKosraeKosraeKosraeKosrae
Figure 95. Map of the Federated States of Micronesia and its MPAs (Photos: FSMVisitors Board/Tim Rock and Matt Maradol/FSM Government).
Kosrae IslandHeritage Reserve
Trochus SanctuariesHeritage Reserve
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coastal development and agriculture often bringssiltation, turbidity and other water quality con-cerns. Some degradation of reef ecosystems hasalready occurred in the more populated areas, andis expected to increase. Several large developmentprojects, such as construction of an airport and adeep draft harbor, have had significant impacts onlocal reefs. Reefs located near population centers,within harbors, and near shipping lanes have hadthe largest impacts from fishing and ship ground-ings. Wrecks have caused local damage to bothreef structures and biota.
Quantitative assessments of fisheries resources arelimited, but some market information suggestsfishing may be substantial and reef fish aroundsome islands may be over-exploited. Overfishinghas been documented as a result of foreign com-mercial activities. There have been destructivefishing practices, including the use of explosives tocapture reef fish.
The Republic of Palau – Palau is a separate sub-archipelago at the western end of the CarolineIslands (Fig. 96). It lies about 460 mi (741 km)east of Mindanao in the southern Philippines and810 mi (1,300 km) southwest of Guam.
There are about 20 main islands and over 500small islands in the 435-mi (700-km) chain of
islands. The islands are volcanic, atolls, raisedlimestone, and low coral islands. Most of thepopulation resides on several large volcanicislands; Koror is the capital.
Along the western coast of Palau, there is a long,well-developed barrier reef protecting the maincluster of islands. The reef on the eastern side isnot as well developed, and some areas do not haveany barrier reefs. There are more extensive reefs inthe Southern Lagoon, with gaps and passes into thelagoon on the eastern side.
Within the whole Indo-Pacific region, Palau’s coraldiversity approaches the highest diversity of thePhilippines, Indonesia, and Australia. The reefsclosest to population centers or development showsigns of degradation. Prior to the 1998 coralbleaching event, remote reefs were generallyhealthy with coral cover that ranged from 10% toover 70%.
The 1998 bleaching event affected shallow-watercorals throughout much of Palau. Almost all reefswere bleached and have not yet recovered. Crown-of-thorns starfish are preying on the few survivingAcropora (J. Maragos pers. comm.). Overfishingaround more populated areas is apparent, with alack of or low abundance of desirable species. Thisis particularly true when data are compared to theSouthwest Islands, but the ocean slopes still sup-port abundant reef fish populations.
Even after the Rock Islands were designated as anMPA to protect nesting sites of the hawksbill turtle,poaching of eggs and taking turtle shell for jewelryhas kept the nesting activity low.
There are no major water quality problems in theatolls. Coastal pollution, sedimentation, anderosion are still relatively nonexistent. The high,populated islands have local areas with degradedwater quality. With heavy rainfall and steep topo-graphy, erosion and sedimentation rates can behigh. Upland clearing of forested areas for agri-culture has resulted in landslides and runoff,withsediment plumes impacting coastal resources.
National Trends in Coral Reef EcosystemsNational Trends in Coral Reef EcosystemsNational Trends in Coral Reef EcosystemsNational Trends in Coral Reef EcosystemsNational Trends in Coral Reef Ecosystems
There is relatively little quantitative informationavailable for assessments of temporal or spatialtrends in ecosystem condition at this time.
Temporal TrendsTemporal TrendsTemporal TrendsTemporal TrendsTemporal Trends – For most regions, quantitativemeasures of most indicators of reef condition (e.g.,
134° 134.5°
8°
7.5°
7°
Ngarchelong/KayangelReef Channels
Figure 96. Map of Palau and its MPAs (Photos: KevinDavidson/PICRC and William Perryclear/PICRC).
Ebiil ChannelConservation Area
Ngaraard MangroveConservation Area
Ngemai ConservationArea
Airai StateConservation Area
Ngerukewid IslandsWildlife Preserve
NgerumekaolSpawning Area
Ngemelis & DmaschIslands No
Fishing Zones
Ngkisaol SardineSanctuary
NgardmauConservationArea System
NgaremduuConservation Area
Babeldaob
Babeldaob
Babeldaob
Babeldaob
Babeldaob
90 Indicators of reef ecosystem health such as mortality rates and larval recruitment of corals and fisheries.
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disease vectors, the extent of infection and theresulting mortality rates, and the loss of live reefcover) are generally lacking, so temporal trendscould not be compared across the entire UnitedStates and the Freely Associated States.
In places where there has been credible long-termmonitoring there are alarming temporal trends. Forexample, the FKNMS has recorded a general de-crease in coral cover and harvested species overthe last five years. On the other hand, monitoringof FKNMS fully protectedareas over the same timeperiod shows an increase inpreviously harvested fishand lobster populations –animals are larger and moreabundant (Fig. 97). Monitor-ing of other no-take reservesshow the same trend.
Over the past 20 years, thereseems to be irrefuable evi-dence of an increase in dis-ease and mortality of coralsand other invertebrates onreef systems off Florida,Puerto Rico, and the USVI.
There is a pervasive long-term trend of overfishingharvested species at most reef systems where thereare large populations living nearby. A number ofreef fish species have been listed as threatened orendangered under the U.S. Endangered SpeciesAct. Where reef habitat has been lost or the ecosys-tem substantially degraded, it may be difficult toreverse declining population trends for the rarespecies despite conservation measures.
Because of over-harvesting of adults and their eggsand loss of nesting habitats, all sea turtles are listedas endangered or threatened by extinction as aspecies.
Of the 27 species of marine mammals identifiedfrom coral reef ecosystems of the United Statesand the Freely Associated States, 21 are endanger-ed or threatened. The endangered Hawaiian monkseal, usually found only in the NorthwesternHawaiian Islands, is occasionally sighted in theMain Hawaiian Islands. The Caribbean monk seal
(Monachus tropicalis), is listed as endangered, butis probably extinct.
Spatial Trends in Ecosystem Condition Spatial Trends in Ecosystem Condition Spatial Trends in Ecosystem Condition Spatial Trends in Ecosystem Condition Spatial Trends in Ecosystem Condition – Thenext seven tables present information assessingspatial trends in coral reef ecosystem conditionwithin the United States and Pacific Freely Asso-ciated States. Because this is the first report and thebeginning of a comprehensive assessment andmonitoring program, some data are missing; inother places, only ranges and estimates were
available.
The information in these tableswill form the basis for determ-ining spatial trends in ecosys-tem condition in subsequentbiennial reports. These tablescompare total area of coral reef,delineate reef-associatedhabitats (e.g., seagrass andmacroalgae), and characterizethe type and abundance ofspecies within those habitats.
Until all the data gaps are iden-tified and a comparable, coordi-nated monitoring program fillsthe most critical gaps, it will beimpossible to compare regionswith confidence. Available data
were used for this report, so much of the data inthese tables only provide estimates, and there aregaps where no literature estimates were available.
To fill the gaps and build a National Mapping andMonitoring Network, NOAA held two workshopsin FY02 and reached a consensus on protocolsamong the managers and scientists monitoringcoral reef health. The workshops were the begin-ning of building a nationally-coordinated programwith comparable monitoring methods so managerscan share data and assess the condition of eachjurisdiction’s coral reef ecosystems. It was also thestart of the development of a ‘report card’ or ratingsystem for tracking coral reef ecosystem change forfuture reports. Without quantitative and compara-tive monitoring data, the ability to develop cross-region indicators for reporting is seriously limited.
The criteria for evaluating reef condition, thehealth indices90 and the metrics91 for ranking have
Figure 97. Yellow-tail snapper is a harvestedspecies that has benefited from the no-takeareas in the FKNMS (Photo: FKNMS).
91 Measurements of selected indicators used to track changes. For example, developing a fish consumption guideline would bean excellent metric for toxic contaminants. It would indicate how many fish would be safe to consume in a year because oftoxic contaminant tissue burdens. As this metric changed, the index of whether the fish of a given reef were safe to eat shouldbe an item of interest to residents and tourists alike.
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64646464646464646464
yet to be developed. Quantitative informationcrucial to developing health indices for coral reefecosystems is presently not available. For example,degradation is a concern for reefs near populationcenters, but water quality monitoring of contami-nants and nutrients is generally lacking. Standard-ized water quality monitoring must be initiated forthose reef systems that currently do not have ade-quate coverage or may not be monitoring the sameparameters. This will help identify and quantifycauses of degradation for the next biennial report.
The remainder of this Section presents generallyaccepted indicators of ecosystem condition thatwill be evaluated and reported on every two years.Most of the information is now qualitative92 butmore should be quantitative93 in the near future.This information forms the scientific baseline onwhich future authors can note any change in eco-system condition, and on the basis of their findings,prepare respective assessments of coral reefecosystem condition. As it becomes more refined,this data may be used to track and forecast ecosys-tem change. It will also be useful in evaluatingconservation management effectiveness. This wascalled for in the Coral Reef Conservation Act of2000.
Prior to 2001, except for Florida, none of the juris-dictions had long-term, ecosystem-wide monitor-ing of representative habitats94. Monitoring of reeffish at randomly selected sites using NOAA’sdigital benthic habitat maps began in the USVI andPuerto Rico in 2001 (Christensen et al. in press).This kind of rigorous monitoring, based on com-parable benthic habitats, is needed to prepare
quantitative spatial trend assessments for the nextbiennial report.
Reef CharacterizationReef CharacterizationReef CharacterizationReef CharacterizationReef Characterization – U.S. shallow-watercoral reefs are roughly computed to cover 7,607mi2 (19,702.4 km2), with an additional 4,479-31,470 mi2 (11,600-81,500 km2) off the PacificFreely Associated States. Pacific values, compris-ing the bulk of reef estimates in this table, aremostly estimates from Hunter (1995).
All major reef types can be found off the U.S. andFreely Associated States (Table 4). Also, the U.S.has several unique reef-associated habitats.
Human access to coral reefs ranges from thoseeasily reached from nearby urban centers to remotereefs accessible only by ship (Fig. 97).
Ecosystem Habitat CoverEcosystem Habitat CoverEcosystem Habitat CoverEcosystem Habitat CoverEcosystem Habitat Cover – For this initialreport, reef ecosystem cover is mostly based onqualitative judgments, since there are few placeswith adequate quantitative data. Only off PuertoRico and the USVI have shallow-water coral reefecosystem habitats been mapped and habitat coverrelatively determined throughout the jurisdiction.
Estimates of percent reef cover in Table 5 forPuerto Rico and the USVI are based on NOAAresults from recent mapping of reefs around theseislands. For all other reef areas, percent reef coverfigures are from monitoring data; sometimes thesehave have been calculated from only a few tran-sects taken at a small number of sites.
One general conclusion from this table is wherestony corals are degraded or have succumbed toenvironmental pressures, the ecosystem responds
Table 4. Types of reefs found in the United States and the Freely Associated States (Photo: Richard Mieremet).
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Atolls PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP
Barrier reefs PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP
Fringing reefs PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP
Patch reefs PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP
Offshore bank reefs PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP PPPP
Associated unique reefs W/ S F/ S A/ M PPPP
Key: A—Ancient reef F—Fire coral reef M—Mollusk reef S—Sponge reef W—Worm reef
92 Descriptive, not based on robust data.93 Comparisons based on reliable measurements of standardized parameters.
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with an increase in macroalgae. This makes it moredifficult for coral larvae to find appropriate sur-faces to settle out, thereby perpetuating degradedreef conditions.
Biological DiversityBiological DiversityBiological DiversityBiological DiversityBiological Diversity – The flora and fauna of reefecosystems in the United States and the FreelyAssociated States are diverse, evolutionarilyderived from Caribbean, Gulf of Mexico, Atlantic,Pacific, and Indo-Pacific faunal assemblages. Thediversity of native, endemic, and alien speciesvaries across systems, as does their degree ofexposure to natural and human-induced pressures.The highest biological diversity occurs in the Indo-Pacific region (e.g., the Freely Associated States).
No census of all species inhabiting coral reefswithin the United States or the Pacific FreelyAssociated States has ever been conducted. Neitheris there a single comprehensive list of coral reefecosystem species for any jurisdiction. Data werecompiled from individual surveys conducted bydifferent investigators at different reefs usingdifferent methodologies sometimes separated bydecades. These are presented in Tables 6-9. Theyare a combination of rigorous collecting andspecies verification by experts, or, due to a lack ofdata, are reasonable estimates of how many speciesshould be in the ecosystem. Where there is nonotation on a table, managers lacked credible dataand have identified these gaps as priority items.
Although the FKNMS seems to be well inventor-ied, their data are the result of integrating a seriesof investigations over a number of years for dif-ferent parts of the region. Some records are over 20years old. Even within the FKNMS, there were
dramatically different numbers for the same taxa95,so the authors of this report included citations foreach selected value. See the jurisdictional reportsfor specific information. Lacking a master list, itwas impossible at this time to report known speciesfor all reefs in Florida, so the authors chose toreport what is known for the FKNMS. In somecases, FKNMS values were well above thosereported for the entire state.
As with Florida, other reef systems had inconsis-tencies among researchers concerning the actualcount of reef biota even in regions where the datawere quantitative. A number of coral reef ecosys-tems, however, still need a basic inventory ofspecies. For this reason, no notation appears formuch of the biota from many of the Pacific Islandgroups, Puerto Rico, and the USVI. Additionally,there is likely considerable duplication among thevarious scientific surveys conducted through theyears on different reef ecosystems. These need tobe integrated into a single list.
Figure 97. A remote reef at Jarvis Island (Photo: JamesMaragos).
Table 5. Percent cover of benthic organisms on coral reefs in the United States and the Freely Associated States (Photo:James Maragos). *Only information for FKNMS has been included here, because data for other areas of Florida aregenerally not available.
94 Not just coral reef, but seagrass, algal, sand, hardbottom, and mangrove habitats.95 For example, the number of species of mollusks differed among investigations as much as an order of magnitude. The term
taxa (singular taxon) is the name given to biologically related groups of organisms (e.g., mollusks, crustaceans) in thescientific discipline of taxonomy.
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To rectify this situation, NOAA and its partners areproposing to create and maintain a list of all U.S.coastal marine species on a web site with publicaccess. This inventory effort will begin in 2002 asa Pilot Prototype Project for the Hawaiian coralreef ecosystem. With so many coral reef ecosys-tems now being characterized, many new specieswill probably be identified in the next report.
Marine Algae and Higher Plants – Across regions,there is great variance in species composition andthe total number of marine plant species (Table 6).While there are as many as a dozen seagrass spe-cies in a given region, there could be hundreds ofmacroalgal species. The number of macroalgalspecies ranges from a low of 44 species onFGBNMS reefs to a high of 500 off Puerto Rico.There are several reef systems (USVI, U.S. remoteinsular reefs, FSM, and Palau) where algal surveysare needed. Most likely the number of macroalgalspecies will greatly expand when in-depth surveysare completed, filling the gaps in this table.
Alien plant species are a problem in some areas. Inthe Caribbean, native mangroves are nursery habi-tats and provide shelter for juveniles of many reefinvertebrate and fish species. In Hawai‘i, however,alien macroalgae and red mangrove (Rhizophoramangle) are a major problem, displacing nativespecies, some of which may be rare endemics.
Corals and other Invertebrates – The conditionof reef invertebrates is highly variable from regionto region. Diseases in corals and other inverte-brates are generally higher in the Caribbean. Whilerecruitment is one of the primary measures of coralhealth, only three jurisdictions currently monitorthis parameter. Standardization and implementa-tion of monitoring for this health indicator is oneof the near-term goals of NOAA’s National Moni-toring Network.
Stony corals comprise anywhere from 28 speciesin FGBNMS to 425 species off Palau (Table 7).
Not as diverse, soft coral species range from nonein the FGBNMS to 120 off Palau. Sponge speciesare also highly variable among regional reefs,ranging from less than 27 in the FGBNMS to over300 off Palau. Most likely the numbers are high inthe insular reefs; they have not been well surveyed.
Among the many species of invertebrates thatinhabit coral reefs, mollusks96 are probably themost biologically diverse. Well over a thousandspecies have been identified from many reefsystems (Table 7).
Next to the mollusks in diversity, crustaceans97
range from a low of 62 species on the FGBNMS toover 884 species off the Main Hawaiian Islands.Small shrimp-like species of crustaceans98 are the
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Species diversity (# species)
Algae 3 6 7 5 0 0 4 4 > 4 0 0 ~2 0 0 8 0 3 0 6 1 5 0 2 2 2
Endemic 0 0 0 > 8 5 0
Seagrasses 7 6 5 0 2 2 4 3 0 3 2
Endemic 0 0 0 1 1 0 0Mangroves 3 4 0 3 1 0 1 0 5 1 4 9
Endemic 0 0 0 0Endangered/ threatened 1 0 0
Alien 0 1 9 1Table 6. Marine plant species found in coral reef ecosystems in the United States and Freely Associated States (Photo:Matt Kendall).
96 Clams, snails, octopi, and squids.97 Crabs, lobsters, and shrimps.98 Mysids, amphipods, copepods, and isopods.
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prey of larger invertebrates, finfish,seabirds, and marine mammals.
Relatively diverse but difficult to iden-tify, annelids99 are not wellinventoried on many reefs. The mostcomplete inventory of these to datelists over 200 species recorded fromthe MHI.
The often large and colorful echino-derms100 are important reef species,yet many reefs need surveys of whatspecies exist and what their niches arewithin respective habitats. Note themany gaps on Table 7. Echinodermdiversity ranges from 15 species in the CNMI toover 278 species from coral reefs in the MHI.
Echinoderms are considered keystone speciesbecause their impact on the rest of the coral reefecosystem can be significant. Two in particular –the algae-eating long-spined sea urchin and thecrown-of-thorns starfish. Both have had majorimpacts. In different ways, both have devastatedreef-building corals across entire regions.
Scientists determined that the loss of long-spinedurchins has changed the structure and perhapsfunction of Caribbean reef ecosystems. Decimatedby disease in the early 1980s, these urchins havenot yet recovered to any significant degree. In the1970s, crown-of-thorns starfish were responsible
for heavy mortality of corals offAmerican Samoa (Fig. 98), thesouthern islands of the CNMI,Guam, and other Micronesianislands (Marsh and Tsuda 1973).But by 1981, many reefs hadreasonably recovered. Then in themid-1980s, smaller outbreaks ofstarfish were associated with coralmortality at some Indo-Pacific reefs,but again recovery was relativelyrapid (Birkeland 1997b, Green1997). In recent years, these starfishhave not been a major problem;however, new aggregations were
reported recently at Palmyra Atoll (J. Maragospers. comm.).
Invertebrate alien species are also a problem, par-ticularly in Hawai‘i. Eldredge and Englund (2001)consider more than 250 marine invertebrates tohave been introduced to Hawaiian waters. Less isknown about alien species introduced to other reefsystems.
Finfish and Fisheries – Generally the data for fishdiversity is more robust than for other taxa. Muchof the data to determine fisheries condition, how-ever, is not consistent. Although the parametersmonitored for commercial fisheries vary somewhatamong jurisdictions, the larger problem is that,with the exception of Florida, there is practically
Species diversity (# species/#endemics)
Stony corals 6 4 0 43 0 ~4 0 0 28 0 5 0 1 4 + 5 2 1 0 +~2 0 0 0 4 0 3 2 5 6 0 1 5 0 2 5 0 1 4 2 5
Soft corals 5 5 0 4 2 0 0 0 0 7 7 4 1 < 1 0 1 2 0
Sponges 1 1 7 0 0 2 7 0 > 1 0 0 3 0 7 + 0 1 2 8 2 8 4 0 0 ~3 0 0
Polychaetes 8 9 0 0 2 0 0 > 2 0 0 8 0 0 1 0 4Mollusks 1 2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 6 6 7 0 1 0 7 1 2 0 0 3 5 0 0 1 6 7 3 2 5 2 0 2 1 6 5 5 1
Crustaceans 3 7 1 0 0 6 2 0 8 8 4 0 8 2 5 1 0 1 7 2 8 3Echinoderms 8 2 0 0 3 6 0 2 7 8 1 5 0 0 1 9 4 1 5 1 2 6 1
Endangered/alien (# of species)
1 0 0 2 0 + 0 1 1
Coral recruitment (#/m2)
Diseases (impact/trend) High � High High Low ø ø None ø ø Low ø
Bleaching mortality Medium
Key: ����=Increase ����=Decrease ø=No change
HighMedium to
highLow LowLowLow
1 .7 - 2 .3
Medium
.0 2 6 - .0 5 8
Medium
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of M
icron
esia
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Reef
s
High
Table 7. Coral and invertebrate species diversity and condition in reef ecosystems in the United States and Freely Associ-ated States (Photo: Mohammed Al Momany). *Only information for FKNMS has been included, because not all types of dataare available from other areas of Florida.
99 Large polychaetes (segmented worms like bristle worms and the Samoan palolo worm) are better inventoried, but the oligochaetes and leeches are virtually unknown.100 Seastars, ophiuroids, and brittle stars.
Figure 98. Crown-of-thornsstarfish on American Samoa(Photo: Charles Birkeland).
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no monitoring of recreational and artisanal fish-eries. That is the reason why only ex-vessel com-mercial fisheries data are summarized.
The number of marine fish species identified fromcoral reef ecosystems is diverse, ranging fromaround 266 species in the FGBNMS and theNorthwestern Hawaiian Islands to over 1,300 fromcoral reefs off Palau (Table 8). Likewise, reef-associated and shore species vary among regionsfrom around 200 to over 1,200. The highestnumber of alien fish species have been identifiedfrom coral reef ecosystems in Puerto Rico (30),Guam (17), and Hawai’i (13). The largest numberof endemic species is found on Hawaiian near-shore coral reef ecosystems (120).
Although fish diseases and fish kills have beenreported off Florida and the Main HawaiianIslands, the status of reef fish diseases is mostlyunknown. The National Monitoring Network willencourage measuring and monitoring thisparameter.
Reef fish populations are considered healthy in theFGBNMS, Navassa, and the NWHI. Elsewhere,most areas have been overfished. For someregions, fish condition is not known (note the gapsin Table 8).
Marine Reptiles and Mammals – Six species ofsea turtles have been identified on U.S. coral reefs(Table 9). These marine reptiles only come ashoreto lay eggs. Three species101 are found on occasionby Caribbean divers, but two additional species102
are rarely sighted (Humann 1994). Sea turtles arealso found in the Pacific along with olive ridleys.
According to G. Paulay (pers. comm.), two speciesof sea snakes are known from Palau – the egg-laying banded sea snake (Laticauda colubrina),and the viviparous yellowbellied sea snake(Pelamis platurus), a pelagic species ranging fromEast Africa to the Pacific coast of the Americas(Allen and Steene 1996). There are anecdotalaccounts of the latter from the CNMI and theFederated States of Micronesia.
As many as 27 species of marine mammals, in-cluding porpoises, sea lions, seals, and whales,have been identified. One of the more spectacularspecies, the humpback whale (Megaptera nova-eangliae) spends the winter near Mexico andHawai‘i to breed and calve, and then adults andtheir youngsters journey back to Alaska eachsummer to feed (Fig. 99). Spinner dolphins(Stenella longirostris) are common and form largeschools that are often seen daily in the same areas(Fielding and Robinson 1987).
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – U.S. coastal beaches and drink-ing water are monitored regularly for parameters
Table 8. Fish species diversity and condition in coral reef ecosystems in the United States and Freely Associated States(Photo credit: FKNMS). *Only information for FKNMS has been included, because not all types of data are available fromother areas of Florida; **Refers to Chuuk only.
101 Loggerhead, hawksbill, and green sea turtles.102 Leatherbacks and Atlantic Ridleys.
Figure 99. Humpback whales (Photo: N MFS).
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affecting human health using EPA prescribedmethodologies for 305(b) reports103.
Many jurisdictions monitor coastal near-shorewaters for dissolved oxygen, turbidity, fecalcoliform, enterococcus, oil and grease, selectedtoxic metals, ammonia, nitrate/nitrite, and pH (e.g.,American Samoa, Guam, CNMI). As an exampleof the longevity and breadth of EPA prescribedmonitoring, the Puerto Rico Environmental Qual-ity Board has been monitoring physical, chemical,and bacteriological parameters at 88 stations alongits coastal zone since 1982. Because this monitor-ing follows prescribed methodologies, the datashould be comparable and useful in determiningtemporal trends in water quality. This testing,however, is for parameters affecting human health,some of which may be more useful than others fordetermining coral reef health.
A few jurisdictions go beyond this set of parame-ters. They also monitor for toxic metals and organ-ic chemicals104. With NOAA and the EPA, theFKNMS has been monitoring an array of waterquality contaminants at fixed stations. To trackchanges in water quality affecting coral reefs
nationally, the Coral Reef Program is encouragingthe addition of certain key water quality indicatorsto its National Coral Reef Monitoring Network.
Because the water quality data for some of thejurisdictions covered in this report were qualitativeor not available, spatial and temporal trends forwater quality cannot be assessed nationally. Man-agers from the FKNMS, Puerto Rico, and Amer-ican Samoa, however, indicated that within theircoral reef ecosystems, water quality had beendeteriorating over the past decade. Not surprising-ly, managers of reefs distant from human popula-tions (the FGBNMS, the NWHI, and the U.S.remote insular reefs) all indicated that their reefsystems had excellent water quality. The remainderhad varying degrees of water quality problemswithin their jurisdiction.
The quantity and quality of reef organisms dependson water quality. Areas next to densely populatedshorelines generally have poorer water quality thanareas far from human habitation. The impact on thediversity and abundance of organisms in thosedegraded areas is generally lower, correlatingdirectly with water quality and habitat condition.
Table 9. Marine mammal and sea turtle species diversity and condition in the United States and Freely Associated States(Photo: Ursula Keuper-Bennet and Peter Bennett).
103 Coastal zone water quality monitoring required for human health.104 Pesticides, herbicides, PAHs, PCBs, dioxins.
Table 10. Areas protected by MPAs and no-take reserves (Photo: Kip Evans).
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Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and No-TakeMarine Protected Areas (MPAs) and No-TakeMarine Protected Areas (MPAs) and No-TakeMarine Protected Areas (MPAs) and No-TakeMarine Protected Areas (MPAs) and No-TakeReservesReservesReservesReservesReserves – As of 2002, there were 120 (35 Federaland 85 State/Territorial) MPAs in the United Statesand 15 MPAs in the Pacific Freely AssociatedStates (Table 10). These provide variable levels ofprotection to the reefs, ranging from open harvestaccess to full enforcement of no-take provisions.Coral reef MPAs include National Marine Sanct-uaries; National Parks, Seashores, Monuments, andWildlife Refuges; and National Estuarine ResearchReserves and Estuary Program areas. There arealso State, Territory, and Commonwealth Parks,Conservation Areas, and Reserves.
Fishery Management Plans have also designatedMPAs for habitat protection, rebuilding fish stocks,and for critical habitats of threatened or endan-gered species.
U.S. marine areas protected by no-take provisionscover 1,329 mi2 (3,442 km2), while another 25.2mi2 (65.3 km2) of no-take reserves protect Palauanreefs. Realistically, the percentage protected by no-take provisions within most jurisdictions mostlikely will change when the coral reefs are entirelymapped.
For this report, it was deemed impossible to calcu-late the total reef area protected by no-take provis-ions across all jurisdictions because over 85% ofreef-associated benthic habitats have yet to bemapped105. The authors of this report concludedthat state-of-the-art shallow-water mapping needsto be completed before this could be done withconfidence.
A synthesis of more than 100 studies of reservesworldwide shows protection from fishing leads toincreased biomass, abundance, average size, andspecies diversity (Halpern in press). Because mar-ine reserves contain more and larger fish, protectedpopulations can produce more offspring. Roberts etal. (2001) demonstrated that reserves serve as shel-tered nurseries. Large fish move to waters adjacentto the reserve through density-dependent spilloverof juveniles and adults106.
This is seen around the Merritt Island NationalWildlife Refuge. It is one of the oldest, fully pro-tected marine reserves, closed to fishing since
1962 for security of the Kennedy Space Center.Roberts et al. (2001) report that sport fishersaround this 40 km2 Reserve have landed a dispro-portionate number of world- and state-record fish.It accounts for 62% of 39 records for black drum,
54% of 67 records for red drum, and 50% of 32records for spotted sea trout. Preliminary resultsfrom monitoring some of the more recentlydesignated U.S. no-take reserves have similarinformation on their effectiveness.
To directly assess the effectiveness of no-takemarine reserves in the FKNMS, NOAA conducteddiver surveys in the Florida Keys and the TortugasEcological Reserve. The results after three years ofmonitoring, the FKNMS’ zone network showedpopulations protected by no-take provisions im-proved significantly. Despite population declineselsewhere, numbers of some fish species in thefully protected zones of the Sanctuary are increas-ing. Analyses of three years of reef fish abundancedata show that mean densities107 for several eco-nomically important exploited fish species108 arehigher in the Sanctuary Preservation Areas (SPAs)than in fished reference sites (Bohnsack et al.2001). Complementing these data, gray snapper (L.griseus), schoolmaster (L. apodus), and yellowtailsnapper are increasing after fully-protected zoneswere established in 1997 at 16 sites monitored byReef Environmental Education Foundation volun-teers (Pattengill-Semmens 2001).
Legal-size spiny lobsters continue to be larger andmore abundant in SPAs than in reference sites of
Figure 100. NOAA enforcement of regulations in FKNMS(Photo: Paige Gill).
105 One of many such examples, Statewide mapping is not yet available to the level of that already established in the FKNMS, so the percentage of coral habitat protected by no-take provisions is still only a reasonable estimate (i.e., 10%) for the FKNMS and not for all Florida.106 As the fish populations within the protected area grow in both numbers and size of individuals, competition between the largest drives some of them into adjacent waters.107 The average number of individuals per sample area.
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comparable habitat (Cox et al. 2001). At all timesof the year catch rates109 are higher within theWestern Sambo Ecological Reserve than the twoadjacent fished areas (Gregory 2001). This is notso, however, for the overfished queen conch. Theyhave remained low despite a ban in the mid-1980son both commercial and recreational harvesting.
Coral Reef Governance and ManagementCoral Reef Governance and ManagementCoral Reef Governance and ManagementCoral Reef Governance and ManagementCoral Reef Governance and Management –Federal, State, Territorial, and Commonwealthagencies are responsible for the conservation ofliving marine resources, including fisheries, mar-ine mammals, and endangered and threatenedspecies within the Exclusive Economic Zone110
(EEZ, Fig. 100). Legislation provides the authorityfor managing coral reef ecosystems (AppendixIV). These include Fishery Management Plans,management of MPAs, and protection of reef spe-cies and resources of concern111.
Fishery Management Planswritten by Fisheries Manage-ment Councils govern com-mercial fishing throughout theEEZ, regulating harvests byannual catch quotas, closedseasons, gear restrictions, andminimum catch sizes. Mostgovernments collect land-ing data (data collected at thedock or from creel surveys) onthe kinds of fish, invertebrates,and plants taken that can be used to track trendsand evaluate the effectiveness of regulations.
In most regions, the management of coral reefresources112 is jointly undertaken by local andFederal agencies. Within three miles from shore,local agencies generally manage fisheries andother uses of coastal resources. A variety of legi-slation gives NOAA the authority to manage livingmarine resources in U.S. Federal waters113. Federalfisheries regulations are implemented by theSecretary of Commerce and enforced by NOAA’sNational Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS).
Fisheries Management PlansFisheries Management PlansFisheries Management PlansFisheries Management PlansFisheries Management Plans – Four of eightRegional Fishery Management Councils havedeveloped federal Fishery Management Plans(FMPs) for reef fisheries resources and proposedimplementing regulations. They are as follows.
Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council –NOAA manages a number of fisheries associatedwith coral reefs based on FMPs, including Coraland Coral Reefs, Red Drum, Reef Fish Resources,Spiny Lobster, and Stone Crab. This ManagementCouncil also identified the Madison-Swanson andSteamboat Lumps Marine Protected Areas on theWest Florida Shelf as potential reserves. NOAAdesignated them as such and since has been asses-sing their resources and fisheries contribution.
South Atlantic Fishery Management Council –Coral reef associated fisheries managed underFMPs in the South Atlantic include Atlantic Coast
Red Drum; Coral, Coral Reefs,and Live/Hard Bottom Habitatsof the South Atlantic Region;Golden Crab; Snapper-GrouperFisheries; and Spiny Lobster.This Council proposed the no-take zones for the new Tor-tugas Ecological Reserve.
Caribbean Fishery Manage-ment Council – Reef-associatedfisheries of Puerto Rico and theUSVI managed under FMPs
developed by the Caribbean Fishery ManagementCouncil in-clude Corals and Reef-AssociatedPlants and In-vertebrates; Queen Conch; ReefFish; and Spiny Lobster.
Western Pacific Regional Fisheries ManagementCouncil – Three FMPs developed by this Councilinclude coral reef resources. The Bottomfish FMPregulates fishing primarily for snappers, groupers,and jacks (Fig. 101) in the EEZ around the Terri-tory of American Samoa, Territory of Guam, Stateof Hawai‘i (including the NWHI), the Common-wealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, and U.S.
108 Gray snapper (Lutjanus griseus), yellowtail snapper, and grouper (several economically important species were combined).109 Generally this term is dependent on the method of capture; as used here, it is the number of lobsters per trap.110 The term Exclusive Economic Zone (defined by the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act at 16 U.S.C. 1802, Section 3) is the zone established by Proclamation 5030, dated March 10, 1983. To apply the Act, the inner boundary of that zone is a line coterminous with the seaward boundary of each of the coastal states. The outer limit of the EEZ is 200 miles from the inner boundary.111 Endangered species and the taking of live rock.112 Mapping, research, and monitoring activities, as well as management and enforcement of any regulatory provisions.113 Federal waters are generally defined as being from the seaward boundaries of the respective State and Territory jurisdiction to the outer boundary of the EEZ (defined above).
Figure 101. In the U.S. Western Pacificregion, jacks are managed by the BottomfishFMP (Photo: James Maragos).
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Pacific insular remote reefs. The CrustaceansFishery FMP targeted spiny and slipper lobsters inthe NWHI by limiting the number of entry fisherypermits (15 maximum) of which fewer than halfare usually active in any one year. The crustaceanfishery has been closed since 2000 pending theresolution of uncertainties in the current stockassessment model.
The Precious Coral Fishery FMP operates in onearea off the MHI. Although this has also beenpermitted, it has not operated in the NWHI forover 20 years.
A Draft FMP for Coral Reef Ecosystems of theWestern Pacific Region has been completed and isnow under NOAA and DoC review. This proposedFMP has provisions for marine protected areas(including no-take zones), special permits for newfisheries, and limitations on permitted fishing gear.NOAA has not yet approved the Draft FMP.
Regulations and EnforcementRegulations and EnforcementRegulations and EnforcementRegulations and EnforcementRegulations and Enforcement – Regulationshave been developed for most commercially
114 Whatever management measures may be needed to conserve coral reef ecosystems. Many of the island agencies asked for federal support to build their local capacity to conduct a long-term monitoring and assessment program for their coral reef ecosystems. NOAA, through grants to island jurisdictions, has funded a variety of management activities since 2000 that include hiring full-time, permanent technical staff, purchasing equipment, and conducting various workshops.
important fisheries. Those applicable to coral reefecosystems vary among jurisdictions and coverquotas on catch, closed seasons, closed areas, gearrestrictions, and minimum catch sizes. Otherregulations protect coral reef resources byregulating oil exploration and mining, setting upno-anchor zones, regulating coastal construction,and imposing water quality and pollution controls.
All of the nearly 100 jurisdictional managers andexperts developing this report agreed enforcementwas not adequate to protect coral reef ecosystemresources. This is an especially difficult task forthe larger and more remote reef systems withjurisdictions that lack the ships and staffing toadequately patrol their MPAs.
To support the need to better protect reefs, theUSCRTF has called for better enforcement of laws,established new guidance to protect coral reefs,and provided funding and technical assistance tostates and territories to build managementcapacity114.
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(Identifying environmental pressures and gatheringthe comprehensive data for the National Assess-ments (the discussions in the previous sections)were mandated by the USCRTF National ActionPlan. USCRTF agencies and their partners haveworked together to make the National Action Plana reality (USCRTF 2000). In less than two years,significant progress has been made on the twofundamental themes and action items (USCRTF2002). The two themes and action items identifiedby the USCRTF are discussed in the remainder ofthis section.
Theme 1: Understand Coral Reef EcosystemsTheme 1: Understand Coral Reef EcosystemsTheme 1: Understand Coral Reef EcosystemsTheme 1: Understand Coral Reef EcosystemsTheme 1: Understand Coral Reef Ecosystems –Understanding coral reef systems is necessary to1) discern the conservation measures needed and2) evaluate potential impacts of actions on thecondition of the coral reef ecosystems. This in-cludes comprehensive mapping, assessment, andmonitoring of coral reef health (Fig. 102); support-ing strategic research on regional threats to coralreef health and the underlying ecological processesupon which they depend; and incorporating thehuman dimension into conservation and manage-ment strategies.
Theme 2: Quickly Reduce the Adverse Im-Theme 2: Quickly Reduce the Adverse Im-Theme 2: Quickly Reduce the Adverse Im-Theme 2: Quickly Reduce the Adverse Im-Theme 2: Quickly Reduce the Adverse Im-pacts of Human Activitiespacts of Human Activitiespacts of Human Activitiespacts of Human Activitiespacts of Human Activities – Reducing impactsrequires an expanded and strengthened network ofFederal, State, and territorial coral reef MPAs.Along with this, it is necessary to reduce the ad-verse impacts of extractive uses, habitat destructionand pollution; restore damaged reefs; strengtheninternational activities, ameliorate the impacts ofinternational trade in coral reef spe-cies; improve governmental account-ability and coordination; and create aninformed and engaged public. Many ofthese actions require effective monitor-ing of reef health, tracking bioticchanges, and evaluating impacts ofconservation measures on affectedcomponents of the managed ecosys-tems.
In FY00 and FY01, DoI and NOAAprovided over $2 million in grants tohelp the U.S. islands96 improve coral
reef management and conservation. This includedmonitoring, education, and designation of marineprotected areas. Additionally, in FY00 NOAAprovided $7.8 million, and in FY01 $27 million toagencies with coral reef management responsibili-ties for other initiatives for conserving coral reefecosystems. In FY02, a total of $34 million will beavailable from NOAA to continue coral reef initia-tives on U.S. coral reef ecosystems and to initiaterelated efforts for reefs off the Pacific Freely Asso-ciated States.
The information used to prepare the biennial re-ports mandated by the Coral Reef ConservationAct of 2000 has to be based on reliable monitoringdata and ecological assessments. NOAA and DoIare helping local agencies build their scientificcapacity to assure that information will be avail-
able for those reports.
Map All U.S. Coral ReefsMap All U.S. Coral ReefsMap All U.S. Coral ReefsMap All U.S. Coral ReefsMap All U.S. Coral Reefs
As discussed before, most U.S. coralreefs have never been adequatelymapped. The agencies of the USCRTFare undertaking a major effort todevelop comprehensive and consistentcoral reef ecosystem maps for all U.S.reefs (Fig. 103). This is led by NOAA,the National Aeronautics and SpaceAdministration, and the USGS(MISWG 1999).
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:AGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSES
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:AGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSESAGENCY RESPONSES
Figure 103. Cover of theCoral Reef Mapping Imple-mentation Plan.
Figure 102. Assessment of a coral reef in the NorthwesternHawaiian Islands (Photo: Donna Turgeon).
115 Puerto Rico, the USVI, Hawai‘i, American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI.
The USCRTF National Action Plan committed todelineating and digitally mapping all U.S. shallowcoral reefs by 2009 using airborne and satellitephotography. Mapping and habitat characterizationof selected deep reef and bank areas has also begunusing multi-beam sonar, submersibles, andremotely-operated vehicles. This information willsupport more effective fish and coastal zonemanagement, disaster mitigation, research, andrestoration efforts.
Detailed and spatially accurate digital benthichabitat maps can be used to design monitoringprograms, organize data, and conduct assessments.Digital data and the associated maps delineatemajor habitat types – seagrass, coral reefs, andmangroves – and can provide a framework fortracking changes in those habitats (Monaco et al.2001). Other measurements of the ecosystem thatcorrelate with habitat change116 can be layered ontothese maps and perhaps ultimately used to helppredict habitat change. Completed maps andrelated information (discussed in the followingsubsections) are available on a NOAA web site(Coral Reef Mapping and Monitoring 2002).
Caribbean Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesCaribbean Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesCaribbean Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesCaribbean Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesCaribbean Shallow-Water Mapping Initiatives –The characterization of marine habitats of PuertoRico and USVI has been completed, and benthichabitat maps are now available (Coral ReefMapping and Monitoring 2002). This was acollaborative project117 using visual interpretationof aerial photographs (Fig. 104). NOAA’s NationalGeodetic Survey acquired aerial photographs forthe near-shore waters in 1999.
Working in conjunction with the State of Florida,similar maps are available as a benthic habitat atlasof the Florida Keys (FKNMS Benthic Map 2002).Since this is just for the Keys, about 50% of Flor-ida’s coral reef ecosystem still needs to be mapped.
Pacific Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesPacific Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesPacific Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesPacific Shallow-Water Mapping InitiativesPacific Shallow-Water Mapping Initiatives –NOAA is leading an investigation to map thedistribution of coral reefs and other benthic habitatsthroughout the U.S. Pacific islands. Remote-sensing technologies, ranging from ships to satel-lites will be used to create digital maps of marinehabitats including coral reefs, seagrass beds, andmangrove forests.
Gulf of Mexico Deep-Water MappingGulf of Mexico Deep-Water MappingGulf of Mexico Deep-Water MappingGulf of Mexico Deep-Water MappingGulf of Mexico Deep-Water MappingInitiativesInitiativesInitiativesInitiativesInitiatives – In 2001, USGS, MMS, and NOAAcompleted multi-beam sonar mapping of major
areas off the Northeastern Gulf of Mexico includ-ing the newly-designated Madison-Swanson andSteamboat Lumps Marine Protected Areas. Theseare important habitats for commercial reef fishesand contain some deep reefs that may rival those inthe FGBNMS.
In 2001, NOAA also conducted habitat character-ization of deep Oculina coral reefs off the easterncoast of Florida using submersibles and multi-beam sonar. Results showed significant habitatdamage to protected banks from illegal trawling.
Assess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef HealthAssess and Monitor Reef Health
The USCRTF’s National Action Plan (2000) calledfor an integrated nationwide coral reef monitoringsystem that could provide regular assessments ofreef health as well as initiate new monitoring to fillgaps. This will provide the essential informationmanagers need to respond to changing environ-mental conditions, to assess the effectiveness ofmanagement strategies, and identify the need foradditional protective measures. Since then, NOAAinitiated and is leading a coordinated effort todetermine the condition of coral reefs, the causesof coral reef decline, and the impacts of environ-mental pressures on coral reef ecosystems.
A National Program to Assess and MonitorA National Program to Assess and MonitorA National Program to Assess and MonitorA National Program to Assess and MonitorA National Program to Assess and MonitorCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef EcosystemsCoral Reef Ecosystems – In FY99, 50 coral reefmanagers and scientists prepared an Implemen-tation Plan for A National Program to Assess andMonitor Coral Reef Ecosystems (National CoralReef Program, Coral Reef Mapping and Monitor-ing 2002, Fig. 105). In FY00, NOAA held a
Figure 104. An aerial photograph of St. John, that was usedto produce benthic habitat maps (Photo National OceanService).
116 Fish abundance, coral diversity, disease, and oceanic circulation patterns.117 There are local partners and collaborators. including island agencies and universities, the NPS, and USGS.74747474747474747474
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workshop for 60 coral reef managers torank environmental threats and priori-tize management needs (e.g., biotic in-ventories, ecosystem monitoring, andassessments of the sources and extentof reef degradation). The managersendorsed the proposed program (theNational Coral Reef Program).
Now in its third year of NOAA fund-ing, the National Coral Reef Programhas provided cooperative grants to stateand island agencies to build local capa-city for assessing and monitoring coralreef ecosystems. With this funding, coordinatedmonitoring is being conducted off Puerto Rico, theUSVI, Hawai‘i, American Samoa, Guam, and theCNMI. Another major objective of this program,
coral reef ecosystem health indicators, metrics, anda ‘report card’ will be developed to evaluatechanges in the condition of benthic habitat, livingmarine resources, and water quality. NOAA’sNational Ocean Service will integrate local assess-ments into these biennial reports. They will evalu-ate the effectiveness of activities to conserve reefresources.
Also a part of the NOAA National Mapping andMonitoring Network, complementary monitoring isbeing conducted off Puerto Rico, Florida, andHawai‘i. NOAA sponsored additional workthrough cooperative grants from pass-throughappropriations in FY00-02 to the Department ofNatural and Environmental Resources of PuertoRico, the National Coral Reef Initiative (NOVAUniversity Florida), and the Hawai‘i Coral Reef
Initiative (the University of Hawai‘i).
With the USEPA and NOAA, theFKNMS Water Quality ProtectionProgram monitoring continues in theFlorida Keys. Specific monitoring ofecosystem process and functionalchanges that result from the imple-mentation of fully protected marinereserves is also underway.
Regional Assessment and MonitoringRegional Assessment and MonitoringRegional Assessment and MonitoringRegional Assessment and MonitoringRegional Assessment and MonitoringActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivitiesActivities – Most of the U.S. coral reefecosystem monitoring is conducted byState, Commonwealth, and Territory
agencies, at times in conjunction with Federalagencies or with local non-governmental organiza-tions. The following is a summary of FY00-01activities in each jurisdiction.
Florida – In the Florida Keys, fish and benthichabitat assessments and monitoring were conduc-ted and an integrated molecular biomarker systemwas used to assess ecosystem health. Four cruisesperformed baseline surveys of the Tortugas Eco-logical Reserve to determine the influence ofReserve status on fish communities, the food web,and habitat structure and function (FKNMS 2002).
Puerto Rico – Puerto Rico established a Common-wealth-wide network of monitoring sites wheresessile-benthic organisms, reef fish, motile inverte-brates, and water quality were surveyed (Fig. 106).They also conducted a baseline characterization ofbio-optical properties, surveyed three coral reeflocations to gain baseline information, and asses-sed the effects of establishing a no-take zone at theLuis Peña Natural Reserve on Culebra Island.Additionally, a baseline characterization of the fishand motile and sessile benthic invertebrates inhab-iting coral reef and sea grass habitats was conduct-ed at 15 sites on Vieques Island.
U.S. Virgin Islands – The USVI Department forPlanning and Natural Resources has partnered withthe University of the Virgin Islands, the NationalPark Service (NPS), and the USGS to start fillinggaps in monitoring and establishing a Territory-wide Monitoring Network. (USGS 2002, CoralReef Mapping and Monitoring 2002).
Hawai‘i – In the NWHI, monitoring and assessmenttechniques were developed as part of an overalleffort to inventory the shallow-water reef biota andmap benthic habitats around each of the 10 remote
Figure 105. Cover of theNational Program to Assessand Monitor Coral ReefEcosystems.
Figure 106. Video monitoring in La Parguera, Puerto Rico(Photo: John Christensen).
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islands and atolls (Hawaii DLNR 2002). Initialsurvey data assessed the impact of bottom fishingon the Raita and West St. Rogatien Banks in theNWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve. State-widemonitoring of coral reef habitats, algae, inverte-brates, fish, marine mammals, and sea turtles of theMain Hawaiian Islands continued (CRAMP 2002).
American Samoa – American Samoa hired twofisheries biologists in the Department of Marineand Wildlife Resources. They are conducting fishcensus surveys of commercial fish stocks and acreel survey of market species. Water quality mon-itoring is currently limited to 12 beaches on Tutuilaand the Manu’a group, but is being enhanced withnew instrumentation.
Guam – A monitoring program for the recentlycreated MPAs has been initiated (University ofGuam MPA Research Group 2002). These ac-tivities complement ongoing inshore and off-shoreisland-wide creel surveys, weekly water qualitytests, freshwater hydrology and contaminanttesting and the University of Guam’s benthictransect surveys. They monitor for disease andcoral bleaching (Guam DAWR 2002).
Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands –CNMI hired a marine biologist to coordinate itscoral reef monitoring program (CNMI DEQ2002). Biweekly monitoring surveys areconducted on Saipan, Tinian, Rota, and Aguijan.The USFWS conducted its annual coral reefmonitoring of Farallon de Medinilla reefs andprovided monitoring assistance to the U.S. Navyby monitoring for impacts of military trainingactivities.
Pacific Remote National Wildlife Refuges –The USFWS continued surveying and
monitoring coral reef ecosystems in its PacificRemote Islands National Wildlife Refuges ofHowland, Baker, Jarvis, Palmyra Atoll, andKingman Reef (Fig. 107). The USFWS participatesin the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands ReefAssessment and Monitoring Program with follow-up surveys and continues to conduct surveys atMidway Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.
As of early 2002, the USFWS established 38 per-manent coral reef monitoring transects, most withthe cooperation of NMFS, at Baker, Howland,Jarvis, Johnston, Kingman, Palmyra, Rose, andSwains in the remote U.S. Pacific Islands andMidway, Pearl and Hermes, Maro, and FrenchFrigate Shoals in the NWHI.
Pacific Freely Associated States – The USFWShas completed reports on its biennial inventory ofsignificant marine species at U.S. Army KwajaleinAtoll in the Republic of the Marshall Islands.
National Survey of Monitoring CapacityNational Survey of Monitoring CapacityNational Survey of Monitoring CapacityNational Survey of Monitoring CapacityNational Survey of Monitoring Capacity – Todetermine gaps in ongoing coral reef monitoringprograms, NOAA launched its Survey of U.S.Coral Reef Monitoring Projects in FY99. Thiscomprehensive survey inventoried a total of 439ongoing programs and projects assessing andmonitoring coral reef ecosystems. The informationgathered by this survey is now available in a GISand metadata database (Coral Reef Mapping andMonitoring 2002, Fig. 108).
Survey results indicate that significant geographi-cal disparities exist in the quantity and quality ofmonitoring projects conducted around the UnitedStates and its associated territories (Asch and
Figure 108. GIS-image pinpointing coral reef monitoring sitesaround Midway Atoll.
Figure 107. Diver assessing the condition of reefs surround-ing Howland Island (Photo: James Maragos, USFWS).
Principal Investigator(s): Nancy Hoffman and Yuko StenderAgency: US Fish and Wildlife ServiceProject Title: Midway Atoll Lagoon Coral Reef SurveyProject Type: AssessmentParameters Sampled: Abundance, diversity, density, and spatial distribution
of fishes, macroinvertebrates, and corals; alien
species of fishes and macroinvertebrates; coral size frequency; frequency and distribution of non-living
substrate typesTotal Number of Sites: 56 sites, including a total of 116 transectsPeriod of Record: May 1, 2000-September 30, 2000Frequency of Sampling: Single occasion
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Turgeon in press, Fig. 109). A series ofenvironmental problems occurred in the early1990s involving the Florida Bay aquatic ecosystemand plans for ‘re-plumbing’ the Everglades.Therefore historically, most of the U.S. coral reefmonitoring support had focused on the FloridaKeys. Since 2000, U.S. agency efforts havefocused on building island capacity for long-termmonitoring and other coral reef conservationactivities.
The National Coral Reef Monitoring NetworkThe National Coral Reef Monitoring NetworkThe National Coral Reef Monitoring NetworkThe National Coral Reef Monitoring NetworkThe National Coral Reef Monitoring Network –NOAA has made considerable progress in the de-velopment of a web-based data management andinformation system for the nation-wide integrationof monitoring and mapping data. A large team ofcoral reef scientists and information technologyspecialists was brought together and is developinga NOAA single-point-of-discovery informationmanagement system for coral reefdata and information (CORIS).CORIS provides direct access tocoral reef data and information,including relevant NOAA Libraryholdings (CORIS 2002).
Coral Reef Watch ProgramCoral Reef Watch ProgramCoral Reef Watch ProgramCoral Reef Watch ProgramCoral Reef Watch Program – Topredict bleaching events, NOAA’sCoral Reef Watch Program com-bines real-time environmentalmonitoring data from satellites andthe in-water Coral Reef EarlyWarning System (CREWS)sensors (Fig. 110). Near real-timebleaching alert systems are nowavailable on the web (NESDIS2002). New CREWS systems
continue to be installed worldwide with 20domestic systems expected to be in place by 2007.
Volunteer Monitoring ProgramsVolunteer Monitoring ProgramsVolunteer Monitoring ProgramsVolunteer Monitoring ProgramsVolunteer Monitoring Programs – A varietyof volunteer monitoring programs collectinformation on coral reef ecosystems. Theseprovide data and related information to theNational Coral Reef Monitoring Network andenhance the monitoring being conducted byagency and non-governmental scientists.These programs differ widely in scope, meth-
ods, and parameters measured, and may haveissues regarding the quality of data. However, allprovide the opportunity to educate the public, en-gage them in coral reef monitoring, and get basicinformation with minimal expense.
Global Coral Reef Monitoring Network (GCRMN) –This global network consists of 15 independentnetworks (nodes) in six regions around the world(GCRMN 2002). It focuses on regional databasesused in national reports on reef status. The Nation-al Coral Assessment and Monitoring Program sup-ports regional GCRMN activities and contributesregional reports to GCRMN for its biennial reporton the Status of Coral Reefs of the World.
Reef Check – Initiated in 1997, Reef Check is aprotocol for rapid assessment of reefs specificallydesigned for non-professionals and volunteers(Reef Check 2002). It evaluates the effects ofhuman impacts on coral reefs. Annually it engagesa large cadre of volunteer SCUBA and free diversin over 50 countries to survey selected harvestedspecies, classify benthic substrates using the point-
intercept method, and report coralreef damage from bleaching andother stresses. The GCRMNdesignated Reef Check as itscommunity-based monitoringprotocol (Westmacott et al. 2000).
Reef Environmental EducationFoundation (REEF) – Since 1990,this nonprofit organization haseducated the public about marineresources and engaged divers andsnorkelers in long-term monitoring(REEF 2002). REEF surveys fishdistributions in the tropical westernAtlantic, along the U.S. and Cana-dian West Coast, in the tropicaleastern Pacific118, and off Hawai‘i
Florida 41%
FGBNMS4%Puerto Rico 11%
USVI 8%
Navassa Island 1%
Hawai’i 18%
AmericanSamoa 4%
Guam 3%CNMI 3%
U.S. Remote InsularReefs 1% Palau 2%
FSM 2%Marshall Islands 2%
Figure 109. Percentage of 439 monitoring and assessmentprojects inventoried in 2000 in each region of the UnitedStates and Freely Associated States.
118 From the Gulf of California to the Galapagos.
Figure 110. A CREWS in-situsensor in the Bahamas (Photo:Coral Reef Watch Program).
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(Fig. 111). With NOAA, REEF evaluates theeffectiveness of management zones in protectingfish resources in the FKNMS (Jeffries et al. 2000).
Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef Assessment(AGRRA) Program – Since June 1998, over 22large-scale rapid ecological assessments on thecondition of reef-building corals, algae, and fisheshave been completed (AGRRA 2002). In 2001, ajoint AGRRA and REEF project surveyed theFGBNMS; the data collected were used as part ofthe evidence that these reefs are in excellent con-dition.
Caribbean Coastal Marine Productivity(CARICOMP) Program – This program was initia-ted in 1985 to better understand regional phenom-ena119 that potentially control Caribbean coastalecosystems (CARICOMP 2002). It is a regionalnetwork of greater Caribbean marine laboratories,parks, and reserves, with over 25 sites in 18 coun-tries. It is dedicated to discriminating between hu-man disturbance and natural variation within thereefs and reef-related habitats.
In 1991, CARICOMP instituted a synoptic, stan-dardized monitoring program of coastal ecosys-tems that has centralized data management andcommunications. Members hold regular regionaltraining workshops and facilitate directed researchprograms that involve members of the network andout-side investigators.
Reef Ecosystem Condition (RECON) – Initiated in2000 by the Ocean Conservancy and the USEPA,RECON trains recreational divers to collect
information on key environmental parameters,assess the condition of stony corals and seafans,and record the presence of certain key organismsand obvious human-induced impacts (RECON2002). The program is currently being tested in theFlorida Keys, Puerto Rico, USVI, and the Baha-mas.
Conduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic ResearchConduct Strategic Research
The USCRTF National Action Plan called for ad-ditional research to better understand coral reefecosystems and help determine what can be doneto protect and restore them. In FY00-01, theUSCRTF agencies sponsored research on disease,bleaching, coral growth, and other aspects. Thisincreased understanding of coral reef health, deg-radation, and recovery. National and internationalresearch accomplishments include the following.
• The United Nations Environment Program’sWorld Conservation Monitoring Center devel-oped a web site for the global database of coraldiseases (UNEP 2002, Fig. 112).
• The National Science Foundation (NSF)continued to support research and educationprojects related to reef structure and function.During 2000, NSF renewed a 40-year ecolog-ical research project on the coral reefs of theGreat Barrier Reef and supported reef studiesin Costa Rica, Panama, and the Galapagos. In2001, NSF sponsored $8 million of new coralreef projects and continued 25 other studies.
Figure 111. A REEF volunteer monitoring a site in the FKNMS(Photo: Heather Dine).
Figure 112. Map of the distribution of incidents of white-band disease in the Caribbean from the World ConservationMonitoring Center’s global database of coral diseases (Photo:NMFS/UNEP-WCMC).
81° 72° 63°27°
18°
119 The 1983-84 mass mortality of the long-spined sea urchin, coastal eutrophication, and coral bleaching.120At the University of North Carolina at Wilmington, the Caribbean Marine Research Center on Lee Stocking Island in the Bahamas, and the University of Hawaii at Manoa.
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• The USFWS and the USEPA jointly funded areport titled Mitigation of Coral Reef Impactsin the Pacific Islands. This 2002 report evalu-ates the effectiveness of past compensatorymitigation efforts for federally-permitted orfunded projects that removed coral reefs, andmakes recommendations on ways to improvemitigation.
National Sea Grant ProgramNational Sea Grant ProgramNational Sea Grant ProgramNational Sea Grant ProgramNational Sea Grant Program – NOAA’sNational Sea Grant College Program has fundedresearch on coral reef species and habitats for over30 years. Over $2 million a year in grants havegone for State Sea Grant Programs in Hawai‘i,Puerto Rico, and Florida, as well as individualprojects in other states.
These projects have resulted in over 1,000 scien-tific publications in peer-reviewed journals andother technical reports in the Sea Grant Depositoryat the University of Rhode Island (Sea Grant2002).
National Undersea Research ProgramNational Undersea Research ProgramNational Undersea Research ProgramNational Undersea Research ProgramNational Undersea Research Program – Threeof NOAA’s National Undersea Research Centers120
(NURC 2002) spent over $4 million on coral reefecosystem research projects in FY01. NURCsupported coral reef ecosystem research in theFKNMS, FGBNMS, Jamaica, the Bahamas, andoff the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
Hawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative ResearchHawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative ResearchHawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative ResearchHawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative ResearchHawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative ResearchProgram (HCRI-RP)Program (HCRI-RP)Program (HCRI-RP)Program (HCRI-RP)Program (HCRI-RP) – This is a collaborativeresearch and monitoring effort121 to better manage
coral reef ecosystems in Hawai‘i. Administered byNOAA, the HCRI-RP at the University of Hawai‘iwas established in 1998 by Congressional mandateand continues to receive Congressional funding.HCRI awards grants for projects that 1) addresskey threats to coral reefs and 2) reverse reef degra-dation (HCRI 2002, Fig. 113).
National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI)National Coral Reef Institute (NCRI) – Acollaboration of universities and local/federalagencies122, NCRI’s primary objective is the pro-tection and preservation of coral reefs throughapplied and basic research on coral reef diversity,assessment, monitoring, and restoration (NCRI2002). Established by Congressional mandate in1998, it is administered by NOAA. NCRI con-tinues to receive Congressional funding for itsresearch projects. It provides scientific synthesisand evaluation criteria of existing programs forresearchers and managers.
Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC)Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC)Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC)Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC)Coral Disease and Health Consortium (CDHC) –With the USEPA and DoI, NOAA implemented theCDHC in 2000 to study the effects of natural andhuman stresses on coral communities (Fig. 114).CDHC research projects focus on the synergisticeffects of disease and environmental stresses, andhow these factors impact coral reefs.
Activities include coordinating disease research,tracking disease and predicting outbreaks of coraldisease and bleaching, characterizing disease ag-ents and transmission dynamics, and evaluatingindicators of health status.
Figure 114. Researchers repairing a diseased coral colony(Photo: Richard Curry).
Figure 113. Coralline algae growing on finger coral at a site inHawaii studied by HCRI’s Fish, Algae, and Coral EcologyTeam (Photo: Jennifer Smith).
121 Main collaborators are the University of Hawai‘i, Hawai‘i Division of Aquatic Resources, and the Pacific Science Association/Bishop Museum.122 Collaborators include Nova Southeastern University, U.S. Navy’s Office of Naval Research, NOAA, City of Miami Beach, Broward County Department of Planning and Environmental Protection, National Fish and Wildlife Foundation, and Nautronix, Western Australia.
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National Center for Caribbean Coral ReefNational Center for Caribbean Coral ReefNational Center for Caribbean Coral ReefNational Center for Caribbean Coral ReefNational Center for Caribbean Coral ReefResearch (NCORE)Research (NCORE)Research (NCORE)Research (NCORE)Research (NCORE) – Established by the USEPAas a Federal Demonstration Project in 1999,NCORE still receives supplemental funding fromNOAA, NSF, and other public and private sources.Located at the Rosenstiel School of Marine andAtmospheric Sciences of the University of Miami,NCORE integrates and refines physical and bio-logical models to predict the consequences ofeither a given disturbance or a change in manage-ment strategy on the ecology of a coral reef and onreef-dependent people (NCORE 2002).
Understand Social and EconomicUnderstand Social and EconomicUnderstand Social and EconomicUnderstand Social and EconomicUnderstand Social and EconomicFactors – The Human DimensionFactors – The Human DimensionFactors – The Human DimensionFactors – The Human DimensionFactors – The Human Dimension
Coral reef management has traditionally focused onthe biophysical aspects of coral reefs. Since reefsare coming under increasing pressure from humanactivities, better understanding the human dimen-sion must play an important role in managementprograms. To ensure long-term success, programsmust also involve the local community and createcooperative management.
Human activities and their resulting impacts arewoven into the social, cultural, and economic fab-ric of regional coastal communities. This is partic-ularly important among many of the U.S. Islands,where traditional management of coral reef resour-ces, including subsistence fishing, have been anintegral part of local government (Fig. 115).
The human dimension has become a significantcomponent of USCRTF coral reef conservationactivities. In FY00, NOAA shifted its prioritiestoward a more interdisciplinary approach, andbegan to diversify its focus, sponsor human
dimension data collection, and help build capacityfor long-term coral reef conservation by State,Territorial, and Pacific Freely Associated Stateagencies.
Socioeconomic ActivitiesSocioeconomic ActivitiesSocioeconomic ActivitiesSocioeconomic ActivitiesSocioeconomic Activities – USCRTF agenciesinitiated a variety of projects in FY00-01 to betterunderstand the role of socioeconomics.
• The GCRMN Socioeconomic Manual forCoral Reef Management, edited by NOAAstaff, was released in November 2000 (AIMS2002, Fig. 116). Building on the manual,NOAA staff assisted in regional socioeco-nomic training workshops in East Africa andSouth Asia. With regional coastal environ-mental organizations, NOAA is planningadditional workshops for the Caribbean andSoutheast Asia.
• HCRI engaged Local, State, and Federalagencies as well as private organizations in itspublic awareness program on threats to coralreef ecosystems. They also implemented edu-cation and training programs for coral reefmanagers and scientists.
• NOAA is developinga web-based databaseof annotated referen-ces of existing litera-ture on socioeconom-ic values of coral reefhabitats.
• The FKNMS initiateda program in 1998 tomonitor the econom-ics of commercialfishermen displacedfrom fully protectedzones (FKNMS 2002,Fig. 117). It also tracks trends in recreationaltourism and its relationship to the localeconomy. Baseline estimates (1995-1996) weredeveloped on ‘protected area use’ and a 5-yearupdate was recently completed. Part of thereport compares satisfaction of reef users andrates the many reef attributes.
Expand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedExpand and Strengthen Marine ProtectedAreas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)Areas (MPAs)
The USCRTF National Action Plan considersMPAs and areas with no-take provisions a key toolfor protecting coral reef ecosystems and assuring
Figure 115. In the Southwest Islands of Palau, the tradi-tional island lifestyle emphasizes subsistence fishing (Photo:NOAA).
Figure 116. Cover of theSocioeconomic Manual forCoral Reef Management.
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the sustainable use of reef resources. Usednationally and internationally, MPAs conservebiodiversity, protect endangered species, reduceuser conflicts, and enhance commercial andrecreational activities (Salm et al. 2000).Enforcement determines the effectiveness of this(or any) conservation measure.
Strengthen Current MPAsStrengthen Current MPAsStrengthen Current MPAsStrengthen Current MPAsStrengthen Current MPAs – Much has beendone over the past few years by USCRTF agenciesto strengthen MPAs, but most have been incremen-tal and relatively unheralded. The following areexamples of what some of the island governmentshave undertaken since 1999.
• The USVI Government initiated the develop-ment of a Marine Park Management Plan for aproposed marine protected area along the east-ern end of St. Croix. Collaborating institutionsare currently working on a socioeconomicassessment and resource description as well asa management plan for the USVI.
• Hawai‘i has begun to inventory and assess itsMPA system and is designing a new structurefor designation and management. It is increas-ing the size of the Pupukea MPA on O‘ahu andcreating a no-take zone within this MPA.
• Guam is enforcing the waters within its fiveno-take coral reef reserves that protect about20% of the island’s shallow-water reefs (Fig.118).
Expand No-take ProtectionExpand No-take ProtectionExpand No-take ProtectionExpand No-take ProtectionExpand No-take Protection – Although mostjurisdictions have yet to achieve the 20% no-takeprotection goal for coral reefs(USCRTF 2000), areasprotected by no-take reserveshave significantly increased.Since 1999, Federal, State,Territorial, and Commonwealthagencies have taken unprece-dented action in this area.
Florida – In 2001, NOAA, theNPS, the State of Florida, localcommunities, regional FisheryManagement Councils, andother partners implemented theTortugas Ecological Reserve, a200 mi2 (517.9 km2) fully pro-tected marine reserve. With
other fully protected zones, the TortugasEcological Reserve increased the total protectedarea of coral reefs within the Sanctuary to 10%. Itadjoins a 61 mi2 (157.8 km2) Research NaturalArea in the Dry Tortugas National Park. Togetherthese areas protect near-shore to deep reef habitatsof the Tortugas region and form the largest,permanent MPA in the United States.
Puerto Rico – In 1999, the Commonwealth es-tablished the Luis Peña Marine Reserve, its firstno-take reserve. It is a 4.8 km2 zone where fishingand anchoring are prohibited. In 2000, the 2.4 mi2
(6.2 km2) Desecheo Marine Reserve was imple-mented, providing no-take protection for 4.2 mi2
(11 km2) of coral reefs. Currently, 1.5% of the areacovered by Puerto Rico’s coral reefs is protectedthrough no-take reserves.
USVI – In 2001, the Virgin Islands Coral ReefNational Monument added about 20 mi2 (51.43km2) to the National Park off St. John. In 2001,
Buck Island Reef NationalMonument on St. Croix wasexpanded from about 1.4 mi2 to30 mi2 (3.6 to 77 km2). Theimplementing language states“the Secretary [of the DoI] shallprohibit all extractive uses,”including fishing, with a fewminor exceptions. This effectivelymakes it a no-take reserve thatcovers 17.4% of USVI coral reefecosystems.
U.S. Remote Insular Reefs – In1999, the Navassa Island NationalWildlife Refuge was establishedby Administrative Order 3210 to
Figure 117. Socioeconomic monitoring is studying the economicstatus of Florida Keys fishermen (Photo credit: NOAA).
Figure 118. Tumon Bay Preserve is oneof Guam’s five no-take MPAs (Photo:Guam DAWR).
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protect about 594 mi2 (1,538km2) of coral reefs andassociated habitats (DoI 1999,Fig. 119). This CaribbeanRefuge is open to artisanalfishing only.
In 2001, the islets of PalmyraAtoll were purchased from theNature Conservancy by the DoIfor inclusion in the PalmyraAtoll National Wildlife Refuge(Federal Register 2002a). ThisRefuge allows limited recrea-tional fishing and wildlife ob-servation activities. In 2001, thenew National Wildlife Refuge atKingman Reef was established(Federal Register 2002b). Theentire refuge is protected by no-take provisions – a total of about 756 mi2 (1,957km2) of coral reef and other habitats are closed toaccess except for innocent passage through itswaters.
Hawai‘i – In 2000, the Northwestern HawaiianIslands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was es-tablished by Executive Order (E.O. 13178). It isthe largest U.S. marine protected area, coveringapproximately 130,900 mi2 (339,900 km2) (NWHICoral Reef Ecosystem Reserve 2002). About21.4% of the Reserve is within the establishedHawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, andprotected by no-take provisions.
CNMI – Currently, the CNMI has seven estab-lished MPAs. The Sasanhaya Fish Reserve in Rotais a no-take reserve. In 2001, three new MPAs onSaipan123 were created but these have yet to beenacted into law. Overall, MPAs with no-takeprovisions protect about 3.7 mi2 (9.6 km2), for atotal of 1.7% of the shallow-water coral reefecosystem.
Reduce Adverse Impacts of FishingReduce Adverse Impacts of FishingReduce Adverse Impacts of FishingReduce Adverse Impacts of FishingReduce Adverse Impacts of Fishingand Other Extractive Usesand Other Extractive Usesand Other Extractive Usesand Other Extractive Usesand Other Extractive Uses
Coral reefs and associated ecosystems support im-portant recreational, commercial, and subsistencefisheries around the world. The rich reef biodiver-sity of reefs also supports a marine aquarium in-dustry and represents genetic resources for futurefood, pharmaceuticals, and other products derived
through mariculture orbiotechnology. Unfortunately,these benefits are beingundermined by overfishing andfishing-associated impacts toreefs.
Reef Fishing and CollectingReef Fishing and CollectingReef Fishing and CollectingReef Fishing and CollectingReef Fishing and Collectingfor Aquariafor Aquariafor Aquariafor Aquariafor Aquaria – USCRTFagencies took a number ofimportant actions to reduce theimpacts of fishing and aquar-ium collection on coral reefs inthe different jurisdictions.
American Samoa – The Govern-ment developed a 5-year plan forcoral reef management and ban-ned the export of ‘live rock.’ TheGovernor issued an executiveorder prohibiting fishing with
SCUBA, addressing a major cause of overfishing ofcertain fishes. Three coastal villages joined theDepartment of Marine and Wildlife Resources’community-based fishery management program. Twoof these villages124 created short-term replenishmentareas where fishing is prohibited except duringseasonal runs of big-eyed scad (Selarcrumenophthalmus). Enforcement has also increased.
CNMI – The Commonwealth recently passed threelaws that reduce fishing impacts. Commercial andnon-commercial fishers are prohibited from usingexplosives, poisons, electric shocking devices,SCUBA, or hooks when harvesting reef fish or othermarine life within the lagoon or reef, or within 1,000ft of either.
Hawai‘i – The State increased the minimum allowablesize for all currently regulated reef fishes and inver-tebrates. It also prohibited harvesting aquarium fishalong 355 miles of the West Hawai‘i coastline.
To address concerns about the removal of Hawaii-an reef fish for the aquarium trade, Hawaii’sDLNR funded the West Hawaiian Aquarium Pro-ject, at the University of Hawaii at Hilo and atother institutions (W. Walsh pers. comm.). Thoseresults showed significant population declines inareas where fish had been collected. For example,at sites with regular collecting Achilles tang hadbeen reduced by 63%, longnose butterfly fish by54%, and yellow tang by 47% (Fig. 120), accord-ing to B. Tissot (pers. comm.) of Washington State
Figure 119. Aerial view of northwestNavassa Island (Photo: Bob Halley and DonHickey).
123 Forbidden Island Sanctuary, Bird Island Sanctuary, andMañagaha Marine Conservation Area.
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University in Vancouver, B.C., who coordinatedthe project. This shows the type of applied re-search/monitoring needed to verify ecosystemcondition, guide management decisions, and trackchanges after conservation measures are in place.
Puerto Rico – The Commonwealth is revising itsfishing regulations regarding the capture and exportof aquarium fish.
Florida – NOAA expanded its radar enforcementsurveillance to include the new Tortugas Ecolog-ical Reserve.
Culture of Reef SpeciesCulture of Reef SpeciesCulture of Reef SpeciesCulture of Reef SpeciesCulture of Reef Species – NOAA’s National SeaGrant program played a key role in bringing thescientific and commercial ornamental species in-dustry together by sponsoring symposia and fund-ing research on culturing reef ornamental species.
The two international symposia on marine orna-mentals attracted nearly 500 scientists and industryrepresentatives. Sea Grant Florida convened theSecond International Symposium on Marine Orna-mental Fishes in 2001 and published a major studyon Florida’s live marine ornamental industry(Larkin et al. 2001).
As an alternative to wild capture, NOAA’s Nation-al Sea Grant Program has funded research pro-grams in Puerto Rico, Florida, Texas, and Hawai‘ion the culture of coral reef species. Over 20 spe-cies of fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and corals arenow commercially grown.
The Marine Aquarium Council, formed throughindustry and regulatory agency cooperation, hasdeveloped a certification process for ornamentalspecies. This certification will helpassure the collection industry willbe sustainable using safe andhumane collection and transporta-tion techniques, and optimumhealth and vitality for culturedornamental species. Industryparticipants agreed to display thecertification in their retail outlets.
Reduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalReduce Impacts of CoastalUsesUsesUsesUsesUses
Rapid growth of both populationand tourism in coastal areas posesincreasing threats to theconservation of nearby coral reefs.
Coastal activities such as dredging for navigationor marinas, construction of shoreline protectionstructures, beach renourishment, sand mining,pipeline and cable installation, and destructiveland-use practices125 decrease water quality aroundreefs. Increased tourism has increased pressure oncoral reef resources, either through direct impactson the reefs or indirectly through increased levelsof coastal development, sewage discharge, andvessel traffic. As the number of people using andtransiting coral reefs increases, so does thefrequency of vessel groundings on reefs.
A number of actions have been taken by theUSCRTF to reduce these impacts.
Recreational Vessels and Water SportsRecreational Vessels and Water SportsRecreational Vessels and Water SportsRecreational Vessels and Water SportsRecreational Vessels and Water Sports –Prohibitions on recreational vessels, especially jetskis, were implemented in sensitive areas in PuertoRico using its revised Coastal Zone ManagementProgram Federal Consistency Guidelines. Simi-larly, the CNMI imposed a moratorium on watersport operations until an impact assessment is com-pleted. They also installed coral reef protectionsigns along the shorelines.
Reef Wildlife FeedingReef Wildlife FeedingReef Wildlife FeedingReef Wildlife FeedingReef Wildlife Feeding – In November 2001, afterfive public input-and-discussion sessions over twoyears, the Florida Fish and Wildlife ConservationCommission voted to ban feeding marine life bydivers. Commissioners concluded any practice thatmodifies natural feeding habits is unacceptable,and practices that teach marine life to associatepeople with food are unhealthy for both.
Anchoring on Coral ReefsAnchoring on Coral ReefsAnchoring on Coral ReefsAnchoring on Coral ReefsAnchoring on Coral Reefs – Working through theInternational Hydrographic Organization, standard
124 Poloa and Alofau.125 Road construction, mangrove deforestation, and land reclamation for agricultural and urban development.
Figure 120. Hawaiian reef species targeted by the aquarium trade, top tobottom, left to right: yellow tang, Moorish idol, gold ring surgeonfish, Achillestang, and Potter’s angelfish (Photos: Keoki Stender/Hawaii Coral Reef Network).
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symbols for ‘No Anchoring Areas’ for large vesselswere added to its international catalog. The UnitedStates led an initiative to establish the first mandatory‘No Anchoring Area’ in the FGBNMS. The Interna-tional Maritime Organization granted NOAA itsrequest in 2000 (FGBNMS 2002).
Permanent mooring buoys were installed at a num-ber of national and international sites during 2000-2001. These delineate the site and allow boats totie up for recreational diving and fishing withoutdropping anchor on the reef. NOAA’s FGBNMSinstalled radar-reflecting buoys in the sanctuaryand acquired mooring buoys, channel markers, andother aids to navigation with signs to mark protect-ed areas.
Funded with Sportfish Restoration Funds, theFlorida Department of Natural and EnvironmentalResources installed 200 mooring buoys near coralreefs. NOAA also funded theinstallation of perm-anentmoorings in Hurricane Hole,USVI. The State of Hawai‘iinstalled or replaced 26 mooringbuoys at Molokini Shoal MarineLife Conservation District.
The U.S. Air Force and USFWSinstalled permanent mooringsfor recreational diving and snor-keling at the most popular divesites around Johnston Atoll inthe Indo-Pacific region (Fig.121). Naval StationGuantanamo Bay purchasedbuoy markers to establish aboat-free zone at Phillips Park,
a popular dive site. The buoys were installed as ajoint effort between Port Operations and the BaseDive club.
Grounded and Abandoned VesselsGrounded and Abandoned VesselsGrounded and Abandoned VesselsGrounded and Abandoned VesselsGrounded and Abandoned Vessels – A Racon-beacon system has been installed in the FKNMS tohelp prevent navigational errors and reduce futuregroundings and vessel-related injuries to coral andseagrass habitats throughout the Florida Keys.
NOAA created an abandoned vessel inventory GISdatabase (Fig. 122) and developed a draft abandon-ed vessel white paper evaluating legal authorities,prioritization of threats, and a response/removalplan for high risk vessels (NOAA/DAC 2002).Workshops were held in 2001 to provide technicalassistance and develop national goals for managingimpacts from grounded and abandoned vessels.
NOAA initiated the Restoration and Assessment ofCoral Reef Ecosystems program to recover naturalresource damages for injury to FKNMS sanctuaryresources caused by vessel groundings. Legalsettlements and restorations were obtained inseveral coral cases126 (Fig. 123). Over 20 casesunder the National Marine Sanctuary Act are cur-rently in negotiation and litigation.
Beach Renourishment and DredgingBeach Renourishment and DredgingBeach Renourishment and DredgingBeach Renourishment and DredgingBeach Renourishment and Dredging – TheUSFWS, NOAA, and the Florida Department ofEnvironmental Protection have relocated dredgematerials from a Miami Beach nourishment projectto an alternate borrow area and modifiedtechniques to alleviate siltation and resul-tant coral
Figure 121 Divers installing a mooring buoy at Johnston Atoll(Photo: James Maragos).
Figure 122. A draft map from the abandoned vessel inventory GIS (Photo: NOAA/Damage Assessment Center).
126 This includes the M/T Igloo Moon case in Biscayne NPS for $1 million and a Puerto Rico Barge grounding for $83.5 million.
Mariana Islands15-30 vessels
Hawaiian Islands20-50 vessels
Remote Atolls1-20 vessels
American Samoa5-20 vessels
Florida500-900 vessels
Puerto Rico40-70 vessels
U.S. Virgin Islands40-90 vessels
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damage. These agencies arepreparing intensivemonitoring and contingencyplans for beach renourishmentin Broward County. The planswill protect nearshore andoffshore hardbottom andcorals.
The U.S. Navy surveys andimplements protective mea-sures for coral reefs near thePearl Harbor Entrance Chan-nel as part of its annualdredging operations.
Federal OperationsFederal OperationsFederal OperationsFederal OperationsFederal Operations – TheUSFWS has begun examiningpast major Federal projects forimpacts to coral reefs. Theproject is documenting typesof mitigation proposed for theloss of coral resources and the effectiveness of themitigation. One of the outcomes of this report willbe a recommendation for other Federal and Stateagencies to improve mitigation tracking.
Since the Coral Reef Protection Plan Implemen-tation Plan (DoD 2000) was issued, DoD hasprovided guidance to its forces to plan and budgetfor projects to sustain coral reefs. DoD has initia-ted an impressive number of new projects to re-duce operations impacts on coral reef ecosystems.
The U.S Army Corps of Engineers and USEPAinstituted new prohibitions and restrictions on theuse of some Clean Water Act Section 404 Nation-wide permits for activities that affect ‘specialaquatic sites’ (including coral reefs) and issued newguidelines to minimize impacts to coral reefs fromFederally permitted projects.
The U.S. Navy developed Coral Reef ProtectionManagement Guidelines for DoD Vessels andInstallations. It includes best management prac-tices for vessels operating in proximity to coralreefs and training protocols for personnel to imple-ment such measures. DoD ports and associatedreef ecosystems will be surveyed to identify prior-ity areas based on significant use and/or sensitivereef conditions. This data will be used to developfurther project requirements to protect coral reefs.Additionally, the Navy is developing a GIS-basedinformation system to assist military personnel in
identifying hazards andavoiding impacts to sensitivemarine ecosystems.
Fort Kamehameha OutfallExtension, HI – In FY01, theNavy conducted a marinebiological field survey of theentire project corridor to pro-tect the limited coral resour-ces within it. To avoid dis-turbing coral reefs, micro-tunneling to house the outfallpipe will pass below the fossillimestone bench on which thecorals are growing.
Reduce PollutionReduce PollutionReduce PollutionReduce PollutionReduce Pollution
The USCRTF National ActionPlan calls for Federal, State,Commonwealth, and Territory
agencies to better manage activities affecting coralreef resources, including habitat destruction andpollution. Managers of jurisdictions where humanimpacts are greatest have first responsibility foraction. They have taken a number of significantconservation actions in FY00-01.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – The USDA provided technicaland financial assistance to landowners and opera-tors to reduce agricultural non-point source pollu-tion to near-shore coral reef ecosystems (Fig. 123).These contracts apply conservation measures tonearly 1,776 mi2 of agricultural lands over the next5-10 years.
The USEPA developed a strategy for creating coralreef indexes of biological integrity. USEPA
Figure 122. Removal of a grounded vessel inFKNMS (Photo: FKNMS).
Figure 123. Runoff from agricultural lands (Photo: NOSPhoto Gallery).
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publishedNutrient Criteria Technical GuidanceManual for Estuarine and Coastal Marine Waters,establishing scientifically defensible nutrientcriteria for coastal and estuarine waters.
USGS, USEPA, USDA, the University of Hawai‘i,and the Hawai‘i Department of Health collaboratedto address the impacts of sediments and nutrientson coral reef ecosystems by identifying researchneeds for better prediction of erosion and sedimentmanagement practices.
The USEPA and NOAA implemented the WaterQuality Protection Program Action Plan for theFKNMS. It focuses on sea grasses and waterquality, upgrading inadequate wastewater andstormwater infrastructure, and conducting publiceducation and outreach activities to improve localstewardship.
Contaminant BiomonitoringContaminant BiomonitoringContaminant BiomonitoringContaminant BiomonitoringContaminant Biomonitoring – A biomonitoringprogram using reef fish to detect human impacts
was developed for coral reefs off Johnston Atollwith collaborative funding by the U.S. Army Pro-gram Manager for Chemical Demilitarization, theU.S. Air Force Pacific Command, and the U.S.Coast Guard (EPA 2002). Reproductive anddevelopmental parameters will be monitored inpopulations of blackspot sergeant major damsel-fish (Abudefduf sordidus) spawning in areas poten-tially impacted by chemical contamination. Thiswill be compared with populations from non-impacted (control) areas. Samples of fertilizedembryos are collected from the field and examinedfor developmental defects. The results are correla-ted with contamination.
Marine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine DebrisMarine Debris – In 1996 and 1997, NOAA con-ducted the first surveys of derelict fishing gear in
the NWHI, a problem which has since been identi-fied as the major human impact in these islands.From 1998-2001, NOAA led a multi-agency part-nership127 to remove marine debris from theNWHI.
Marine debris is also a concern in the MainHawaiian Islands. In 1998, community groups, themilitary, and the Hawai‘i DLNR pulled more than3.5 tons of nets and debris128 out of Kane‘ohe Bayand Wai‘anae waters during three separate clean-up days (Clark and Gulko 1999). In 2000, Hawai‘ideveloped a database on marine debris ‘hot spots’around the main Hawaiian Islands. NOAA alsoassisted in a large-scale reef cleanup on the shore-line around Kauai. Tesoro Oil Company sponsoredthe work as compensation for an oil spill fromtheir offshore moorings off the east coast of Kauai.
On Saturday, September 15th, 2001, nearly onemillion people scoured 20,700 miles of beaches,oceans, and waterways all over the world as part ofthe 16th Annual International Coastal Cleanup.Volunteers collected more than 6,123,000 kg oftrash – the world’s largest marine trash haul. TheNational Marine Debris Monitoring Program usesvolunteer groups to monitor and remove marinedebris from coastal beaches of the United States(Fig. 125). The data in the five-year program arecompiled and analyzed by the Ocean Conservancy,and will be used by the USEPA to determine theeffectiveness of current regulations against dump-ing at sea.
Invasive SpeciesInvasive SpeciesInvasive SpeciesInvasive SpeciesInvasive Species – An emerging issue, invasivespecies are generally believed to be a growing andimminent threat to marine resources (Carlton2001). Carlton describes hundreds of speciesarriving daily in U.S. waters in ship ballast water,hull fouling, and by the deliberate or accidentalrelease of species to the wild.
The Bishop Museum produced a Guidebook ofIntroduced Marine Species in Hawai‘i and hostedtwo workshops to explore the pathways of intro-duction and impacts of invasive species on coralreefs. They also supported research on phase shiftsfrom coral reef to alien macroalgae. The USFWSfunded and provided logistical support to theBishop Museum for its Marine Survey of AlienSpecies at Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refugeand French Frigate Shoals in the HawaiianIslands National Wildlife Refuge. The report for
Figure 125. Volunteers removing marine debris within theFKNMS (Photo: Paige Gill).
127 This included the USCG, USFWS, U.S. Navy, the Hawai‘i DLNR, the University of Hawai‘i, the National Sea Grant College Program, the Hawai‘i Wildlife Society, and the Ocean Conservancy.
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Johnston Atoll National Wildlife Refuge is nowavailable.
The U.S. Navy requested Legacy Program projectfunding in 2002 to survey the microflora in ballasttanks on its vessels. Water from ballast tanks ofships will be surveyed to determine the livemicroflora transported as a function of Navy shiptype and mission. The study will also developprocedures and validatemethods for evaluatingmicrobiological flora of bulkwater stores for use bygovernment and/or privatelaboratory facilities.
Restore DamagedRestore DamagedRestore DamagedRestore DamagedRestore DamagedReefsReefsReefsReefsReefs
The USCRTF NationalAction Plan called for therestoration of coral reefsinjured by vessel groundingsand the development of newtechniques and approachesfor improving restoration. Inresponse, Federal and Stateagencies have implemented awide range of coral restora-tion projects using moniesrecovered from responsibleparties through damageactions. Reef restorationrequires a multi-disciplinaryapproach to be most successful (Precht 1998).
A ‘Reef Medics’ volunteer restoration programwas established in the FKNMS (Fig. 126) andartificial reef training workshops were conductedin Florida and Puerto Rico. Two more workshopsare planned for the Pacific.
Ship Removal and Reef RestorationShip Removal and Reef RestorationShip Removal and Reef RestorationShip Removal and Reef RestorationShip Removal and Reef Restoration – NOAAdeveloped new methodologies to better assessdamage from vessel groundings. NOAA, the CoastGuard, DoI, and island agencies updated the Envi-ronmental Sensitivity Index atlases for PuertoRico, and the U.S. and British Virgin Islands.NOAA also held training sessions for partners inthe Florida Keys and Hawai‘i on the scientificaspects of oil spills in coral environments from
grounded ships. These activities will helpmanagers respond more rapidly and effectively.
Florida – Large ships have been responsible fordamaging or destroying an extensive tracts of coralreef habitat over the past ten years. However,recent reef restoration activities in the FKNMShave attempted to mitigate some of that damage.These included emergency removal of rubble to
prevent scouring by waves orstorms and reattachment ofsevered branching corals.
To address the major cumula-tive effect of small-craftgroundings, NOAA and theState of Florida have instituteda new initiative focused ondeveloping and implementingrapid, high-quality ecologicalassessment techniques. Withthese, a large percentage of the600+ annual groundings in theFKNMS will be assessed andthe responsible parties pros-ecuted. The damages recoveredwill be used to restore the mostseverely injured areas.
For example, NOAA and theState of Florida reconstructedfour spurs of an ancient coralreef in the FKNMS damagedby the grounding of a 47 m
vessel. NCRI has begun a study of high-latitudereefs to evaluate variables concerning coral settle-ment and recruitment of coral fish assemblages ondifferent restored habitats following a submarinegrounding off the Southeast Florida coast.
Hawai‘i – The Waikiki Aquarium and the Hawai‘iDLNR are initiating a pilot project to restore dam-aged coral habitat in Kealakekua Bay on the islandof Hawai‘i. The Hawai‘i DLNR, USFWS, andNOAA are working with the City and County ofHonolulu to ameliorate the impacts of a marinewave break. This includes help from a local highschool in transplanting and monitoring coral colo-nies.
American Samoa – The USCG, NOAA, DoE, DoI,and American Samoa cooperated to remove ninelong-line fishing vessels grounded in Pago Pago
Figure 126.Transplantation of a pillar coraldamaged in the FKNMS (Photo: Harold Hudson).
128 Over 360 kg of broken stony corals were removed from these nets afterwards.
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Harbor during a 1991 cyclone. Prior to removaland to prevent further damage, NOAA temporarilyrelocated coral colonies away from the work area(Fig. 127). Once the vessels were removed, the re-located corals were returned and additional restor-ation activities begun. Survival of the restored reefhabitat is being monitored.
Additionally, USFWS funded a reef restorationproject to address the 1993 grounding and breakupof a 250 mT longline fishing vessel at Rose AtollNational Wildlife Refuge. Since 1993, the USFWSand the American Samoan Department of Marineand Wildlife Resources have periodically monitor-ed the site (Green et al. 1998). The USFWS initia-ted a cleanup in 1999 and completed removal ofshipwreck debris from the ocean reef flat and mostdebris from the slopes in 1999-2000 (Fig. 128).Over 100 mT has been removed, but about 40 mTremains in the lagoon.
Surveys in 2002 show cleanup actions have result-ed in some reef recovery, but substantial impactsremain (J. Burgett and J. Maragos pers. comm.)There is a good chance additional funds from theUSCG will be available for the USFWS to finishthe cleanup in 2002-2003. Plans are being made tomaintain a long-term monitoring program on thisatoll through the next decade with the latest surveycompleted in February 2002 in cooperation withNOAA.
Coral Restoration on Artificial SurfacesCoral Restoration on Artificial SurfacesCoral Restoration on Artificial SurfacesCoral Restoration on Artificial SurfacesCoral Restoration on Artificial Surfaces – Ifsuccessful, research using artificial surfaces for reefrestoration could lead to new ways of repairing coralreef damage. NOAA and Dr. Chris Koenig deploy-ed artificial structures with attached Oculina frag-ments in the Experimental Oculina ResearchReserve. NOAA’s FKNMS conducted two pilot
studies to reintroduce the long-spined sea urchininto patch- and fore-reef environments in the Flor-ida Keys to reduce macroalgal biomass. Coralrecruitment onto different structures used inFKNMS reef restoration projects was evaluated toidentify optimal surfaces to enhance natural re-cruitment. Initial experiments in culturing spawnedgametes of important reef-building coral specieswere conducted to improve settlement and recruit-ment potential.
A coral fragment holding and propagation facilitywas developed at the Florida Aquarium and twoexperimental coral nursery/restoration researchprojects were completed in the Florida Keys.
Seagrass and Mangrove RestorationSeagrass and Mangrove RestorationSeagrass and Mangrove RestorationSeagrass and Mangrove RestorationSeagrass and Mangrove Restoration – Newmapping technology was employed and a spatialrecovery model was developed for seagrassdamage assessment work in the FKNMS. TheUSFWS is restoring mangrove habitats on theCulebra and Cabo Rojo National Wildlife Refuges(Fig. 129) and is assisting the Commonwealth ofPuerto Rico in restoring reserves and coastalforests.
Over 1,000 acres of mangroves were restoredthrough a DoD Legacy project in the Los Machosand Red Mangrove Forests to support the recoveryand protection of nearby coral reefs.
Reduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral ReefsReduce Global Threats to Coral Reefs
The United States has interests in protecting inter-national coral reefs. Healthy coral reef ecosystemsare critical to U.S. diplomatic and developmentstrategies to promote economic and food security,establish social stability, improve human health,and conserve global biodiversity. These extremely
Figure 127. Relocation of corals prior to the removal of aship wreck in Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa (Photo:James Hoff).
Figure 128. Removal of metallic debris from the ship wreckat Rose Atoll (Photo: James Maragos).
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valuable ecosystems constitute the economic baseand future hope for sustained development in manycountries, particularly small island nations.
The USCRTF National Action Plan has diverseactivities to protect and conserve reefs internation-ally, with an emphasis on capacity building andtechnical assistance. Accordingly, the USCRTF hasdeveloped strategies to reduce adverse impactsfrom global threats to coral reef ecosystems, inclu-ding destructive fishing practices and internationaltrade.
International Reef ConservationInternational Reef ConservationInternational Reef ConservationInternational Reef ConservationInternational Reef Conservation – The UnitedStates assisted 25 countries in the wider Caribbean,Central America, South East Asia, South Pacific,East Africa, and Middle East regions to improvetheir capacity for sustainable management andconservation. Additionally, management, educa-tion, and enforcement in 15 parks of national andinternational importance were improved. U.S.assistance was also given to the Ridge to Reefproject in Jamaica, which integrates land-basedmanagement practices for agriculture, forestry, andurban planning with coastal activities, such as im-proving coastal water quality to protect the reefs.Development assistance was also awarded Mex-ico’s first National Marine Park. It was initiated bya local community and recognized by the Mexicangovernment in 2000.
In collaboration with the Western HemisphereConvention Ramsar’s Scientific and TechnicalReview Panel, the USFWS developed Guidelinesfor the Ramsar Contracting Parties to designatecoral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangroves as Wet-lands of International Importance. Guidelines werealso developed for Western Hemisphere CoastalZone Management. These guidelines have been
approved by the Convention’s Standing Committeeand will be presented to the Contracting Parties foradoption in 2003 by Ramsar. It is believed theseguidelines will contribute to conservation at aglobal level. Brazil has already designated theParque Estadual Marinho do Parcel Manoel Luis aRamsar site. This park contains some 175 mi2 ofreefs.
NOAA strengthened the International Coral ReefInitiative and international recognition of theimportance of coral reef conservation, and sup-ported Global Coral Reef Monitoring Networkinitiatives (GCRMN 2002).
Reduce Impacts from InternationalReduce Impacts from InternationalReduce Impacts from InternationalReduce Impacts from InternationalReduce Impacts from InternationalTrade in Coral Reef ResourcesTrade in Coral Reef ResourcesTrade in Coral Reef ResourcesTrade in Coral Reef ResourcesTrade in Coral Reef Resources
Food fish and live fish for the aquarium trade,construction materials, curios, jewelry, pharma-ceuticals, and traditional medicines all come fromcoral reefs around the world. The USCRTFInternational Working Group assessed the U.S. rolein the international trade and developed a compre-hensive strategy to reduce adverse impacts. TheState Department recommended Congress adoptnew measures to ensure U.S. consumer demanddoes not contribute to the degradation of coralreefs.
Destructive Fishing PracticesDestructive Fishing PracticesDestructive Fishing PracticesDestructive Fishing PracticesDestructive Fishing Practices – The UnitedStates supported international programs under theEast Asia and Pacific Environmental Initiative toaddress destructive fishing practices (Fig. 130) andother adverse aspects of international trade in coral
Figure 129. A mangrove forest in Puerto Rico (Photo: JohnChristensen).
Figure 130. A diver extracts a lobster from a dynamiteblasted reef in Indonesia. The diver’s white squirt bottleprobably contains cyanide, evidence of another destructivefishing technique (Photo: Mark Erdmann).
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reef species. The State Department provided fundsto developing countries to increase their humanand institutional capacity, promote sustainablemanagement practices, and enhance their ability toaddress local adverse impacts.
Trade in Marine Ornamental SpeciesTrade in Marine Ornamental SpeciesTrade in Marine Ornamental SpeciesTrade in Marine Ornamental SpeciesTrade in Marine Ornamental Species – USCRTFagencies provided financial and technical supportto the Pacific Regional Workshop held in Fiji –Sustainable Management of the Marine Ornamen-tal Trade. Additionally, U.S. sponsorship and or-ganizational assistance was provided to the Inter-national Coral Trade Workshop; Development ofSustainable Management Guidelines, held inJakarta, Indonesia.
The United States submitted an in-depth report oncoral mariculture and a new standard identificationmanual for live Indo-Pacific corals used in interna-tional trade to the CITES Coral Working Group.Within the protocol, federal biologists volunteeredto poll national authorities on the conservationstatus and levels of trade in black corals130, reviewsalient literature, and generate a report on theappropriateness of CITES protection. This reportformed the foundation for discussions withinCITES and eventual recommendations to retainCITES protection for black corals.
Landmark Legal CasesLandmark Legal CasesLandmark Legal CasesLandmark Legal CasesLandmark Legal Cases – The U.S. Justice Depart-ment awarded precedent-setting criminal convic-tions for illegally importing Caribbean spinylobsters and protected corals. The first federalfelony conviction involved a Florida companycharged with smuggling and importing protectedcoral reef species from the Philippines131. In 2000,U.S. Federal and state law enforcement personnelsuccessfully prosecuted three individuals for con-spiring to illegally take 100 tons of coral and liverock from Hawaiian reefs for commercial sale132.
Create an Informed PublicCreate an Informed PublicCreate an Informed PublicCreate an Informed PublicCreate an Informed Public
The USCRTF strives to increase public under-standing of coral reef conservation issues and en-gage the general public as well as local commun-ities in conservation efforts. In FY00-01, USCRTFagencies expanded their education and outreachefforts, focusing on coral reef conservation andprotection (Coral Reef 2002, Fig. 130). Most ofthese efforts are being done by State and Territorialagencies, although many have been assisted byFederal grants.
Coral Reef Conservation FundCoral Reef Conservation FundCoral Reef Conservation FundCoral Reef Conservation FundCoral Reef Conservation Fund – The Coral ReefConservation Act of 2000 (CRCA) authorizedNOAA to enter into an agreement with a nonprofitorganization to establish and administer a CoralReef Conservation Fund (the Fund). NOAAestablished the agreement with the National Fishand Wildlife Foundation (NFWF). Grants underthe Fund support local-level public and privatepartnerships to conserve coral reefs. One of themajor focus areas is increasing communityawareness through education and stewardshipactivities. In 2001, the Fund provided approx-imately $2 million in grants for education andpublic outreach projects.
Agency Outreach and Education ActivitiesAgency Outreach and Education ActivitiesAgency Outreach and Education ActivitiesAgency Outreach and Education ActivitiesAgency Outreach and Education Activities –State, Commonwealth, and Territorial agenciescreated brochures and other materials to educatethe public on the National Action Plan and othercoral reef activities.
The USFWS, the Florida Keys National MarineSanctuary, and The Ocean Conservancy initiatedan outreach program targeting resource users in theFlorida Keys. They developed bilingual displaysand printed materials on coral reefs for Puerto Ricoand the USVI. The State of Hawai’i has produceda variety of outreach and education materials on
aspects of coral reefecosystems, fishing lawsand regulations, and basicnatural history (Fig. 132).Guam instituted a uniquevillage-to-village coral reefeducation ‘road show.’CNMI completed a CoralReef Education series onCD for distribution in thelocal school system.
Figure 131. From Florida to American Samoa, children learn about coral reefs througheducation and outreach programs (Photos: Nancy Daschbach and Heather Dine).
129 Order Antipatharia.130 The company was fined $25,000 and has five years probation. The owner will serve 18 months in prison, as well as pay a $5,000 fine on top of other penalties.
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Figure 132. Visitors to the Hawaiian IslandsHumpback Whale National Marine Sanctuarylearning about the wildlife that inhabits the area(Photo: Jeff Alexander).
The USDA provided 6,465 customers with conser-vation education assistance in developing soundconservation plans that collectively kept an esti-mated 397,773 tons of soil erosion from agricul-tural land from reaching Caribbean reefs. TheUSDA also helped to reduce pig waste contamina-tion to reef ecosystems andhelped American Samoanfarmers upgrade their swinemanagement skills.
NOAA distributed over30,000 Coral Reef Teacherguides throughout Mexicoand Belize.
Recently the Department ofDefense prepared severaloutreach publications oncoral reefs. The DoD CoralReef Protection Implemen-tation Plan provides guid-ance and information to theDoD services regardingprotection of coral reefs,and DoD’s relevant existingprograms, policies, andcurrent funding authorities(Defense EnvironmentalExchange Network 2002).TheCoral Reef Conserva-tion Guide for the Military is a general outreachbrochure to heighten awareness within DoD(Defense Environmental Exchange Network 2002).It provides an overview of DoD activities thatcould potentially have adverse impacts on coralreef ecosystems and outlines pertinent DoD andU.S. national laws and policies regarding coral reefprotection.
National Sea Grant EducationNational Sea Grant EducationNational Sea Grant EducationNational Sea Grant EducationNational Sea Grant Education – Through itsnetwork of state educators and extension personnel,Sea Grant has played a critical role in bringingcoral reef issues and education to the public. Oneexample of this work resulted in a cooperativeprogram of Sea Grant, the USEPA, and the StateDepartment producing an educational activity bookfor middle school students. This book is now beingused around the world as a coral reef relatededucational program.
Sea Grant has presented numerous workshops andhosted town meetings in coastal areas on topics
such as MPAs, fisheries management, aquaculture,sea food, technology, coral reef mapping, the use ofGIS for coastal management, and habitat preserva-tion and management.
Non-Governmental Organization Contributions Non-Governmental Organization Contributions Non-Governmental Organization Contributions Non-Governmental Organization Contributions Non-Governmental Organization Contributions –Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have a
significant role in addressingUSCRTF education andoutreach goals. A number ofNGO groups performed avariety of coral reef educationactivities throughout theUnited States.
The project AWARE Founda-tion and Ocean Watch imple-mented their Protect the LivingReef campaign that teacheslow-impact diving and snor-keling techniques. It incorpo-rates videos and guides in anew certified Coral ReefConservation specialty coursefrom International PADI, Inc.and the Reef ConditionMonitoring Program (ProjectAWARE 2002).
Through RECON and withsupport from the USEPA, theOcean Conservancy and REEF
developed a rapid assessment protocol. It was field-tested by recreational divers and students. Theysurveyed the condition of stony corals, the presenceof indicator organisms and conspicuous human-induced damage to reef systems in the widerCaribbean. Protocol training was provided toinstructors and divers in the Florida Keys, USVirgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. The InternationalCoral Reef Action Network132 designed a web-portal that provides the public general coral reefinformation, tools and resources, and a centralcoral reef communications and network hub(ICRAN 2002).
Improve Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and AccountabilityImprove Coordination and Accountability
The USCRTF was created to improve coordinationand accountability among agencies and organiza-tions responsbile for the Nation’s coral reef ecosys-tems. The Task Force, co-chaired by the Secretaryof the Interior and the Secretary of Commerce,
132A partnership of institutions and scientists interested in coral reef protection.131 The settlement was a restitution payment of $34,200 to the Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources for reef restoration. There were also other personal fines and penalties.
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133 Department of Agriculture, Department of Commerce, Department of Defense, Department of the Interior, Department of Justice, Department of State, Department of Transportation, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Science Foundation, U.S. Agency for International Development.134American Samoa, Florida, Guam, Hawai‘i, Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands.135 Representing American Samoa, CNMI, Hawai‘i, Guam, Puerto Rico, and the USVI.
includes the heads of 11 Federal agen-cies133 and the Governors of seven States,Territories, and Commonwealths134 withresponsibilities for coral reefs (Fig.133). Each governor appointed a Point ofContact to facilitate communicationamong members and tend to USCRTFbusiness. The U.S. All-Islands CoralReef Initiative135 also has a representa-tive on the USCRTF.
USCRTF agencies meet about every sixmonths and exchange information atmeetings held alternately in Washington
D.C. and at a different coral reef areaso there can be public meetings onissues. At their request, the Presidentsof the Republic of Palau, the Republicof the Marshall Islands, and theFederated States of Micronesia wereinvited to join the USCRTF in 2001.This structure has greatly increasedpartnership activities and integratedprojects. The Task Force also has amechanism for resolving problemsamong member agencies and griev-ances from the public.
Figure 133. Cover of theUSCRTF National ActionPlan to Conserve CoralReefs.
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Managers of coral reef ecosystems in the UnitedStates and the Pacific Freely Associated Statesassessed and prioritized management needs at aCoral Reef Managers’ Workshop held on O‘ahu, HIin February 2000. (See Table 11.) The managers’table of priorities was updated and the USCRTFPoints of Contact have assured that the resulting setof recommendations met local priority needs forFY02. The priorities in this table are similar tothose in the National Coral Reef Action Strategy.
The table should be read as follows. If work hadrecently been completed, was underway, or plannedand adequately supported, the item was not listedas a priority, although it may be of local impor-tance. This was also true for mapping priorities, asdeep-reef mapping resources were limited by theneed to complete shallow-reef mapping first. At thetime this report was being finalized, NOAA andDoI were entertaining FY02 proposals for grantsupport for projects based on the followingpriorities.
Complete Mapping and Establish a MonitoringComplete Mapping and Establish a MonitoringComplete Mapping and Establish a MonitoringComplete Mapping and Establish a MonitoringComplete Mapping and Establish a MonitoringNetwork Network Network Network Network – To fill identified information gaps,managers consider mapping, assessing, and moni-toring U.S. coral reef ecosystems top priorities for2002 (Fig. 133). While Puerto Rico and USVI reefshave been mapped, areas with poor water qualityneed still need final spatial information. Therefore,they are still listed even though mapping activitiesare well underway to fill those gaps.
To provide the more sophisticated monitoringneeded to develop coral reef health indicators136 forthe next biennial report, the level of funding prev-iously allocated for assessing and monitoring wasmoderately increased. For 2001, about $100,000was available to each jurisdiction.
For all jurisdictions, training in coral reef monitor-ing and assessment, and support for assessment andmonitoring activities is needed so local capacitycan be developed. This is especially true in thePacific Freely Associated States. Local expertisefor assessment and monitoring has been increasing,but funds are a limiting factor, especially as finan-cial support from the Compacts of Free Association
is decreasing. Since they are now members of theUSCRTF, the Freely Associated States are includedin the Mapping, Assessment, and MonitoringProgram. Plans are to initiate assessment andmonitoring activities there in FY02.
Strengthen MPAsStrengthen MPAsStrengthen MPAsStrengthen MPAsStrengthen MPAs – This will continue to be ahigh priority for all but the U.S. remote insularreefs, Federated States of Micronesia, and the Mar-shall Islands. It follows what was accomplished byUSCRTF members in 1999 and 2000 to expandand strengthen marine protected areas. And, exceptfor the remote insular reefs where the considerabletransit distances and the generally pristine condi-tion of the reefs makes it a lower priority at thistime, improved enforcement is a high priority forMPAs.
Except for Guam who already has 20% of its reefresources protected by no-take provisions, manag-ers are calling for broad-scale strengthening ofMPAs to protect shallow-water resources.
Reduce OverfishingReduce OverfishingReduce OverfishingReduce OverfishingReduce Overfishing – Most managers consideredconservation measures related to fisheries a highpriority. Fisheries impacts on coral reefs and otherbenthic habitats are either a high or mediumpriority for all but the U.S. remote insular reefs.
Reduce Pollution from RunoffReduce Pollution from RunoffReduce Pollution from RunoffReduce Pollution from RunoffReduce Pollution from Runoff – Managingimpacts from coastal use of coral reef resources isa high priority for many U.S. jurisdictions and theFreely Associated States. Managers responsible for
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:NATIONAL SUMMARY:RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONSRECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Figure 133. Mapping, monitoring, and assessment are toppriorities, especially for reefs located in more remote andless studied areas (Photo: James Maragos).
136 Population recruitment statistics, disease incidence, water quality degradation.
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MANAGEMENTACTIONS
PARAMETERS/INDICATORS Fl
orid
a
Puer
to R
ico
U.S
. Virg
in Is
land
s
Flow
er G
arde
ns
Mai
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ian
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Nor
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ian
Isla
nds
Amer
ican
Sam
oa
Gua
m
Nor
ther
n M
aria
na
Isla
nds
Mar
shal
l Isl
ands
Fede
rate
d St
ates
of
Mic
rone
sia
Pala
u
Shallow reefs ( < 3 0 m)
H H H L H H H M H L H H M
Deep reefs ( > 3 0 m) M L H H L L M L L L L L L
Rapid assessments & inventories
H M H L H H M M H L H H M
Benthic cover H H H L M M M L H L L M M
Disease H H H L L L L L M M M L M
Coral and fish recruitment H M H M H M M H M L H H M
Fish abundance & diversity
H H H M H H H H H M H H H
Invertebrate abundance & diversity H M H L H H H H H M H H H
Algal abundance & diversity M H H H H M H H M M H M M
Global warming & bleaching H M M L L L M L M H L H H
Water & substrate quality
H H H H M L H H H L H H M
Endemic, endangered & alien species
H L L M H M L H H H H H H
Research Reef processes H M H M M L L M M M M M H
HumanDimensions
Socioeconomic value M H M M H M M H H M L H L
MPAs Expansion & strengthening of MPAs H H H H H H H H H L L H M
Overfishing H H H H H M H L H M H H M
Habitat impacts M H M M H H M M H L M H L
Trade in live reef species M H L L H L L M M H M M L
Land use & watershed management H H H M H L H L H L L H L
Physically destructive practices H H M M L L M L H M L M H
Ocean recreation L H H L H L L H H L L H L
Vessel management M H M H H H L H M L L M H
Invasive Species M L L M H H L L L H M M L
Enforcement H H H H H H H H H H H H M
Contaminants M M M M M M H H H M H H M
Nutrients H H M L H L M H H L H H L
Sedimentation M H H L H L H H H L H H L
Marine debris M M M L M H M L L L H L M
Restoration Restoration of damaged reefs M H L L L L L L M L M L M
Education & Outreach
H M M M H H H L H M M M L
Fisheries
Coastal Uses
Pollution
Mapping
Atlantic/ Caribbean Polynesia
U.S
. Rem
ote
Insu
lar R
eefs
Assessment & Monitoring
Micronesia
Table 11. FY02 management priorities for coral reef ecosystems in the United States and the Pacific Freely Associated States.
Flo
rida
U.S
. Virg
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land
s
Flo
wer
Gar
dens
Nor
ther
nM
aria
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s
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Isla
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o
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U.S
. Rem
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lar
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fs
Educa t i on &Educa t i on &Educa t i on &Educa t i on &Educa t i on &Ou t r e a chOu t r e a chOu t r e a chOu t r e a chOu t r e a chA g e n c yA g e n c yA g e n c yA g e n c yA g e n c y
accountab i l i t yaccoun tab i l i t yaccoun tab i l i t yaccoun tab i l i t yaccoun tab i l i t y
Community outreach
Interagency coordination
Po l l u t i o nPo l l u t i o nPo l l u t i o nPo l l u t i o nPo l l u t i o n
Res to r a t i onRes to r a t i onRes to r a t i onRes to r a t i onRes to r a t i on
Coas ta l U sesCoas ta l U sesCoas ta l U sesCoas ta l U sesCoas ta l U ses
F i s he r i e sF i s he r i e sF i s he r i e sF i s he r i e sF i s he r i e s
M P A sM P A sM P A sM P A sM P A s
H u m a nH u m a nH u m a nH u m a nH u m a nD imens i on sD imens i on sD imens i on sD imens i on sD imens i on s
Re sea r c hRe sea r c hRe sea r c hRe sea r c hRe sea r c h
Assessment &Assessment &Assessment &Assessment &Assessment &Mon i t o r i ngMon i t o r i ngMon i t o r i ngMon i t o r i ngMon i t o r i ng
Mapp i ngMapp i ngMapp i ngMapp i ngMapp i ng
MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTMANAGEMENTA C T I O N SA C T I O N SA C T I O N SA C T I O N SA C T I O N S M
arsh
all I
slan
ds
Fed
erat
ed S
tate
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rone
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High priority Medium priority Low-to-no priorityHHHHH MMMMM LLLLL
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shallow-water coral reef resources near urbanizedcoastal areas137 and those off high islands138 rankedland-use and watershed conservation a high prior-ity for their near-shore reef ecosystems.
Build a Better System of EnforcementBuild a Better System of EnforcementBuild a Better System of EnforcementBuild a Better System of EnforcementBuild a Better System of Enforcement – Themanagers with responsibility for coral reef re-sources who helped prepare this report and theUSCRTF Points of Contact all made enforcement ahigh priority. Except for remote insular refuges,measures to conserve coral reef resources (e.g., no-take closures, harvest limits) within most MPAsneed adequate enforcement to assure success (Fig.134). More effective enforcement is needed bothwithin and outside MPAs. Difficulties in patrollingand enforcing regulations are almost insurmount-able because of the vast distances covered by manyjurisdictions, especially the recently-created North-western Hawaiian Island Coral Reef EcosystemReserve and the remaining remote Pacific NationalWildlife Refuges.
Increase Community InvolvementIncrease Community InvolvementIncrease Community InvolvementIncrease Community InvolvementIncrease Community Involvement – Communityoutreach is a high priority for all areas except themostly uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islandsand the U.S. remote insular reefs (Fig. 135).
Increase Cooperation Among AgenciesIncrease Cooperation Among AgenciesIncrease Cooperation Among AgenciesIncrease Cooperation Among AgenciesIncrease Cooperation Among Agencies – Inter-agency coordination is either a medium or highpriority for all but Guam and the U.S. remoteinsular reefs. Additionally, participants at the 2001Pacific managers workshop agreed 1) a coherentnational and international policy for coral reefs isneeded, and 2) a Federal law that provides protec-tion for reef ecosystems is the best way to attainthis.
CONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONSCONCLUSIONS
There is good news and bad news about U.S. coralreef ecosystems. The good news is the tremendousheadway made so far to begin filling gaps ininformation, mapping, establishing a consistentmonitoring program, making the public aware ofthe importance of preserving reefs, and gettingtheir active participation in the program. The newU.S. legislation, congressional funding, andleadership provided by the USCRTF have resultedin new resources that have already made a differ-ence in understanding and conserving reefs. Theconcerted efforts to initiate mapping, assessment,monitoring, research, and restoration will provide aconsistent basis for assessing the status and trendsof and tracking changes in coral reef ecosystems.Also, MPAs and the no-take areas are beingstrengthened and expanded, further protectingcritical resources.
The bad news is that current enforcement isinadequate to protect MPAs, particularly remotecoral reefs where ships and enforcement personnelare seldom available. In general, a lot morequantitative, comparable information is needed.
Basic mapping has yet to be done for over 85% ofthe reefs. Except where mapped, the available dataare just estimates. This is especially true for areascovered by no-take provisions. Many reef areasneed basic assessments and biotic inventories to fillsignificant gaps limiting the ability of managers todetermine the condition of jurisdictional coralreefs, including overall biological diversity, popu-
Figure 134. At the Flower Garden Banks National MarineSanctuary, enforcement is conducted during fly-overs by theU.S. Coast Guard (Photo: FGBNMS).
Figure 135. An outreach activity at the Hawaiian HumpbackWhale National Marine Sanctuary. Volunteers count whalesightings and document behavior (Photo: Naomi McIntosh).
137 Florida, Puerto Rico, USVI, the Main Hawaiian Islands, the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary.138American Samoa, Guam, and CNMI.
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lation abundance, species recruitment, and the inci-dence of disease. Comparable long-term monitor-ing needs to be sponsored and integrated acrossregions. To track changes in ecosystem health andevaluate the effectiveness of measures to conserveand protect coral reef ecosystems, grants to Stateand Territorial agencies need to be continued for atleast the next 5-10 years, ideally beyond that.
Only a nationally-coordinated program can providereef managers the advice, support, and resourcesneeded to 1) initiate the bold conservation mea-sures necessary to reverse the downward trends ofdegraded reefs, and 2) maintain the quality ofhealthy reefs. On degraded reefs, water and sub-strate quality must be improved, overfishing andthe gear damage reduced, invasive species con-trolled, and other human stresses minimized.Finally, public awareness and education activitiesneed to be enhanced and expanded to developcooperation. Renewed citizen awareness and acollective ethic for the sustained use of coral reefecosystems in the United States and Freely Associ-ated States need to be generated.
Every U.S. reef system has suffered varyingdegrees of impact from natural or human distur-bance. For example, from the combined impacts ofhurricanes, reduced urchin and fish herbivory, highnutrient input, coral diseases, and bleaching in theCaribbean, there has been a measured decrease incoral cover. The FKNMS recorded a 37% declinein coral cover over the past five years, and re-ported that other severe impacts predated theirmonitoring of the Florida Keys coral reef ecosys-tem. A series of earlier disasters were responsible
for the near elimination of dense stands ofelkhorn and staghorn coral from areas inthe Florida Keys, Puerto Rico, and theUSVI (Fig. 136). At the extreme end, theeight hurricanes that have struck the USVIover the past two decades, reduced liveAcropora corals at the Buck Island Na-tional Park, USVI by 85%. In their placeare coral rubble and abundant macroalgae.
Caribbean coral reef ecosystems also haveyet to recover from a die-off of the long-spined sea urchin about 20 years ago.There is evidence that the loss of this keyalgal grazer coupled with over-nutrificationand overfishing of herbivores may have
contributed to the shift from a coral-dominatedecosystem to a macroalgae-dominated system onmany reefs.
Like the Caribbean, the U.S. Pacific islandshallow-water coral reefs are currently recoveringfrom natural disturbances occurring over the pasttwo decades – first a crown-of-thorns starfishinvasion of several island groups139 in 1979, thenseveral periods of warm temperatures that causedcoral bleaching, with the worst in 1997-1998.Chronic human impacts on coral reefs located nearpopulated areas140 add to these sources of stress.
Human impacts play a large role in the condition ofmost reefs, particularly those near populationcenters. Coral reefs in the Main Hawaiian Islands,American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI sufferfrom degradation related to population growth,urbanization, and development. On the more
A A A A AFigure 136. Elkhorn coral, once abundant throughout the Caribbean hasbeen heavily impacted by (A) disease, bleaching, hurricanes, turbidity,and (B) siltation (Photos: Matt Kendall and E.C. Peters)
Figure 137. Giant clams have been over-fished throughoutmuch of their range (Photo: James Maragos).
139American Samoa, Guam, and the CNMI.140 Pago Pago Harbor, American Samoa; Apra Harbor, Guam; Kane‘ohe Bay and Honolulu Harbor, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i; and Saipan Lagoon, CNMI.
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populated Pacific islands, ocean outfalls of sewageand massive coastal tourist development (hotels,golf courses) are major sources of runoff, nutrientenrichment, and sedimentation, any one of whichdegrades reef. Most shallow-water reefs nearurbanized regions are exposed to both acute andchronic anthropogenic impacts, and the synergismamong natural and human impacts exerts a fargreater influence than any single factor.
For the most part, the proliferation of macroalgaehas not been a problem in the Indo-Pacific region.The native algae found around islands indicateeither low-nutrient environments or heavy grazingby herbivores. So despite changes in coastal landuse and other human impacts, there are still breath-taking examples of healthy reefs around the PacificIslands, as evidenced by their high ranking world-wide as dive and snorkel sites.
For many Pacific islands, there has been heavyfishing pressure on large apex predators141, result-ing in fewer and smaller groupers, snappers, andjacks. Species such as giant clams, parrotfish, andhumphead wrasse have been overfished on shallow-water coral reefs near major population centers(Fig. 137).
Pollution of toxic heavy metal and organic chemi-cals are affecting reef organisms in several areas.This concerns resource managers and conservation-ists worldwide. Toxic compounds are now showingup in fish from Pago Pago Harbor, Saipan Lagoon,and Apra Harbor. Even the endangered Hawaiianmonk seals in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islandshave been found to have high levels of polychlori-nated biphenyls (PCBs) in their tissues (Fig. 138).
Degradation and loss of habitat impacts reefspecies. The endangered hawksbill and the threat-ened green sea turtle are in serious decline fromillegal harvest and loss of nesting habitat through-out their range (Fig. 139).
In contrast, the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, theFlower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary,Navassa Island, and remote Pacific Island refugeswhere there is little human impact other than long-distance fishing, remain relatively pristine. Forthese ‘jewels,’ live coral cover and species diver-sity range from relatively low off geologicallyyoung volcanic islands (e.g., Nihoa and NeckerIslands in the NWHI) to high with an impressivedegree of complexity (e.g., remote island atolls).For these reefs, disease and mortality is generallythought to be low. With the exception of PalmyraAtoll, the same is true for bleaching. Shallow reeffish communities on the remote reefs exhibitsubstantial populations of large apex predators andherbivores that are now rare in the Main HawaiianIslands from fishing pressure.
The United States has a relatively pristine, remote,and expansive coral reef ecosystem that is ideal forcoral reef conservation – the NWHI. These coralreefs are in excellent condition their near-shorecoral reefs have been protected as National Wild-life Refuges. Over the past 95 years, these refugeshave only allowed limited fishing by permit.
They are among the few remaining intact, large-scale, predator-dominated reef ecosystems left inthe world. It is an opportunity for us to understandhow unaltered ecosystems are structured, how they
141 The largest predators at the top of a trophic or food web – snapper, grouper, jacks, and sharks.
Figure 138. Elevated levels of PCBS have been found in thetissues of the Hawaiian monk seal (Photo: USFWS).
Figure 139. Practically all species of sea turtles are endan-gered or threatened (Photo: NOAA).
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function, and how they can most effectively bepreserved (Friedlander and DeMartini 2002).
These authors contrast the NWHI (a large, rela-tively inaccessible and lightly fished area) with theMain Hawaiian Islands (MHI, especially those thatare urbanized with heavily fished areas). The dif-ferences in the numerical density, size, and biomassof the fish assemblage are dramatic. Grand meanabundance of fish in the NWHI was more than260% greater than that of the MHI. Of this, morethan 54% of the total fish biomass in the NWHIconsisted of apex predators (Fig. 140), while thistrophic level accounted for less than 3% of the fishbiomass in the MHI. In contrast, fish biomass inthe MHI was dominated by herbivores (55%) andsmall-bodied lower-level carnivores (42%). Mostof the dominant species by weight in the NWHIwere either rare or absent in the MHI. The targetspecies that were present, regardless of trophiclevel, were nearly always larger in NWHI.
In broad, general terms, there is a significant bodyof published literature on aspects of U.S. coral reefecosystems. There are qualitative assessments onthe condition of corals and harvested fishes formany localities. Coral reef managers know gener-ally what to guard against and, in most cases, whatconservation measures would most likely have animpact on their reefs (J. Ogden pers. comm.).
There is now a body of evidence that implementa-tion of no-take conservation measures work toreverse declining trends for many species. Where
no-take provisions have been implemented inMPAs142, there were more and larger fishes andmotile invertebrates within a year or so. Also, thereare examples where coral reef ecosystems re-sponded relatively quickly after disasters143 – thealgae, corals, and fishes rebounded to pre-impactlevels. This generally occurred where overfishingand other human impacts were minimal but thatmay not be the case for slow-moving or sessile reefspecies144 when they are subjected to repeatedstresses, both local (e.g., nutrification, overfishing)and global (sea surface warming and bleaching).These species may not be able to respond within ahuman lifespan.
There is general consensus among scientists andUSCRTF members that at least 20% of US coralreef ecosystems need protection by no-take provi-sions. The Hawaiian Islands provide textbook
examples of reef ecosystems that are in nearpristine condition (the NWHI), those that havebeen overfished (the MHI), as well as those thathave been managed by no-take zones and arerecovering (Hanauma Bay no-take protected area).
Scientists generally agree that reef fisheries on theMain Hawaiian Islands are depleted except in a fewof the small no-take reserves (J. Maragos pers.comm.). For example, the Hanauma Bay MarineLife Conservation District, closed to fishing since1967, supports more biomass of targeted species ofreef fish than the rest of O‘ahu (A. Friedlanderpers. comm., Fig. 141). The Merritt Island NationalWildlife Refuge off the Kennedy Space Centerdemonstrates that no-take reserves can replenishnearby overfished areas with large and abundantfish (Roberts et al. 2001).
142 The no-take for spiny lobster provision in the Dry Tortugas National Park, the grouper spawning ground closure off St. Thomas Island, the Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge protecting Cape Canaveral.
Figure 140. Giant ulua are one of the apex predators thataccount for a large percentage of fish biomass in the North-western Hawaiian Islands (Photo: NOW-RAMP Expedition/Bishop Museum).
Figure 141. Hanauma Bay (Photo: James McVey).
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USCRTF members acknowledge degradation fromhuman influences is a global problem and U.S.coral reef ecosystems need to be included ininternational efforts such as the GCRMN. ACaribbean example of international linkages amongcoral reef ecosystems is water circulation patternsover FKNMS reefs have inputs ‘downstream’ fromCuba and Central America (Fig. 142). There arebenefits (e.g., larval recruitment to the reef) butalso detriments (e.g., aquatic and atmospheric trans-port of organic pollutants, J. Ogden pers. comm.). APacific example of this international exchangeamong ecosystems, Kingman and Palmyra Atolls,the two remote U.S. wildlife refuges that have thehighest diversity. They are not only large atollswith a variety of lagoon habitats, but ocean cur-rents bring a diversity of planktonic recruits from‘upstream.’ Seasonally, the Equatorial Countercur-rent flows past these atolls, providing them withthe larvae of species from far western reefs, inaddition to larvae coming from the east when theNorth and South Equatorial Currents flow pastthese reefs.
The Coral Reef Conservation Act of 2000 requiresthe Secretary of Commerce to prepare a conserva-tion strategy and to report biennially on the effec-tiveness of conservation measures. Toward thisend, NOAA initiated a process that will unfold overthe next few years. In 2002-2003, NOAA and itspartners will develop and test a ‘report card’approach using indicators and metrics that canreliably show the condition of U.S. coral reefecosystems. It will also evaluate the ‘effectivenessof conservation measures.’
143 Fagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary and the Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary both of which involved a substantial change in keystone urchin populations.144 Queen conch in the Caribbean, and shallow-water coral colonies that suffered high mortalities from bleaching off Florida.
Figure 142. Due to oceanic circulation patterns, the healthof reefs in Florida is tied to the fate of reefs in other areasof the Caribbean (Photo: Chuck Savall).
This report finds:
• U.S. coral reef areas are extensive.
• Healthy reef ecosystems are critical for localand regional economies.
• All jurisdictions still have some reefs ingood-to-excellent health. These needconservation.
• All shallow reefs near urbanized coasts aredegraded to some extent. These needrestoration.
• Areas next to densely-populated shorelinesgenerally have poorer water quality thanthose far from human habitation. Wherewater quality is fair to poor, reef ecosystemsare degraded. Water quality needs to beimproved in those areas, and measures takento maintain the water quality of areas wherereef condition is now deemed good-to-excellent.
• Coastal development, runoff, and sedimenta-tion have impacted reefs around most highislands. These impacts need to be minimized.
• Fishing pressure has been a primary factorimpacting reef ecosystems for decades. Thereis evidence that overfishing has changedecosystem structure and function. Differentand effective methods of management need tobe implemented.
• Remote reefs with little coastal development,good water quality, and low fishing pressureare in excellent health, as characterized bymany large fish and generally high speciesdiversity within the reef community. Theseneed to be studied and preserved.
• Marine refuges with no-take provisionsproduce more and larger fish. With enoughtime, they can conserve reef communities andlong-lived species, producing trophy-sizedapex predators. More no-take areas need to beimplemented within MPAs in order to reachthe USCRTF goal of 20% protection.
• Some existing marine protected areas are notprotecting reefs. Regulations within theseneed to be strengthened and adequatelyenforced.
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REGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTS
FloridaFloridaFloridaFloridaFlorida
Puerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto Rico
U.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin Islands
Flower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalMarine SanctuaryMarine SanctuaryMarine SanctuaryMarine SanctuaryMarine Sanctuary
Navassa IslandNavassa IslandNavassa IslandNavassa IslandNavassa Island
Hawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’i
American SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican Samoa
GuamGuamGuamGuamGuam
Commonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernMariana IslandsMariana IslandsMariana IslandsMariana IslandsMariana Islands
Freely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federated
States of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofPalau)Palau)Palau)Palau)Palau)
REGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTSREGIONAL REPORTS
FloridaFloridaFloridaFloridaFlorida
Puerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto RicoPuerto Rico
U.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin IslandsU.S. Virgin Islands
Flower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalFlower Garden Banks NationalMarine SanctuaryMarine SanctuaryMarine SanctuaryMarine SanctuaryMarine Sanctuary
Navassa IslandNavassa IslandNavassa IslandNavassa IslandNavassa Island
Hawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’iHawai’i
American SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican SamoaAmerican Samoa
GuamGuamGuamGuamGuam
Commonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernCommonwealth of the NorthernMariana IslandsMariana IslandsMariana IslandsMariana IslandsMariana Islands
Freely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofFreely Associated States (Republic ofthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federatedthe Marshall Islands, Federated
States of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofStates of Micronesia, and Republic ofPalau)Palau)Palau)Palau)Palau)
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IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
There are three main areas of coral reefs and banksin Florida – the Florida Keys, the southeasterncoast from northern Monroe County to Palm BeachCounty, and the Florida Middle Grounds in theeastern Gulf of Mexico, south of Apalachicola andnorthwest of Tarpon Springs. Numerous coral hab-itats are also scattered from the Florida MiddleGrounds to the Florida Keys along Florida’s westcoast shelf at varying locations. New communitiesare constantly being discovered, such as thoserecently documented along Pulley’s Ridge in 45-60m (150-200 ft) of water.
The Florida KeysThe Florida KeysThe Florida KeysThe Florida KeysThe Florida Keys – The Florida Keys have theonly emergent coral reefs off the continentalUnited States. Arching southwest 356 km fromsouth of Miami to the Dry Tortugas, the Floridareef tract comprises one of the largest reef com-munities in the world. Except between RebeccaShoal and the Dry Tortugas, it is almost contin-uous.
The majority of the reef tract lies within the bound-aries of the 9800 km2 Florida Keys National MarineSanctuary (FKNMS or Sanctuary). Over half of theSanctuary is located in State of Florida territorialwaters (less than 4.8 km from shore in the Atlanticwaters and less than 16.5 km from shore in theGulf of Mexico); the rest of the Sanctuary (42%) isin Federal waters. Designated in 1990, the Sanctu-ary is managed jointly between NOAA and the
State. A comprehensive management plan adoptedin 1997 guides Sanctuary management. One man-agement component has been establishing andimplementing five types of marine zones, whichinclude 24 individual, fully protected zones de-signed to offer added protection to some of the over1,400 km2 of coral reef habitat located within theSanctuary.
Two additional marine protected areas managed bythe National Park Service encompass reefs in theFlorida Keys. Located on the northern boundary ofthe Sanctuary just south of Miami, BiscayneNational Park has 683 km2 of coastal waters. At thewestern-most end of the reef tract lies Dry TortugasNational Park, covering 262 km2.
The Florida Reef Tract has been described as abank reef system comprised of an almost continu-ous reef community with elongated reef habitatsparalleling one another. The reef ecosystemsconsist of distinct habitat types: nearshore patchreefs, mid-channel reefs, offshore patch reefs,seagrass beds, back reefs/reef flats, bank or transi-tional reefs, intermediate reefs, deep reefs, outlierreefs, and sand/soft bottom areas. In addition to thebank reefs, over 6000 circular to oval patch reefslie along the Florida Reef Tract in 2 to 9 m ofwater. An outer reef tract lies 4.8 to 11.3 km eastand south of the Keys.
The seaward-facing spur and groove formations ofthe Florida Reef Tract are constructional features,formed partly by wave energy (Shinn 1963, Shinnet al. 1981, DoC 1996). They extend 1 to 2 km offthe main reef, from 1 to 10 m. Historically, the topsof the spurs were composed mainly of elkhorncoral (Acropora palmata, Fig. 143), especially atdepths less than 5 m, while grooves containedcarbonate sands and reef rubble (Hendler et al.1995). These features are typically no more than200 m long from offshore to onshore.
Primary corals found in this area include the starcorals (Montastrea annularis complex and thegreat star coral (Montastrea cavernosa), masssivestarlet coral (Siderastrea siderea), and fire corals
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDABilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard Spieler
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN FLORIDABilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBilly D. Causey, Richard E. Dodge, Walter Jaap, KenBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard SpielerBanks, Joanne Delaney, Brian D. Keller, and Richard Spieler
Figure 143. A. Staghorn coral (Photo: NCRI); B. elkhorn coral(Photo: Paige Gill, FKNMS).
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(Millepora spp.). Mustard hill coral (Porites astre-oides), finger coral (Porites porites), and lettucecoral (Agaricia agaricites) are also commonspecies. Staghorn and elkhorn corals, formerlycommon or dominant species at 3-15 m, are muchless abundant at this time.
The Southeastern CoastThe Southeastern CoastThe Southeastern CoastThe Southeastern CoastThe Southeastern Coast – This reef system runsfrom northern Monroe County to Palm BeachCounty in a series of discontinuous reef linesparalleling the shore. Duane and Meisburger(1969) and Goldberg (1973)defined the habitat at limitedlocations and providedinformation on the coralfauna.
There are generally threelines of reef – one that nom-inally crests in 3 to 4 m ofwater (First Reef), another in6 to 8 m (Second Reef), and athird in 15 to 21 m (ThirdReef).
The First Reef has a very lowprofile with conspicuoussmall octocoral and algalcover. The substrate is relictreef of Anastasia Formationlimestone and worm reef(Phragmatopoma), withbreaks and sediment pocketswithin the reef. Typical ses-sile organisms are lesser star-let coral (Siderastrea radians)and colonial zoanthids (Paly-thoa mammalosa and P.caribaeorum).
The Second Reef is also flatwith somewhat more relief and dissectingchannels. Octocorals are most conspicuous, someareas exceeding 60 per m2 (Fig. 144). Abundantstony corals include knobby brain coral (Diploriaclivosa), elliptical star coral (Dichocoeniastokesii), great star coral, and smooth star coral(Solenastrea bournoni). In the past few years, therehas been vigorous recruitment of staghorn coraland some extensive aggregations are now presentoff Broward County. Here, reef-like accumulationsor “thickets” of this species form a significant
habitat. Spawning was documented in early August2001 (Vargas-Ángel and Thomas in press).
The Third Reef often has strong vertical relief andexhibits the highest diversity and abundance ofsessile reef organisms. Octocorals and large barrelsponges (Xestospongia muta) are most conspicuousand visually dominate this reef. Stony corals aresomewhat larger than those located on the SecondReef. Moderate-sized colonies of star corals arecommon.
The Middle Grounds The Middle Grounds The Middle Grounds The Middle Grounds The Middle Grounds –This is a 1,193 km2 area inthe eastern Gulf of Mexico(Florida Fish and WildlifeConservation Commission2001), 137 km south ofApalachicola and 129 kmnorthwest of Tarpon Springs.Its banks are two parallelridgelines separated by avalley lying in a north-northwesterly direction.Individual banks are 12 to15 m high with shallowcrests 21 m below sea level.The reef structures are latePleistocene to earlyHolocene (Brooks andDoyle 1991).
Winter temperatures reach16˚ C, limiting many tropicalspecies from occupyingthese banks. However, thereare 23 species of stony corals(Grimm and Hopkins 1977).Environmental studies in the1970s documented 103
species of algae, about 40 sponges, 75 mollusks, 56decapod crustaceans, 41 polychaetes, 23 echino-derms, and 170 species of fish (Hopkins et al.1977). Elliptical star coral, yellow pencil coral(Madracis decactis), and branching fire coral(Millepora alcicornis) are the most abundant stonycoral species. Coral cover may be as high as 30%on some pinnacles.
Overall, the biotic characteristics of this area arevery different from either the Florida Keys or theFlower Garden Banks, located off Texas.
Figure 144. Octocorals with their polypsextended at night (Photo: FKNMS and JoeSeger).
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Condition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef Ecosystems
Historical fluctuations in sea level have influencedthe reefs of Florida, with the last significant rise insea level starting about 6,000 years ago. Since thattime, the reefs off Southeast Florida and the Flor-ida Keys have been building. Greater reef develop-ment in those areas generally occurs in the Upperand Lower Keys, where the Keys protect reefsfrom direct water flows from the Gulf of Mexicoand Florida Bay (DoC 1996, Robbin 1981, Shinn etal. 1989).
Although the reefs of Florida have existed for thepast several thousands years, they have onlyrecently become the focus of scientific researchand monitoring in an attempt to fully understandchanges over time. Since the creation of theFKNMS, the reefs and associated marine habitatsof the Florida Keys have become the subject of abroad research and monitoring program that seeksto establish baseline data on ecosystem conditionand ascertain cause-and-effect linkages. The reefsand banks of Florida’s southeastern coast and theMiddle Grounds are not as well studied as those ofthe Florida Keys, though they are beginning to bemapped and estimates of cover are available fromsome monitoring programs. As a result, the condi-tion of Florida’s coral ecosystems can be bestdetermined for Florida Keys reefs at this time;comprehensive, long-term monitoring of variousecosystem components is critical for the southeast-ern coast and Middle Grounds.
In the Florida Keys, Sanctuary-wide monitoring ofwater quality, seagrasses, and coral and hardbottomcommunities began in 1994 under a Water QualityProtection Program that was jointly undertaken by
NOAA and the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (USEPA). In 1997, when a network offully protected zones, or marine reserves wereimplemented, a Zone Monitoring Program wasinitiated to determine whether the zones meet theirobjectives of reducing pressure on heavily usedreefs, preserving biodiversity, facilitating research,and reducing use conflicts, among others. Each ofthese monitoring programs and their methods aredescribed in the Current Conservation Managementsection of this report. To date, over five years ofdata from the Water Quality Protection Programand three years of data from the Zone MonitoringProgram have provided Sanctuary managers withemerging trends in coral reef ecosystem healththroughout the Florida Keys.
Coral Coral Coral Coral Coral – Early surveys of Florida Keys coral reefshave documented two species of fire coral, 55species of octocoral, and 64 taxa of stony corals(DoC 1996, Levy et al. 1996).
Under the Zone Monitoring Program, scientistsfrom the University of North Carolina atWilmington’s National Undersea Research Center(UNCW/NURC) have more recently conductedrapid, large-scale assessments of coral reefs andhardbottom communities in the Sanctuary. In their1999 assessment, the UNCW/NURC rapidassessment and rmonitoring program found coralcover highly variable by both habitat type andregion (Miller et al. 2001). Jaap et al. (2001)confirmed that gains and losses of coral cover inthe Florida Keys fluctuate among habitat typeswith patch reef habitats suffering the fewest lossesand exhibiting the highest average percent coverover time.
Since 1996, over 66% of 160 stations in the CoralReef/Hardbottom Monitoring Project of the WaterQuality Protection Program exhibited losses instony coral diversity. From 1996 to 2000, stonycoral cover Sanctuary-wide decreased by 36.6% toa low of 6.6% in 2000, with the greatest relativechange occurring in the Upper Keys (Jaap et al.2001, Fig. 145). During this time, 67% ofmonitoring stations had reduced stony coralspecies richness, 20% gained species, and 13% hadunchanged species richness (Jaap et al. 2001).However, positive trends were noted in the 1999-2000 survey period, when 69 stations had greaternumbers of stony coral species, 56 stations had
Figure 145. Mean percent stony coral cover at 160 stationsin Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, 1996-2000(Modified from Jaap et al. 2001).
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000
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fewer species, and 35 stations remained unchanged(Jaapet al. 2001).
In addition to coral cover, recruitment of stonycorals to the Florida Keys ecosystem is a basicmeasure of overall community health. Relation-ships between coral cover, recruitment, and juve-nile mortality are assessed at six sites in both fullyprotected Sanctuary zones and in reference areas(Aronsonet al. 2001). Differences in coral recruit-ment have been seen among all sites over twoyears. More important, perhaps, is that juvenilemortality was greatest at shallow stations in thefirst year (1998) which coincided with a directstrike from Hurricane Georges in the Lower Keys.UNCW/NURC rapid assessment monitoring ofbenthic communities indicated no significantdifferences in juvenile coral density by habitat typeand region in 2000 (Miller et al. 2001).
Increasingly, coral diseases threaten the overallhealth and vitality of reef systems in the FloridaKeys. However, only three of ten presumptive orpurported pathogens have been positively identi-fied (Richardson 1998). The Coral Reef/Hard-bottom Monitoring Project documented increasesin the number of stations with diseased coral, thenumber of coral species with disease, and thenumber of presumptive diseases (Jaap et al. 2001).In 1998, a second ongoing coral disease etiologyand monitoring program documented regionaldifferences in the incidence of disease, with thehighest concentration of coral diseases near KeyWest and in the Lower Keys. Significant seasonalincreases in diseases were also noted in these
regions (Mueller et al. 2001). Back reef areasshowed the highest prevalence of disease. Theseareas are dominated by elkhorn coral, which issusceptible to specific disease conditions (Muelleret al. 2001, Fig. 146). Aspergillosis, a fungaldisease that targets the sea fan (Gorgonia ven-talina), was the most commonly reported diseaseSanctuary-wide during these surveys (Mueller etal. 2001).
In addition to confirmed and purported coral dis-eases, coral bleaching impacts the Sanctuary’s reefs(Fig. 147). Over the past 20 years, bleaching eventshave increased in both frequency and duration(Hoegh-Guldberg 1999, Jaap 1990). Massive coralbleaching was first recorded in 1983 along theouter reef tract of the Lower Keys. Shallow forereef habitats were most affected (Causey in press).This event was preceded by periods of low windand high air temperature, contributing to localizedincreased water temperature.
Massive bleaching occurred again in July 1987following doldrum-like weather conditions. Thistime, the outer reefs throughout the Florida Keyswere afflicted, and secondary impacts such as coraldisease were observed. Then in July 1990, a mas-sive bleaching event occurred Keys-wide. Inshorereefs bleached for the first time, and mortality ofblade fire corals (Millepora complanata) reachedover 65% on the shallow crest of Looe Key Reef inthe Lower Keys (Causey in press).
Bleaching has both expanded and intensified in thelast decade. Another massive episode in 1997targeted both the inshore and offshore reefs. Beforethe reefs could adequately recover, lingering highwater temperatures and a particularly strong ElNiño event caused yet another bleaching in 1998.
Figure 146. Changes in elkhorn coral cover at West Sambo,1996 above and 2001 below (Photo: EPA/FKNMS Coral ReefMonitoring Project funded by EPA, UNCW, and NOAA).
Figure 147. Bleached brain coral (Photo: Mike White).
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This time, the blade fire coral suffered 80-90%mortality (W. Jaap pers. comm.), and has remainedlow in abundance throughout most of the area.There have been similar bleaching observationsregionally and internationally since 1987, and it iswidely recognized that 1997 and 1998 were theworst years on record.
While it is difficult to enumerate the exact causesof coral mortality from any given perturbation,coral bleaching is undoubtedly responsible for partof the dramatic declines in stony coral coverobserved Sanctuary-wide in the last five years(Causey pers. obs.). Observations from the researchcommunity reinforce the results from severalmonitoring programs that show declines in coralhealth. This highlights the importance of continuedmonitoring. Empirical cause-and-effect studiesmight provide additional methods to alleviate theseimpacts and improve overall reef health.
Along the southeastern shoreline, there is littlelong-term data on abundance and/or cover forbenthic reef components. The predominant infor-mation on status and trends is anecdotal. However,some reefs appear healthy when compared to his-torical information and personal recollections.Bleaching has been observed over the years alongthe southeastern reefs at a comparable level to theFlorida Keys.
There is no information available at this time onthe status of corals and benthic communities at theFlorida Middle Grounds.
Marine Algae, Other Plants, and BenthicMarine Algae, Other Plants, and BenthicMarine Algae, Other Plants, and BenthicMarine Algae, Other Plants, and BenthicMarine Algae, Other Plants, and BenthicCover Cover Cover Cover Cover – Ninety species of marine macroalgae havebeen identified from coral reefs within the FKNMS(Littler et al. 1986). Additionally, there are sevenspecies of seagrasses (Fourqurean et al. 2002) inthe region. Six species are common throughoutSouth Florida (Fig. 148), whereas one endemicspecies of seagrass is only found in the northernpart of Biscayne Bay. Three species of mangrovealso grow in Florida (Mote Marine Laboratory2002).
Benthic monitoring under the Sanctuary’s ZoneMonitoring Program indicates algae and attachedinvertebrate populations (sponges and soft corals)fluctuate widely between seasons and years(Aronsonet al. 2001). As with coral communities,
some of this variability can be attributed to stormsaround the Florida Keys in 1998 and 1999.
Functional group cover analyses from Jaap et al.(2001) show a slight increase in macroalgal coverin all regions of the Florida Keys between 1996and 2000 and indicate a general decrease in spongeand soft coral cover. Miller et al. (1999) foundalgae dominated all sites, with average cover gen-erally above 75% in the Keys and above 50% in theDry Tortugas region (2000). At deeper sites, pre-dominant algal functional groups were fine andthick turf algae, brown frondose algae, greencalcareous algae (mainly Halimeda spp.), andcrustose coralline algae. Crustose coralline algaeand green calcareous algae comprised a greaterproportion of total algal cover at shallower sitesthan at deeper sites. In the Dry Tortugas, algalcover was mostly green calcareous algae and twogenera of brown frondose algae.
In addition, sponge and soft coral coverages wereminor (generally less than 10%) at shallow anddeeper sites in the Keys (Miller et al. 1999) andgenerally low in the Dry Tortugas region (less than20%) (Miller et al. 2000). Overall, variability ishigh across all regions for sponge cover (Miller etal. 2001). Likewise, analyses of benthic composi-tion between fully protected zones and referenceareas in the Sanctuary indicate that changes ob-
Figure 148. Seagrass meadow at Indian River Lagoon onFlorida’s eastern coast (Photo: South Florida WaterManagement District).
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served cannot be attributed to recent protectionfrom fishing, but are likely a result of the initialbiased selection of one of the zone types (Miller etal. 2001).
At least one species of seagrass was present at over80% of the FKNMS stations monitored under theWater Quality Protection Program, indicating acoverage of approximately 12,800 km2 of seagrassbeds within the 17,000 km2 study area that lieswithin and adjacent to the Sanctuary (Fourqureanet al. 1999). The primary species of seagrasseswithin the Sanctuary are turtle grass (Thalassiatestudinum), manatee grass (Syringodium fili-forme), shoal grass (Halodule wrightii), andballoon grass (Halophila decipiens).
As with coral communities, there is currently nocomprehensive data available on algae or sea-grasses from Florida’s southeastern coast or MiddleGrounds regions.
Mobile invertebratesMobile invertebratesMobile invertebratesMobile invertebratesMobile invertebrates – Diverse groups of inverte-brates have been identified in the Florida Keys, in-cluding 117 species of sponges (Levy et al. 1996),89 species of polychaete worms (Levy et al. 1996),more than 1,400 species of mollusks (Mikkelsenand Bieler 2000), 371 species of crustaceans (Levyet al. 1996), and 82 species of echinoderms(Hendleret al. 1995).
The focus of recent monitoring efforts has been onlarge mobile invertebrates such as the Caribbeanspiny lobster (Panulirus argus) and queen conch(Fig. 149). Both have been moni-tored inside andoutside of the Sanctuary’s fully protected zonesunder the zone monitoring pro-gram. The size ofspiny lobsters are also being tracked in the DryTortugas, where National Park designationeliminated this fishery several years ago. Since the
closure, individual lobsters have grown larger therethan in the remainder of the Florida Keys.
Legal-sized spiny lobsters continue to be larger andmore abundant in fully protected zones than inreference sites of comparable habitat. In the sanct-uary preservation areas (SPAs), they average abovelegal minimum size. At reference sites, they remainbelow legal size (Cox et al. 2001). This is particu-larly true in the Western Sambo Ecological Re-serve, where the average size has been significantlylarger than in reference areas during both the openand closed fishing seasons (C. Cox pers. comm.,Gregory 2001). Catch rates (number of lobsters pertrap) are also higher within the Western SamboEcological Reserve than within two adjacent fishedareas (Gregory 2001).
Queen conch populations have remained low in thelast decade, despite a ban on commercial and rec-reational fishing since the mid-1980s. An intensivemonitoring program directed by the Florida Fishand Wildlife Conservation Commission’s FloridaMarine Research Institute (FWC/FMRI) continuesto find no significant differences in conch aggrega-tion sizes, density, or abundance between fullyprotected zones and reference sites in the Sanctuary(Glazer 2001). Attempts to supplement wild popu-lations with laboratory-reared stock and experi-ments to improve reproductive output are under-way to address the long-term demise of thisspecies.
Additional monitoring and some experimentalresearch are focused on sea urchin populationswithin the Florida Keys. Various scientists specu-late urchins play a critical role in structuring reef
Fig. 149. A. Caribbean spiny lobster (Photo: RobertoSozzani); B. queen conch (Photo: Caribbean Fishery Manage-ment Council).
A A A A A B B B B B
Figure 150. Selected fish species that are numericallydominant or account for much of the biomass on FloridaKeys reefs (Photos: FKNMS).
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communities by acting as key herbivores, keepingalgae in check so adult corals can continue to growand new corals may recruit to appropriate substrate.Reductions in the sea urchin population due to amassive, Caribbean-wide die-off in 1983 and rela-tively poor recovery of populations since then havebeen confirmed by two separate teams in the zonemonitoring program (Fogarty and Enstrom 2001,Miller et al. 2001). Both document very low abun-dances of sea urchins, especially the long-spinedsea urchin. Two research efforts underway in theSanctuary are exploring viable means of restoringpopulations of this keystone species to coral reefhabitats.
FishFishFishFishFish – Considerable scientific attention has beenpaid to fish species of the FloridaKeys over the last several decadesprior to the designation of theSanctuary and its fully protectedzones. Starck (1968) identified 517fish species from the Florida Keys,including over 389 reef fish. Addi-tional surveys have been conductedsince 1979, documenting speciescomposition, abundance, frequency,and size estimates (Bohnsack et al.1999). Between 1979-1998 a total of263 reef fish taxa representing 54families were observed (Bohnsack etal. 1999). Numerically, over half(59%) of all fish were from just 10species (Fig. 150). The majority oftotal fish biomass was comprised of
just a few species (Bohnsack etal. 1999).
The numerically dominant fishesobserved were bluehead wrasse(Thalassoma bifasciatum), bi-color damselfish (Stegastespartitus), tomtate (Haemulonaurolineatum), sergeant major(Abudefduf saxatilis), stripedparrotfish (Scarus croicensis),yellowtail snapper (Ocyuruschysurus), bluestriped grunt(Haemulon sciurus), white grunt(Haemulon plumieri), maskedgoby (Coryphopterus person-atus), and French grunt (Hae-mulon flavolineatum). Otherspecies accounting for most of
the observed biomass were tarpon (Megalopsatlanticus), barracuda (Sphyraena barracuda), graysnapper, Bermuda chub (Kyphosus sectatrix),stoplight parrotfish (Sparisoma viride), smallmouthgrunt (Haemulon chrysargyreum), and yellowgoatfish (Mulloidichthys martinicus) (Bohnsack etal. 1999).
Trends in spatial distribution and differences inpopulations over time are also noted. In mostcases, relatively few fish of legal, harvestable sizewere seen. This is consistent with other studiesindicating reef fish are highly exploited. Based onfederal standards (Ault et al. 1998), 13 of 16species of groupers, seven of 13 snappers, one
wrasse, and two of five grunts areoverfished in the Florida Keys (Fig.151). Non-sustainable fisheriespractices are likely changing trophicinteractions on reefs, with secondaryeffects such as reduced reproductivecapacity (PDT 1990) and shifts inecosystem structure and function.
Despite declines elsewhere in theSanctuary, fish numbers of someeconomically important species areincreasing somewhat in the fullyprotected zones. Analyses of threeyears of reef fish data show averagedensities (number of individuals persample) for the exploited fishspecies – gray snapper (Lutjanusgriseus, Fig. 152), yellowtail
Figure 151. Estimated percent Spawning Potential Ratios (SPR%) for 35 speciesof reef fish comprised of groupers, snappers, grunts, hogfish, and greatbarracuda. Black bars indicate stock “overfishing” and blue bars indicate thestock is above the 30% SPR U.S. Federal standard (Modified from Ault et al.1998).
Overfishing (30% SPR)
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Figure 152. Gray snapper havebenefitted from the fullyprotected zones (Photo: FKNMS).
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snapper (Ocyurus chrysurus), and grouper (severaleconomically important species were combined) –are higher in the SPAs than in fished reference sites(Bohnsacket al. 2001). Complementing this data isa trend in increasing average abundance of threespecies of snapper (gray snapper, schoolmaster, andyellowtail snapper) at sites monitored by ReefEnvironmental Education Foundation (REEF)volunteers before and after designation of the fullyprotected zones (Pattengill-Semmens 2001).
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Reduced salinity, agriculturaland industrial chemical contamination, turbidity,and high nutrients possibly from sewage, up-welling, or groundwater have all impacted waterquality to some degree in Southeast Florida,Florida Bay, and the Florida Keys. Ocean outfallsalong the coast introduce millions of gallons ofsecondary sewage to coastal waters, adding nutri-ents. Eutrophication of nearshore waters (a result ofexcess nutrients) is a documented problem in theKeys. Given these anthropogenic impacts and theimportance of also fully understanding naturalvariability, long-term water quality monitoring is
critical for the entire South Florida region. Waterquality has been monitored at fixed stations in theFKNMS since 1995 as part of the Water QualityProtection Program (FKNMS WQPP 2002).Results to date indicate dissolved oxygen, totalorganic nitrogen, and total organic carbon arehigher in surface waters, while salinity, turbidity,nitrite, nitrate, ammonium, and total phosphorusare higher in bottom waters. Geographical differ-ences include higher nutrient concentrations in theMiddle and Lower Keys than in the Upper Keysand Dry Tortugas regions. Generally, declininginshore to offshore trends along transects acrossHawk Channel have been noted for nitrate, ammo-nium, silicate, total organic carbon and nitrogen,and turbidity (Jones and Boyer 2001).
Stations along passes between the Keys had highernutrient concentrations, phytoplankton biomass,and turbidity than stations located off the Keys.Although these differences were small, the twoshore types support different benthic communities,which may reflect long-term effects of waterquality on community composition. Using a
Figure 153. A. Map of water quality stations in FKNMS that are clustered according to statistical similarities in water qualityparameters. B. Total phosphus (TP) trends in FKNMS, 1995-2000. Note significant increases in the Dry Tortugas, MarquesasKeys, Lower Keys, and portions of the Middle and Upper Keys. C. Nitrate (NO
3) trends in FKNMS, 1995-2000. Increases
occurred in the Southwest Florida Shelf, Dry Tortugas, Marquesas Keys, and Lower and Upper Keys. D Total organic nitrogen(TON) trends in FKNMS, 1995-2000. A moderate decrease in TON occurred in some areas, in contrast to increases in TPand NO
3. (Source: Jones and Boyer 2001).
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multivariate statistical approach, these stationswere regrouped according to water quality. Thisresulted in seven clusters of stations with differentwater quality characteristics (Fig. 153), giving afunctional zonation of Sanctuary water quality.
Probably the most interesting results are temporaltrends in concentrations of total phosphorus,nitrate, and total organic nitrogen for much of theSanctuary. There have been significant increases intotal phosphorus for the Dry Tortugas, MarquesasKeys, Lower Keys, and portions of the Middle andUpper Keys. No trend in total phosphorus has beenobserved in Florida Bay or in areas of the Sanctu-ary most influenced by transport of Bay waters,and there was no concurrent increase in the concen-tration of chlorophyll a, a measure of phyto-plankton in the water column. There were largeincreases in nitrates, which appeared to be sea-sonal. Most of the increases occurred in the South-west Florida Shelf, Dry Tortugas, Marquesas Keys,and the Lower and Upper Keys. By contrast, totalorganic nitrogen decreased modestly at many sites.Most of the decreases occurred in the SouthwestFlorida Shelf, the Sluiceway, and the Lower andUpper Keys. It is possible that these trends aredriven by regional circulation patterns arising fromthe Loop and Florida Currents.
Coastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef Economics
Much of South Florida is urban and its residentpopulation continues to expand. A total of 5.09million people resided in the four-county area ofSouth Florida (Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach,and Monroe Counties) in 2000, an increase of23.1% in the past 10 years (U.S. Bureau of theCensus 2002). Of this total, 2.25 million live inMiami-Dade, 80,000 live in Monroe (Florida
Keys), 1.13 million in Palm Beach, and 1.62 mil-lion in Broward counties.
Due to its climate and natural resources, SouthFlorida draws millions of seasonal and temporaryvisitors (Fig. 154). Miami-Dade County receives adaily summer average of 240,000 seasonal andtemporary visitors and a daily winter average of308,000 visitors. Each day, Broward Countyreceives between 140,000-320,000 visitors, de-pending on the season; Palm Beach County re-ceives 73,000-183,000 visitors; and MonroeCounty receives 30,000-36,000 visitors (Johns etal. 2001). Including these visitors gives Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, and Monroe Coun-ties, a functional population145 of 2.49-2.56 million,1.76-1.94 million, 1.2-1.3 million, and 110,000-116,000, respectively.
Johnset al. (2001) estimated market economiccontributions and non-market economic user valuesfor recreational use of artificial and natural reefs. Inthe four-county South Florida region, residents andvisitors spent 18.2 million person-days fishing,diving, and viewing natural coral reefs from glass-bottom boats, yielding an annual non-marketeconomic use value estimate of nearly $228
million. This annual value146 yields anestimate of the asset value of the naturalreefs at $7.6 billion. Additional informa-tion on the economic impact of tourismhas been summarized in Table 15.
In addition to supporting tourism in theregion, coral reefs play an important rolein maintaining Florida’s commercial andrecreational fisheries. In 2000, Monroe
Table 15. Recreation and tourism on natural reefs in Southeast Florida.*Totals for these economic values are likely to be underestimated, becausethe data do not include inter-regional flows (Source: Johns et al. 2001).
Figure 154. Visitors and residents at a South Florida beach(Photo: NOS Photo Gallery).
145 Functional populations include the number of people in a given area, on a given day, which demand local services (e.g., freshwater, sewage and solid waste disposal, electricity, transporation services). This number of people includes not only the permanent residents of an area, but also seasonal and temporary visitors.146 In calculating this value, it was capitalized at a real interest rate (i.e., ‘interest rate net of inflation’ of 3% into perpetuity).
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County commercial fishermen earned $53.2 millionin ex-vessel revenues (FWCC 2000). Since 40-60%of the commercial catch in this county is related tocoral reefs, it can be estimated that the reef-relatedcatch was worth $22-32 million. Subsequently, thisgenerated $35-52 million in local sales/output, $22-33 million in income, and 1,550-2,300 jobs (R.Leeworthy pers. comm.).
Recreational fisheries on natural reefs generated$171 million in output/sales, $44 million in in-come, and over 3,100 jobs. These totals are inclu-ded in Table 15. In 2000-2001, commercial andrecreational fisheries dependent on the natural reefsof the Florida Keys alone generated $206-223million in output/sales, $66-77 million in income,and supported 4,650-5,400 jobs in Monroe County.
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – Humans can inadvertently alterphysical characteristics of the reef environment,further stressing an ecosystem already combattingthe broader stresses of natural variability andglobal climate change. Impact from human activi-ties is likely greater in the Keys and along thesoutheastern coast than in the Middle Grounds.Due to its offshore location, the Middle Groundshas been somewhat protected, particularly frompollutants.
In the Florida Keys, the greatest immediatepressure is from the three million annual visitors(Leeworthy and Vanasse 1999) and the 80,000year-round residents. The population of MonroeCounty has grown 160% during the past 40 years,a 50,000 resident increase. Visits to the FloridaKeys increased by 15% in the two-year periodfrom 1995-96 to 1997-98, and averages 46,500-
58,700 visitors on any given day during the wintertourist season (Leeworthy and Vanasse 1999). In1995-1996, over 65% of visitors to the FloridaKeys participated in water-based activities, 31% ofwhich were snorkeling and SCUBA diving (Lee-worthy and Wiley 1996, Fig. 155). Since 1965, thenumber of registered private vessels has increasedover six-fold (DoC 1996, Fig. 146).
Damage by humans to hundreds of square kilome-ters of reef, seagrass, and related habitat over thelast 30 years has been documented for some time inthe Florida Keys. Boat groundings on coral, sea-grasses, and hardbottom areas, propeller scarring ofseagrass, accumulation of debris, breaking anddamaging corals with ship anchors, using destruc-tive fishing methods, and divers and snorkelersstanding on corals have all been documented invarious places.
Boat propellers have permanently damaged over121 km2 of seagrasses. Over 650 small boatgroundings were reported in the Sanctuary in 2000alone, with 158 of these affecting seagrass and 22impacting coral reef habitats. Large ships havebeen responsible for damaging or destroying over80,000 m2 of coral reef habitat in the Sanctuary.
Wastewater and stormwater treatment and solidwaste disposal facilities in the Keys are highlyinadequate, having a direct impact on water quality.However, some solutions to water quality problemsare being implemented. One of the larger oceanoutfalls off Key West that delivered approximatelyseven million gallons a day to the sea was recentlyreplaced with a deep-well injection system (morethan 914 m deep and below a containment layer)for treated effluent. Before injection, the effluent is
Figure 157. Currently, there are over 106,000 boatsregistered in south Florida (Photo: FKNMS).
Figure 155. Approximately 900,000 people dive or snorkel inthe Florida Keys each year (Photo: Paige Gill).
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treated according to USEPA Advanced WastewaterTreatment standards.
Another indirect impact is altered freshwater flowinto coastal waters. The South Florida Water Man-agement District has responsibility for managingthe flow and release of freshwater to the oceanthrough an extensive system of canals and locks. InFlorida Bay, reduced freshwater flow from watermanagement practices in South Florida has beenassociated with increased plankton blooms (eutro-phication), sponge and seagrass die-offs, and fishkills. Since Florida Bay and nearshore watersprovide critical nursery and juvenile habitat for avariety of reef species, the declines seen in theseareas indirectly affect the overall health andstructure of offshore coral reefs in the FloridaKeys. In addition, to control flooding, millions ofgallons of fresh water have periodically beenreleased into the canals and near-shore waters ofSouth Florida, creating problems for marinecommunities.
The highly urbanized coastal region along Florida’ssoutheastern coast puts its coral reefs under variedand chronic stress. During good weather, bothrecreational and commercial boating and fishingare very heavy on these reefs. The nearby Miami,Port Everglades, and Palm Beach ports handlecruise and container ships, oil tankers, and militaryvessels. In the past ten years, a number of moderateto severe large vessel groundings in SoutheasternFlorida have damaged the reef system (Fig. 157).Signs of anchor damage are also routinely seen.Four other large-vessel groundings have impactedareas of nearby Biscayne National Park.
Serial overfishing (Ault et al. 1998) throughoutSouth Florida has dramatically altered reef fish andother animal populations, contributing to an im-balance in relationships critical to sustaining coralreef diversity. In Biscayne National Park, 26 of 34fish species, or 77% of the fish stocks that wereexamined were overfished (Ault et al. 2001). Inaddition, certain types of fishing gear negativelyimpact reefs in Southeastern Florida.
Reef tracts off Boca Raton and Sunny Isles havebeen destroyed by dredging for beach renourish-ment, channel deepening, and channel mainte-nance. Chronic turbidity and silt deposition fromdredging and similar activities impact waterquality, indirectly affecting the reefs. These activi-ties smother sessile invertebrates, resulting in
barren areas. Fiber optic cables were deployedacross reefs in some areas, causing abrasion anddetachment of corals and sponges (Jaap 2000).
Introduced, competitive species add additionalstress. Within the past decade, several alien specieshave been identified on Florida Keys reefs. At leasteight species of marine mollusks have been intro-duced into South Florida and are expanding theirrange. Non-native marine crustaceans are equallydiverse and include six crab species, five shrimpspecies, three barnacles, four isopods, and onetanaid. Most of these species are foreign to NorthAmerican waters and were introduced through shiphull fouling or ballast water dumping (USGS2002).
The majority of Florida’s marine fish introductionshave come from released aquarium fish, withoccasional reports from divers of various exoticspecies living among native reef fish. For example,the Indo-Pacific lionfish (Pterois volitans) has beensighted on South Florida reefs (Courtney 1995).Another popular aquarium fish, the Pacific batfish(Platax orbicularus), was observed off the UpperKeys; two specimens were removed and deliveredto the New England Aquarium (B. Keller pers.comm.).
Natural VariabilityNatural VariabilityNatural VariabilityNatural VariabilityNatural Variability – In addition to the myriad ofhuman impacts affecting coral reef health inFlorida, natural environmental variability affectsthese habitats. Principal natural environmental
Figure 157. The M/V Firat grounded offshore of FortLauderdale, Florida (Photo: Greg McIntosh).
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impacts include hurricanes (Fig. 158), severestorms, winter cold fronts, cold-water upwelling,and ground water effects. Under normal conditions,corals and associated reef organisms tolerate acertain level of environmental stress and recover oracclimatize to sporadic events such as temperaturevariation or storms. The added human impacts andstresses may be prolonging the time needed as wellas the ability of these organisms and systems torecover from large-scale climate fluctuations andother global changes.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – Only about 50% of Florida’s coral reefand associated benthic habitats have been mapped.As a result, reliable estimates of the percentage ofcoral reef and related habitats, as well as the areaprotected by no-take provisions, cannot beaccurately computed state-wide.
Mapping efforts were undertaken in the Sanctuaryin the 1990s. FWC/FMRI and NOAA publisheddigital benthic habitat maps for the Florida Keys in1998 (FMRI/NOAA 1998, Fig. 159). Recently, theDry Tortugas region was characterized (Schmidt etal.1999). Also, Agassiz (1882) produced a remark-able baseline map of Dry Tortugas benthic habitats,which suggest a 0.4 km2 loss of elkhorn coral in a100-year period (Davis 1982). Mapping gaps existfor deeper regions of the Tortugas.
The reefs along the Southeastern Florida coast arenot as well studied. In 1999, Nova SoutheasternUniversity’s National Coral Reef Institute (NSU/NCRI) and the Broward County Department ofPlanning and Environmental Protection initiated
mapping of Broward County reefs. Atthis time, there is no comparable map-ping program in Palm Beach andMiami-Dade Counties.
Improved mapping has resulted fromaerial photos of near-shore areas andlaser-based bathymetry of the three reeftracts off Southeastern Florida forspecific projects. For example, detailedLADS (laser depth sounding) bathym-etry is complete for all of BrowardCounty, offshore to 36 m. A smalleramount of the area is also mapped withmultibeam bathymetry and side-scansonar.
Estimates of benthic cover are available from somemonitoring programs. There is a general reef distri-bution map in Jaap and Hallock (1990).
No mapping of the Florida Middle Grounds hasbeen conducted to date.
Monitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and Research – Inthe Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, acomprehensive research and monitoring programhas been implemented to establish baseline infor-mation on the various components of the ecosys-tem and help ascertain possible causes and effectsof changes. This way, research and monitoring canensure the effective implementation of manage-ment strategies using the best available scientificinformation.
Research and monitoring are conducted by manygroups, including Local, State, and Federal agen-cies, public and private universities, private re-
Figure 158. Several hurricanes have recently hit Florida, impacting itsreefs (Photo: South Florida Water Management District).
Figure 159. A portion of the benthic habitat map of theFlorida Keys (Map: FMRI/NOAA).
Bare SubstrateContinuous SeagrassHardbottomInland WaterPatch ReefPatchy SeagrassPlatform MarginUnknown BottomLand
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search foundations, environmental organizations,and independent researchers. The Sanctuary facili-tates and coordinates research by registeringresearchers through a permitting system, recruitinginstitutions for priority research activities, oversee-ing data management, and disseminating findingsto the scientific community and the public.
The Water Quality Protection Program (WQPP),funded by the USEPA and recently, NOAA, is themost comprehensive, long-term monitoring pro-gram in the Florida Keys. Begun in 1994, it moni-tors three components: water quality, seagrasses,and corals/hardbottom communities. Reef fishes,spiny lobster, queen conch, and benthic cover arealso monitored throughout the Sanctuary.
Water quality has been monitored at 154 fixedstations since 1995. Water samples are collected formeasuring salinity, temperature, dissolved oxygen,turbidity, relative fluorescence, and light attenua-tion. Water chemistry includes nitrate, nitrite,ammonium, dissolved inorganic nitrogen, andsoluble reactive phosphate. Concentrations of totalorganic nitrogen, total organic carbon, total phos-phorus, and silicate are also measured, along withchlorophylla and alkaline phosphatase activity(Jones and Boyer 2001).
Seagrass monitoring under the WQPP identifies thedistribution and abundance of seagrasses within theSanctuary and tracks changes over time. Quarterlymonitoring is conducted at 30 fixed stations andannual monitoring occurs at 206 to 336 randomly-selected sites (Fourqurean et al. 2001, WQPP2002). Permanent stations are co-located at 30 ofthe water quality monitoring sites to help discernrelationships between seagrass health and waterquality. This long-term monitoring is also invalu-able for determining human impacts on the Sanct-uary’s seagrass communities.
The Coral Reef/Hardbottom Monitoring Project(CRMP 2002) tracks the status and trends of coraland hardbottom communities throughout the Sanct-uary (Jaap et al. 2001, Fig 160). The project’s 43permanent sites include hardbottom, patch reef,shallow offshore reef, and deep offshore reef com-munities. Biodiversity, coral condition, and coralcover are recorded annually at four stations withineach site, for a total of 172 stations.
In addition to the WQPP, a Zone MonitoringProgram monitors the 24 discrete marine reserves
located within the Sanctuary. Implemented in 1997,the goal of the program is to determine whetherthese fully protected zones effectively protectmarine biodiversity and enhance human valuesrelated to the Sanctuary. Parameters measuredinclude the abundance and size of fish, inverte-brates, and algae, as well as economic and aestheticvalues of the Sanctuary and compliance withregulations. This program monitors changes inecosystem structure (size and number of inverte-brates, fish, corals, and other organisms) andfunction (coral recruitment, herbivory, predation).Human uses of zoned areas are also tracked.
Lastly, continuous monitoring of certain physicalparameters of seawater and ocean condition isrecorded by instruments (C-MAN stations)installed along the Florida Reef Tract as part of theSEAKEYS program (SEAKEYS 2002). There aresix C-MAN stations from Fowey Rocks to the DryTortugas, and one in Florida Bay. These stationsgather data and periodically transmit it to satellites,where it is converted to near real-time reportsavailable on the Internet. For the past ten years theSanctuary has maintained a network of 27thermographs that record water temperature everytwo hours, located both inshore and offshorethroughout the Keys.
As baselines are being documented, Sanctuarymanagers are developing a comprehensive scienceplan outlining specific management objectives andtheir associated monitoring and research needs.This is an evolving, adaptive management ap-proach to help ensure management decisions aresupported by the best available science. Thescience plan will identify high-priority research andmonitoring projects to help fill gaps in understand-
Figure 160. Photo-monitoring of corals within the FKNMS(Photo: Mike White).
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ing the ecosystem and its responses to managementactions.
Recognizing the importance of an ecosystemapproach to management, the Sanctuary engagesagencies working on theComprehensive EvergladesRestoration Plan to achieveappropriate restoration goalsfor the entire ecosystem,including coral reefs andseagrasses. Active monitor-ing of natural resources is aSanctuary priority, so thatchanges occurring as aresult of water managementregimes and restoration canbe detected.
Along Florida’s southeast-ern coast, much of the present monitoring origi-nated as impact and mitigation studies for projectsthat had adverse impacts to specific sites (dredging,ship groundings, pipeline and cable deployments,and beach renourishment). In the past, such studieshave been of limited duration (one to three years)and the focus has been largely on beach renourish-ment, restoration for grounding impacts, and somebaseline data collection from reference areas.
Monitoring has begun in Broward County at 23fixed 30-m2 sites for environmental conditions(sedimentation quantities and rates, water quality,and temperature), and coral, sponge, and fish abun-dance and/or cover (Fig. 161). There have been anumber of discrete fish surveys on the reefs ofMiami-Dade and Palm Beach counties, most ofwhich have been associated with beach renourish-ment projects or artificial reef management
(Lindeman and Snyder 1999, Light 2001, C. Avilapers. comm.).
However, there is a concerted effort of NSU/NCRIscientists to complete a baseline survey of reeffishes off Broward County (Ettinger et al. 2001,Harttunget al. 2001). Initiated in 1998, thisNOAA-funded survey is recording fishes on theedges and crests of the three major reef lines. Atthis time, more than 600 point-counts have beencompleted, and the full survey will be completedby mid-2002. In addition, during summer 2001,NSU/NCRI scientists inventoried fish on the first30 m of the inshore reef at 158-m intervals for 25km of shoreline using multiple visual techniques(point-count, 30 m transects, and 20 min randomswim) (Baron et al. 2001). Broward County nowhas a database comprised of more than 1000 visualcensuses from the shore to 30 m for reef fish.
Researchers at NSU/NCRI arealso currently involved in amultivariate, hypothesis-drivenstudy that looks at the interac-tion of fish, transplanted corals,coral recruits, and potentialcoral attractants or optimalsubstrates (Fig. 162). Researchvariables include four poten-tially different fish assem-blages (determined by reefcomplexity) and biofilm andcoral recruitment on settlementplates of made of concrete,concrete and iron, concrete and
quarry rock, or concrete and coral transplants.Results of this three-year study should yieldinformation critical to reef restoration.
The Florida Middle Grounds do not have any on-going, formal monitoring programs at this time.Overall, the development of a comprehensivemonitoring program for the reefs of southeasternFlorida and the Florida Middle Grounds wouldprovide a better understanding of current condi-tions for fish and corals in these regions and wouldpromote more effective management.
MPAs and Fully Protected Reserves MPAs and Fully Protected Reserves MPAs and Fully Protected Reserves MPAs and Fully Protected Reserves MPAs and Fully Protected Reserves – As withmonitoring, assessment, and research programs,coral reef conservation and management throughthe designation and implementation of marineprotected areas (MPAs) varies widely. The largestand best-known MPA in Florida, the Florida Keys
Figure 161. Coral reef monitoring along Florida’s southeast-ern coast (Photo: NCRI).
Figure 162. Detail of an artificial reef that isbeing used by NCRI to study reef restorationtechniques (Photo: NCRI).
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National Marine Sanctuary, was designated in1990, placing 9,850 km2 of coastal waters and1,381 km2 of coral reef area under NOAA and Stateof Florida management. Immediate protectivemeasures were instituted as a result of Sanctuarydesignation, including prohibitions on oil andhydrocarbon exploration, mining and otherwisealtering the seabed, and restrictions on large shiptraffic. Coral reefs wereprotected by prohibitinganchoring on coral, touchingcoral, and harvesting orcollecting coral and ‘liverock.’ To address waterquality concerns, dischargesfrom within the Sanctuaryand areas outside the Sanctu-ary that could potentiallyenter and affect local re-sources were also restricted.
In addition, in 1997 theSanctuary instituted a net-work of marine zones toaddress a variety of manage-ment objectives. Five typesof zones were designed andimplemented to achievebiodiversity conservation,wildlife protection, and theseparation of incompatibleuses, among other goals.Three of the zone types(sanctuary preservationareas, ecological reserves,and special use/research-only areas) are fully pro-tected areas, or marinereserves, where lobstering,fishing, spearfishing, shellcollecting, and all otherconsumptive activities areprohibited.
The 1997 zoning planestablished 23 discrete fullyprotected zones that encompass 65% of theSanctuary’s shallow coral reef habitats. The largestzone at that time, the 30.8 km2 Western SamboEcological Reserve, protects offshore reefs as wellas other critical habitats, including mangrovefringe, seagrasses, productive hardbottom commu-nities, and patch reefs. In July 2001 the 517.9 km2
Tortugas Ecological Reserve was implemented(Fig. 163). It is now the largest of the Sanctuary’sfully protected zones. Located in the westernmostportion of the Florida Reef Tract, the Reserveconserves important deep-water reef resources andfish communities unique to this region of theFlorida Keys. Together with the other fully pro-tected zones, the Tortugas Ecological Reserve
increased the total protectedarea of coral reefs within theSanctuary to 10%.
The Tortugas EcologicalReserve is also significantbecause it adjoins a 157.8 km2
Research Natural Area in theDry Tortugas National Park, azone where shallow seagrass,coral, sand, and mangrovecommunities are now con-served. Anchoring is prohib-ited in the Research NaturalArea, and scientific researchand educational activitiesconsistent with managementof this zone require advancepermits from the National ParkService. To protect importantfish nursery and spawningsites, no fishing is allowed inthe Research Natural Area.Wildlife viewing, snorkeling,diving, boating and sight-seeing are managed in thiszone primarily throughcommercial tour guides.Together, the Sanctuary’sTortugas Ecological Reserveand the National Park’sResearch Natural Area fullyprotect near-shore to deep reefhabitats of the Tortugas regionand form the largest, perma-nent marine reserve in theUnited States.
Overall, the Sanctuary management regime uses anecosystem-wide approach to comprehensivelyaddress the variety of impacts, pressures, andthreats to Florida Keys marine ecosystems. It isonly through this inclusive approach that the com-plex problems facing coral reefs can be adequatelyaddressed.
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Figure 163. Recently established MPAs locatedoffshore of Florida: A. Tortugas EcologicalReserve B. Madison-Swanson Spawning Site andC. Steamboat Lumps Spawning Site (Photos:NOAA Photo Library and NPS).
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Biscayne National Park encompasses 683 km2 ofwaters just south of Miami, including the majorityof Biscayne Bay and a substantial portion of thenorthern reef tract with 291 km2 of coral reefs. ThePark is renowned for its productive coastal bay,nearshore, and offshore habitats, including islands,mangrove shorelines, seagrass beds, hardbottomcommunities, and coral reefs, which provideimportant recreational opportunities and spectacu-lar scenic areas. The National Park Service isconcerned about degradation of Park resources inthe face of coastal development, increases in thenumber of recreational boats visiting the Park, andfishing pressure. The Park is revising its GeneralManagement Plan to provide for managementzones that would give greater protection to Parkresources, including Natural Resources Reserveareas where fish nurseries and spawning habitatswould be protected from fishing and disturbance.In addition, the Park is developing a cooperativeplan with the State of Florida to adopt a coordi-nated and seamless approach to protecting andrestoring fishery resources both within and outsidePark boundaries.
The Key West National Wildlife Refuge and theGreat White Heron National Wildlife Refugeoverlap with portions of the Florida Keys NationalMarine Sanctuary in the backcountry of the lowerKeys and an extensive area around the MarquesasIslands between Key West and the Dry Tortugas.The Refuges, established in 1908 and 1938 respec-tively, contain over 1,619 km2 (400,000 acres) oflush seagrass beds, reef tract, patch reefs, hard-bottom community, and pristine mangrove islets. Acooperative agreement with the State of Florida onthe management of these submerged lands created
a number of wildlife management zones in theRefuges. These zones direct human activities awayfrom sensitive wildlife and habitats, and help toensure their continued conservation. The U.S. Fishand Wildlife Service, as administrators of theNational Wildlife Refuge System, works coopera-tively with the State and the Sanctuary for theprotection of these sites.
Of the dozen or so State Parks in Southeast Florida,two are considered marine. One of the oldestmarine parks in the world (acquisition began in1959), the John Pennekamp Coral Reef State Parkis located in Monroe County on Key Largo. Itcovers 249 km2 (61,531 acres) and has 461 km2 ofcoral reefs, seagrass beds, and mangrove swamps.Lignumvitae Key Botanical State Park, whichincludes Shell Key, is located in Monroe County,west of Islamorada. The Park’s submerged habitatsare located in Florida Bay and the Atlantic Ocean,and include fringing mangrove forest, extensiveseagrass beds, patch reef, and sand flats.
Reefs off the southeastern coast and the banks ofthe Middle Grounds have some protection throughvarious MPAs, but neither region is as comprehen-sively protected tas the Florida Keys. North of VeroBeach, the Oculina Bank Habitat Area of ParticularConcern (HAPC) was established in 1984 and iscurrently under the management of NOAA’sNational Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) and theSouth Atlantic Fishery Management Council. TheHAPC runs along the central Florida eastern coast,from Ft. Pierce to Cape Canaveral, and protectsdeep-water pinnacles of ivory coral (Oculina spp.)This habitat has been identified as easily impactedby fishing activities, including destruction bydredges, trawlers, and long-line fishing gear.
The Madison-Swanson and Steamboat LumpsSpawning Sites were established in June 2000under authority of the Magnuson-Stevens FisheriesConservation and Management Act and will be man-aged by NMFS and the Gulf of Mexico FisheryManagement Council. These MPAs, located off-shore on the West Florida shelf, were created toprotect spawning aggregations of gag (Myctero-perca microlepis) as well as other reef and pelagicfish species from fishing activities. Deepwaterhabitats are also protected from fishery-relatedimpacts. These areas are closed to all fishing for aperiod of four years in order to evaluate the effectsof fishing on spawning aggregations.
Figure 164. Mangrove prop roots serve as important nurserysites for certain fish species (Photo: Matt Kendall).
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The Florida Middle Grounds HAPC was estab-lished in 1984 to protect this deeper coral habitat.Located approximately 70 nautical miles to thenorthwest of Clearwater, FL, the HAPC prohibitsthe use of several types of commercial gear,including fish traps, to protect and maintain fishstocks. The HAPC is under the management ofNMFS and the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Manage-ment Council.
Gaps in Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Monitoring and ConservationCapacityCapacityCapacityCapacityCapacity
Current monitoring in the Florida Keys NationalMarine Sanctuary has largely focused on detectingchanges within the fully protected zones anddetermining Sanctuary-wide status and trends ofwater quality, seagrasses, and corals. Some trendsare beginning to show, providing a source ofhypotheses to be tested. Continued monitoring iscritical. These data will facilitate detecting long-term changes in communities both locally andecosystem-wide.
Reef monitoring programs in southeastern Floridaare limited by a near total lack of comprehensiveinventories and assessments of marine communi-ties in this area. Baseline assessments with moni-toring programs at sites located off each of thecounties in the region are needed. The first stepshould be to develop a functional classification ofthe reef habitats. For effective selection of monitor-ing sites, this classification should incorporatecriteria to ensure that both representative habitatsand unique sites receive attention.
The databases of reef fish in Broward, Miami-Dade, and Palm Beach Counties are based onvisual survey techniques that can overlook asubstantial number of cryptic species (as many as37% in a recent Caribbean survey, Collette et al.2001). Thus, intensive and broad-scale monitoringneeds to be done to obtain a complete picture of theresident ichthyofauna. In addition, the fish below30 m are poorly characterized and exploited byrecreational fishers.
Likewise, the reef fish communities from seagrassand mangrove habitats of Port Everglades and theIntracoastal Waterway (ICW) remain a mystery.Given the high level of human activity in the areaand since these are potentially important nurserysites (Leis 1991, Fig. 164), there is need forimmediate clarification.
A formal monitoring program should also beinstituted in the Florida Middle Grounds. Ideally,stations would be established based on the sitessurveyed by Hopkins et al. in 1977. The ability tocompare the area’s current status with previousdata would be helpful in detecting changes overtime. To that end, video transects and methodscomparable to the 1977 work should be employed.
The reefs along the southeast coast and the MiddleGrounds banks should be fully mapped. The datashould be consistent with state, national, andinternational programs, and should be rapidlydisseminated for public consumption. A regionalarchive should be established.
Government Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislation
When President George Bush signed the FloridaKeys National Marine Sanctuary and ProtectionAct into law in 1990, the FKNMS became the firstnational marine sanctuary designated by Congress.Its authority, along with the 12 other nationalmarine sanctuaries, is established under the Na-tional Marine Sanctuaries Act (NMSA) of 1972, 16U.S.C. 1431 et seq., as amended. The Sanctuary isadministered by NOAA under the Department ofCommerce, and is managed jointly with the Stateof Florida under a co-trustee agreement becauseover half of the waters of the Sanctuary are stateterritorial waters. The co-trustee agreement com-mits the Sanctuary to a periodic review of themanagement plan; the first review will be in 2002.
In 1997, a comprehensive management plan for theSanctuary was implemented. It contains ten actionplans and associated strategies for conserving,protecting, and managing the significant naturaland cultural resources of the Florida Keys marineenvironment.
Largely non-regulatory, the strategies educatecitizens and visitors, use volunteers to buildstewardship for local marine resources,appropriately mark channels and waterways, installand maintain mooring buoys for vessel use, surveysubmerged cultural resources, and protect waterquality. As described previously, the Sanctuarymanagement plan also designated five types ofmarine zones to reduce pressures in heavily usedareas, protect critical habitats and species, andseparate use conflicts.
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A total of 24 fully protected zones were imple-mented in 1997 and 2001, covering approximately6% of the Sanctuary, but protect 65% of shallowbank reef habitats and about 10% of coral resour-ces. Most of the smaller zones (sanctuary preserva-tion areas) are located along the offshore reef tractsand encompass the most heavily used spur andgroove coral formations. In these areas, all con-sumptive activities are prohibited. The effective-ness of these zones and other biological and chem-ical parameters are monitored under the Researchand Monitoring Action Plan of the Sanctuary.
Commercial fishing remains one of the largestindustries in the Florida Keys (Fig. 165), but it isregulated heavily by State and Federal fisherymanagement councils. Regulations for mostcommercial invertebrates and finfish includeannual catch quotas, closed seasons, gear catch sizerestrictions. The State also collects landing infor-mation on approximately 400 kinds of fish, inverte-brates, and plants to track trends in catch and toevaluate regulations (DoC 1996).
The reefs of southeastern Florida are in Stateterritorial waters and protected from some impactsby State statutes and regulations. These include
Figure 165. Both shrimp (A) and lobster (B) fisheries are important industriesin South Florida (Photo: Paige Gill, FKNMS and NOAA).
fishing regulations, dredging permits, and a statuteprotecting corals from harvest, sale, or destruction.Broward County has a small boat mooring programintended to reduce anchoring impacts on reefs.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
Overall, immediate action is needed to curtailalarming declines in coral reef condition through-out Florida. Local communities that are culturallyand economically supported by coral reefs mustemploy management strategies and focus onalleviating controllable human impacts. Forexample, in southeastern Florida, the environmen-tal impacts of fisheries, dredging, vessel anchor-ages, freshwater management, and nutrient inputshould receive attention to maximize protection tothe reefs in this area. In the Florida Keys, solutionsthat address wastewater and stormwater problems,habitat degradation, and overfishing must bepursued.
At the regional level, elected officials and policy-makers should work to conserve and protectwatersheds, reduce emissions, and decrease energyuse. Citizens, elected officials, and MPA managersmust work together to improve water quality,
minimize physical impacts to coralsand seagrasses, employ sustainablefishing practices, reduce pollution,and save energy.
Globally, strict air pollution stan-dards must be adopted, carbondioxide emissions reduced, andrenewable energy technologiesemployed to curb global warmingtrends. International policies onglobal climate change should beadopted and implemented. Compre-hensive coral reef protection willultimately require both proactivelocal steps and engaging leadersregionally and globally on climatechange issues.AAAAA BBBBB
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IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico is approxi-mately 1,600 km from Miami and lies between theisland of Hispaniola and the US Virgin Islands.These islands – the main island of Puerto Rico andfive smaller islands – are the smallest and eastern-most in the Greater Antilles. They have a combinedland area of about 8,897 km2 and a linear coastlineof 620 km. Two of the small islands off the easterncoast of the main island are inhabited (Culebra andVieques); the three islands off the western coast arenot (Mona, Monito, Desecheo).
The island of Puerto Rico is almost rectangular (56.3km by 161 km) with a mountainous interior formedby a central mountain chain (covering 60%), extend-ing east to west across the island. The main islandhas coral growth along much of the insular shelf,but reef development is mostly restricted to theeastern, southern, and western coasts as a result ofphysical, climatic, and oceanic conditions.
With the exception of Monito Island, NOAArecently mapped Puerto Rico’s coral reef ecosys-tem and associated habitats (e.g., sand, hardbottom,algae, mangroves) to a depth of about 20 m, anddelineated a total coral reef ecosystem area of5,009.6 km2 (Kendall et al. 2001). Coral reef andcolonized hardbottom habitat comprised 756.2 km2
(15.1%) of the total area, seagrass habitat covered
624.8 km2 (12.5%), macro-algal dominated areascovered 96.7 km2 (1.9%), and the mangrove fringecovered 72.6 km2 (1.4%).
Puerto Rico, Culebra, and Vieques are nearlycompletely ringed with reefs. Submerged hard-substrate rock reefs are found on the northwesternand western coast of Puerto Rico with moderate tohigh topographic relief and high cover of turf algaeand patchy coral growth. Flat eolianite reefs (rockformed on land by cementation of calcareous dunesands), are mostly along the northern coast ofPuerto Rico with high cover of turf algae, sponges,and isolated encrusting corals. Fringing reefs arefound mainly in the eastern, southern, and westerncoasts of Puerto Rico, Culebra, and Vieques.Northern fringing reefs are characterized byshallow (1-3 m) back-reef communities dominatedby finger coral Porites porites and scattered coralcolonies of different species.
Shelf-edge reefs are the best-developed but leaststudied coral reef ecosystems in Puerto Rico. Anextensive reef formation is found at the shelf-edgeoff the southern coast, from Guayanilla to CaboRojo. This displays a typical spur-and-groovepattern with sand channels cutting through the shelfperpendicular to the coastline (Fig. 166). Off LaParguera, the reef starts at 18 m and continuesdown the shelf slope to at least 35 m. Optimal reefdevelopment can be found at 20 m at the shelf-break.
Some of Puerto Rico’s best developed shelf-edgereefs are found off the western and southwesternsections of Desecheo and Mona Islands. Both ofthese systems are perhaps fringing reefs that extendall the way to the shelf-edge due to the smallextension of the insular shelf in these oceanicislands. The waters that surround these oceanicreefs receive minimal terrigenous inputs.
Patch reefs are relatively small, submerged coralreef systems surrounded by soft sediments. Theseare poorly known due to their small size and thus,are excluded from nautical charts. Nevertheless,these small patch reefs may be significant due totheir high abundance in some places (Fig. 167),
STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICOSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF PUERTO RICO
Cruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto DíazCruz A. Matos, Jorge R. García, and Ernesto Díaz
Figure 166. Detail of a spur-and-groove formation (Photo:Matt Kendall).
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such as La Parguera, Cordillerade Fajardo, Mayagüez Bay,Guayanilla Bay, Mona Island,Rincon, and Aguadilla.
Coral cover generally increaseswith distance from shore with10-50% live coral at shelf-edgereefs (Morelock et al. 2001). Atshelf-edge sites on the reef plat-form, boulder star corals domi-nate at 3-15 m, with colonies upto 5 m in height; living coralextends to at least 40 m(Bruckner 1999, J. Morelockpers. comm.).
Desecheo Island off the western coast is managedby the USFWS as a National Wildlife Refuge (Fig.168). This has well-developed coral reefs to thesouth and southwest. Surveys conducted between1997 and 1999 found live coral cover at four reefsites ranged from 38-48%, soft coral cover from 1-10%, and algal cover from 24-28 %. A high inci-dence of bleaching (13-29%)was noted during January 1999surveys. Also at that time, 17%of the corals on CandlesticksReef were diseased (ReefKeeper International summer1999).
Mona Island, a small, uninhab-ited island located within MonaPassage, lies 73 km to the westof Puerto Rico and 65 km eastof the Dominican Republic. The
emergent lands are managed bythe DNER as a Natural Reserve.This island forms the top of anunderwater ridge separating theCaribbean Basin from the Atlan-tic Ocean; the narrow insularplatform drops rapidly into deepwater (366-1,159 m).
There are extensive, well-devel-oped reefs off the western,southern, and eastern coasts ofMona. The best-developed reefsare on the southwestern coast,near the edge of the insular shelf
where coral cover ranges from 10-45% and isdominated by massive boulder star corals andboulder brain corals. The southeastern coast has anarrow back reef and a well-developed reef crestdominated by elkhorn coral and symmetrical braincoral (Diploria strigosa). Deeper environments aremostly hard ground with isolated corals (A.Bruckner unpub. data).
Condition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral Reefs
Without long-term monitoring data, it is difficult togeneralize reef conditions in Puerto Rico. Lackingbaseline data on live coral cover, overgrowth byalgae and other biota encrusting coral skeletons hasbeen used to indicate reef degradation.
CoralCoralCoralCoralCoral – Overall, 93 coral taxa, including 43scleractinian corals, 42 octocorals, 4 antipatharians,and 4 hydrocorals have been reported from PuertoRico (A. Bruckner pers. comm.).
Reefs ringing the main island are threatened and atplaces degraded, primarily because of their proxim-
ity to coastal development.Coral reefs off Puerto Rico nearLa Parguera, Desecheo Island,and Vieques Island have thehighest abundance and cover ofliving coral. But these reefshave also been degraded byhuman and natural impacts.
Recent studies of the coastalwaters of Descheo indicate thatthese coral reefs are probablythe best-developed and healthi-est in Puerto Rico, with about
Figure 169. Coral damaged by coral-livorous snails (Photo: Margaret Miller).
Figure 167. Patch reef (Photo: MattKendall).
Figure 168. Desecheo National Wildlife Refuge (Photo:USFWS).
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70% coral cover and high water clarity (Armstronget al. 2001).
Staghorn and elkhorn coral populations havedeclined in most locations over the last 25 yearsfrom hurricane damage, white-band disease, andcorallivorous mollusks (Fig. 169, Goenaga 1991,Bruckneret al. 1997, Williams et al. 2000). Vaststretches of elkhorn coral on the eastern coast ofPuerto Rico, which appeared healthy in 1979, havebeen decimated possibly as a consequence ofwhite-band disease (Goenaga and Boulon 1992).Extensive thickets of elkhorn coral formerly dom-inated shallow reef habitats (0-5 m). A few outerreefs still had extensive thickets as recently as 1998(Fig. 170), but hurricane Georges heavily damagedthese so that now only one thicket remains betweenMargarita and San Cristobel (Morelock et al.2001).
Flourishing stands of staghorn coral can be foundin shallow back-reef sites off San Cristobel; thisspecies has recovered considerably since Hurricane
Georges on Mario reef although white-band diseaseis prevalent. Isolated colonies of staghorn coraloccur at 5-15 m on outer reefs and at 18-20 m onshelf-edge reefs (Bruckner unpub. data). Densethickets still exist in areas that have been affectedby disease for over seven years (Fig. 171, A.Bruckner unpub. data).
Several hurricanes and white-band disease are alsoresponsible for large losses of staghorn coral duringthe 1980s and early 1990s near La Parguera. Thesepopulations have continued to decline from dis-ease, increased predation pressure by corallivorousmollusks, and Hurricane Georges (Bruckner et al.1997, Morelock et al. 2001). White-band disease isalso prevalent among elkhorn coral colonies off LaParguera, with up to 10% of the population affectedat any given time.
Several large stands of staghorn coral and yellowpencil coral (Madracis mirabilis) formerly existedon Mona Island in 6-15 m, but were destroyed byHurricane Georges, and little recovery has beennoted as of August 2001.
Disease has taken its toll. white-band disease,yellow-blotch disease, white plague II, black-banddisease, white plague, and seafan fungus have allaffected the coral.
Black-band disease was first observed in PuertoRico in 1972 but the incidence of disease sincethen has not been as prevalent as elsewhere (Fig.172, Antonius 1981, Peters 1984). Bruckner (1999)monitored disease prevalence on reefs off thenorthwestern (Jobos/Isabel), western (Rincon), andsouthwestern coast (La Parguera) between 1994-1998, and identified several reefs with outbreaks ofblack-band disease. Disease occurrence varied
Figure 170. Today, few elkhorn coral thickets remain inPuerto Rico (Photo: Matt Kendall).
Figure 171. Despite disease and hurricane damage, staghorncoral thickets still occur in many areas (Photo: NCRI).
Figure 172. Black-band disease on a boulder brain coral(Photo: E.C. Peters).
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seasonally and with depth on individual reefs, butinfected corals were identified on near-shore reefsas well as offshore shelf-edge sites to 30 m.
White plague type II emerged on reefs of PuertoRico shortly after Hurricane Hortense (1996), andspread to more than 50% of the brain coral popula-tion on one inner reef near La Parguera (Brucknerand Bruckner 1997). White plague has been ob-served on most other reefs in La Parguera, and alsonear Mona Island since 1999, but disease preva-lence has remained fairly low (Bruckner unpub.obs.).
Yellow-blotch disease was discovered on reefs offMona Island and Desecheo in 1996, and on tworeefs near La Parguera in 1997, but few colonieswere affected. By 1999, however, surveys on reefsoff the western coast of Mona revealed that up to50% of the massive boulder star corals were infect-ed with yellow-blotch disease, and the disease wasfound on all other reefs examined near Mona (Fig.173, Bruckner and Bruckner 2000).
Algae and Higher Marine Plants Algae and Higher Marine Plants Algae and Higher Marine Plants Algae and Higher Marine Plants Algae and Higher Marine Plants – First noted inthe 1970s (Mckenzie and Benton 1972, Vicente1978), the massive macroalgal cover on some near-shore reefs off Puerto Rico continues to be a sourceof coral mortality. For many of those reefs, theovergrowth of macroalgae is indicative of eutrophi-cation and a result of high nutrient loads from sew-age and urban outfalls.
There are extensive seagrass beds in the shallowwaters around nearshore and inner reefs of PuertoRico (Fig. 174). Mangroves fringe the southerncoast of Puerto Rico and elsewhere.
Large Mobile Invertebrates Large Mobile Invertebrates Large Mobile Invertebrates Large Mobile Invertebrates Large Mobile Invertebrates – Astaxonomic inventories are conducted ofPuerto Rico’s coral reef ecosystem overthe next several years, the total numberof species should be much increased.Surveys conducted between 1985 and1999 monitored a total of 25 species ofmotile megabenthic invertebrates, rep-resenting five different phyla on 40 reefsand 17 seagrass/algal bed habitats (J.Garcia pers. comm.). Twelve additionalreefs from four sites have been surveyedduring 2000, as part of Puerto RicoDNER’s coral reef monitoring program.
Five invertebrate species were identifiedby R. García (pers. comm.) from six
different reefs – the spotted spiny and Caribbeanspiny lobsters (Panulirus guttatus and P. argus),and the slate, rock-boring and long-spined seaurchins (Eucidaris tribuloides, Echinometralucunter and Diadema antillarum). In seagrasshabitats, the slate sea-urchin and the Caribbeanvase (Vasum muricatum) were the most commonlyfound.
In 1983-1984, 90-95% of the long-spined seaurchin, were killed by a suspected water-bornepathogen. Vicente and Goenaga (1984) reported themass mortality around the coastline of the mainisland and provided a general description of dyingspecimens from field observations. The loss ofherbivorous urchins altered reef habitats, as thickmats of fleshy and filamentous macroalgae coveredthe reefs, resulting in declines of coral species,crustose coralline algal covers and clionid sponges.
Figure 173. Progression of yellow-blotch disease over a one-year period ona mountainous star coral on Mona Island (Photo: Andy Bruckner).
August 1999August 1999August 1999August 1999August 1999 August 2000August 2000August 2000August 2000August 2000
Figure 174. A seagrass bed in Puerto Rico (Photo: MattKendall).
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The urchins have since reappeared but the popula-tion is now only around a tenth of its originalabundance.
Recently, researchers have expressed concern overlarge populations of the encrusting sponge (Clionaspp.) colonizing much of the exposed substratesformerly dominated by elkhorn coral. Thesesponges have also overgrown many other speciesof corals near La Parguera, Mona Island, andelsewhere (Williams et al. 1999, Bruckner andBruckner in press, E. Weil pers. comm.).
Fish and Fisheries Fish and Fisheries Fish and Fisheries Fish and Fisheries Fish and Fisheries – Although no marine speciesare endemic to Puerto Rico, FishBase (2002) lists242 reef-associated fish species. A total of 158diurnal, non-cryptic fish have been identified fromshallow reef and seagrass habitats during surveysoff Puerto Rico (J. García pers. obs.). Preliminaryanalysis shows a positive correlation between fishspecies diversity, abundance,and live coral cover in shal-low reefs (Fig. 175). The datais now being analyzed to de-scribe the dominant popula-tions from shallow reefs (1-10 m), deep reefs (11-25 m),rock reefs, hardbottom, andseagrass/algal beds.
Reef fisheries have plummetedduring the last two decades, andshow the classic signs of over-fishing: reduced total landings,declining catch per unit effort,shifts to smaller fish, andrecruitment failures. Fish landings reported be-tween 1979 and 1990 fell 69%. (Appledoorn et al.1992).
The decline in large fish and the massive die-off ofthe long-spined sea urchin may have caused amajor shift in the community structure of manyPuerto Rico reefs from coral- to algae-dominatedcommunities. Additionally, the lack of herbivoressuch as parrotfishes and large fish predators hasstimulated a proliferation of small fish. Damselfish(Stegastes planifrons), in particular, harm reefsbecause they bite and kill coral polyps to promotealgae growth for their young (Fig. 176). This hasbeen confirmed through the coral reef characteriza-tions and subsequent monitoring activities in theNatural Reserves (García-Sais et al. 1999-2001unpub. data, E. Hernández and R. Nemeth pers. obs.).
Persistent and increasing fishing of the spiny lob-ster (Panulirus argus) has substantially reducedthis predator in shallow reefs. Consequently, therehas been a proliferation of one of its favorite prey,
the corallivorous gastropodsin this area.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – High sedi-mentation, turbidity, andnutrient loading have beenassociated with coral reefdegradation in a number ofreef systems off Puerto Ricoby different authors (Garcíaet al. 1985, Acevedo andMorelock 1988, Castro andGarcía 1996, García andCastro 1997, Hernández-Delgado 1995). In theirqualitative inventory of reefs,
Goenaga and Cintrón (1979) noted high sedimenta-tion affected reefs along the northern coast as wellas those along the southern and western coasts inbays used for ocean cargo (e.g., Guayanilla,Mayagüez).
Fringing, patch, and shelf-edge reefs off the south-ern coast of the main island have been degraded byhigh sediment influx, turbidity, and generally havelower numbers of living coral cover than thoseobserved off Parguera. Acevedo and Morelock(1988) provided a quantitative assessment ofsediment impact on southern coast coral reefs bymeasuring reductions of live coral cover from reefsin areas located close to sediment sources. Deadand dying coral were identified off Mayagüez,Guayanilla, and Ponce especially in areas impactedby dredging activities, sewage outfalls, industrial
Figure 175. A group of abundant blue tangs on a shallowreef (Photo credit: Matt Kendall).
Figure 176. The damage done to the coral inthe upper left-hand corner was caused bybites from a territorial three-spot damselfish(Photos: Margaret Miller and J.E. Randall,FishBase).
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discharge, ship traffic,and river discharge.
On the southwesterncoast, clear-cutting ofthe hillsides surroundingLa Parguera has contrib-uted to increased sedi-ment runoff during rainy periods. Additionally,local sewage is discharged into a mangrove channeland reefs may be affected by sewage dischargefrom upstream sources (e.g., off Guayanilla,Guanica, and Ponce).
Western near-shore reefs are subjected to highturbidity, sediment influx from three rivers, nutri-ents and sewage from agriculture, the Mayagüezoutfall, and tuna canneries. OffJobos Bay National EstuarineResearch Reserve where severalfringing reefs surrounding smallcays, fore-reef environmentshave been severely impacted bysedimentation associated withcoastal erosion and long-shoretransport from the municipalitiesof Guayama and Salinas.
The Environmental QualityBoard (EQB) operates a networkof 88 permanent stations aroundthe islands to monitor coastalwater quality. Paremeters moni-tored are for direct human con-tact (swimming), indirect humancontact (sports fishing), andaquatic life (for conservation andpropagation of species and mar-ine habitats).The EQB monitored549.9 shoreline miles, of which 121.9 miles arearound Vieques, Culebra, and Mona Islands. Table15 presents the findings for 1998 and 1999.
EQB results show 97.7% of the Puerto Rican coast-line can support aquatic life (defined as 10% or lessof the shoreline segment in violation of healthstandards) and only 1.8% cannot (defined as morethan 25% in violation of health standards). Fortoxic substances, a single significant violation isenough to classify the segment as non-support foraquatic life use. Water quality parameters with thegreatest affect on aquatic life along the coastlinewere turbidity (5.0 miles), ammonia (4.9 miles),
and low dissolvedoxygen (2.8 miles).These were linked tovarious contaminantsources, primarilyindustrial and munici-pal, sewage disposal,urban runoff, land
disposal, and marinas.
In May 2001 the USEPA cited the Bacardi Corpo-ration for Clean Water Act Violations, alleging thecompany illegally discharged about 3,000 gallonsof mostos, an industrial waste from its rum pro-cessing plant into the Old Bayamon River Channel.This waste is high in certain organic contaminants
(e.g., phenols, benzene) and heavymetals (e.g., copper, lead, zinc,chromium, cadmium) that aretoxic to coastal wildlife inhabitingmangrove and coral reef habitats(USEPA 2002).
Coastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef Economics
The population of the Common-wealth was 3.81 million in 2000(U.S. Bureau of Census 2002).This represents an annual growthof 0.79% and increase of 8.1%over the past 10 years. Of the 78municipalities, 43 are coastalones, where the population is 2.3million. In 10 years, Puerto Ricohas had an increase of 130,418residents along the coasts. Ac-cording to the Puerto Rico Plan-
ning Board (2000), 4.57 million people visitedPuerto Rico in 2000, with a total of $2.39 billionspent in the Commonwealth.
Puerto Rico’s artisanal and commercial fisheries(Fig. 177) have been declining in recent yearsAppledoornet al. (1992). In 1996 it was estimatedthat the ex-vessel value of this fisheries was $7.7million), but by 2000 it had declined to $6.4million (U.S. Department of Commerce 2001).This value is only the revenue received by fisher-men (ex-vessel value) and does not include the fullvalue of fisheries products or impact on theeconomy.
Table 16. Results of 1998 and 1999 water quality monitoring(Source: Puerto Rico Environmental Quality Board).
Figure 177. Artisanal fisherman andhis catch in the Municipality ofRincon, Puerto Rico (Photo: William B.Folsom).
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Environmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralReefsReefsReefsReefsReefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – Reefs off the urbanized islandof Puerto Rico are subject to the usual problemsgenerated by pollution/nutrients from urban, agri-cultural, and industrial sources, sediment runoff(Fig. 178), coastal development, and oil andchemical spills. These problems are slowly beingbrought under control, but a lot remains to be done.
In the 1950s, human activities such as the massivedeforestation of mangroves, dredging rivers forsand and of the principal bays for ocean cargo,runoff from large scale agricultural developmentsin the coastal plain, the building of thermoelectricpower plants on the northern and southern shoreshave degraded the coral reefs.
Ship groundings have damaged reefs over theyears. Vessels removed over the past decade givesome indication of the number of vessels that havebeen grounded (Fig. 179). Some have extensivelydamaged reef structure and associated seagrasshabitats (Glynn 1973).
TheA. Regina, a 109.7 m 3,000-ton car-passengerferry was removed in 1990 after five years ofintensive effort to remove the wreck in an environ-mentally safe way (G. Cintrón pers. comm.). In1997, when the Fortuna Reefer was removed froma site near where the A. Regina ran aground, itcompounded the damage done by the grounding. Inan old-growth elkhorn coral thicket off MonaIsland, it sheared off huge elkhorn coral branchesand colonies, and fractured massive brain corals.
Damage extended over 30,000 m2. In the early1990s, the U.S. Navy completed removing anddisposing of a 6,700-ton former target ship (ExBrookings) stranded during Hurricane Hugo in1988 on a seagrass bed in the Vieques Passage (G.Cintrón pers. comm.). In 1991, the Russian 129 m2,400-tonLarissa Reysner ran aground and wasremoved from a spur-and-groove reef formation offwestern Puerto Rico. That same year, the Zapataoceangoing tug Independence Service was raisedfrom a 30-foot deep seagrass bed where it had sunkwhile being towed after grounding and subsequentremoval from a nearby reef in the Vieques Passage(G. Cintrón pers comm.).
Other major activities associated with reef degrada-tion include 1) oil spills (Cerame-Vivas 1969);2) anchoring of large oil cargo vessels (Hernández-Delgado pers. obs.); 3) overfishing (Appledoorn etal. 1992), 4) uncontrolled recreational activities(Hernández-Delgado 1992, 1994), 5) eutrophica-tion (Goenaga and Boulon 1991a), 6) thermal po-llution (Hernández-Delgado 1992), and 7) militaryactivities particularly at Vieques and CulebraIslands.
The Navy operates a training facility on ViequesIsland. Since 1941, a portion of the easternmostend of the island has been used for militarytraining. Since 2001, the Navy has used non-explosive ordnance. Scientific assessments reporthistorical bombing off Puerto Rico’s Culebra andVieques Islands during strategic training activitieshas caused local destruction of reef structure(Antonnius and Weiner 1982).
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses – Damage to coral reefs inPuerto Rico from hurricanes, coral bleaching, coraldiseases, and the Caribbean-wide mortality of the
77777
Figure 178. Sediment plume on Puerto Rico’s northern coast(Photo: NOAA National Ocean Service).
Figure 179. Recovery of a survey launch that flipped overonto a reef in northern Puerto Rico (Photo: NOAA Library).
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long-spined sea urchin Diadema antillarum(Vicente and Goenaga 1984; Lessions 1984) hasbeen well documented.
Hurricanes normally occur between August andOctober, and primarily affect the shallow reefs(Fig. 180). Some have been particularly damaging.Hurricane Georges (September 1998) was theworst hurricane since San Ciprian in 1932. Ittracked across the center of the island, movingfrom the southeast coast across the island on awest-northwest path with sustained winds to 185km/hr and an eye thirty-two km across. Otherstorms impacted shallow reefs with weaker windsbut heavier rains (e.g., hurricanes Hortense in1996, Marilyn in 1995, and Hugo in 1989).
Physical damage to reefs from hurricanes andtropical storms over the past two decades has beenmost severe on the eastern coast near Culebra andVieques (Hugo and Marilyn) and the southwesterncoast near La Parguera (Hortense and Georges).Hurricane Georges devastated most of the remain-ing elkhorn corals scoured other shallow reefenvironments, blew out seagrass habitats, knockeddown mangroves near La Parguera (Morelock et al.2001). Other notable storms impacted shallow reefswith weaker winds but heavier rains (e.g., hurri-cane Hortense in 1996).
The storm’s biggest impact is when the surfacewave action fragments the branching corals. Theaccompanying rains generate run-off, increasingturbidity. But hurricanes may also be beneficialbecause they fragment the fast growing branchingcorals that monopolize the substrate and createspace for the slower growing, massive species.
Climate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral Bleaching – Massivecoral bleaching occurred in the late 1980s (Buck-ley-Williams and Williams, Jr. 1987, Goenaga et al.1989, Buckley-Williams and Williams 1988 and1989) along with elevated sea surface tempera-tures. The bleaching created permanent damage.
More recently, Desecheo Island reefs experienced ableaching event. ReefKeeper International reporteda high incidence of bleaching (13-29%) onDesecheo Island nearshore reefs during its January1999 survey.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
Mapping Mapping Mapping Mapping Mapping – In 2001 NOAA, in cooperation withPuerto Rico DNER, completed mapping coral reef
habitats off the main island of Puerto Rico and theislands of Vieques, Culebra, Desecheo, and Mona.Shallow-water digital maps (to about 20 m) havebeen prepared for 27 levels of habitat types foundaround the islands (Kendall et al. 2001; Fig. 181).The project uses new technologies to correlatemonitoring data obtained from remote sensing.Results are integrated in the DNER GeographicInformation System (DNER-CZMP/GIS node).
Reef habitats have been mapped using SHOALSMarine LIDAR with AISA Hyperspectral Imageryto locate coral reefs by distinctive characteristicsand classification. Bathymetric contour maps andhigh-resolution habitat classification maps havebeen generated that include seagrass beds and threetypes of reef communities contained within the 40m depth contour and up to 2 km offshore (fringing
reefs, hard ground areas or crest reefs, and offshorereefs). These will be combined to develop anunderwater 3-dimensional surface reflective modelof the area.
Research and Monitoring Research and Monitoring Research and Monitoring Research and Monitoring Research and Monitoring – Research on PuertoRican coral reefs started in the 1960s and hasproceeded at a slow pace until present. Initialqualitative surveys by Almy and Carrión Torres(1963). Glynn et al. (1964) and Glynn (1968)provided taxonomic accounts of corals and guide-lines for their identification, which stimulatedresearch on aspects of ecology during the 1970s.
The first geographical inventory of reefs of the areawas prepared by Goenaga and Cintrón (1979). Thiswork, along with subsequent qualitative surveys ofreef geomorphology and community structure(Cintrónet al. 1975, Colin 1978, Canals and Ferrer
Figure 180. Hurricane surf near Arecibo, Puerto Rico. Notethe size of the building for scale (Photo: Commander GradyTruell, NOAA Corps).
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1980, Canals et al. 1983)established criteria for desig-nation of marine areas withcoral reef development asNatural Reserves by thegovernment of Puerto Rico.
Intensified utilization of thecoastal zone stimulatedproblem-oriented researchinvolving coral reef communi-ties, which allowed furtherquantitative characterizationsduring the late 1970s throughthe 1990s. Rogers et al. (1978)evaluated the impacts ofmilitary operations on thecoral reefs of Vieques andCulebra on the northeast coast.Subsequent characterizationsof coral reef communities inshallow reefs around the islands of Puerto Ricohave included fish assemblages as an integral partof the reef community (García et al. 1985, Castroand García 1996, García and Castro 1997). Apreliminary assessment of the decline in coral reefassociated fisheries was prepared by Appledoorn etal. (1992).
During the last decade, coral reef research inPuerto Rico has largely focused on communitycharacterization and monitoring programs, marinereserve feasibility studies, environmental impactassessments, coral diseases, and mitigation pro-grams. As part of the U. S. Coral Reef InitiativeProgram for Puerto Rico (with grants administeredby NOAA), a series of coral reefsin Natural Reserves of Puerto Ricohave been recently selected aspriority sites for establishment ofcharacterization and monitoringprograms. Baseline characteriza-tions of coral reef communitiesbased on quantitative samplingprotocols are available for JobosBay (García and Castro 1997; Fig.182), La Parguera (García et al.1988), Guanica, La Cordillera deFajardo, El Tourmaline Reef andCaja de Muertos, (García et al.1999). During 2000, baselinecharacterization studies were
underway at Mona Island, Desecheo Island,Boquerón, and La Parguera outer reefs (García et.al. 2000). Other initiatives have included character-ization efforts in support of the coral reefs occur-ring within the Rio Espiritu Santo Natural Reserve(Hernández-Delgado 1995), Isla de Mona NaturalReserve (Canals et. al. 1983, Hernández-Delgado1994), and La Cordillera de Fajardo NaturalReserve (Hernández-Delgado 1994).
At least two major efforts were launched during the1990s to protect reef-associated fishery resourcesand the ecological integrity of important coral reefsystems. A feasibility study for establishment of aMarine Fishery Reserve in La Parguera, southwest-
ern Puerto Rico (García, 1995)included a baseline characteriza-tion of sessile benthic and fishcommunities of the Turrumote,Media Luna, and San CristobalReefs.
More recently, on the northeasternside of the island, Hernández-Delgadoet al. (1998) describedthe marine biological resourcesassociated with the coral reef atthe Luis Peña Fishery Reserve(Culebra Island, Fig. 183). InDecember 2001, the Puerto RicoDNER completed its initialbaseline study at the Luis Peña
Figure 181. Benthic habitat maps of Puerto Rico were produced by delineating 25 majorcategories of benthic features (e.g., coral reefs, seagrass beds, mangroves, etc.)based on aerial photographs (Photo: NOAA Ocean Service).
Sand
MudSeagrass/ContinuousSeagrass/70-90%Seagrass/50-70%Seagrass/30-50%Seagrass/10-30%Macroalgae/Continuous
LegendLegendLegendLegendLegend
Macroalgae/Patchy/50-90%Macroalgae/Patchy/10-50%Reef/Linear ReefReef/Spur and Groove ReefReef/Patch Reef (Individual)Reef/Patch Reef (Aggregated)Reef/Scattered Coral-RockReef/Colonized PavementReef/Colonized BedrockReef/Col. Pav. with Chan.Hardbottom/Reef RubbleHardbottom/Uncol. Pav.Hardbottom/Uncol. Bedrock
Hardbottom/Uncol. Pav. with Chan.Land
MangroveArtificialUnknownNo Attributes
Figure 182. A baseline characteriza-tion was recently conducted for thecoral reef community at Jobos Bay(Photo: Jobos Bay NERR).
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Marine Reserve. Seasonally, researchers gathereddata on the condition of reef fish and benthiccommunities from three stations inside the Reserveand com-pared these to results from three coralreef sites adjacent to the Reserve. Data werecollected to evaluate the structure of the reef fishand epibenthic communities, coral recruitment, andthe density of corals, sea urchins, and territorialdamselfish.
Additional quantitative and qualitative character-izations of reef communities have been included aspart of environmental impact studies related withthe submarine outfall discharges of RegionalWastewater Treatment Plants of the Puerto RicoAqueducts and Sewers Authorithy from 11 sitesaround the island of Puerto Rico (García et al.1985). Other characterizations of coral reef com-munities were performed in relation to operationsof thermoelectric thermoelectric power plants inJobos Bay (Szmant-Froelich 1973), San Juan Bay(García and Castro 1997), and Guayanilla-EcoElec-trica (Castro and García 1995, García and Castro1996).
The Puerto Rico CARICOMP project at LaParguera (Castro and García 1998) monitored fishand motile invertebrates from 1994 through 1998.More recent assessments of motile megabenthicinvertebrates and fishes have been included in coralreef community characterization studies sponsoredby the U. S. Coral Reef Initiative. These were eightcoral reef sites designated as Natural Reserves bythe Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (García et al.2001a, 2001b) This work has been coordinatedthrough the Puerto Rican DNER.
With FY00 and 01 NOAA-administered grants,DNER initiated a long-term project to create anetwork of near-shore monitoring sites that wouldinclude coral reefs, mangroves, seagrasses, algalbeds, hard bottoms, and other habitats associatedwith coral reef ecosystems. Additionally, water/substrate monitoring stations were established byDNER in cooperation with the EQB and the JobosBay National Estuarine Research Reserve (NERR)Monitoring Program that monitor habitats, disease,and human use of coral reef resources.
Monitoring began in 2000 at three reef sites atlocations within nine Coastal Marine NaturalReserves, and in FY01, sites within three moreNatural Reserves were added. Parameters moni-
tored are sessile reef communities, motile benthicmacroinvertebrates and fishes. Water samples arecollected and analyzed for a suite of parameters. Toexamine temporal variability in water quality andto obtain baseline data, continuous in situ samplingis done periodically by deploying for 15 days asubmersible instrument that stores measurementsof selected parameters (e.g., turbidity, temperature,salinity, pH, and dissolved oxygen). DNER is alsousing side-scan sonar to characterize the bottomsubstrata and benthic communities, mainly off thenorthern and southern coasts of Puerto Rico. Thistechnique will delineate fine-scale habitat structureand use by different species from the shorelineoffshore to 61 m. Further, three sediment traps havebeen installed at each study site to determinecontaminant deposition.
With additional NOAA grants in FY00-01, coralreef and seagrass bed communities off ViequesIsland were characterized at 3 different depths foreach of 4 study zones, with 5 replicate transects perdepth (a total of 60 transects). Permanent, geo-referenced sites were established for future moni-toring of sessile and motile benthic macroinverte-brate populations. Diurnal, non-cryptic, reef fishpopulations are surveyed at reef and seagrasshabitats.
Further, DoD commissioned in FY02 a baselineassessment of coral reefs off the eastern end ofVieques Island. Three 30-m long transects will betaken at each of 18 permanent monitoring sites (6fringing reef, six bank-reef crest, and six bank-reefslope sites) to evaluate coral species richness andthe incidence of coral injury, damage, disease, andbleaching. Baseline coral population data will in-clude cover, abundance, diversity, and community
Figure 183. Monitoring activities in La Parguera, Puerto Rico(Photo: NOAA Ocean Service).
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structure. Censuses of fish populations and sedi-mentation studies will also be conducted at eachreef site. For comparison, three 30-m transects willbe taken and similar parameters measured at eachof six permanent monitoring sites (two sites eachfrom comparable reef habitats) to assess St. Croixcoral ecosystem condition.
Another new project was initiated in 2001. NOAAscientists and local partners (e.g., USGS, NPS, theUniversity of Puerto Rico, and the Oceanic Insti-tute) surveyed reef fish and habitat utilization (Fig.183). This project is monitoring fish and associatedhabitats off the main island of Puerto Rico to definespecies habitat patterns along cross-shelf gradients(Christensenet al. in press) and ecologically rele-vant boundaries for the designation of MPAs offsouthwestern Puerto Rico.
Since 1994, NOAA has examined the effects ofcoral diseases and predators on scleractinian coralsat sites in La Parguera, Rincon, Boqueron, Agua-dilla, and Mona Island. The University of PuertoRico conducts annual surveys of the red hindpopulation on the western coast of Puerto Rico.Besides collecting data on red hind recruitment,abundance, and genetic make-up, this project alsocorrelates stock size with the condition of the coralreef ecosystem by monitoring benthic cover andspecies diversity. Other University of Puerto Ricoscientists have monitored recruitment, growthrates, and mortality of gorgonians in La Pargueraon a semi-annual to biennial basis since 1983.
MPAs and No-take Reserves MPAs and No-take Reserves MPAs and No-take Reserves MPAs and No-take Reserves MPAs and No-take Reserves – The DesecheoNational Wildlife Refuge is administered by DoI’sUSWFS. Numerous Commonwealth MPAs offervarious measures of protection for coral reef eco-systems. Territorial MPAs include eight SpecialPlanning Areas and 24 Coastal Marine NaturalReserves. Two new Territorial no-take zonesprohibit fishing and anchoring.
In 1999, the Puerto Rico Planning Board estab-lished the Luis Peña Natural Reserve as a 4.8-km2
no-take zone. It is located along the channelseparating Culebra Island from Luis Peña Island.
In 2000, the 6.2-km2 Desecheo Marine Reservewas designated by the Puerto Rico Legislature asPuerto Rico’s second no-take zone. It comprises allcoastal waters and aquatic ecosystems from theshoreline to 805 m offshore.
The Jobos Bay NERR was established in 1981 and
is currently co-managed by NOAA and DNER. In2000, the Governor approved the Jobos NERRManagement Plan. This MPA protects PuertoRico’s second largest estuarine area off the south-ern coast of the main island and includes a series ofmangrove islets that are fringed by coral reefs andseagrass beds. The Jobos Bay NERR is home toseveral federally-protected endangered species,such as the brown pelican, the peregrine falcon, thehawksbill turtle, and the West Indian Manatee (Fig.185).
Government Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and Legislation
Puerto Rico’s maritime jurisdiction extends off-shore 16.7 km from its coastline. Recently, therehave been new and revised laws and regulations forthe protection of coral reefs, fisheries, and relatedhabitats, the approval of the Non-Point SourceImplementation Plan, the Mapping of Coral reefs inPuerto Rico, and an increase in Island’s NGOsoutreach programs.
Developing regulations in the Commonwealth ofPuerto Rico is different from that in the UnitedStates where control of development is a localresponsibility and coastal management programsare at the state level. Because of its limited size,land use policies in Puerto Rico (including coastalmanagement), are proposed by the Planning Boardand approved by the Governor.
With input from the DNER and the EQB, the Plan-ning Board (the Board) has responsibility for over-all policymaking and development control. TheBoard adopted and established a general policyregarding the “...avoidance of urban sprawl” and to“... concentrate industrial development to avoidpotential conflicts between uses and protect theenvironment and natural systems.” Agriculturaldevelopment has a general policy to “...protect
Figure 185. Sea turtle at Jobos Bay NERR (Photo: Jobos BayNERR).
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soils, avoid erosion, protect soil productivity, andavoid adverse impacts on water and other naturalresources.” The goal of the public policy regardingnatural, environmental and cultural resources is“...to maintain and protect our” environment, whilepromoting conservation, preservation and wise useof our natural, environmental, historical, andcultural resources, recognizing their importance tointegrated and sustainable development.”
The government agencies responsible for coral reefand marine resources include the DNER, the EQB,the Planning Board, the Regulations and PermitsAdministration (RPA), and the National MarineFisheries Service. The DNER manages the coastalzone. The EQB establishes and monitors waterquality. The RPA administers the land-use regula-tions adopted by the Planning Board island-wide.By statute, the RPA works closely with the EQBand DNER.
Guidelines and funding under Section 6217 of theCZMA enabled DNER to prepare the Coastal Non-Point Sources of Pollution Control Plan, approvedOctober 2000 by the NOAA and the USEPA. ANatural Protected Areas Strategy has been preparedand includes a Marine Protected Areas Subsystem,providing guidelines for important coastal area andresource identification, management and protec-tion.
In 1997, a Coral Reef Working Group was formedin the DNER to update the Coral Reef Action Plan.The members are from all government divisionsand programs with responsibilities for coral reefs.Together, they produced the DNER five-year CoralReef Action Plan (1999-2004) with input from U.S.Islands Coral Reef Initiative, the Puerto Rico
Costal Zone Management Program, and the Uni-versity of Puerto Rico Sea Grant Program.
The Action Plan focuses on gathering the necessaryinformation needed to support science, education,monitoring, management, and enforcement, butretains the original objective of addressing the lackof information and adequate management of coralreefs. These have become key points in furtherdeveloping a more detailed awareness, outreach,and enforcement plan.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
The present human pressures on Puerto Rican coralreefs are some of the most critical in the Caribbean(Goenaga and Boulon 1991b). Three of theseislands currently support a resident population ofover 428 people/km2. Largely due to acceleratedurban and industrial coastal development over thelast four decades and the lack of effective imple-mentation of policies to protect the ecologicalintegrity of these resources, many of Puerto Rico’snearshore reefs are degraded.
Between the 1960s and the 1980s, there was onlyintermittent interest in the reefs and their health.Environmental Impact Statements, required bylocal law for development along the shoreline, havealso generated quantitative and qualitative studiesof reef communities, but these mostly relate tounderwater outfalls from regional wastewatertreatment plants and discharges from conventionalthermoelectric power plants. Since the late 1990s,however, scientists and the Government have madea concerted effort to better understand, protect, andmanage the reefs.
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STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSDon Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,
Rick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia Taylor
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE U.S. VIRGIN ISLANDSDon Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,Don Catanzaro, Caroline Rogers, Zandy Hillis-Starr,
Rick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia TaylorRick Nemeth, and Marcia Taylor
THE STATUS OF THE CORALTHE STATUS OF THE CORALTHE STATUS OF THE CORALTHE STATUS OF THE CORALTHE STATUS OF THE CORALREEFS OF THE U.S. VIRGINREEFS OF THE U.S. VIRGINREEFS OF THE U.S. VIRGINREEFS OF THE U.S. VIRGINREEFS OF THE U.S. VIRGIN
ISLANDSISLANDSISLANDSISLANDSISLANDSBy D. Catanzaro, C. Rogers, Z.
Hillis-Starr, R. Nemeth, M.Taylor
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The U.S. Virgin Islands (USVI) is aU.S. territory located approximately1,000 nmi southeast of Miami and45 nmi east of Puerto Rico. Coralreefs are found around the threemain islands of St. Croix, St. John,and St. Thomas, as well as mostoffshore cays. Fringing reefs, deepreefs (wall and shelf-edge), patchreefs, and spur and grooveformations are present on all threeislands although only St. Croix has welldeveloped barrier reefs. Bank reefs andscattered patch reefs with high coral
diversity occur on geological featuresoffshore at greater depths.
Together the USVI totalroughly 347 km2 of landarea. St. Croix is the largestof the three USVI islands at207 km2 (34 km by 10 km)with a relatively highwestern mountainous tip.This island has coral growthalong much of the insularshelf with a well-developedbarrier reef on the easternend, and deep coral walls onthe north shore. St. Croix isthe only island with apermanent source offreshwater. St. Thomas isthe second largest at 83 km2
(22 km by 5 km) and St.John is the smallest of the three USVIislands at 52 km2 (14 by 5 km).
Recently NOAA mapped USVI coral reefsand associatedecosystems toapproximately adepth of 20 mand delineated atotal submergedarea of 485 km2
(Kendall 2001b,Monaco et al.2001). Deeperwater reefhabitats off theUSVI islandshave yet to bemapped. Coralreef andcolonized hard-bottom habitatscomprised 297.9
Figure 187. Benthic habitats of Buck Island Channel, St. Croix, USVI were mapped fromaerial photographs ( Credit: John Christensen).
SandMudSeagrass/ContinuousSeagrass/70-90%Seagrass/50-70%Seagrass/30-50%Seagrass/10-30%Macroalgae/ContinuousMacroalgae/Patchy/50-90%Macroalgae/Patchy/10-50%Reef/Linear ReefReef/Spur and Groove ReefReef/Patch Reef (Individual)Reef/Patch Reef (Aggregated)Reef/Scattered Coral-RockReef/Colonized PavementReef/Colonized BedrockReef/Col. Pav. with Chan.Hardbottom/Reef RubbleHardbottom/Uncol. Pav.Hardbottom/Uncol. BedrockHardbottom/Uncol. Pav. with Chan.LandMangroveArtificialUnknownNo Attributes
LegendLegendLegendLegendLegend
Figure 186. Shallow-water reefcommunities cover 61% of theregion (Photo: William Harrigan).
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km2 and accounted for 61% of the mappedarea; submerged aquatic vegetationcovered 160 km2 or 33% of the mappedtotal, and unconsolidated sediments anduncolonized hard-bottom habitatcomprised 23 km2 or the remaining 4%.
Condition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral Reefs
The long-term datasets for the USVIrepresent some of the best temporal dataavailable for the Caribbean (Connell1997). Although monitoring and researchhas occurred on all three USVI islands,consistent long-term datasets exist only forSt. John and Buck Island, St. Croix (e.g.1988 to present) and have been collectedprimarily by the Department of theInterior, National Park Service(NPS) and U.S. Geological Survey(USGS). Most of these studies aretargeted in individual bays thatmight not be representative ofconditions within the entire USVI(Table 1).
Corals and Other InvertebratesCorals and Other InvertebratesCorals and Other InvertebratesCorals and Other InvertebratesCorals and Other Invertebrates– NPS has conducted and supportedlong-term monitoring on St. John(site of Virgin Islands NationalPark, VINP) and Buck Island, StCroix (site of Buck Island ReefNational Monument, BINM) since1988. Over time, statistical rigorhas significantly increased due toimprovements in technology andsample design. For the last three yearsUSGS and NPS scientists havecollaborated on long-term monitoring ofcoral reefs using a comprehensive protocolbased on use of a digital video cameraalong randomly chosen transects (Millerand Rogers 2001, Rogers et al. in press).This protocol is one of the moststatistically rigorous methods to monitorcoral reefs in the world. A total of 79randomly located transects at four sites(three in St. John and one at Buck Island,St. Croix) have been repeatedly sampledfor two or more years. An additional site atBuck Island, St. Croix (20 transects) hasbeen sampled for one year and one
additional site on St. John has eight non-randomly located transects which havebeen sampled for three years.
Live scleractinian coral cover varies atthese sites from a low of 5.8% (BuckIsland, St. Croix) to a high of 22.8%(Mennebeck, St. John). . It should benoted that the site with non-randomlylocated transects has a live scleractiniancoral cover of 45.3% (Tektite, St. John).Results of the repeated sampling are variedbut overall, 76% of transects showeddeclines in the amount of live coral coverwhen the first year is compared to the thirdyear. Percent of transects exhibitingdeclines at individual sites are as follows:40% (Yawzi, St. John), 65% (Buck Island,
St. Croix), 75% (Mennebeck,St. John), 95% (Newfound,St. John), and 62% (Tektite,St. John).
NOAA monitoring fundswere received by the USVITerritorial Government in2001 and University ofVirgin Islands conducted thestudy. The first year of thisproject supported six sites onSt. Croix (six transects each)where coral, sea urchin(Diadema antillarum), andreef fish have beenmonitored. Live scleractiniancoral cover varied from alow of 6% (Lang Bank) to
25% (Sprat Hole) (Nemeth et al. in press).Monitoring will be repeated in 2002.
White-band Disease – Branchingacroporid species are most susceptible toWhite-band Disease. At BINM, elkhorncoral (Acropora palmata) cover fell from85% in 1976 to 5% in 1988 because ofmortality from the combination of stormsand disease (Rogers et al. 1982, Gladfelter1991). White-band Disease is stilloccasionally seen throughout the USVIand shallow reef areas are now graveyardsof dead elkhorn coral, with branches andfragments interspersed among algal-
Figure 188. Monitoring in theUSVI using videography (Photo:USGS).
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covered skeletons still upright in normalgrowth position.
There is current evidence that elkhorncoral is recovering in the USVI.Recruitment of elkhorn coral colonies maybe increasing and biologists from NPS,USGS, and UVI are now monitoring andmapping this species at several USVI sites.
Plague – In July 1997, conspicuous whitepatches of necrotic tissue began to appearon scleractinian corals in several baysaround St. John. Tissue samples haveconfirmed that Plague is affecting thesecorals. It has now been observed on 14coral species. The disease can progress upto 0.5 cm/day but does not always result intotal colony mortality, however diseasedportions never recover. Monthly surveyson one St. John reef have documented newincidence of disease every month from1997 to present (Miller et al. in press)making this the most destructive diseaseactive on St. John.
Black-band Disease – This diseaseprimarily infects major reef-building coralssuch as Montastraea annularis andDiploria strigosa (Edmunds 1991,Richardson et al. 1997). In 1988, Edmunds(1991) found very low incidence of Black-band Disease (0.2%) on corals in sevensites in the U.S. and British Virgin Islands.Nemeth reported 1.2% on St. John and
none on St. Thomas or St. Croix (Nemethet al. in press). At Buck Island, Black-band Disease is seen on Diploria coloniesbut typically on fewer than 10 colonies ayear (Zandy Hillis-Starr pers. comm).
A limited, recent assessment across theUSVI found 3.4% (St. Thomas), 7.6% (St.John), and 2.0% (St. Croix) of coralcolonies over 25 cm in diameter showingsigns of disease (Nemeth et al. in press).
Other Diseases – Small USVI patch reefsof Porites porites have died from anunknown disease (Rogers 1999, J. Millerpers. comm., B. Kojis pers. comm.) andsome of these reefs have been dead forover 12 years (see Beets et al. 1986).Porites porites is not known to besusceptible to either White-band or Black-band Disease.
Sea fan disease, caused by the fungusAspergillis syndowii, occurs in sea fans onSt. John reefs (G. Smith pers. comm.).This pathogenic strain has been isolatedfrom air samples taken during African dustevents, suggesting a possible link betweenair quality and sea fan condition.
Sea Urchins – According to Lessios et al.(1984), the condition of USVI coral reefshas been significantly impacted by a die-off of the long-spined sea urchin (Diadema
Figure 189. White-band disease on elkhorn coral (Photo:Caroline Rogers).
Figure 190, A. Long-spined sea urchin feeding on reef algae(Photo: NOAA Photo Gallery). B. Urchin dead from aCaribbean-wide disease. (Photo: Caroline Rogers).
A
B
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antillarum). While the extent of a possiblerecovery of the urchin population isunknown, recent surveys have notedincreases in numbers (NPS and USGSrecords).
A major herbivore on Caribbean reefs,D. antillarum suffered losses of over 90%during an epizootic die off in 1983-1984(Lessios et al. 1984). Diadema arerecovering very slowly around the USVI.One estimate is that the current communityis still at less than 10% of the level beforethe die-off (W. Tobias pers. comm.).Recent surveys of reefs 3-15 m deep in St.Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix founddensities to be 0.02/m2, 0.06/m2, and 0.01/m2, respectively and Diadema densities arehigher along shallow (<3m)protected shorelines (Nemeth et al.in press.). Additional surveys at sixSt. Croix sites revealed a range of0.005 to 0.15 of these urchins perm2 (A. Adams pers. comm.).
Conchs – Queen conchs used to bevery abundant around St. John(Randall 1964, Schroeder 1965). Arecent study shows that conchpopulations in general appear to bedecreasing and density of conchsinside VINP waters are notsignificantly higher than outside thepark (Friedlander 1997). Conchswere surveyed along transects
around St. John and St. Thomas in 1981,1985, 1990, 1996, and 2000 (Wood andOlsen 1983, Boulon 1987, Friedlander etal. 1994, Friedlander 1997). Becauseconchs have patchy distributions and moveamong several habitats and over a gradientof depths, it is difficult to document andinterpret changes in their abundance.However, there is evidence of generaldeclines in conch densities.
Lobsters – Limited data suggest decreasesin the abundance of lobsters (Wolff 1998).Wolff (1998) noted that lobster densitiesfor 4 sites around St. John in 1996averaged only 5/ha compared to 19.4/ha at89 sites around the island in 1970. Datasuggest average size of lobsters declinedwithin the park since 1970 (Olsen et al.1975).
Marine algae and Other Plants Marine algae and Other Plants Marine algae and Other Plants Marine algae and Other Plants Marine algae and Other Plants – Longterm data (e.g. 1990 to present) exists onlyfor St. John.
St. John’s previously large, dense seagrassbeds are no longer present. Comparison ofaerial photographs (1962 and 1983)showed a decline in areal extent and/orapparent density, especially within popularanchorages. Digital analysis ofphotographs of Great Lameshur Bay from1971 to 1991 indicated a decrease in totalseagrass area by 68,000 m2 and the
seagrass bed in LittleLameshur Bay lost 22,000m2 of seagrass (L.Muehlstein unpub. data).
Williams (1988) reporteddensities of turtle grass(Thalassia testudinum)ranging from 80 to 200shoots m-2 in Maho andFrancis Bays in 1986. In1997, densities in thesebays were much lower (L.Muehlstein unpub. data).Thousands of boats anchorin these bays each year,
Figure 192. Spawning aggregationsof (A) Nassau grouper and (B) redhind have been depleted in theUSVI (Photo: J.E. Randall, Fish-Base).
Figure 191. St. John’s once extensive seagrass beds havesignificantly declined (Photo: Matt Kendall).
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leaving conspicuous scars (Williams1988).
Seagrass communities in three other bayshave been monitored annually from 1997to 2001. In all these bays, seagrass havefluctuated but declined overall (LMuehlstein and NPS unpub. data).
Fish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and Fisheries – Reef fishassemblages have changed markedly in theUSVI (Rogers and Beets 2001), but it isdifficult to separate out the causal factors.Over-fishing, deterioration of coral reefs,mangroves, and seagrass beds all haveundoubtedly contributed to significantchanges in reef fish assemblages.However, many of the characteristics ofthe USVI fishery provide clear evidence ofheavy fishing pressure.
Up through the 1960s, groupers andsnappers were abundant and dominated thelandings in the USVI fishery. Followingthe tourism boom and technologicalchanges in the fishery (larger boats,engines, improved gear), fishers began toset more traps and to target species likegroupers and snappers, especially theirspawning aggregations. By the 1970s,several spawning aggregations of Nassaugrouper had been decimated and localabundance of this species crashed (Olsenand LaPlace 1978). The Nassau grouper isstill particularly scarce today (Wolff 1996,Garrison et al. 1998, USGS and NPS,
unpub. data). After depleting the largerspecies of groupers, fishers began targetingsmaller aggregating species such as the redhind. On St. Croix there is active targetingof the mutton snapper aggregations on thesouthwest side of the island. Herbivorousspecies have increased in relativeabundance in the catch while groupers andsnappers have decreased.
Several studies document the failure ofexisting territorial regulations to protectreef fishes or reverse the declines inabundance of preferred species such as thelarge groupers and snappers (Beets 1996,Garrison et al. 1998, Wolff 1996, Beetsand Rogers in press). Lack of enforcementhas no doubt played a role; in one study oftraps set by fishers,over 50% had nofunctioningbiodegradable panels toallow fish to escape iftraps were lost(Garrison et al. 1998).However, it is unlikelythat even fullcompliance withexisting regulationswould be adequate toreverse the alarmingtrends.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality– In general, increases in point and non-point source discharges are causingdeclines in the water quality in the USVI.
Wastewater disposal has been a chronicproblem in the USVI. There are eightsewage treatment facilities on St. Thomas,seven secondary plants, and an anaerobicpond at the airport. The plants do notalways attain secondary treatmentdischarge requirements (OAI 1999). A newsecondary treatment plant opened in 2000serving the 2,000 residents of Cruz Bayand surrounding areas of St. John. Thissecondary treatment replaced anoverloaded facility that did not meetinterim effluent limits and discharged into
Figure 193. In only ten years, a 14% loss of desirable and a19% increase in less desirable fish was documented withinthe Virgin Islands National Park (Source: Beets and Rogersin press).
Figure 194. Erosion fromunpaved roads are a majorsource of reef sediment
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a salt pond. The 50,000 residents of St.Croix are served by one primarywastewater treatment facility. The sewagecollection system consists of 87 miles ofgravity and force mains, 3 major sewagelift stations, and 12 feeder pump stations.Because of long detention time for flowsarriving at the wastewater treatment plant,hydrogen sulfide is sometimes generatedand deteriorates concrete sewer mains.Sewer mains have frequently andrepeatedly failed, requiring raw sewagebypass during repairs (OIA 1999). Rawsewage bypasses have lasted close to ayear.
Untreated rum-effluent from a St. Croixdistillery is discharged on St Croix’s southshore resulting in a 5-mile long benthic“dead zone” caused by the high toxinlevel, high Biological Oxygen Demand,and the high temperature of the effluent.Each year the VI Government requests andhas been granted an exemption from theU.S. Clean Water Act for this discharge.
Poor land management practicesassociated with accelerating developmenton St. John pose an increasing threat. Over80% of the island has slopes that exceed
30% (CH2M Hill 1979) and rainfall oftenarrives in brief, intense showers thatpromote erosion. Runoff from 56 km ofunpaved roads contributes the largestamount of sediment to the coastal waters
(Anderson and MacDonald 1998). Waterquality data from 30 sites around St. Johnshow that bays with developed watershedshave higher turbidity and light extinctioncoefficients, and lower light transmissionthan bays inside the park associated withundeveloped or less disturbed watersheds(USGS and NPS unpub. data).
Recent studies suggest that excesssedimentation can exacerbate the effects ofnatural bleaching events. Nemeth andNowlis (2001) found that bleaching ofcoral colonies during the peak of the 1998bleaching event showed a strong positiverelationship to sedimentation (r=0.92). Atreef sites exposed to sedimentation ratesbetween 10 to 14 mg/cm2/d, 38% of thecoral colonies examined exhibited pigmentloss compared to 23% of the coralsobserved at sites exposed to sedimentationrates between 4 to 8 mg/cm2/d.
Coastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomics
A total of 108.6 thousand residentsinhabited the USVI in 2000, an increase of6.7% from the 1990 census and 12.5%from 1980 (U.S. Bureau of Census 2002).In 1999, total number of visitors to USVIwas close to 2 million (560,000 air visitorsand 1.4 million cruise passengers) and in2000 arrivals increased to 2.5 million (VI
Figure 195. Commercial fishing in the Virgin Islands NationalPark (Photo: J. Sneddon).
Figure 196. This bulk carrier, cruise ships, and other largeships regularly use St. Croix’s piers (NOAA Photo Library).
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Figure 197. Fish trap atop the Yawzi Reef in the VirginIslands National Park (Photo: Virginia Garrison).
Dept. of Tourism 2002). I got new datafrom Dept. of Tourism.
SocioeconomicsSocioeconomicsSocioeconomicsSocioeconomicsSocioeconomics – Fishing is an importantrecreational and commercial aspect of theeconomy of the USVI. It is important tonote that no fish are exported from theUSVI; in fact, during peak demand fish areimported into the USVI (Downs andPetterson 1997).
USVI fisheries are small-scale, usingseveral gear types to harvest over 180species of reef fish (Caribbean FisheriesManagement Council 1985, Beets 1997,Garrisonet al. 1998). The primary fishing gear inthe USVI fishery (traps, followed by hookand line, and nets) has not changed greatlysince the 1930s (Fiedler and Jarvis 1932),although the fishing effort has greatlyincreased and catch composition haschanged (Appeldoorn et al. 1992, Beets1997). The level of fishing effort variesgreatly, some fishers use little gearnearshore and others set long trap linesacross the insular shelf (B. Smith unpub.rept., Garrison et al. 1998).
Reef fish harvesting equipment hasbecome more sophisticated, allowingfishers to access more areas; set andretrieve more traps in a day; use longerlasting, less degradable traps; andsubsequently severely impact many
Figure 198. This vessel was subsequently removed from theSt. Croix reef it grounded on, but others still litter USVIharbor and reef areas (Photo: NOAA Photo Library).
species of reef fishes. Average number oftraps fished per full-time fishermen hasincreased from 4 in 1930, to 8 in 1967, to>100 in 1997 (Fiedler and Jarvis 1932,Dammann 1969, W. Tobias pers. comm.).Maximum number of pots fished by asingle fisherman in 1930 was 30 trapswhereas in 1997 the maximum was 3000traps (Fiedler and Jarvis 1932, Downs andPetterson 1997).
Larger scale net fishing has been recentlyreported occurring in the reef areasadjacent to and east of Buck Island, St.Croix. Large nylon fishing nets are setdirectly off the barrier reef in the eveningsto catch species of fish during nocturnalmigrations off the reef. Subsequent tothese reports, NPS has had confirmationthat local fisherman have more fish than
they can sell in a day and would ratherthrow the fish out than sell the fish for abargain price (J. Tutein, NPSSuperintendent, pers. comm.).
Environmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralReefsReefsReefsReefsReefs
A diverse array of stresses has causeddegradation of USVI coral reefs,associated marine ecosystems, and thefishery resources dependent on them.Some natural stresses such as hurricaneshave had dramatic and acute effects, while
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other stresses are considered chronicconditions such as strong swells, seatemperature fluctuation, sedimentation,and pollution.
Human activities are superimposed onthese natural stresses. Anchoring and shipgroundings on coral reefs and seagrassbeds are examples of acute stresses withimmediate, obvious, and sometimes long-term effects (Rogers and Garrison 2001).Other acute human caused stressesaffecting reefs, especially in St. Thomasand St. Croix, are dredging, sandextraction, groin construction, and sewageeffluent (Goenaga and Boulon 1992).
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – Chronic stresses likeover-fishing (commercial, hand-line, potfishing, spear fishing, net, long-line,trolling, driftnet), point and non-pointsource water pollution, and sedimentation
generally cause changes that are difficultto quantify and track but are particularlydamaging. Moreover, stressors can actsynergistically with natural disturbances toaccelerate damage to reefs or slow theirrate of recovery (Rogers and Beets 2001,Nemeth and Nowlis 2001).
Fishing Pressure – Over-fishingthroughout the USVI has had profoundeffects on the resources, including thosewithin federally protected areas such asVINP and BINM. Reports andobservations from more than 20 years agosuggested that fishing was alreadychanging the reef-associated fishes (J.Randall’s field notes 1958-1961, Olsen andLaPlace 1978). Fisheries are close tocollapse, and even those ecosystems withinthe boundaries of “marine protected areas”are deteriorating (e.g., Beets 1996, Beetsand Rogers in press). Existing zoning,erosion control, and fishing regulations arenot providing sufficient protection. Thepresent combination of natural and humanstresses and the magnitude of their effectsmay be unprecedented.
Recreational Uses – Destruction fromboats running aground on reefs has beensevere. Large vessels (greater than 65 ft)run aground with surprising regularity onUSVI reefs (more than twice a year) andvessels abandoned after recent hurricanesstill litter several harbor and reef areas.
Small boats run aground on shallow reefs,destroying corals, particularly elkhorncoral. For example, within VINP, anaverage of four boats per week ranaground on Windswept Reef (R. Boulonpers. comm). After the installation ofresource protection buoys in 1985,groundings to this reef have decreased toan average of one a year (NPS records).
Surveys off St. John make it clear thatbenthic resources have been damaged byanchoring (Link 1997). A dramatic case ofanchor damage involved the cruise ship“Windspirit” which destroyed a 283-m2
Figure 199. Prior to 1979, extensive thickets of elkhorn coralwere dominant elements of USVI shallow-water reefs(Photo: Andy Bruckner).
Figure 200. This diver is surveying off Buck Island, St.Croix the extent of elkhorn coral rubble left afterHurricane Hugo (Photo: Caroline Rogers).
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section of reef within VINP in 1988. Tenyears later, no significant recovery of coralhad occurred (Rogers and Garrison 2001).VINP has installed 211 moorings and over111 resource protection buoys around St.John to help prevent anchor damage tobenthic habitats and the entire southernsection of VINP is a no-anchor zone. NPShas been monitoring benthic recoverysurrounding moorings in several bays forthe last three years.
All three USVI islands have popularsnorkel and dive sites experiencing heavyvisitor use (>200 visitors/site/day) (St.Croix Cane Bay Dive Shop instructorspers. comm., NPS records) that may bedamaging coral reefs. BINM remains thenumber one tourist destination for St.Croix. Over 150 people per day visit theunderwater interpretive snorkel trail andvisits can peak over 200. BINM has amooring system at the underwater trail thatlimits boats and snorkelers, but intensiveuse has resulted in some coral damage (ZHillis-Starr pers. comm).
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses
Hurricanes – Since 1979, eight hurricaneshave affected USVI reefs. Damage variedwith storm path, strength and velocity,wave height and direction, the dominantcoral species, and reef depth (e.g., Rogerset al. 1997, Bythell et al. 2000).Hurricanes David (1979) and Hugo (1989)were the most destructive and it appearsthat these acute incidents have pushedpercent live coral cover to a relativelystable, albeit lower, equilibrium.
In some shallow zones at BINM, A.palmata cover, already reduced from 85 to5% by White-band Disease, fell to 0.8%after Hurricane Hugo (Gladfelter 1991).Structural recovery from Hugo has beenvery slow due to several subsequenthurricanes in 1995, 1998, and mostrecently in late 1999.
Bythell et al. (1993) recorded partial andtotal mortality of coral colonies of threecommon species at 15 BINM sites over a26-month period (1989-1991) thatincluded Hurricane Hugo. The dominantspecies, M. annularis, suffered greatermortality from chronic factors such aspredation and tissue necrosis than from thehurricane. D. strigosa suffered more tissueloss from the storm than from chronicfactors, while P. astreoides had substantialmortality from all factors.
Hurricane Hugo also caused a 40% declinein the living coral in transects surveyed ona reef in Lameshur Bay, St. John which hasfailed to show any significant recovery interms of an increase in live coral cover(Rogers et al. 1997, NPS and USGS andNPS, unpub. data). Macroscopic algae,
Table 17. Authorities with jurisdiction over USVI watersand submerged lands with coral reefs.
Figure 201. In 2001, Buck Island National Marine Monumentoff the island of St. Croix became the USVI’s firstsubstantial no-take area (Photo: NOAA Ocean Service).
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covering about 5% of thebottom before Hurricane Hugo,are now periodically veryabundant and can reachaverages of over 30%. Itappears that the level ofherbivory by sea urchins andfishes has been too low to keepthe macroalgae in check, andalgae are inhibiting coralsettlement and recruitment(Rogers et al. 1997).
Climate Change and CoralClimate Change and CoralClimate Change and CoralClimate Change and CoralClimate Change and CoralBleachingBleachingBleachingBleachingBleaching – Global warming isthought to contribute to anincreased frequency andstrength of hurricanes in theCaribbean and coral bleachingis often associated with higherwater temperatures. The worstepisode of coral bleaching todate occurred worldwide in1998 (Pomerance 1999).
Extensive coral colonymortality was not associatedwith 1987, 1998, and 1990USVI bleaching episodes. Attwo St. John sites, bleaching ofcoral tissues was estimated inthe fall of 1998 at 43% and47% (Rogers and Miller 2001).The 1998 bleaching episodecoincided with the hottestseawater temperatures onrecord (four sites, NPSrecords). At Caret Bay reef, St.Thomas, maximum bleachingrecorded was 41% but mostcolonies had recovered withinsix months (Nemeth andNowlis 2001). Extensivebleaching (but not mortality)was observed at BINM in thefall of 1998 where an estimated20% of D. strigosa at one siteand 53% at a second siteexhibited bleaching. During thefall of 1999, when seatemperatures reached 28.8Ú C,Table 18. Monitoring related to coral reefs in the USVI.
* VMAS – Virgin Islands Marine Advisory Service** CMES – Center for Marine and Environmental Service
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mild bleaching was observed on 16%,26%, and 48% of the coral colonies greaterthan 25 cm in diameter on St. Thomas, St.John, and St. Croix, respectively (Nemethet al. in press).
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
The U.S. Department of the Interior (DoI),U.S. Department of Commerce (DoC), andthe Virgin Islands Territorial Governmentall have jurisdiction over submerged landswithin the USVI (Table 2).
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – Benthic habitat types foundthroughout the USVI have been digitallymapped to a depth of 20 m (Kendall et al.2001). These habitat maps will be the basisfor establishing a number of permanentsites as part of a new USVI-wide long-term monitoring program.
Assessments, Research, andAssessments, Research, andAssessments, Research, andAssessments, Research, andAssessments, Research, andMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoring– The NPS and USGS in the USVI havecollected some of the longest time-seriesdata sets on coral reefs in the Caribbean,some dating back decades (Table 2).
Several innovative marine research andmonitoring projects have been conductedin the USVI. The Tektite I and IIunderwater habitat projects took place onthe south side of St. John from 1969-1971(Collette and Earle 1972, Earle andLavenberg 1975), and approximately 80
Hydrolab (1977-1985) and 13 Aquarius(1987-1989) underwater habitat missionswere conducted in St. Croix.
Much of the baseline information for theVINP comes from a series of reportsproduced by the Virgin Islands ResourceManagement Cooperative from 1983-1988. Fairleigh Dickinson University’sWest Indies Laboratory, located on St.Croix, conducted nearly 20 years ofecological studies that established abaseline for BINM (Hubbard 1991, Bythellet al. 1992, Gladfelter 1992).
BINM and VINP have formal monitoringprograms dating to the early 1980sfocusing on coral reef condition, reef fish,sea turtle populations, and seagrass beds(only VINP). USGS and NPS scientistshave collaborated on long-term monitoringof coral reefs using a comprehensiveprotocol based on use of a digital videocamera along randomly chosen transects(Miller and Rogers 2001, Rogerset al. in press). Each year three coral reefsites (20 transects each) at VINP and twoat BINM are monitored using thisprotocol. For the past 14 years, reef fish inVINP have been monitored at between 4and 16 reef sites (15-18 censuses areconducted at each site) and fish censuseswere recently re-established at BINM (130censuses). Research and monitoring on
Figure 202. Long-term monitoring is needed to track trendsand predict change in the USVI reef ecosystem (Photo:Matt Kendall).
AAAAA BBBBB
Figure 203. Little is known about the roles that deeper reef (A) andmangrove (B) habitats play in the life histories of shallow-water reefspecies, particularly those that have been overfished (Photo MattKendall).
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both nesting and juvenile sea turtles atBINM has been summarized in Hillis-Starr and Phillips (1997).
In 2001, the USVI Territorial governmentinitiated a long-term monitoring programwith financial support from NOAA.
MPAs and No-Take ReservesMPAs and No-Take ReservesMPAs and No-Take ReservesMPAs and No-Take ReservesMPAs and No-Take Reserves – TheUSVI Territorial Government hasdesignated Marine Reserves and WildlifeSanctuaries (Salt River, Cas Cay and St.James) where fishing is allowed only withhand lines or for baitfish with a permit.Federal MPAs provide varying levels ofprotection and enforcement for USVI coralreef ecosystems.
St. Croix – A total of six federal MPAsprotect aspects of coral reef ecosystems offthis island.Buck Island Reef National Monument – TheNPS manages the BINM, established onSt. Croix, USVI in 1962 (PresidentialProclamation No. 3443) to protect one ofthe finest coral reef ecosystems in theCaribbean. Additional marine portionswere added in 1975 (PresidentialProclamation No 4346) and 2001(Presidential Proclamation 7392). Currentsize of BINM is 71 ha of land and 77.7km2 of submerged lands.
Presidential Proclamation 7392 declaredthe entire Monument a no-fishing and no-anchoring zone, ending 40 years of legalextractive use. This monument is the firstsubstantial “no-take area” established forthe island of St Croix and will requireconsistent and enhanced law enforcementto protect the area and effect the recoveryof St. Croix’s depleted reef fisheries. Upuntil 2001, only a small eastern section(49.7 ha) was designated a no-take zone,thus most of BINM was open to extractiveuses including setting of fish traps, castnet, hook and line, and hand collection ofconch and lobster. NPS has had limitedsuccess in controlling illegal fishing due toa lack of law enforcement staff.
Salt River Bay National Historical Park andEcological Preserve (SRBNHP) – The NPSmanages this park, established on St.Croix, USVI in 1992 to preserve, protect,and interpret for the benefit of present andfuture generations certain nationallysignificant historical, cultural, and naturalsites and resources in the Virgin Islands(16 USC 410tt).
Figure 204. Beautiful reefs can still be found in shallow-waters of theUSVI. However, additional regulations and enhanced enforcement areneeded to reverse the serious decline in harvested species and generaldegradation of the reef ecosystem (Photos: Matt Kendall).
Spur and groove Spur and groove Spur and groove Spur and groove Spur and groove Patch reef Patch reef Patch reef Patch reef Patch reef
This park and preserve includesapproximately 1.6 km2 of land and 2.5 km2
of water that extends seaward to about 91m depth. Fishing is allowed in this MPA.This includes the water surface and marineresources of the Salt River Bay, Triton andSugar Bays.
Mutton Snapper Spawning AggregationArea – From March 1 to June 30 each year,all fishing is prohibited by NOAA withinthis federally protected 3.75 km2 MPAsouth of St. Croix (50 CFR 622.23).
Red Hind Spawning Aggregation Area –From December 1 through February 28each year, all fishing is prohibited byNOAA within this federally protected 3.9km2 MPA located on Lang Bank, east ofSt. Croix (50 CFR 622.23).
St. Croix Restricted Areas – Anchoringin the two restricted areas (0.01 km2 and .4km2) is prohibited with the exception ofU.S. Government owned vessels andprivate vessels that have been specificallyauthorized to do so by the Commanding
Officer, Atlantic Fleet Range SupportFacility (33 CFR 334.1490).
St. Thomas – An area seasonally closed tofishing off this island now has beendesignated a Federal Marine Reserve.Hind Bank Marine Conservation District –A seasonal closure (proposed by theCaribbean Fisheries Management Councilbut managed by NOAA) was enacted atthe red hind spawning site off St. Thomasin 1990. In November 1999 this 41 km2
MPA area south of St. Thomas wasdesignated a marine reserve with all
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IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Flower Garden Banks are two prominent geo-logical features on the edge of the outer continentalshelf in the northwest Gulf of Mexico, approxi-mately 192 km southeast of Galveston, Texas.Created by the uplift of underlying salt domes ofJurassic origin, they rise from surrounding waterdepths of over 100 m to within 17 m of the surface(Fig. 205). Stetson Bank, 48 km to the northwest ofthe Flower Gardern Banks, is a separate claystone/siltstone feature that harbors a low diversity coralcommunity. Fishermen gave the Flower GardenBanks their name because they could see the brightcolors of the reef from the surface and pulled thebrightly colored corals and sponges up on theirlines and in their nets.
These are the northernmost coral reefs on the conti-nental shelf of North America, located between 27˚52’ and 27˚ 56’ North. They are isolated from otherCaribbean and Gulf of Mexico reefs, being over690 km from the nearest reefs of the CampecheBank off the Mexican Yucatan Peninsula.
The East Flower Garden Bank, located at 27˚ 54.5’N, 93˚ 36.0’ W, comprises about 65.8 km2 andcontains about 1.02 km2 of coral reef. About 19.3km to the west, the West Flower Garden Bank, (27˚52.5’ N, 93˚ 49.0’ W) comprises about 77.2 km2, of
which about 0.4 km2 is coral reef (Gardner et al.1998).
Structurally, the Flower Garden Banks coral reefsare composed of large, closely spaced heads up tothree or more meters in diameter and height. Reeftopography is relatively rough, with many verticaland inclined surfaces. If the relief of individualcoral heads is ignored, the top of the reef is rela-tively flat between the reef surface and about 30 m.It slopes steeply between 30 m and the reef base.Between groups of coral heads, there are sandpatches and channels from 1-100 m long. Sandareas are typically small patches or linear channels.
Probably due to its geographic isolation and otherfactors, there are only about 28 species of reef-building corals, a relatively low diversity. Interest-ingly, the Flower Garden Banks contain no elkhornor staghorn corals and no shallow-water sea whipsor sea fans (gorgonians) which are common in theCaribbean.
Coral growth is relatively uniform over the entiretop of both banks, occupying the bank crests downto about 50 m. As the reef slopes in the deeperregions, corals grow flatter and individual headscan cover large areas.
The East and West Flower Garden Banks weredesignated as the Flower Garden Banks National
Marine Sanctuary (theSanctuary or FGBNMS)in January 1992. In 1996,Stetson Bank was added.The Sanctuary encom-passes 145.8 km2 andincludes all of the shallowcoral reef areas.
Condition of theCondition of theCondition of theCondition of theCondition of theCoral ReefsCoral ReefsCoral ReefsCoral ReefsCoral Reefs
The Flower Garden Banksare two of the least dis-turbed coral reefs in theCaribbean and western
STATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THENORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICO
George P. SchmahlGeorge P. SchmahlGeorge P. SchmahlGeorge P. SchmahlGeorge P. Schmahl
STATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THESTATUS OF THE FLOWER GARDEN BANKS OF THENORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICONORTHWESTERN GULF OF MEXICO
George P. SchmahlGeorge P. SchmahlGeorge P. SchmahlGeorge P. SchmahlGeorge P. Schmahl
Bathymetry (m)Bathymetry (m)Bathymetry (m)Bathymetry (m)Bathymetry (m)
160-200160-200160-200160-200160-200150-160150-160150-160150-160150-160140-150140-150140-150140-150140-150130-140130-140130-140130-140130-140120-130120-130120-130120-130120-130110-120110-120110-120110-120110-120100-110100-110100-110100-110100-11090-10090-10090-10090-10090-10080-9080-9080-9080-9080-9070-8070-8070-8070-8070-8060-7060-7060-7060-7060-7050-6050-6050-6050-6050-6040-5040-5040-5040-5040-5030-4030-4030-4030-4030-4020-3020-3020-3020-3020-30
Figure 205. Bathymetry map of the East and West Flower Garden Banks (Credit: JohnChristensen).
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Atlantic and are among the fewreefs anywhere that can beconsidered nearly pristine(Gittings and Hickerson 1998).The ocean water bathing thereefs is clear with visibilityusually 25-30 m. Salinity andtemperature variations are wellwithin the range required foractive coral growth. When firststudied in the early 1970s, coralcommunities in the FlowerGarden Banks appeared stableand in excellent general healthand have remained so. Someisolated injury caused byanchoring vessels, illegalfishing gear, tow cables, andseismic arrays was observed.
Coral and BenthosCoral and BenthosCoral and BenthosCoral and BenthosCoral and Benthos – Gittings(1998) reviewed the data from all of the assessmentand monitoring studies through 1995 (for specifics,refer to the below monitoring section within thisreport). Coral cover averaged 47.3% and has notsignificantly changed since initial studies in 1972(Fig. 206). Similar consistency was observed incoral growth rates and other indicators of coralhealth. The most recently published results(Dokkenet al. 1999) showed the trend had contin-ued through 1997.
The current status provided byDokkenet al. (1999) is basedon data from the 1996 and 1997monitoring effort (Table 19).Live coral cover above 30 maverages 51.8% (53.8% on theEast Bank and 49.8% on theWest Bank). The coral headsare frequently very cavernous,showing evidence of substantialinternal bioerosion (Fig. 207).Other prominent benthiccomponents include corallinealgae-covered rock (45.4%),leafy and filamentous algae(2.7%), sponge (1.5%), andpatches of sand (less than 0.1%)may cover 10% of the bottom.Since sites were chosen tomonitor reef habitat and avoidsand, sand channels and patches
probably account for around 10% of the Bankbenthos.
By percentage cover, the dominant coral speciesare the boulder star coral (Montastrea annulariscomplex, 28.8%), symmetrical brain coral(Diploria strigosa, 9%), mustard hill coral (Poritesastreoides, 4.6%), and the great star coral(Montastrea cavernosa, 4.4%). Diversity (H´)averaged 1.727 for all monitoring years since 1992,
and Evenness (E) averaged0.853.
Coral bleaching is routinelyobserved most years whenwater temperatures exceed 30˚C, but is generally low anddoes not result in significantmortality (Dokken et al. 1999).Based on repetitive quadratphotography, no bleaching wasobserved in 1996 at either theEast or West Flower GardenBank. In 1997, bleaching wasobserved in 1.9% of the coralcolonies on the East Bank, andin 1.2% of the colonies on theWest Bank. Bleaching duringthe summer of 1998 wasslightly higher than previousyears, but was still less than
Figure 206. Reefs at the Flower GardenBanks have high coral cover (Photo:Stephen Gittings).
Analyzed Components1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7
Montastraea annularis 3 0 .5 2 8 .0 3 4 .0 2 2 .6Diploria strigosa 6 .8 9 .4 1 1 .6 8 .4Porites astreoides 5 .9 6 .6 2 .6 3 .2Montastraea cavernosa 6 .0 3 .7 4 .7 3 .3Colophyllia natans 1 .0 3 .1 1 .7 1 .2Millepora alcicornis 2 .3 0 .8 1 .5 0 .9Agaricia agaricites 1 .0 0 .2 0 .3 0 .4Stephanocoenia intersepta 0 .6 1 .0 0 .6 0 .2Madracis decactis 0 .5 0 .0 0 .1 0 .6Siderastrea siderea 0 .3 0 .2 0 .2 1 .4Mussa angulosa 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .2Scolymia cubensis 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0Porites furcata 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0Madracis mirabilis 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0Total coral 54 .8 52 .9 57.4 42.3Reef rock 4 1 .8 4 8 .6 3 9 .8 5 1 .5Leafy algae 0 .0 5 .2 0 .9 4 .8Sponge 1 .4 2 .8 1 .0 0 .7Sand 0 .0 0 .0 0 .0 0 .2
PERCENT COVEREast Flower Garden Bank West Flower Garden Bank
Table 19. Mean percent cover (%) of corals, reef rock, algae, sponge, and sand onrandom transects sampled during 1996 and 1997 survey cruises at the East andWest Flower Garden Banks.
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5%, with mortality less than 1% (Q. Dokken pers.comm.).
Coral disease was relatively rare, with only 23incidents of disease or other unexplained mortalityobserved in over 3700 colonies. Data from the1998 and 1999 monitoring effort have been com-piled and are now under review.
Predation of living coral by parrotfish (Bruckner etal. 2000) is commonly observed, but the long-termeffect of this phenomenon is not known at this time(Fig. 208).
AlgaeAlgaeAlgaeAlgaeAlgae – Only recently has thecoral reef algal communitybeen well documented. Crus-tose coralline and calcareousgreen algae are common.Collections obtained in 1999show a community of at least44 species of algae in depthsabove 30 m (S. Fredericq pers.comm.). Benthic macroalgaeare a minor, yet importantcomponent of the reef commu-nity in terms of potentialcompetitors for space(Fredericqet al. 2000), grow-ing mostly in crevices andsandy interfaces. Solitaryfoliose algae are rarely encoun-tered; most of the algal com-munity is composed of turfspecies. Algae are a primarycomponent of the deeper portions of the banks(below 30 m). The region between 46 and 88 m isknown as the ‘algal-sponge zone’ (Rezak et al.1985).
Algal populations have historically been low, withpercent cover estimates generally less than 5%between 1989 and 1996. The algal communityincreased to over 13% after the long-spined seaurchin die-off in 1983-84, but returned to pre-dieoff levels after two years (Gittings and Bright1986), perhaps due to an increase of other herbi-vores.
Blue-green algae are abundant and invading openspace on coral heads (S. Fredericq pers. comm.).This could be in response to elevated nutrientlevels, and therefore, may be an important indicatorof water quality degradation and a potential con-
cern for the condition of the entire ecosystem (S.Fredericq pers. comm.).
In 1997, a slight increase in a red or blue-green turfalgal mat was observed on both banks, averagingabout 5% cover (Dokken et al. 1999). Algal coverdeclined slightly to about 3.2% in 1998, but thenunderwent a dramatic increase in 1999 (27.6% onthe East Bank, 20.7% on the West Bank) (Q.Dokken pers. comm.). This increase occurred asalgae colonized the bare reef rock, and may signalthat environmental factors are changing to favor
algae.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – In thevicinity of the Sanctuary, waterquality is generally very good.Being on the outer edge of theTexas-Louisiana continentalshelf, the Banks are directlyinfluenced by the circulationpatterns of the Gulf of Mexico.The most prominent current isthe Loop Current which bringswarm, clear water from theCaribbean through the Yucatanchannel into the Gulf ofMexico basin, where it travelsin a clockwise directionmoving towards the westernshelf of Florida. Movinginshore on the shelf, there is asignificant onshore-offshorecurrent component influencedby Loop Current rings and
spin-off eddies. Close to shore there is a counter-clockwise (east to west) shelf current off westernLouisiana and Texas. This current is strongest in
Figure 207. The mushroom-like shape ofthis brain coral is a product of bioerosion(Photo: Frank and Joyce Burek).
Figure 208. A stoplight parrotfish at the East FlowerGarden Bank (Photo: Dick Zingula).
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winter and almost absent in summer (Lugo-Fernan-dez 1998).
Water temperature near the Sanctuary variesseasonally and with depth. Average temperatureover seven years varied at the reef surface at 24 mfrom a minimum of 19-20˚ C in February to amaximum of 29-30˚ C in July/August, with anannual range of 9-11˚ C (Lugo-Fernandez 1998).Interannual variations occur and temperatures over30˚ C have been observed (Gittings et al. 1992),generally accompanied by varying levels of coralbleaching (Hagman and Gittings 1992). Salinityranges between 35 and 36.5 ppt near the reefsurface.
Visibility averages 25-30 m. Turbidity is generallyvery low, but periods of discoloration have beenobserved, primarily in June or July, and may beassociated with the Mississippi and AtchafalayaRiver outflows and coastal waters moving onto theshelf (Deslarzes 1998). Surface waters are affectedby freshwater flows when wind patterns reverse,changing nearshore currents.
Large Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile Invertebrates – The FlowerGarden Banks are home to at least 27 species ofsponges, 20 species of polychaetes, 62 species ofcrustaceans, 667 species of mollusks, and 36species of echinoderms. As in the case of mollusks,when invertebrate taxonomic experts inventory thebiota of the Sanctuary, the total number of residentand transient species should increase substantially.
The Flower Garden Banks had an almost completedie-off of the long-spined sea urchin in 1983-84.There has been very little, if any, sustained recov-ery, even though individual sea urchins are found(Schmahl pers. comm.).
FishFishFishFishFish – The Flower Garden Banks support a promi-
nent reef fish population. Fish diversity is lowcompared with other Caribbean and South Atlanticreefs (266 species) and abundance is high (Patten-gill-Semmens 1999). Based on abundance, plank-tivores and invertebrate feeders are the most dom-inant trophic groups (Pattengill et al. 1997).
Some of the most abundant species at all threebanks were reef butterflyfish (Chaetodonsedentarius), Spanish hogfish (Bodianus rufus),bluehead wrasse (Thalassoma bifasciatum), brownchromis (Chromis multilineata), bicolor damselfish(Stegastes partitus), creolefish (Paranthiasfurcifer), and sharpnose puffer (Canthigasterrostrata). A unique gold color phase of the smoothtrunkfish (Lactophrys triqueter) has been docu-mented (Pattengill 1998, Fig. 209). Fish familiesand groups notably absent or only represented byone or few species in low numbers include grunts(Haemulidae), snappers (Lutjanidae), and hamlets(Hypoplectrus spp.). There is also evidence thatthese reefs may serve as an important spawningand aggregation area for certain species of grouper.
The banks are year-round habitat for devil rays andmanta rays (Mobula hypostoma andManta biros-tris, Fig. 210), and whale sharks (Rhincodontypus). They serve as a winter habitat for severalspecies of schooling sharks, including hammerhead(Sphyrna lewini) and silky sharks (Carcharhinusfalciformis), and spotted eagle rays (Aetobatusnarinari) (J. Childs 2001).
Fishing pressure on the Sanctuary does not appearto be intense, but fishermen have used longlinefishing gear in the vicinity of the banks and alongthe entire continental shelf since the late 1800s.Commercial snapper and grouper fishing occursalong the continental shelf edge, including theFlower Garden Banks. Target areas for this activity
Figure 210 A manta ray at FGBNMS (Photo: Kaile Tsapis).
Figure 209. The golden-phase smooth trunk fish has onlybeen reported on the Flower Gardens and Stetson Bankreefs (Photo credit: Frank and Joyce Burek).
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are typically the deeper portions of the Bankstructure, away from the shallower coral reefs.Anecdotal information suggests that snapper, jew-fish, and other grouper populations have declinedover time. These are present but do not occur inabundance. There is no data prior to the late 1970s.
Fish population estimates were not made at thesame time as observations of algal populations, butby 1990, a significant increase in the abundance ofqueen and stoplight parrotfish (Scarus vetula andSparisoma viride, respectively) was reported.Gittingset al. (1992) suggested that this increasemay be due to greater availability of algae follow-ing the demise of long-spined sea urchins in themid-1980s.
Other Marine LifeOther Marine LifeOther Marine LifeOther Marine LifeOther Marine Life – Juvenile loggerhead seaturtles (50-100 kg) are resident at the East andWest Flower Garden Banks (Fig. 211). Based onsatellite tracking studies, these turtles have a rangeof approximately 130 square kilometers, tightlycentered on the Banks (Hickerson 2000).
Hawksbill and leatherback turtles (Dermochelyscoriacea) have also been reported.
Atlantic spotted and pan-tropical spotted dolphins(Stenella plagiodon and S. attenuatus respec-tively), and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiopstruncatus) are commonly seen. Recently anunidentified species of beaked whale was reported.
Coastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef Economics
Recreational SCUBA diving is popular and thedemand appears to be increasing. There are cur-rently three live-aboard charter dive vessels whichcan carry up to 35 divers each. In 1997, from asurvey of charter dive operations, it was estimatedthat 2,350 divers annually visit the Flower GardenBanks. These divers spent $870,000 in Texas.About $636,000 was spent in the local economy ofFree-port Texas where it generated $1.1 million insales/output, $477,000 in income, and 24 full andpart-time jobs. An additional $234,000 was spent inother areas of Texas with $559,000 in sales/output,$228 thousand in income, and 11 more jobs (Dittonand Thailing 2001).
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human PressuresHuman PressuresHuman PressuresHuman PressuresHuman Pressures – Since they are relatively farfrom both Texas and Louisiana, the Flower Garden
Banks are well buffered from urban pressures. Thereare four primary threats to these reefs: 1) physicalinjury from vessel anchoring, 2) potential waterquality degradation, 3) impacts of fishing andfishing-related activities, and 4) impacts from oiland gas exploration and development.
Over the last 20 years, a number of large industryvessels, freighters, and fishing vessels have an-chored at the Flower Garden Banks and causedsignificant damage (Gittings et al. 1992). Since1994 there have been at least three large vessel-anchoring incidents. Foreign-flagged cargo vesselshave occasionally anchored, unaware of theanchoring restrictions.
Primary sources of potential degradation of waterquality include coastal runoff, and river and effluentdischarges from offshore activities such as oil/gasdevelopment and marine transportation (Deslarzes1998). Oxygen-depleted (hypoxic) near-bottomwaters have been found in a large area of thenorthern Gulf. Although relatively far from theFlower Garden Banks, there is concern that thisarea could grow and move, impacting the outercontinental shelf. Often called the ‘dead zone’, thisarea has included up to 16,500 km2 on the conti-nental shelf from the Mississippi delta to the Texascoast.
General coastal runoff and degraded nearshorewater quality can potentially impact the banksthrough cross-shelf transport processes, whichbrings turbid, nutrient-rich water offshore.Deslarzes (in press) postulates the fluorescentbands observed in the carbonate skeletons of somecorals come from the seasonal transport of
Figure 211. A loggerhead turtle (Photo: Frank and JoyceBurek).
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nearshore water onto the Sanctuary, which may betainted by urban, agricultural, and biological con-taminants.
Research using nitrogen isotopes suggests a path-way for direct primary nitrogen input from coastalriver sources a considerable distance away. Benthicalgae from Stetson Bank have a distinct nitrogenisotope signature similar to plants found in coastalestuarine systems, suggesting coastal influences onwater quality are reaching only as far as StetsonBank. Nitrogen isotopes from the Flower GardenBanks have signatures of oceanic origin (K.Dunton pers. comm.).
The impacts of fishing and associated activities arenot well known. At this time, only traditional hookand line fishing is allowed in the Sanctuary. How-ever, illegal fishing by both commercial longlinersand recreational spearfishers has been reported.Targeted fishing efforts, which are allowed undercurrent regulations, could have a significant detri-mental impact on snapper and grouper populations.
Lost and discarded fishing gear has been observedat both the Sanctuary and Stetson Banks (Fig. 212).These can cause localized physical injury to coralreefs and can entangle and injure loggerhead seaturtles and other animals.
The two primarygroups using reefresources are fish-ers and SCUBAdivers. Recreationalhook-and-line fish-ers frequently usethe area. Commer-cial snapper andgrouper long-linefishers fish along theedges of the banksand sometimesillegally within theborders, or lose gearthat drifts into the Sanctuary. However, theseactivities are typically in the deeper portions of thebank structure.
The northern Gulf of Mexico is one of the mostactive areas for oil and gas exploration and devel-opment. By the end of 1995, approximately 5,000production platforms had been installed (approxi-mately 1,000 were subsequently removed), 32,000wells had been drilled and 80,000 km of pipelineinstalled (Deslarzes 1998, A. Alvarado pers.comm.). The Gulf of Mexico accounts for morethan 72% of the oil and 97% of the natural gasproduced in offshore U.S. waters.
Within a four-mile radius of the Flower GardenBanks, there are currently 10 production platformsand around 161 km of pipeline, half of which arededicated oil pipelines (Deslarzes 1998). There isone gas production platform (High Island 389A)within the East Sanctuary boundary (Fig. 213).
Potential impacts from offshore oil and gas explo-ration and development include accidental spills,contamination by drilling related effluents anddischarge, anchoring of vessels involved in placingpipelines, drilling rigs and production platforms,seismic exploration, use of dispersants in oil spillmitigation, and platform removal. In spite of theintense industrial activity, long-term monitoringstudies indicate no significant detrimental impact tothe coral reefs of the Sanctuary from nearby oil andgas development (Gittings 1998). Fortunately, therehave been no major oil spills or impacts from theseactivities.
Climate Change and BleachingClimate Change and BleachingClimate Change and BleachingClimate Change and BleachingClimate Change and Bleaching – The locationand depth of these coral reefs buffer them some-
Figure 212. Hook-and-line fishinggear snagged on a coral (Photo:Frank and Joyce Burek).
Figure 213. The High Island 389A gas production platformwithin the Sanctuary (Photo: Frank and Joyce Burek).
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what from the short-term effects of global warmingand climate change. Even though the effects ofcoral bleaching are relatively low to date, somebleaching is routinely observed, mostly when thewater temperature approaches 30˚ C. As globalocean temperatures increase, this will no doubtincrease.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
Mapping Mapping Mapping Mapping Mapping – Using high-resolution multi-beam sonarcoupled with an extremely accurate vehicle motionsensor and very precise navigation, the USGS, theUniversity of New Brunswick, and C & C Tech-nologies, Inc. mapped the East and West FlowerGardens and Stetson Banks (Gardner et al. 1998).
Monitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and ResearchMonitoring, Assessments, and Research –Since 1989, there has been a consistent, long-termmonitoring program at the East and West FlowerGarden Banks. NOAA and the Minerals Manage-ment Service (MMS) share the funding for thisprogram. While not all, much of the monitoring hasbeen related to concerns about the potential impactof oil and gas development.
This program includes analysis of coral cover,relative abundance, diversity, and coral growthrates. Coral cover, abundance and vitality (disease,bleaching) are measured along random transectsand at permanently marked, repeatedly sampledphoto-quadrat stations. Coral growth data are col-lected using photography and growth-ring mea-surements from coral cores. Continuous-recordinginstruments have been installed to measure tem-perature and light at the reef surface.
Results of the long-term monitoring efforts arepublished periodically (Gittings et al. 1992, Con-tinental Shelf Associates 1996, Dokken et al. 1999,Dokkenet al. 2001). Prior to the development ofthe long-term monitoring program, there had beenother quantitative studies of the benthic communityat FGBNMS since 1972 (Bright and Pequegnat1974, Viada 1980, Continental Shelf Associates1985).
Additional studies include periodic reef fishcensuses and trophic studies (Pattengill et al.1997), elasmobranch surveys (sharks and rays), seaturtle tagging and tracking, coral recruitmentresearch, annual observations and experimentsrelating to mass coral spawning (Fig. 214), and
studies on historical water quality and paleoclimate(using coral cores). Enhanced water-quality instru-ments were installed in 2001, and are now collect-ing data on temperature, salinity, turbidity, dis-solved oxygen, pH, and light intensity.
MPAsMPAsMPAsMPAsMPAs – The Flower Garden Banks were designatedas a National Marine Sanctuary in January 1992,and are administered by NOAA. In cooperationwith appropriate partners, the Sanctuary staffdirects resource protection, education, research,and enforcement efforts. MMS provides additionalprotection through requirements imposed onindustry operators in what is known as the ‘Topo-graphic Features Stipulation’ for the Sanctuary.
Government Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislation
Regulations governing the Flower Garden Banksare authorized under the National Marine Sanctuar-ies Act, as amended, 16 U.S.C. 1431, and arecontained within the Code of Federal Regulations15 CFR 922, Subparts A, E, and L, and can beaccessed on the web. They are designed to protectthe sensitive coral reef and bank features of theSanctuary. They prohibit all anchoring, mooringany vessel greater than 100 feet (30.5 m) in regis-tered length on a Sanctuary mooring buoy, oil andgas exploration and development within a desig-nated no activity zone (almost the entire sanctuary),injuring or taking coral and other marine organ-isms, using fishing gear other than traditional hookand line, discharging or depositing any substancesor materials, altering the seabed, building or
Figure 214. Researchers from the University of Texas laytiles out on a reef during a study of coral spawning (Photocredit: Ed Enns).
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abandoning any structures, andusing explosives or electricalcharges. To reduce damage,moring bouys have been in-stalled (Fig. 215).
Effective June 1, 2001, theInternational Maritime Organi-zation designated the FlowerGarden Banks as the world’sfirst international no-anchor zone.
Gaps in CurrentGaps in CurrentGaps in CurrentGaps in CurrentGaps in CurrentMonitoring andMonitoring andMonitoring andMonitoring andMonitoring andConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation Capacity
The increased algal abundancehighlights the need for morewater quality monitoring. Thisneeds to cover nutrient sam-pling and more detailed currentand water circulation information. It also should beexpanded to include specific studies on algaepopulation dynamics, the incidence and etiology ofcoral disease, and the area of the coral reef commu-nity in the deeper parts of the Sanctuary. Thefrequency of the monitoring program should alsobe increased to capture the aspects of communityecology that undergo short-term and seasonal
fluctuations (algal biomass,coral bleaching, herbivores,etc.).
The distance from shore ham-pers research and enforcementefforts. It also hampers moni-toring human activity. Whilesome data on visitor use canbe acquired by a variety ofremote methods such as over-flights, satellite imagery, andremote radar systems, theSanctuary needs on-site obser-vation, management andenforcement. In May, 2001,the Sanctuary recently ac-quired its own vessel, an 82-foot cutter, but also relies oncharter vessels.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
Recent data indicating the Flower Garden Banksmay be an important spawning area for severalspecies of grouper highlights the importance ofconsidering a marine reserve to protect thebiodiversity of this area.
Figure 215. Mooring buoys have been installedat FGBNMS to prevent anchor damage tocorals (Photo: Joyce and Frank Burek).
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
Navassa Island is a small, uninhabited islandlocated 55 km west of Haiti and 137 km northeastof Jamaica. A U.S. Protectorate, Navassa is cur-rently administered by the USFWS as part of theCaribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge. Thiscovers an area from the shoreline to 19 km out,with entry by permit only.
All quantitative reef community structure informa-tion contained in this report results from The OceanConservancy’s (formerly the Center for MarineConservation) sponsored expedition in March2000. This information, obtained from SCUBAactivities at 11-23 m, was confined to the west andnorthwest coasts. Additional information wasobtained from two other expeditions (The OceanConservancy, July-August 1998; NMFS September1998), which involved ROV, stationary video, andlongline sampling. Only recently have there beenscientific observations at Navassa, so little isknown regarding the disturbance history of thereefs.
Condition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef Ecosystems
There are currently no good estimates of the reefarea at Navassa. Its topography does not conformto the normal zonation of Caribbean reefs (Goreau1959, Goreau and Goreau 1973), which has pro-tected back reef/sea grass communities near-shore,reef crest, and fore-reef habitats.
Instead, Navassa has cliffs surrounding the island,extending straight down to about 23 m of water(Fig. 216). Then there is a largely sand/rubble shelfat about 22-25 m, with patch-reef type habitatsdispersed throughout. Because there is littleshallow water, seagrass and mangrove habitats areessentially absent and most of the shallow reefsurface is vertical rather than horizontal. Thehorizontal reef surfaces are largely confined to asmall shelf area at the Northwest Point (10-14 m),indentations along or at the base of the wall, and onpinnacles. These were apparently formed as chunksof the wall broke off, since the pinnacles appear tobe geologically based, not accreted biogenicstructures.
Rugosity of the reefs at Navassa was quite highwith mean rugosity indices ranging from 1.4 to 1.9.West Pinnacles had the highest rugosity index.Reefs with high rugosity have high value as fishhabitat and a high potential for reef metabolism andnutrient uptake. While rugosity index data is notcommonly collected in reef rapid assessments,Atkinson (1999) argues that it should be because itallows inferences regarding the nutrient uptake andhence, reef metabolism. Szmant (1997) suggestedthat topographic complexity is a vital determinantof a reef’s capacity to metabolize nutrient inputwithout undergoing a ‘phase shift’ to macroalgaldominance. Not surprisingly, at Navassa the sitewith highest coral cover also had highest rugosityindex.
Quantitative reef assessments (fish and benthiccommunities) were done at four sites (11-23 m)during the March 2000 expedition. There is noestablished or ongoing reef monitoring or researchprogram at Navassa.
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSAMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. Miller
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSASTATUS OF CORAL REEFS OF NAVASSAMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. MillerMargaret W. Miller
Figure 216. Cliffs on the eastern coast of Navassa Island(Photo: Bob Halley and Don Hickey, USGS).
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Coral and BenthosCoral and BenthosCoral and BenthosCoral and BenthosCoral and Benthos –Average live scleractiniancoral cover at the foursampled sites ranged from20-26%. Other major coverwere sponges (7-27%) andalgae (10-23%), primarilybrown algae and fleshybrown algae. There were nolarge differences in commu-nity composition betweensites. However, the highestcoral and sponge cover weremeasured at West Pinnacles,while the highest brown algalabundance was at NorthwestPoint, the site with the great-est expanse of horizontal reefarea.
Abundance of the long-spined sea urchin averagedover the 14 transects where they were counted was2.9 (0.84 SE) urchins/30 m2. Elkhorn coral wasobserved at 5 of the 7 dive sites. At several sites,most notably the Northwest Point, a preponderanceof the colonies did not have the characteristicarborescent branching form, but instead, wereencrusting (Fig. 217). Several encrusting colonieswere small and appeared to be sexual recruits (rarefor this fragmenting species), while others werefairly large (e.g., 60-100 cm diameter) and in somecases were overgrowing other corals (e.g., sym-metrical brain coral).
Elkhorn coral appeared to be vigorously growingand healthy with no white-band disease and almostno observeable predation scars. One small encrust-ing colony was observed growing at 21 m which isextremely deep for this species. It normally ranges1-10 m. Staghorn coral was observed, but at muchlower abundance than the elkhorn coral. Thelargest thicket, about 2 m2 north of Lulu Bay, had ahigh density of three-spot damselfish (Stegastesplanifrons) which bite at the coral to create algallawns.
Other qualitative observations of interest aroundthis island include coral species that were unusu-ally abundant at Navassa, including smooth flowercoral (Eusmilia fastigiata), maze coral (Meandrinameandrites), and rough star coral (Isophyllastrearigida).
A noticeable occurrence ofpartially dead colonies,particularly at the NorthwestPoint site (13-15 m), couldhave resulted from pastbleaching or disease events,but the cause could not beascertained. Observations inJuly-August 1998, during amajor global beaching event,reported no coral bleachingat Navassa (Littler et al.1999).
Overall, the reef is healthy,with little active coraldisease. The only obviousactive disease which re-
sembled white plague and was observed on 3colonies of Agaricia spp. at the base of the wallnorth of Lulu Bay (approximately 21 m). Many oftheMontastraea spp. colonies, particularly at theNorthwest Point, appear to have suffered partialmortality at some point (i.e., the living tissue isfragmented with intervening organisms in somecases overgrowing it). The source of this mortalitywas not identifiable, but it could be a result of the1998 bleaching event. However, researchers on theJuly-August 1998 cruise reported observing nobleaching (Littler et al. 1999).
Aside from the urchin data given before, noquantitative population data is available on largemobile invertebrates. During the March 2000cruise, there was extensive sampling of the inverte-brates to determine diversity, particularly in theechinoderm, crustacean, and molluscan groups.Collections are under analysis at the Los Angeles
Figure 217. Encrusting elkhorn coral (Photo: BobHalley and Don Hickey, USGS).
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Figure 218. Taxonomic (familial) composition of shallow reeffish assemblage at Navassa Island.
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County and University of Michigan museums.Anecdotal observations of large animals from divesduring the March 2000 expedition included 4lobster, 1 large spotted eagle ray, 5 stingrays, 2octopi, 3 small hawksbill turtles, and 1 large reefcrab (Mithrax sp., about 25 cm carapace length).
FishFishFishFishFish – Quantitative visual transect sampling ofshallow reef fish communities counted between 36and 41 species at each of five sites (Fig. 218).Average (standard error) total fish density for thesesites ranged from 97 (9.4) to 140 (16.5) fishes/60m2 (Figs. 4-5). Average snapper plus grouperdensity was 2.5 fishes/60 m2. Average herbivoredensity (surgoenfishes plus parrotfishes) was 15.9fishes/60 m2 (Fig. 219).
Perhaps more importantly, individual fish sizeswere relatively large – 92% of snapper and 23% ofparrotfishes were longer than 40 cm. One ex-tremely large grouper was observed (likely ajewfish over 1 m), but it was not in the quantitativetransects. Grunts and some wrasses (slippery dicksand hogfish) were absent, perhaps due to the lackof appropriate seagrass nursery habitat.
Five longline sampling stations for pelagic fisheswere set around Navassa over a 24-hr period inSeptember 1998 (Grace 1998, 100 hook-hours perstation, 120-150 m depth). Total catch included abull shark (300 cm), seven scalloped hammerheadsharks (170-275 cm), two smooth dogfish(Mustelus canis), a great barracuda (Sphyrancabarracuda, 178 cm), a silk snapper (Lujanusvivanu, 72 cm), and a misty grouper (Epinephelusmystacinus, 78 cm). Hence, pelagic predators arealso large and fairly abundant.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Since theisland is uninhabited and farfrom any modern human devel-opment, the water quality atNavassa appears to be quite good(zero land development, and lowturbidity). The only quantitativewater quality data was obtainedduring a 24 hour visit by theNMFS Coastal Shark Assess-ment cruise in September 1998(Grace 1998), indicating at 15-30m, temperature of 29.5o C,salinity of 36.1 ppt, dissolvedoxygen 4.8 mg/l, turbidity 0.05%
transmittance, and chlorophyll a concentrations of0.015 mg/m3.
Phosphate mining operations during the latter partof the 19th century may have created some phos-phate enrichment of the surrounding reef waters,but no nutrient data is available.
A freshwater seep in a cave along the west wall(approximately 11m) was observed during theMarch 2000 expedition. This water was warmerthan the ambient ocean water. Nutrient input fromthis seepage is under analysis.
Environmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralEnvironmental Pressures on CoralReefsReefsReefsReefsReefs
Given the lack of even recent historical observa-tions of the reefs, the influence of natural threats(climate/bleaching, storms, and disease), is impos-sible to assess. Fishing is, and likely will remainthe sole human threat to Navassa reefs (Fig. 220).
Figure 220. Dense population of reef fish on Navassa Island.(Photo: Bob Halley and Don Hickey).
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The only form of fishing exploitation on Navassareefs are the Haitians (Fig. 221). These are subsis-tence fishers using traps in the deeper watersoffshore and hook and line fishing over the reef.Again, no quantitative data is available on the levelof effort or harvest, either now or in the past. Oneto four boats per day with 3-5 men per boat werepresent at Navassa during the March 2000 cruise.They appeared to be non-selective regardingspecies or size.
Casual observations suggest that increases in thetechnological level of these subsistence fishers(e.g., boat motors, ice chests) may have increasedrapidly since the 1998 Ocean Conservancy cruise.Given the population pressures and poor fishresources in Haiti, fishing pressure may increase.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
The jurisdictional management of Navassa Islandpassed from the U.S. Coast Guard to the DoI in1996, and was transferred to the USFWS as part ofthe Caribbean Islands National Wildlife Refuge inApril 1999. A 12-mile fringe of marine habitataround Navassa (estimated at 340,000 acres) isunder USFWS management. Navassa is the onlycomponent of the Caribbean Islands Refuge whereUSFWS jurisdiction extends into the ocean.
The USFWS is developing a ComprehensiveConservation Plan for the entire Caribbean IslandsRefuge (eight separate units) beginning in 2002.
Gaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation Capacity
There is some ambiguity of refuge managementpolicy and its execution. For example, refuge
regulations allow subsistence fishing and as aresult, persistent fishing activities are ongoing bysmall boats from Haiti. Intermittently, the U.S.Coast Guard patrols, and sometimes exclude thefishermen, even though the USFWS policy allowsit. The development of a management strategy tokeep subsistence fishing impacts attheir current,apparently minimal level is an important butdifficult goal.
The other persistent gap which hinders the devel-oping and implementing an effective managementplan is the total lack of monitoring of either thereefs or the subsistence fishery. The Ocean Conser-vancy has made a large contribution toward anassessment of reef status, but no data is availableon the subsistence fishery, nor are there plans forcollection in the near future. Given the challengemanagement of this fishery presents, monitoring isa vital tool, but currently unavailable for the devel-opment and adaptive evaluation of a managementstrategy.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
Because the condition of reef and fish communitiesat Navassa appears to be good, especially relativeto neighboring Caribbean nations, it is desirable tokeep human impacts at their current levels, perhapsthrough licensing current users. The presence of arelatively intact Caribbean reef provides a uniqueopportunity for research on Caribbean reefs andcould aid in 1) functional understanding these reefsand 2) development of effective management andrestoration policies for other areas of the Carib-bean.
However, given the strong push-and-pull factors inthe fishery industry and the difficulty of enforce-ment in a remote place, the goal of maintaining thestatus quo will not be easy. No matter what fisherymanagement strategies are adopted, it is plausibleor perhaps even likely that fishing effort and reefimpacts may escalate at Navassa. This could occurvery rapidly. Quickly implementing a rigorous reefand fishery monitoring program could give impor-tant information on what the threshold levels ofsubsistence fishery are and how they impact therest of the Caribbean reefs.
Figure 221. Haitian fishermen (Photo credit: MargaretMiller).
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STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGODavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, Alan
Friedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell Brainard
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGOSTATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE HAWAIIAN ARCHIPELAGODavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, AlanDavid Gulko, James Maragos, Alan
Friedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell BrainardFriedlander, Cynthia Hunter, and Russell Brainard
The Hawaiian Archipelago stretches for over 2,400km from 19o-28o N to 155o-178o E (Fig. 222).
Given the prevailing ocean currents and itsdistance from land masses, Hawai‘i is one of themost isolated yet populated areas on earth (Juvikand Juvik 1998). This isolation has resulted inbuffering many of the region-wide and globalimpacts seen in other areas while allowing a widerange of urban-related impacts not seen on mostPacific island coral reefs. Geographic isolation isalso thought to have led to the high endemism seenacross most marine phyla in Hawaiian waters.
The Archipelago consists ofeight large islands and 124small islands, reefs, andshoals. It can be divided intotwo distinct regions: theNorthwestern HawaiianIslands (NWHI), primarilyuninhabited atolls147, islands,and banks accounting for themajority of U.S. reefs, andthe Main Hawaiian Islands(MHI) largely made up ofpopulated, high, volcanicislands with non-structuralreef communities, fringingreefs, and two barrier reefs.These two regions are sodistinct in terms of impactsand resources (see Table 20on next page) that the MHIand NWHI are treatedseparately throughout muchof this document.
Hawaiian coral reefs arerich in natural beauty andbiodiversity. The marine lifealso is so distinct from therest of the Indo-PacificOcean that scientists treatthese islands as a separate
ecoregion (Clark and Gulko 1999). There areapproximately 60 named species of stony coralsfound in the Hawaiian Archipelago (Maragos et al.in prep.). Studies in the 1980s (Grigg 1983, Griggand Dollar 1980) suggested that coral cover variesgreatly throughout the entire archipelago.
Many reefs of the MHI lie close to the majority ofthe 1.2 million inhabitants, often less than 2 kmfrom major coastal urbanization and development.The reefs function to protect and stabilize shore-lines from seasonal storm waves; are responsiblefor the majority of white sandy beaches important
147 The one major exception to this is Midway Atoll, which has a small resident population in addition to an active ecotourism operation including commercial airline flights, catch and release fishing, and charter boat excursions. Small permanent scientific field camps are also established on Laysan and French Frigate Shoals.
Figure 222. Diagram of the Hawaiian Archipelago. The full spectrum of reef develop-ment is exemplified as geologic age increases northward through the island chain(Modified after Gulko 1998).
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156156156156156156156156156156148 This includes NWHI areas such as French Frigate Shoals, Midway Atoll, and Kure.
Table 20. Summary of data on islands and reefs of the Hawaiian Archipelago(Sources: Clark and Gulko 1999, Maragos and Holthous 1999).
to the tourism industry; provide food products forrecreational, subsistence, and commercial fishingfor residents and visitors; create Hawaii’s famoussurfing spots; and are critically important to theState’s $800 million per year marine tourismindustry (Clark and Gulko 1999).
Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)Main Hawaiian Islands (MHI)
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The eight main islands that comprise the MHI (Fig.223) range in age from 7 million years (Kaua‘i) toless than a day old (portions of the eastern side of
the island of Hawai‘i). A newvolcanic island (Lo‘ihi) ispresently forming about 975 mbelow the sea surface off thesoutheast coast of the island ofHawai‘i. This range of agealong the chain of islandsprovides for the majority ofrecognized reef types to bepresent (Fig 224).
The MHI are largely comprisedof populated, high volcanicislands with non-structural reefcommunities, fringing reefs,and two barrier reefs. Total reefarea was estimated at 2,536 km2
(Hunter 1995). Detailed map-ping of underwater benthichabitats is underway and expec-ted to be done in 2002.
Culturally, the Polynesians whofirst settled the MHI had strongties to coral reefs. According tothe Hawaiian Hymn of CreationtheKumulipo, or coral polyp,was the first creature to emergeduring creation. The presenta-tion of corals as offeringsduring religious ceremoniesalso suggests the importance ofthese animals and the reefs theyproduce was not lost on theancient Hawaiians. Coral reefresources provided food,medicines, building materials,and formed a portion of culturaland social customs important inancient Hawai‘i.
Human impacts on Hawaiiancoral reefs may have started thethe construction of fish pondsatop reef flats throughout theMHI. Wide-scale degradation of
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Figure 224. Timeline tracing the origins of the Hawaiian Islands and the Emperor Seamounts showing the formation andreplacement of reef types over time (Modified after Gulko 1998).
149 With a range of 4-50%.150 Resulting from persistently high sea surface temperatures associated with increased frequency of El Niño warming events.
Figure 225. Halophila hawaiiensisis one of many Hawaiian endemicspecies (Photo: University ofHawaii Botany Department).
Figure 223. View of Main Hawaiian Islands from space(Photo: NASA).
reefs began some 100 to 200 years ago with theexpansion of Western influence on the islands.Livestock grazing and agriculture were the primaryland uses on the islands of O‘ahu, Maui, Moloka‘i,and Lana‘i, contributing to erosion and sedimen-tion on fringing reefs. Dredging and filling of near-shore reefs for residential, commercial, and mili-tary expansion increased in the last century148,resulting in further loss of reef habitat. Streamchannelization and increased paving of land re-duced sediment erosion but increased runoff. Des-pite these changes in coastal land use, the consen-sus of many ecologists is that nearshore reefs offthe MHI, with a few exceptions, remain in rela-tively good condition.
Condition of ReefsCondition of ReefsCondition of ReefsCondition of ReefsCondition of Reefs
Algae and Higher Marine PlantsAlgae and Higher Marine PlantsAlgae and Higher Marine PlantsAlgae and Higher Marine PlantsAlgae and Higher Marine Plants – Abbott(1995) estimated over 400 species of marine algaeare found throughout the Hawaiian Islands. Recentinvestigations suggest the majority of these speciesare red algae (Class Rhodophyta). This number
may be greatly underestimated (C. Smith pers.comm.). Endemism rates for most classes ofHawaiian algae are high. One endemic species ofseagrass (Halophila hawaiiensis) is associated withshallow reef flats on Moloka‘i (Fig. 225).
CoralCoralCoralCoralCoral – Grigg (1993) examined coral speciesdistribution throughout the MHI and found theislands of O‘ahu and Hawai‘i had the highest coralbiodiversity. Hawaiian endemism is thought to beover 25% (Maragos 1995, Maragos et al. in prep.).The apparently limited distribution of some en-demic coral species has raised concern for theirpotential extinction.
Recent analyses of data by the Hawai‘i Coral ReefAssessment and Monitoring Program (CRAMP)suggests live coral cover averages 18%149 for allsites surveyed. Thisestimate may be con-servative, given thelimited number ofsites analyzed so far,and that the weightof information wastaken in shallowwater (2-3 m) rela-tive to data fromgreater than 10 mwhere coral cover isoften higher. Manyreefs in Hawai‘i havelive coral coverbelow 20 m.
Coral bleachingevents that devastated reefs in many area of the
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158158158158158158158158158158151 Corals in the family Acroporidae are among the favorite food items of crown-of-thorn starfish, while corals in the family Poritidae are not preferred, perhaps due to difficulty in digestion and symbiont defenses (Gulko 1998).
Figure 227. Lobsters are over-harvested in nearshore MHIwaters (Photo: Donna Turgeon).
Figure 226. Lobe coral (Porites lobata) showing tissuenecroses, abnormal skeletal growth, and filamentous algaeovergrowing live coral tissue (Photo: Cindy Hunter).
Pacific during the last decade150 seemed to havemissed the Hawaiian reefs. However, the corals aresuspectible to locally elevated water temperaturesand/or increased ultraviolet light penetration, oftenat the level of individual colonies (Jokiel and Coles1990).
At least two type of coral disease commonly occuron Hawaiian reefs – general necroses and abnor-mal growth or ‘tumors’ (Hunter 1999). Necroticcoral tissues, whether caused by abrasion, preda-tion, or pathogens, are rapidly invaded by finefilamentous algae and cyanobacteria (Fig. 226),followed by three potential outcomes: 1) recoveryand overgrowth by adjacent healthy coral tissue,2) successional change from turf to crustose coral-line algae on which new coral recruits become es-tablished, or 3) persistence of the turf communityresulting in net loss of coral cover.
Coral diseases and tumors have been documentedin most major reef-building coral species in theMHI: Porites lobata, P. compressa, Montiporacapitata, M. patula, and Pocillopora meandrina(Peterset al. 1986, Hunter 1999).
Similar to other regions, incidence of coral diseaseon Hawaiian reefs does not appear to be consis-tently associated with known anthropogenicstressors (pollutants, proximity to urban centers;Glynn et al. 1984, Peters et al. 1986, Coles 1994,Hunter 1999). Preliminary pathological exami-nation of two samples of diseased Porites coraltissues from Hanauma Bay, O‘ahu, identifiedbacterial associations that were similar to thoseassociated with white-band bisease in Florida
corals (Hunter 1999). No major die-off of coralshas yet been documented due to disease outbreaksin Hawai‘i.
InvertebratesInvertebratesInvertebratesInvertebratesInvertebrates – Marine invertebrate biodiversityis relatively high in Hawai‘i. There are estimated tobe over 100 sponge species (R. deFelice pers.comm.), 1071 species of marine molluscs (Kay1995), 884 species of crustaceans (Eldredge 1995,Fig. 227), and 278 species of echinoderms(Eldredge and Miller 1995). Except for crusta-ceans, rates of endemism within these groups areamong the highest in the Pacific.
Major outbreaks of the crown-of-thorns starfish(Acanthaster planci), which have occurred else-where in the Pacific, have been few in Hawai‘i.The last major occurrence was observed offMoloka‘i in the late 1960s and early 1970s(Branhamet al. 1971, Gulko 1998). During thisevent, this seastar preyed on Montipora capitata, aspecies much less abundant than the dominantPorites species (J. Maragos pers. comm.). Lack ofAcropora throughout the MHI, the dominance ofPorites corals on most reefs151, and the islands’overall isolation may help account for the lack ofoutbreaks.
FishFishFishFishFish – There are 557 species of reef and shorefishes in Hawai‘i (Randall 1995). The fish fauna inHawai‘i is depauperate compared to the Indo-WestPacific from which it is derived and is charac-terized by a large number of endemic species(Hourigan and Reese 1987, Fig. 228). Hawai‘ipossesses the highest percentage of endemicwarm-water marine fish fauna found anywhere inthe world (24.3%). Many of these species are
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Figure 228. MHI reefs support a large number of endemicfish species (Photo: James McVey).
among the most common and abundant compo-nents of the fish assemblage (Randall 1996).Owing to its geographic and oceanographic isola-tion, a number of common fish families foundthroughout the Indo-Pacific region are poorly rep-resented in Hawai‘i, particularly those with a shortlarval duration.
A steady decline in abundance of nearshore livingresources in the MHI has been reported by fisher-men and researchers over the past century(Shomura 1987). Overfishing is the major cause ofthe long-term statewide decline in fish abundance(Harman and Kitakaru 1988). Fishing pressure onnearshore resources in heavily populated areasappears to exceed the capacity of these resources torenew themselves (Smith 1993) and the abundanceof reef fishes in areas not protected from fishing issubstantially lower than in areas where fishing isprohibited (Grigg 1994).
Under-reporting by commercial fishers and theexistence of a large number of recreational andsubsistence fishers without licensing or reportingrequirements, have resulted in uncertainty in catchstatistics for the state (Lowe 1995). In an islandstate such as Hawai‘i, where as much as 35% of theresident population fishes (Hoffman and Yamauchi1972, USFWS 1988), the recreational/subsistencecatch may have a large impact on the nearshoremarine resources.
Creel surveys in the MHI have shown the recrea-tional catch to be equivalent to or greater than thatreported in commercial fisheries landing data(Omnitrack 1991, Hamm and Lum 1992, Everson1994). The few studies done in Hawai‘i to datehave shown that recreational fishers take a higherdiversity of species with a wider variety of geartypes than do commercial fishers (Omnitrack 1991,Hamm and Lum 1992, Everson 1994). The recrea-tional catch has been shown to be equal to orgreater than the commercial catch for a number ofimportant target species (Friedlander 1996).Hawai‘i is one of the few coastal states that doesnot require a saltwater recreational fishing license(Altman 1992).
A survey of the small-boat fisheries on O‘ahu, withemphasis on the recreational and subsistencefisheries, was conducted from March 1990 to May1991 (Hamm and Lum 1992). About 41% of thetotal catch was identified as destined to be sold.
This figure is believed to be conservative sinceState law prohibits catch sales without a validcommercial fishing license. Only 22% of thefishers interviewed identified their catch as des-tined to be sold. Traps (65%) and nets (53%) hadthe highest proportion of sales. Creel surveysconducted at Kane‘ohe, Hanalei, and Hilo Bayshave shown that there were significant differencesbetween total and reported landings (Lowe 1995).Several gear types (spear, crab net, gill and sur-round net, trolling, and pole-and-line fishing)which are primarily recreation/subsistence innature contribute much more to the total catch thanis reported in commercial landings data.
In a creel survey conducted in Kane‘ohe Bay fewfishers reported selling their catch (Everson 1994).Gill netters and surround netters had the highestpercentage of catch sold (12%) while less than onepercent of all other fishers reported selling theircatch.
A comparison of fisheries landings from HanaleiBay, Kaua‘i was made to State of Hawai‘i Depart-ment of Land and Natural Resources’ (DLNR)Division Aquatic Resources (DAR) commerciallandings data and data obtained during a 1 1/2 yearcreel survey of the bay (Friedlander and Parrish1997). On the whole, catches estimated from thecreel survey were consistently higher than thosereported to DAR. The differences ranged from afactor of less than two to more than 100 times thereported catch.
Subsistence fishing is culturally and economicallyimportant to many rural communities throughout
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160160160160160160160160160160
Figure 230. Commercial aquarium collecting permits issued in1995 and 1998 by Hawai‘i DAR. Although O‘ahu collectorshave the greatest number of permits issued, the majority offishers are part-time (Figure from Clark and Gulko 1999).
the MHI. The Hawaiians of old depended onfishing for survival and the consistent need for foodmotivated them to acquire a sophisticated under-standing of the factors that caused limitations andfluctuations in their marine resources. The tradi-tional harvest system in Hawai‘i (pre-1800)emphasized social and cultural controls on fishingwith a code of conduct that was strictly enforced.Harvest management was not based on a specificamount of fish but on identifying the specific timesand places that fishing could occur to not disruptbasic processes and habitats of important foodresources (Friedlander et al. in prep.). Based ontheir familiarity with the marine ecosystem,Hawaiian communities were able to devise systemsthat fostered sustainable use of the resources. In1994, the Hawai‘i State Legislature created aprocess for designating community-based subsis-tence fishing areas and there are currently effortsunderway on Moloka‘i, Kaua‘i, and Hawai‘i tocreate such regions.
Poaching is a recurring problem throughout theMHI. There are a large number of un-licensedcommercial fishers. Take of under-sized fish andinvertebrates (limpets, lobster, and octopus), andout-of-season harvests have contributed to over-fishing pressure. From a creel survey conducted inHanalei Bay, Kaua‘i, less than 30% of the omilu (ahighly prized jack species) were legal for harvestand only 3% had reached the size of sexualmaturity (Friedander and Parrish 1997).
The proliferation of long and inexpensive gill netshas allowed new fishers to set nets deeper and inlocations not previously harvested (Clark and
Gulko 1999). Conservation officials seized nearlyfive miles of net out of nearshore waters in a six-month period in 1998. The lack of marine-focusedenforcement and minimal fines for those few casesthat have been prosecuted contribute to a lack ofincentive by the population to abide by fisheriesmanagement regulations.
Most marine ornamental fish and invertebratesoriginating from U.S. waters come from Hawai‘i,which is known for its rare endemics of high value(Fig. 229). Based on collection reports, the annualharvest of aquarium fishes rose from 90,000 in1973 to 422,823 in 1995, with the majority of thecurrent industry centered around the island ofHawai‘i. Commercial permits increased by 39%between 1995 and 1998 (Fig. 230) and recentstudies have shown that aquarium collectors havehad a significant negative impact on the dominantspecies taken in the fishery (Tissot et al. 2000).Currently there is a lack of regulation regardingsize, number, and season for take of most inverte-brates and fish sought for the trade.
Given the complex life histories and ecology (in-cluding sex change, haremic behavior, territories,and obligate associations), along with the highcommercial value in the trade associated withmany of these reef organisms, the impact of thisactivity has not been thoroughly assessed at thistime (Gulko 1998).
In the past 15 years there have been numerousconflicts between marine ornamental collectors andsubsistence fishers, commercial fishers, environ-mentalists, and the marine tourism industry. Inresponse to the continued public outcry over
Figure 229. Yellow tangs (Zebrasoma flavescens) representover 75% of the reported aquarium fish take throughout theState (Photo: J. E. Smith).
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Figure 231. The newly designated West Hawai‘i FishReplenishment Areas, or FRAS (Source: Hawaii DAR).
Figure 232. Tumors are much more common on turtles nearthe MHI (Photo: U. Keuper-Bennett and P. Bennett).
aquarium collecting, the Hawai‘i State legislaturepassed a bill in 1998 which focused on improvingmanagement of reef resources by establishing theWest Hawai‘i Regional Fishery Management Area.A major component of the bill was to improvemanagement of the aquarium industry by declaringa minimum of 30% of the western Hawai‘i islandcoastline as Fish Replenishment Areas (FRAs) andprotect areas where aquarium fish collecting isprohibited. The FRAs restrict fish feeding by thecommercial tour industry and eventually non-selective forms of fishing. Currently, over 35% ofthe West Hawai‘i coastline has been designated asFRAs (Fig. 231).
Commercial food harvest of invertebrates includesprimarily limpets, octopus, lobster, and crabs. Awide variety of invertebrates are harvested for themarine ornamental trade. The harvest of sessilebenthic invertebrates, especially the featherdusterworm, (Sabellastarte sanctijosephi) for theaquarium trade often causes destruction of reefhabitat during the collection process.
In the final analysis, there is a realization that theharvest of fisheries resources in the MHI is underreported, making effective management of theseresources difficult at this time.
Marine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and Mammals – There havebeen six species of sea turtles and 24 species ofmarine mammals reported on MHI reefs.
Sea turtles are fully protected under both Federaland State laws. The threatened green sea turtle(Chelonia mydas) makes use of the shallow watersof the MHI for herbivorous feeding and restinghabitat, while the endangered Hawaiian hawksbillsea turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) is thought tofeed, rest, mate, and nest primarily in the MHI.
Prior to 1985, fibropapillomatosis (or turtle tumors)were rarely reported in Hawaiian green sea turtlesin the MHI (Fig. 232). During the last ten yearshowever, the numbers reported have increaseddramatically. The condition is commonly found onturtles on Maui, Kaua‘i, and O‘ahu. Up to 60% ofthe turtles in Kane‘ohe Bay are infected (Balazs etal. 1998).
The yellow-bellied sea snake (Pelamis platurus) issometimes seen at night offshore by fishers butrarely occurs in nearshore reef environments.
The endangered Hawaiian monk seal (Monachusschaunslandi) occurs primarily in the North-western Hawaiian Islands, but occasionally isfound in near-shore waters and sometimes haulsout on beaches of the MHI (Fig. 233).
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – In the MHI, high nutrient
Figure 233. Endangered Hawaiian monk seals can still beseen on beaches of the MHI (Photo: James McVey).
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162162162162162162162162162162152 At press time a major bloom of the seaweed Cladophora sp. was occurring along the West Maui coast.
Figure 234. Nukoli Beach in Kaua‘i was closed to the public in1998 when tarballs and dead oiled birds washed ashore fol-lowing a spill off Barber’s Point, O‘ahu (Photo: Curtis Carlson).
Figure 235. The majority of the Hawaiianurban population lives within 2 km of livingcoral reefs (Photo: Hawai‘i DAR).
levels are known to encourage algal growth thatcan cause overgrowth of living corals (Smith et al.1981, Maragos et al. 1985). Algal blooms havebeen a recurring problem on reef flats off thesouthern and western coasts of Maui for nearly tenyears.Hypnea, Sargassum, Dictyota, andCladophora152 have all dominated the reef flat areasat various times, presumably dueto nutrients leaching fromcesspools, injection wells, andother non-point sources (Green1997, Grigg 1997). Questionsremain as to the influence ofnutrients on the success of alienseaweed displacement of nativecorals (Woo, 2000). Nutrientenrichment (through either pointor nonpoint source discharge) canalso cause phytoplankton bloomslimiting the sunlight necessary for most stonycorals to survive. Additional concerns from runoffand seepage include bacteria and disease.
The Federal Clean Water Act requires a NationalPollutant Discharge Elimination (NPDES) permitfor any point source pollutant discharged intonearshore waters. Additionally, the Hawai‘i CoastalZone Management Program and the Hawai‘iDepartment of Health are developing a Hawai‘iCoastal Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Plan todeal with discharges not covered under NPDESpermits.
There has been a lack of standards for governmentagencies to follow when dealing with nutrient andpollutant discharges which take into account thespecific impacts on corals and coral reef eco-
systems; most of the existing guidelines are basedon non-coral reef impacts.
Oil Spills and Toxic ChemicalsOil Spills and Toxic ChemicalsOil Spills and Toxic ChemicalsOil Spills and Toxic ChemicalsOil Spills and Toxic Chemicals – There is heavyreliance on imported oil in the islands, and there-fore, oil and chemical spills are not uncommon.Most electricity production in the MHI is based onfossil fuels (Pfund 1992). Large urban populations,the military, and the tourist industry all use motorvehicles on all the major islands. More than 52billion barrels per year of crude oil are brought toO‘ahu by large tanker vessels and then shipped toneighbor islands by inter-island barges.
Ship traffic, proximity of reefs to harbor entrances,and increasing numbers of vessel groundings haveresulted in more oil spills. Pfund (1992) stated theUSCG recorded a 200% increase in the number ofoil spills from 1980 to 1990. While 40% of re-ported spills in the MHI are small153, there havebeen a number of large oil spills during the pasttwo years (Clark and Gulko 1999). In most cases
these were either from shipgroundings or release during oiloffloading. In a recent case, aspill off O‘ahu caused the mostdamage when it washed ashoreon Kaua‘i (Fig. 234).
In the past two years there havebeen a number of shore-basedchemical spills from industrial oraquaculture sources (Clark andGulko 1999). Sulfuric acid,PCBs, and refrigerants have
found their way onto nearshore reefs during the lastyear.
The projected large increase in cruise ship visitsthroughout the MHI154 has raised concerns over theconstituents of the ‘gray water’ discharged byvessels in waters near Hawaiian reefs. Chemicalsused to clean railings, decks, metal- and wood-work, drycleaning, and photoprocessing might findtheir way into nearshore waters during dailyactivities on these large vessels.
Harbors and urbanized, enclosed bays concentratea wide variety of heavy metals, oils, PCBs, tri-butyltin (from boat paints), pesticides, and herbi-cides (Hunter et al. 1995, USFWS 1996, Green1997). A majority of these areas in the MHI sup-port coral reef organisms. High concentrations of
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153 Less than 4,000 liters (1000 gallons).154 See section on Ship Groundings.
dieldrin and chlordane were found in oyster tissuessampled near stream mouths in Kane‘ohe Bay in1991, five years after their use was banned inHawai‘i. Lead, copper, chromium, and zinc wereelevated in a number of samples, particularly nearthe southern, more urbanized, watersheds of thebay (Hunter et al. 1995). There has been scantresearch on the fate or action of potential toxicantsin Hawaiian reef biota.
Research conducted in Kane‘ohe Bay by Peacheyand Crosby (1995) showed a synergistic lethaleffect of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)in seawater exposed to surface ultraviolet light.PAHs are produced as byproducts of municipalwastes and urban runoff, especially from oils usedin automobiles and pavement. Ultraviolet lighttransforms the PAHs into toxic forms that killcrustaceans, polychaetes, and coral larvae.
Given the extensive urbanization of coastal areas inHawai‘i, the large number of motor vehicles usedon these small islands, and the channelization ofstreams and storm drains into nearshore reefenvironments, the phototoxicity posed by theintroduction of PAHs has the potential to affectbiodiversity and fisheries stocks.
Coastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomics
In 2000, an estimated 1.2 million peopleresided in the MHI (U.S. Bureau of theCensus 2002). Since 1990, the size ofMHI’s population has increased by 9.3%(U.S. Census Bureau 2002, Table 21). Overseven million visitors visit Hawaii; 88% ofthem engage in some form of marine wateractivity (State of Hawai‘i 2000).
Tourism is the largest industry, employerand revenue generator in the entire State. In2000, visitor expenditures in Hawai’itotaled $10.9 billion (Hawai’i Departmentof Business, Economic Development, and
Tourism 2000). The marine tourism industry isthought to bring over $800 million dollars per yearinto the State and employs over 7,000 people inover 1,000 small busi-nesses (Clark and Gulko1999).
Commercial fishing revenues (ex-vessel value)generate another $68.5 million annually (NMFS2001). Much of this (80-90%) is from pelagic,mostly longline fisheries, not coastal coral reeffisheries.
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – Nearshore coral reef environ-ments in the MHI are subject to a range of humanimpacts, due in part to urbanization and themajority of the population living within a fewkilometers of most major reefs (Gulko 1998, Fig235). The impacts vary from island to island.
Alien SpeciesAlien SpeciesAlien SpeciesAlien SpeciesAlien Species – Some 19 species of macroalgaehave been introduced to the island of O‘ahu since1950 with at least four species being highly suc-cessful (Fig. 236). Some of these non-nativespecies appear to have spread throughout the mainHawaiian Islands, while others are found so faronly on O‘ahu. Recent studies have shown
Figure 236. A time series of the same coral habitat over the period ofa year. The large, massive Porites compressa colonies were overgrownand killed by the invasive alga Kappaphycus alverezii. A. July 1998, B.February 1999, C. April 1999, D. June 1999 (Photo from Woo 2000).
AAAAA BBBBB
CCCCC DDDDD
Table 21. Basic demographic and economic data for the islands of the Hawaiian Archipelago (derived from Juvik and Juvik1998).
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Figure 237. Now throughout the Hawaiian Archipelago, theblueline snapper is by far the most successful fish intro-duction (Photos: Richard Pyle).
155 Oceanographic studies by the NMFS indicate that wind-driven ocean convergence zones shift southward during El Niño warming events such as occurred in 1992 and 1998 (Brainard et al. 2000), and caused the observed increases in marine debris in the MHI during these times.
overgrowth and killing of coral by the alien algaspeciesKappaphycus spp. in Kane‘ohe Bay. Thesealgae are thought to have caused a shift from apredominantly coral habitat to one characterizedby a large, robust single species of seaweed insome areas of the bay (Woo 2000).
Such a habitat shift is thought to affect a range ofprocesses from reef fish recruitment to trophicinteractions and may have widespread influenceson activities such as commercial fishing and the$800 million/yr marine tourism industry. Certainalien algae, such as Hypnea musiformis, oftendisplace native or endemic algae which may beprimary food items for the threatened Hawaiiangreen sea turtle (Chelonia mydas). Habitat shiftscaused by these alien algal species may affectcritical habitat necessary for feeding, resting, and
mating for the endangered Hawaiian hawksbill seaturtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) (Gulko in press).
Many invertebrate species have been introduced,either accidentally or purposely, into Hawaiianwaters (Eldredge 1994). Most have not had adocumented effect on coral reefs. Alien spongeshave been observed growing over corals inKane‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu, and concerns have beenraised about the introduced snowflake coral(Carijoa riisei) competing with shade-adaptedcorals in some areas (L. Eldredge pers. comm.).
At least 13 species of introduced marine fisheshave become established in Hawai‘i (Eldredge1994). Between 1951 and 1961, 11 demersal fishspecies – six groupers, four snappers, and the
emperor angelfish (Pomocanthus maculosus) wereintentionally introduced into Hawai‘i (Oda andParrish 1981, Randall 1987). Of these species, theblueline snapper (Lutjanus kasmira), the blacktailsnapper (Lutjanus fulvus), and the bluespottedgrouper (Cephalopholis argus) have establishedviable breeding populations in the state.
The blueline snapper has been by far the mostsuccessful and threatening fish introduction to theHawaiian coral reef ecosystem (Fig. 237). Fromsome 3,200 individuals introduced around O‘ahu,the population has expanded its range widely untilit has now been reported over the full length of theHawaiian archipelago (about 2,400 km). Thisspecies competes with valuable local species forfood and shelter and its small size and yellow colorbring low market prices.
The bluespotted grouper is a highly piscivorousspecies that has become well established, espe-cially in coral rich areas on the island of Hawai‘i.Several introduced tilapia species are also thoughtto reduce the abundance of the valuable nativemullets through competition for food and otherresources (Randall 1987, Eldredge 1994).
Concerns have been raised by both the USFWSand the Hawai‘i DLNR regarding aquaculture ofalien marine ornamentals (including both stonyand soft corals), in part due to the high endemismof Hawaiian marine species.
Introductions of terrestrial organisms (and theirassociated symbionts and diseases) in Hawai‘ihave had devastating effects on the native biotacontributing to Hawai‘i being classified as the‘Endangered Species Capital’ of the United States.
Destructive Fishing Practices – Recently,destructive fishing practices that involve usingconcentrated chlorine (‘juicing’) to stun or killlobster or nocturnal food fish located deep in therecesses of coral reef holes and caverns have raisedconcerns about the impact of this rarely reportedillegal activity. During the Spring and Summer of2000 unconfirmed reports of ‘juicing’ werereceived from the islands of Maui, O‘ahu, andKaua‘i. Unless apprehended in the act, thisdestructive practice is difficult to prove or docu-ment. However, since it destroys habitat for all,most fishers in Hawai‘i find such action deplor-able. Dynamite and cyanide fishing are notproblems anywhere in the Hawaiian Archipelago.
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Figure 238. A fishing net entangled around living coralcolonies (Photo: National Marine Fisheries Service).
156 Over 360 kg (800 lbs of broken stony corals were removed from these nets afterwards).157 In the past, grazing by large populations of feral goats on Kaho‘olawe Island has resulted in extensive erosion, runoff, and sedimentation of adjacent reef areas. Currently all goats have been removed.
The extensive use of long gill nets throughout mostof the MHI is thought to have caused localizeddepletion of reef fish through its effectiveness andnon-selectivity. Bycatch of endangered species(sea turtles, Hawaiian monk seals) and breakage ofhigh-relief coral colonies caused by untended netscontinues despite State laws requiring that nets bechecked at least every two hours and removed afterfour hours.
Collection of sessile benthic invertebrates for themarine ornamental trade has raised concerns aboutdestruction of coral reef habitat from the removalof habitat-forming organisms such as anthozoans,sponges, bryozoans, and seaweeds. Extraction ofcryptic or infaunal organisms, especially thefeatherduster worm, often leads to destruction ofhabitat through the collection process.
Marine Aquaculture – The Hawai‘i legislaturerecently passed a law that allows leasing of sub-merged lands for private enterprise. Two compa-nies are currently seeking leases to conduct off-shore aquaculture ventures. In both cases, pro-posed aquaculture facilities will be in close prox-imity to living coral reefs. Concerns raised by suchactivities relate primarily to eutrophication of coralreef habitat from excess feed and animal wastesdiffusing out of the fish cages and into reef waters,the possibility of disease introduction to wild popu-lations, introduction of alien species or symbionts,and aggregation of reef fish around these structureswhere they can be easily depleted.
Marine Debris – Marine debris (composed pri-marily of plastics, nets, lines, glass, rubber, metal,wood and cloth) is a common occurrence on reefsand shores throughout the MHI (Fig. 238). Sourcesof this material vary, from beachgoers and stormdrains, to industrial facilities and waste disposalsites. In the last ten years there has been a notice-able increase in the amount of derelict fishing gearwashing ashore in the MHI155. In 1998, communitygroups, the military, and DLNR pulled over 3,000kg (7,000 pounds)156 of nets and debris out ofKane‘ohe Bay and Wai‘anae waters during threeseparate clean-up days (Clark and Gulko 1999).
Coastal Runoff and Sedimentation – Sedimen-tation caused by runoff continues to be a chronicproblem throughout the MHI. Large sedimentloads are created by active agricultural practicesand forsaken agricultural lands upslope of near-
shore reefs. Stream channelization and paving ofcoastal and upland areas throughout much of theMHI have contributed to sedimentation impactsthrough removal of the vegetation that normallyfilters much of the runoff.
Overall sediment runoff has been estimated atgreater than 1,000,000 tons per year fromagricultural, ranching, urban, and industrialactivities (USFWS 1996 in Green 1997). With thedecrease in ‘slash and burn’ agriculture (sugar andpineapple) and its replacement with alternativessuch as coffee, macadamia, cocoa, and fruit trees,the amount of sedimentation is expected todecrease substantially in the near future.
Rates of movement of sediments off of reef flatsaround the MHI varies with location; in manyareas, sediments are effectively removed byseasonal wave action. In areas such as Kane‘oheBay, O‘ahu; south Moloka‘i, and Kaho‘olaweIsland157, decades or more may be required for
Figure 239. This U.S. Navy steel-reinforced concrete vesselhas been hard aground off Shipwreck Beach, Lanai since the1950s (Photo: Hans van Tillburg).
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Figure 240. Vessel groundings occurring between 1993 and 2000 in theMHI (Source: DOBOR, Hololulu Advertiser, Honolulu Star Bulletin).
accumulated sediments to be winnowed from reefflats.
Ship Groundings – Ship groundings are a persis-tent problem (Fig. 239). Over 16,000 commercialand recreational vessels are registered in the Stateof Hawai‘i; with the transient commercial andrecreational vessels, over 18,500 ships ply thenearshore waters of the MHI annually. Given theclose proximity of coral reefs to harbors, marinas,and channels, groundings occur frequently, prima-rily small recreational boats158. Such vessel ground-ings are often caused by broken moorings, inexpe-rienced boaters, or faulty equipment. The situationwith grounded recreational boats is compounded bya lack of coordination and timely notification bet-ween the agencies responsible for notification andthe resource trustee often resulting in no assess-ment for environmental damage.
A number of large vessels have grounded on MHIcoral reefs in the last several years (Fig. 240). Twomilitary amphibious vessels ran aground on reefsoff the windward side of O‘ahu. In 1999 a largetroop vessel struck a patch reef in Kane‘ohe Baybut was quickly removed. In 2000, a longliningfishing vessel (the F/V Van Loi) ran aground on afringing reef directly adjacent to the shoreline ofKaua‘i while enroute to the NWHI; portions of thatvessel still remain atop the reef. As with almost allcivilian vessel groundings that occur in Hawai‘i,the parties responsible for groundings have not hadto cover the majority of the cost for vessel salvage.For all vessels, restitution for physical damage toreef resources is rarely made.
An additional concern related to shipping is theprojected increase in large cruise ship traffic to theMHI. Hawai‘i has one cruise ship company whichrecently acquired a second large cruise ship andcurrently makes over 312 port calls in the MHI ayear; large, international cruise ships made 97 portcalls in 1998. This industry is projected to triple inthe next four years (Clark and Gulko 1999). Withlimited port facilities and the desire to have portsof call throughout the islands, concerns have beenraised regarding anchoring areas for these hugeships in close proximity to coral reefs on many ofthe neighbor islands. Freight vessel traffic is alsoprojected to increase and harbor facilities (many ofwhich are adjacent to coral reefs) will need to beexpanded.
Tourism and Marine Recreation – Impacts fromthe tourism industry range from boating-associatedimpacts to development of coastal areas to overuse
of reef resources by commercial dive andsnorkel tours (Fig. 241).
Hawai‘i continues to be a majordestination for recreational SCUBA divers.Rodale’s Scuba Diving Magazine ratedHawai‘i as one of the top five mostpopular diving destinations in the worldfor the year 2000159; the tiny islet ofMolokini was rated as the third best divesite world-wide.
Concerns about overuse by commercialtourism have led to early attempts atlimiting access either by controlling entry
to parking facilities for coastal MPAs (HanaumaBay MLCD) or by limiting the number of mooringpermits available (Molokini MLCD). To minimizeanchor damage from repetitive visits to major divesites, DLNR, in partnership with the dive industry,has placed hundreds of day-use moorings aroundthe MHI. A number of companies have introducednew technologies such as tourist submarines,underwater propulsion units, ‘seawalkers’ (a typeof surface-supplied helmet rig), and rebreathers.Concerns exist related to lack of oversight forthese activities and their potential impacts.
Marine tourism is often the dominant impact in thefew areas of the State set aside as no-take MPAs.For example, over a million people a year visit the0.65-km2 (1/4 square mile) reef of the no-take
158 Less than 15 m (46 feet).159 Hawai‘i consistently ranks in the top ten for diving and snorkeling destinations.
Freighters4%
Fishing Boats28%
Tow Boats1%
Military4%
Passenger Boats59%
Offshore Supply Vessels1%
Industrial Vessels3%
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Figure 241. Getting ready to dive for the first time, thisclass of new snorkelers is standing on the reef (Photo:Hawaii Division of Aquatic Resources).
MPA Molokini Shoals MLCD. It is not unusual tofind over 40 commercial tour boats moored thereat a single time. Lack of strong controls andmonitoring of impacts contribute to this problem.Unlike many terrestrial parks and preserves, theState’s no-take MPAs have no official caretakerstaff or refuge managers.
Hawai‘i has a large resident coastal population,many of which engage in a wide variety of marinerecreation (e.g., motor boating, sail boating, thrillcraft, recreational fishing, SCUBA diving, snorkel-ing, surfing, sailboarding, kayaking). On Maui,Hawai‘i, and O‘ahu, conflicts between differentuser groups are commonplace and increasing.Concerns about the impacts of thrill craft (jet skis,speedboats) on shallow water reef flats, seagrassbeds, and protected species (marine mammals andsea turtles) exist throughoutthe MHI.
Urbanization and CoastalDevelopment – Urbaniza-tion on O‘ahu and Mau‘i is agrowing concern. These twoislands house about 85% ofthe State’s resident popula-tion; with continuous popula-tion growth occurring onmost of the other MHI. Thecoastline of O‘ahu has beenextensively altered by fillingof reef flats for coastal development and airstrips(Maragos 1993).
Most islands contain reef areas that have beendredged for ship channels and harbors, or filled forcoastal development. The result has been a func-
tional loss of coastal wetlands and estuaries impor-tant for trapping freshwater runoff and for therecruitment of reef fish.
Seawall construction has modified sand movementand affected beach structure, erosion rates, andsedimentation across reef flats (Fig. 242). Newconstruction of private marinas, resort hotels, andnew commercial harbors provides access to coastalreef areas previously unimpacted by large numbersof human activities.
Other Physical Impacts – Activities involving theuse of explosives and heavy machinery in thevicinity of coral reefs can have direct and indirectimpacts on Hawaiian coral reef ecosystems. Theisland of Kaho‘olawe was used as a military targetfor live-firing and bombing in the latter part of thelast century. These activities contributed towardsedimentation of adjacent reef areas and resulted inthe presence of unexploded ordinance in nearshorewaters of Kaho‘olawe. Currently the island hasbeen turned over to the State of Hawai‘i. It is nowmanaged by the Kaho‘olawe Island ReserveCommission, which, among other actions, hasundertaken a complete assessment and monitoringprogram for the island’s reef resources. Militaryordnance, including bombs, have been found offother small islands, that lie close to Kaho‘olawe(e.g., Molokini).
Kaula Rock, a small islet and a State of Hawai‘iBird Sanctuary, is located 35 km southwest of theisland off Ni‘ihau. It is still used a few times a year
as a live-firing and bombingtarget by the U.S. military. During1999 reef fish diversity surveysby NOAA, submerged bomb andbullet shells were noted on reefsoff Kaula Rock. Closed to har-vesting, the waters around KaulaRock are noted for their abun-dance of jacks and other largespecies.
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses – Two majorfreshwater kills of corals occurred
in Kane‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu in 1965 and 1987. Bothevents were the result of ‘100 year storms’ thatbrought torrential rainfall to the adjacentwatersheds of the bay, followed by periods of lightwind and low tidal exchange (Banner 1968, Jokielet al. 1993). Salinity within 1-2 m of the surface
Figure 242. Chronic sedimentation off theisland of Moloka‘i (Photo: Hawai‘i Division ofAquatic Resources ).
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was reduced to 15 ppt for 2-3 days, causing massmortality of corals and sedentary invertebrates onthe shallow reef tops and slopes. In both cases,delivery of large amounts of freshwater into thenearshore environment was facilitated bychannelization of streambeds and paving oflowland coastal areas throughout the watershed.
Differences in depth distributions of dominant reefcorals on nearshore reefs in semi-estuarineenvironments may be predicted by their relativesensitivity to osmotic stress (Hunter and Krupp1997). After experimental treatment in conditionssimilar to those generated by episodic rainfallevents (15 ppt salinity for 48 h), mortality washighest in Montipora capitata, intermediate inPorites compressa, and lowest in Fungia scutaria.In P. compressa, despite complete withdrawal oftissue from colony surfaces, intact mesenteries andundifferentiated tissues (and zooxanthellae) persistin a layer 2-7 mm below the skeletal surface.These tissues may rapidly regrow, resulting in a‘phoenix-like’ recovery of this species afterosmostic stress.
Climate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral Bleaching – Oceanconditions during El Niño warm events are gen-erally associated with slightly cooler than normalsea surface temperatures (SSTs) throughout the
Hawaiian Archipelago. Warmer than normal SSTsin Hawaiian waters are generally observed duringLa Niña cold events.
No major bleaching events were observed inHawai‘i during the 1997-98 worldwide coralbleaching event. Hoegh-Guldberg (1999) in a recentreport on the future of global bleaching eventssuggested that the central Pacific, and especiallyHawai‘i, will be among the last reefs to experiencemajor bleaching events. This is thought to bemostly due to Hawaii’s subtropical and north-central location in regards to existing oceanic gyresand the broad expanse of deep water surroundingthe islands. However, many of the corals live closeto their maximum temperature limits and elevatedseawater temperatures may result in some level ofbleaching and/or mortality (Jokiel and Coles 1990).
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – In 2000 NOAA and its State, Federal,and private sector partners collected aerial photog-raphy and hyperspectral imagery to develop meth-odologies to map the benthic habitats of the MHI(Fig. 243). A habitat classification scheme has beendeveloped that delineates habitat types found downto about 30 m in water depth (Coyne et al. 2001a).The results of these prototype studies have enabled
NOAA to develop ascope of work to contractthe mapping of the MHI.Plans are to initiate thiswork in 2002 andcomplete it in 2005.
Research andResearch andResearch andResearch andResearch andMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoring – Fundsprovided by Congress,through NOAA’s OceanService (NOS), helpedestablish the Hawai‘iCoral Reef InitiativeResearch Program(HCRI-RP); apartnership between theUniversity of Hawai‘iand the State of Hawai‘iDepartment of Land andNatural Resources,Division of AquaticResources.
Figure. 243. This benthic habitat map of Kane‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu was produced throughphotointerpretation of color aerial photography (Credit: NOAA Ocean Service).
LegendLegendLegendLegendLegendSand
MudSeagrass (Continuous)Seagrass (10-50%)Seagrass (50-90%)Macroalgae (Continuous)Macroalgae (10-50%)Macroalgae (50-90%)Encrusting Coralline Algae (Cont.)Encrusting Coralline Algae (50-90%)Encrusting Coralline Algae (10-50%)
Colonized Vertical Island WallsPatch Reef (Individual)Coral Head (Individual)Coral Head (Aggregated)
Colonized Pavement
Colonized Pave. with Sand/Surge Chan.Uncolonized PavementReef RubbleUncolonized Pave. with Sand/Surge Chan.MangroveArtificialDredgedTerrigenous RubbleCulturalUnknownLand
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The goals of the HCRI-RP are to:• Assess major threats to coral reef ecosystems,
and provide information for more effective man-agement,
• Advance the understanding of the biological andphysical processes that affect the health of coralreefs and build management capacity,
• Develop a database to store and access data,• Conduct public awareness programs on the
threats to coral reefs, and• Implement education and training for coral reef
scientists and managers.
In June of 1998, DLNR and the East West Centerco-sponsored the first Hawai‘i Coral Reef Monitor-ing Workshop (Maragos and Grober-Dunsmore,eds. 2000). Participants recognized that Hawaii’scoral reefs contribute hundreds of millions ofdollars annually to the local economy through bothtourism and fisheries, and that despite this impor-tance, there were few programs in place to detectchanges that might signal their existing or futuredegradation. In addition, it was also recognized thatmonitoring was an integral function of manage-ment. The workshop brought together regional andglobal experts in coral reef monitoring, coral reefresearch and coral reef management to compareexisting methodologies and define protocols thatwould help revamp current management strategiesand approaches.
The Hawai‘i Coral Reef Assessment and Monitor-ing Program (CRAMP) is an integrated statewidemonitoring program designed to describe thespatial and temporal variation in coral reef commu-nities in relation to natural and man-made distur-bances (Fig. 245). The program involves collabora-
tion between the University of Hawai‘i, theHawai‘i State Department of Land and NaturalResources, federal agencies, and NGOs. As ofFebruary 2000, CRAMP has installed and initiatedmonitoring at 25 sites on the islands of Kaua‘i,O‘ahu, Maui, Moloka‘i, and Hawai‘i. The networkprovides a cross section of reefs across the mainHawaiian Islands with regard to habitat type, deg-ree of environmental degradation due to varioushuman and natural factors, and rates of recovery indamaged areas. Initial assessment suggests thatHawaiian coral reefs are in better condition thanreefs in many other regions.
Through the approval of Hawai‘i AdministrativeRule 13-60.3, nine Fish Replenishment Areas(roughly 35% of the West Hawai‘i coastline) arenow protected from aquarium fish collecting. Bi-monthly monitoring of reef fish stocks is ongoing,first documenting the impact of collecting, and nowmonitoring the effect of closure of sites to aqua-rium collecting. Additional aspects of these FRAswill limit negative aspects of commercial marinetourism use (fish feeding) and certain fishing tech-niques which many feel are destructive and non-selective (gill nets).
The Office of Naval Research has placed a lowfrequency transmitter at a depth of 244 m off thenorth shore of the island of Kaua‘i that broadcastsintermittently 195 dB160 low frequency (65-90 Htz)sounds into the water. One of several such sites,this basic research is being undertaken by some ofthe leading oceanographic institutions in the World(Scripps Institution of Oceanography, AppliedPhysics Laboratory of the University of Washing-
Figure 244. A bleached finger coral (Porites compressa)colony in Kane‘ohe Bay, O‘ahu (Photo: James Maragos).
160 The term dB (decibel) is a measurement of sound volume or level; Hz (hertz) is a measure of sound frequency.
Figure 245. This CRAMP diver is surveying the reefecosystem off Maui (Photo: CRAMP).
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ton, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, andthe Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Thedata collected may provide insight into the globalwarming debate and an understanding of multi-yearocean warming/cooling events such as El Niño andLa Niña. Questions have been raised by variousgroups as to the possible impacts of this researchactivity on marine organisms ranging from reef fishand sea turtles to Hawaiian monk seals and hump-back whales. Environmental analysis conducted bythe Navy and determinations by regulatory agen-cies with jurisdiction over coastal resources andmarine mammals have indicated the project willnot have adverse impacts.
A wide range of volunteer monitoring programsexist in the MHI. The international volunteer mon-itoring program, Reef Check, conducts periodicsurveys throughout the MHI. Impact-specific mon-itoring is conducted in a number of communitieson various islands. In an effort to better coordinatethese activities, provide for management applica-bility of the data collected, and minimize coral reefimpacts caused by such volunteer activities them-selves, DLNR has embarked on a program to createa number of materials for use by such groups:
• Best Practices Guidelines: a pamphlet thatprovides best management practices forvarious types of activities on Hawaiian coralreefs; planned to be distributed directly to themarine tourism industry.
• Visual Impact Card: uses photographs to traindivers to identify specific types of coral reefimpacts; for example, to distinguish coraldisease from fish bites.
• Volunteer Monitoring Techniques TrainingManual.
Both Federal and State agencies partner to involvevolunteers and the community in alien speciesawareness, monitoring, and mitigation. Under theguidance of the USFWS, a large multi-agency161
partnership – Marine Ecosystems Global Informa-tional Systems (MEGIS) Group – was formed overthe last two years to create a computerized GIS data-base to share coral reef habitat maps and manage-ment data, initially for the Hawaiian Islands, andeventually for other portions of the U.S. Pacific.
In September of 1999, DLNR brought together awide range of recognized Hawaiian academicexperts and marine resource managers to developa list of proposed Hawaiian marine species to beconsidered by the Federal government forcandidate species status as allowed for under theEndangered Species Act (ESA). The list ofrecommendations needs to be sent as a petition forconsideration to the NMFS Office of ProtectedResources. Those species that successfully areclassified as ‘Candidate Species’ will be consider-ed by NMFS for possible addition to the List ofThreatened and Endangered Species. At this stage,proposed candidate species status serves to notifythe public, user groups, managers, and policymakers of concerns regarding these species162 thatmay warrant listing in the future and facilitatevoluntary conservation efforts. A preliminary listof all species is reported in Maragos (2000).
The following criteria for listing species wereproposed for consideration: restricted range, threatsthroughout range, limited dispersion, limitedreproduction, prolonged time to reach maturity,
161 Includes Federal agencies (NOS, NMFS, NPS, USFWS, USGS), State Agencies (DLNR, Dept. of Planning, CZM), the academic community (the University of Hawaii and Bishop Museum), and other nongovernmental organizations.162 Under the ESA, distinct vertebrate populations in addition to species can be considered for protection.
Figure 246. The Hawaiian Islands Humpback Whale NationalMarine Sanctuary is one of many MPAs protecting Hawaiiancoastal resources (Photo: Lewis Herman).
Figure 247. Percentage of coral reef area in the MHIregarding type of protection163 afforded natural resources
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biological dependency (obligate associations withother organisms), life history characteristics,depleted food/prey, overfished (includes food,aquarium use, research use and bioprospecting)and competitive exclusion.Examples of species selected bythe group include a number ofendemic corals which arecurrently limited in their rangeeven within the Hawaiian Islands(Montipora dilatata, Poritespukoensis, Porites duerdeni);fish and invertebrates whichhave been overfished for food(Cellana talcosa, Epinephalusquernus, Epinephaluslanceolatus, Scarusperspicillatus), the marineornamental trade (Heteractismalu, Centropyge loriculus), orresearch (Lingula reevii,Euprymna scolopes); andhabitat-forming organisms oflimited range threatened byhuman activities (Halophilahawaiiana).
MPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take Reserves –Closing areas to fishing is farfrom a new idea in the manage-ment of marine resources.Hawaiians used a variety oftraditional marine resourcemanagement practices, whichincluded ‘kapus’ or fisheryclosures. These closures wereoften imposed to ensure catchesfor special events or as a cachefor when resources on theregular fishing grounds ran low.Various types of protected statuscurrently exist for Hawaiianreefs and include Marine LifeConservation Districts(MLCDs), Fisheries Manage-ment Areas (FMAs), a MarineLaboratory Refuge, NaturalArea Reserves (NARs), Na-tional Wildlife Refuges, and theHawaiian Islands HumpbackWhale National Marine Sanctu-
ary (Clark and Gulko 1999, Maragos 2000; Fig.246; Table 22). Several no-take MLCDs aroundHawai‘i have proven to be effective in increasingfish standing stock. Less restrictive MLCDs pro-
Table 22. Summary of data on coral reef marine protected areas (MPAs) of theHawaiian Archipelago.
163 ‘MPA’ in this figure refers to Marine Protected Areas that afford some protection against certain forms of extraction, but may allow other types to occur; ‘No-take MPA’ refers to designated MPAs where no extraction is allowed.
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Figure 248. Comparison of fish standing stock (biomass) be-tween various O‘ahu MPAs (Friedlander in press).
164 Hanauma Bay MLCD, Pupukea MLCD, Kealakekua MLCD, and Molokini MLCD are all heavily used (and marketed) by the marine tourism industry.165 Currently, MLCD’s are designated based upon avail ability of public access and non-extractive use.
vide limited protection from consumptive practicesand fish populations have not benefited signifi-cantly from the creation of these areas (Friedlanderin press). In addition, certain MLCDs are populartourist destinations and experience intensive non-consumptive impacts such as fish-feeding, large-scale commercial marine tourism, and tourist-related pollution (Gulko 1998). The new KonaCoast FMA, which restricts the collection of fishfor the marine ornamental trade, appears to beincreasing standing stocks of targeted fish speciesrelative to nearby unprotected areas (Tissot et al.2000). Despite their proven effectiveness, func-tional no-take areas account for only 0.3% ofcoastal areas in state waters (Fig. 247).
On the island of O‘ahu, there are three MLCDs andmultiple FMAs. Hanauma Bay was established asthe state’s first MLCD in 1967, and comprises 0.41km2 (101 acres). Taking of all marine life is prohib-ited in the bay. The 0.1-km2 (25 acres) PupukeaMLCD is located on the north shore of O‘ahu andwas established in 1983. Pole-and-line fishing iscurrently permitted from the shoreline, and takingof seaweed is also permitted. Spearfishing withoutSCUBA is permitted throughout this MLCD, andthe use of nets is allowed in the MLCD’s northernportion. Established in 1988, the Waikiki MLCD isvery small and comprises 0.3 km2 (76 acres) at oneend of Waikiki Beach. The area consists of a low-relief reef flat that extends approximately 35 m outto a dredged channel. The marine area adjacent tothe MLCD has been greatly altered by shorelineconstruction, beach nourishment, terrestrial inputs,and proximity to a large urban population. In
addition to these three MLCDs, the Waikiki-Diamond Head Shoreline Fisheries ManagementArea (FMA) is another regulated fishing area onO‘ahu. This area is adjacent to the Waikiki MLCDand extends eastward. The area is open to fishingon even-numbered years and closed on odd-numbered years. During the open years, nighttimespearfishing and the use of gillnets is prohibited.These four areas represent a wide variety of sizes,habitat types, and management strategies.
Notwithstanding differences in location, size, andhabitat type there is a dramatic difference in fishbiomass between the Hanauma Bay MLCD and theother protected areas (Fig. 248). A study by Brockand Kam (1993) showed that benefits derived fromthe Waikiki-Diamondhead Shoreline FisheriesManagement Area closures were lost quickly whenthe area was reopened to fishing. As a result, theoverall standing stock in the zone never exceeded50 g/m2 during their study. The Pupukea MLCD isvery small (0.1 km2) and allows a wide range offishing activities. Not surprisingly, this areapossesses the lowest standing stock of fish com-pared to the other protected areas on O‘ahu. Theseresults point to the fact that a no-take MPA withgood habitat diversity and complexity can have apositive effect on fish standing stock.
No-take MLCDs around other areas of Hawai‘ihave also proven to be effective managementstrategies for increasing fish standing stock.Kealakekua Bay on the island of Hawai‘i wasestablished as an MLCD in 1969 and Honolua-Mokuleia Bay on Maui was established as anMLCD in 1978.
All fishing is prohibited in specific subzones ofthese MPAs and the biomass of fish has increasedsteadily in these areas (Fig. 249) since their incep-tion (Friedlander in press).
Gaps in Current Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Current Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Current Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Current Monitoring and ConservationGaps in Current Monitoring and ConservationCapacityCapacityCapacityCapacityCapacity
One of the primary problems is enforcement ofexisting laws and regulations. Additionally, whilemany State and Federal laws and regulationsconcern coral reefs or impacts on them, there arefew that deal directly with the protection of reefecosystems (Gulko 1998). Many State regulationshave not kept up with new technologies, new usesof natural resources, or the changes required to deal
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with increased use versus diminished resources.
President Clinton’s Executive Order 13089 forProtection of U.S. Coral Reefs (1998), mandatingfederal agencies make better use of their programsto protect and enhance U.S. reefs, has not yet beeneffectively put to the test in the MHI. Of particularconcern are federal oversight or funding of activi-ties such as offshore aquaculture, bioprospecting,marine ornamental aquaculture, underwater sensortechnology, and shoreline or harbor modification.
Current monitoring of fisheries activities in theMHI does not provide information on therecreational and subsistence fisheries that accountsfor much of the catch on Hawaiian coral reefs.Future management designs will need to considerthe habitat requirements and life histories of thespecies of interest as well as the extent of fishingpressure in the area and the degree ofenforcement.
Overuse of MHI MPAs for the tourist trade164 andthe lack of any true, fully protected reserves165 isquickly eliminating the opportunity to have even asmall area in the MHI that represents a naturalcoral reef ecosystem. What the MHI needs is a truecoral reef ecosystem reserve, where all extraction
activities would be restricted. Given the substan-tial overlap of user groups in many MHI reefareas, the increasing population, and the perpetualconflict between resource utilization and conser-vation166, creation of such a new type of MPA isunlikely in the MHI any time in the near future.
Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI)Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI)Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI)Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI)Northwestern Hawaiian Islands (NWHI)
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The NWHI extend for more than 2,000 km (1,300mi) to the northwest of the island of Kaua‘i. FromNihoa and Necker (roughly 7 and 10 million yearsold respectively) to Midway and Kure atolls (~28million years old), the NWHI represent the older,emergent portion of the Archipelago (Fig 250). Themajority of the islets and shoals remain uninhab-ited, although Midway, Kure, and French FrigateShoals have all been occupied for extended periodsby various government agencies over the latterportion of the last century.
With the exception of Midway Atoll, the entireNWHI is part of the State of Hawai‘i from theshoreline to 3 nmi from any emerged land. TheUSFWS manages Midway as a National WildlifeRefuge. Much of the rest of the NWHI167 is withinthe Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge,established by President Theodore Roosevelt in1909, and administered by the USFWS. The near-shore reefs of the NWHI (with the exception ofsome species-specific and temporally-limitedfisheries depletion) are in very good to excellentcondition.
In addition, the Northwestern Hawaiian IslandsCoral Reef Ecosystem Reserve was created byExecutive Order 13178 on December 4, 2000. This
166 The State legislature recently passed a regulation requiring extensive review of all new management rules for effects on small business.167 Excluding Kure Atoll which is a State of Hawai‘i wildlife refuge.
Figure 250. About 1,300miles and 20 million yearsseparate Nihoa (A) andMidway Atoll ecosystems(B) (Photos: Hawaii DAR)
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Figure 249. Comparison of fish standing stock at twoneighbor island limited-take MPAs. Arrows represent yeardesignated an MPA (from Friedlander in press).
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large reserve area, 1,200 nmi long and 3-50 nmifrom shorelines, is to be managed under the Sec-retary of Commerce, and is now undergoing theprocess for designation as a National MarineSanctuary. The Executive Order also established15 Reserve Preservation Areas within the reservein which all extractive use is prohibited withlimited exceptions.
Condition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral Reefs
Algae and Higher PlantsAlgae and Higher PlantsAlgae and Higher PlantsAlgae and Higher PlantsAlgae and Higher Plants – Abbott (1995) esti-mated the number of algal species in the NWHI tobe around 200, with numerous new species andnew records having been recently recorded(Maragos and Gulko 2002). Given the largeamount of shallow (<30 m) benthic area relative tothe MHI, seaweeds presumably comprise the lar-gest component of the benthos and this numbercould be expected to increase significantly once theentire area is more fully assessed. As an example,prior to the 2000 NOWRAMP expedition, therewere only eight species of algae known fromFrench Frigate Shoals, compared to the roughly130 species collected there as a result of this ex-pedition (P. Vroom pers. comm.).
Halophila hawaiiensis has been found at MidwayAtoll and Pearl and Hermes Atoll, and may existelsewhere in the NWHI.
CoralCoralCoralCoralCoral – Previously 22 species of coral were repor-ted from the NWHI (Okamoto and Kawamoto1980), compared with 52 species reported from therecent NOWRAMP Expedition (Maragos andGulko 2002). Seven species of the genus Acropora168
have been found in the NWHI, five of these havenot been reported in the MHI169(Fig 251). FrenchFrigate Shoals, and Maro Reef have the highest
reported biodiversity of coral species (Grigg 1983,Maragos and Gulko 2002).
Coral cover for many areas of the NWHI is low,with the highest percentages at French Frigate Shoalsand Maro Reef (Grigg 1983). Recent research re-ports that coral cover is also high at many of theatolls (Maragos and Gulko 2002) and Neva Shoals(R. Brainard pers. obs.). Towed diver video surveysconducted during the NOWRAMP 2000 Expedi-tion revealed high heterogeneity within and amongthe different atolls, islands, and banks. Also,growth rates for corals in the northern portion ofthe chain are reported to be significantly slowerthan the same species found farther to the south170
(Grigg 1988), raising concern about recovery ratesfrom human impacts at different locations.
Large Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile Invertebrates – Surveysconducted in the 1970s (Okamoto and Kawamoto1980) found only 63 species of macroinvertebratesthroughout the NWHI. Rapid ecological assess-ments conducted during the Fall of 2000 added tothis count (Minton et al. in prep.). Other surveysconducted within the soft sediment habitats charac-teristic of many atoll lagoons reported that a varietyof polychaete worms and molluscs were the mostabundant infauna (Sorden 1984). The NOWRAMPsurvey of soft sediments identified 5,400 organismsrepresenting 300 taxa from 63 stations (D. Turgeonpers. comm.). Polychaetes comprised 47% of thetotal assemblage, followed in abundance by mala-costracans (29%) and gastropods (7%).
Towed diver surveys during the NOWRAMP 2000Expedition recorded localized areas with a moder-ate abundance of A. planci along the southern outerreef slope at Pearl and Hermes Atoll and along theeastern outer reef slope at Kure Atoll (R. Brainard
Figure 251. Seven species of Acropora corals, closelyrelated to this table coral in French Frigate Shoals, havebeen identified from the NWHI (Photo: James Maragos).
168 A. cytherea, A. cerialis, A. gemmifera, A. humilis, A. nasuta, A. paniculata, and A. valida.169 A few small colonies of Acropora cytherea andA. paniculata were reported off the island of Kaua‘i but have not been seen in recent years.
Figure 252. Carnivores abound in the NWHI, like this schoolof goatfishes in Kure Lagoon (Photo: James Maragos).
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170 For example, lobe coral (Porites lobata) reportedly grows at an average of 11 mm/yr in parts of the MHI while the same species grows at only 0.3 mm/yr at the northern end of the chain.171 Research has shown that lobster is a constituent of the monk seal diet. Studies on the importance of this component using fatty acid analysis and spew contents are underway by NMFS researchers.
pers. comm.). These occurrences wereassociated with dead or dyingPocillopora colonies in areas of lowcoral cover.
FishFishFishFishFish – A total of 266 species of fishesis listed from Midway Atoll of which258 are reef and shore fishes (Randallet al. 1993). Cooler water tempera-tures, lack of certain high-islandhabitat types, and lower samplingeffort may all contribute to the lowernumber of species compared to themain Hawaiian Islands. The reef fishcommunity structure in the NWHI isdifferent from other areas in theHawaiian Archipelago owing to re-duced abundance of herbivores(mostly surgeonfishes) and the in-creased importance of damselfishesand carnivores (mostly jacks, sharks,goatfishes, scorpionfishes, and big-eyes, Fig. 252). Reef fish trophic structure in theNWHI is dominated by carnivores in numericalabundance and biomass (Parrish et al. 1985, Fig.253). The result is that the NWHI are among thefew large reef ecosystems on the globe to remainpredator-dominated and intact regarding fishassemblages (Friedlander et al. in prep.).
Because of the distances involved and the moreexposed sea conditions, commercial fishers withlarge vessels (greater than 20 m) are the primaryparticipants in the NWHI fisheries (Smith 1993).Commercial fishing in the NWHIwithin a 100 m depth targets mostlybottomfish and lobster, each ofwhich is managed separately by theNational Marine Fisheries Service(NMFS) through the actions of anadvisory body: the Western PacificRegional Fisheries ManagementCouncil (WPRFMC). Both of thesefisheries are limited-entry with lessthan 20 vessels allowed to operatein either fishery.
There is currently concern over thedeclining abundance of lobsters inthe NWHI, particularly in light oftheir potential importance as foodfor the endangered Hawaiian monk
seal171. A lawsuit was filed in federal court in 1999regarding this issue. Before a ruling was issued,NMFS closed the fishery when it became apparentthat some of the assumptions used in the lobsterpopulation assessment model were incorrect.Executive Order 13178, which established theNWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve, capped thelobster take at the 2000 catch level or zero take.Currently the NWHI lobster fishery remainsclosed.
Recreational and commercial fishing is prohibitedwithin the 10-20 fathom isobath offmost islands northwest of Kauai(varying with location) owing to theirstatus as a National Wildlife Refugemanaged by the USFWS, and theirdesignation as critical habitat for theHawaiian monk seal by the NMFS.
Mean standing stock of fish biomasson shallow reefs at French FrigateShoals and Midway Atoll was almosttwice as high as those reported fromshallow reefs in the Main HawaiianIslands (DeMartini et al. 1996). Thedifference in biomass among theselocations may reflect the heavyfishing pressure on reef fishes in theMHI compared to the NWHI (Grigg
Figure 253. The coral reef food web in French Frigate Shoals, NWHI(Modified after Polovina 1984).
Apex (Top) CarnivoreApex (Top) CarnivoreApex (Top) CarnivoreApex (Top) CarnivoreApex (Top) Carnivore
CarnivoreCarnivoreCarnivoreCarnivoreCarnivore
HerbivoreHerbivoreHerbivoreHerbivoreHerbivore
Primary ProducerPrimary ProducerPrimary ProducerPrimary ProducerPrimary Producer
Figure 254. Female (A) and male (B)masked angelfishes (Photos: JamesMcVey).
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Figure 255. Debris that is a source of contaminants on TernIsland in French Frigate Shoals (Photo: James Maragos).
1994, DeMartini et al. 1994). Okamoto andKawamoto (1980) noted many inshore fish speciesappear to be larger at the northwestern end of theHawaiian Archipelago. Fishing pressure mayaccount for the low numbers and smaller sizes ofcertain prized species in the MHI compared to theNWHI where fishing pressure is relatively low(Hobson 1984).
The remoteness of the NWHI makes the cost ofcollecting marine ornamental species there rela-tively high. At present, collection of coral reefspecies from the NWHI for the aquarium trade islimited, although the recent sale of a number ofpairs of masked angelfish (Genicanthuspersonatus) has raised concern for protecting suchendemic and rare organisms from overexploi-tation. Species such as the masked angelfish ,dragon eel (Enchelycore pardalis) and the Hawai-ian lionfish (Pterois sphex) are considered vulner-able and in need of protection (Fig. 254).
Marine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and Mammals – Ninety percentof the Hawaiian green sea turtles return as adultsfrom all over the archipelago to nest on the tinyislets that make-up French Frigate Shoals Atoll inthe NWHI. No turtles with fibropapillomatosishave yet been observed in the NWHI.
The endangered Hawaiian monk seal depends up-on the islands and waters of the NWHI for breed-ing and sustenance; with a population of only 1,400animals, this coral reef-associated seal remains oneof the most critically endangered marine mammalsin the United States.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Eutrophication is not thought tobe a problem in the NWHI due to lack of humanhabitation and distance from populated areas. Sew-
age discharges into the lagoon at Midway duringthe peak population periods from of the last cen-tury may have contributed nutrients and stimulatedphytoplankton and algal growth in the lagoon.
Oil Spills and Toxic Chemicals – Recent oil spillsin the NWHI are almost entirely due to groundingsof fishing vessels on the isolated atolls. Des Rochers(1992) identified these vessels as a primary threatto reef resources as many carry greater than 37,900liters (10,000 gallons) and there is a history ofgroundings in the NWHI. The October 1998 ground-ing of a 24-m longline fishing vessel at Kure Atollreleased over half of its 41,640 liters of diesel ontothe shallow reef environment.
Lead and PCBs were recently detected in waterssurrounding seawalls on Tern Island at FrenchFrigate Shoals (Fig. 255). Studies by USFWSsuggest that these materials may have alreadyentered the aquatic ecosystem food chain at TernIsland. PCBs have been measured in monk sealblood and blubber (Tummons 2000). High PCBlevels have also been observed at Midway (L.Woodward pers. comm.). Kure, a State-adminis-tered atoll, was occupied for decades by USCG fora LORAN station and has not yet been fully eval-uated for contaminants. High concentrations of con-taminants were detected in a small area at LaysanIsland by USFWS specialists. The contaminants arescheduled to soon be removed by USFWS.
Results from the NOWRAMP 2000 Expedition’spreliminary survey of near-shore soft sediments offthe NWHI islands and atolls identified high levelsof toxic contaminants in a few sites from Midwayand Kure atolls (Turgeon et al. in Maragos andGulko 2002, Fig. 256). At four of 38 sites, levels of
Figure 257. An endangered Hawaiian monk seal entangled innets in the NWHI (Photo: NOAA Marine Fisheries Service).
172 Over 23 endangered Hawaiian monk seals have recently been found entangled in nets in the NWHI (National Marine Fisheries Service).
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PCBs, PAHs, DDT, Dieldrin, Chlordane, nickel,and copper were above the 85th percentile ofconcentrations measured in the coastal UnitedStates by the NOAA Status and Trends Program.
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – Terrestrial sources of sedi-mentation are now practically non-existent in theNWHI due to the lack of human development andthe lack of erodable land mass. The only majorcoastal construction in recent times occurred atMidway Atoll when it was a Naval Air Station(Maragos 1993) and involved airstrips, seawalls,roadways, large buildings, and construction of adeep draft harbor. Localized coastal constructionhas occurred on islets at Kure Atoll and FrenchFrigate Shoals in the past. Tern Island at FrenchFrigate Shoals was partially built of dredge spoilsfrom the surrounding reef habitats. The seawall atTern Island is scheduled for rebuilding in 2002.
Alien Species – Knowledge about the number andtypes of alien species and their range in the NWHIis very limited at this time. The NOWRAMP 2000Expedition indicated that alien species do notappear to be widespread in the NWHI (Maragosand Gulko 2002). The majority of alien specieshave been reported at Midway, which has served asa gateway for many fouling species on the sub-merged hulls of ships for a period of over 60 years.
Destructive Fishing Practices – There are noconfirmed reports of destructive fishing practicessuch as cyanide or dynamite fishing. Although the
lobster fishery was thought to primarily operateover sand and algal bed habitats, surface-deployment of lobster traps may have causeddamage to benthic coral reef habitat when thefishery was open.
Marine Debris – Marine debris, primarily thoughtto arise from derelict gear from North Pacificfisheries, is impacting a wide range of marine lifefound throughout the NWHI. The gear includesdrift nets, trawls, traps, and lines. Impacts includedislodging and breaking coral colonies, andentangling and killing seabirds, monk seals172, seaturtles, and fish (Fig. 257). Drifting marine debrismay also serve as a vector for alien speciesintroductions. In 1996 and 1997, NMFS conductedthe first surveys for derelict fishing gear in theNWHI. In 1998, 1999, and 2000, NMFS led amulti-agency partnership involving the USCG,USFWS, DLNR, UH, the Sea Grant CollegeProgram, the Hawai‘i Wildlife Society and theCenter for Marine Conservation to remove marinedebris from French Frigate Shoals, Lisianski, Pearl
Figure 256. Sediment contamination (PAHs, PCBs, DDT, lead, copper, and nickel) was in the upper 85th percentile nationallyat four near-shore sites off Kure and Midway (Source: Turgeon et al. in Maragos and Gulko 2002).
Table 23. Chronology of reported vessel groundings and dis-position in the NWHI (from DesRoches 1992, Green 1976,Clark and Gulko 1999, B. Kananaka pers comm.).
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Figure 258. The fishing vessel, Paradise Queen, groundedon a coral reef at Kure Atoll, NWHI, in 1998; note the en-dangered Hawaiian monk seal resting in the foreground(Photo: M. Cripps).
and Hermes, Kure, and Midway. The combinedefforts removed over 60 tons of marine debris. It isestimated that about 1,000 tons of marine debrisstill remain on the islands and reefs of the NWHI(M. Donohue pers. comm.).
Ship Groundings – Ship groundings that occur inthe NWHI raise special concerns due to the remotelocation, the pristine nature of the habitat, theexceptionally high numbers of marine endangeredor protected animals present, and the effects oncoral reef habitats that may be slow to recover. Inaddition, ship groundings in the NWHI provideadded concerns due to the extreme costs involvedin assessing the damage, controlling spills, remov-ing the vessel and follow-up mitigation (Table 23).
Recently, it has been recognized that ferrous metalfrom grounded vessels promote the establishmentof cyanobacteria (that has displaced calcareousalgae and corals atop reef flats) in remote, oceanicareas such as Rose Atoll in American Samoa.Observations during the NOWRAMP 2000 expedi-tion suggest that this may be occurring to a limitedextent at Kure and Pearl and Hermes atolls.
In the last two years there have been three ground-ings of federally permitted fishing vessels atopcoral reefs in State waters. One vessel ran agroundat Kure Atoll, another grounded on Kaua‘i while intransit to the NWHI, and the most recent eventinvolved a longliner that ran aground at Pearl andHermes Atoll. Reef structural damage from suchgroundings can be exascerbated if ships are notremoved. For example, when a fishing vessel, theParadise Queen, grounded on Kure Atoll in 1988,fuel spilled and lobster traps, lines, and other loosegear threatened federally-protected green seaturtles, sea birds, and the endangered Hawaiianmonk seal (Fig. 258). Secondary damage from thebreakup of this vessel by seasonal storm wavescreated a series of ‘bulldozers’ that are workingtheir way shorewards, creating more physicaldamage to parts of the reef unharmed by the initialgrounding (Gulko and Clark 1999). The vessel wasnever removed and the responsible parties have notpaid any penalty.
Tourism – The only tourism activity currently inthe NWHI occurs at Midway Atoll under thesupervision of the USFWS. The USFWS haslimited the number of visitors and workers that canbe on the atoll at any one time. Activities include
fishing, boating, diving, snorkeling, and coastalactivities. Concerns have been raised over theimpact of the catch-and-release fishery at Midway.Large jacks have been infrequently encountered onfish surveys at Midway (relative to French FrigateShoals) since recent surveys began in 1993, andespecially since the catch-and-release fishery beganin 1996 (NMFS Honolulu Lab in prep.). Concernsexist over potential commercial SCUBA-based‘live aboard’ boats and cruise ships working theirway up the NWHI chain.
Climate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral Bleaching – De-clines in seabirds, monk seals, reef fishes, andphytoplankton in the NWHI from the early 1980sto early 1990s (Polovina et al. 1994) are thought tohave resulted from regional decreases in oceanicproductivity (Polovina et al. 1995).
There was little monitoring for bleaching events inthe NWHI during the 1997-1998 ENSO bleachingevent; remnant evidence of such events was notdetected during the NOWRAMP 2000 expedition.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – The shallow-water (to a depth ofapproximately 30 m) coral reef ecosystems of theNWHI will be mapped using image analyses ofcommercially-available, high-resolution satelliteimagery. Imagery has been purchased for 10 NWHIlocales. Unvalidated draft maps have been gener-ated for three of these – Kure Atoll, Midway Atoll,and Laysan Island. Similar maps are expected to begenerated for the remaining seven areas by July2002. At that time, an extensive effort will beinitiated to validate all maps of the NWHI shallow-
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water coral reef ecosystems. It is anticipated thatfinal maps will be available by January 2003.
Assessment and Monitoring Assessment and Monitoring Assessment and Monitoring Assessment and Monitoring Assessment and Monitoring – NOAA, USFWS,Hawai‘i DLNR, the Bishop Museum, the OceanicInstitute, the University of Hawai‘i, the Universityof California at Santa Cruz (UCSC), and privatesector companies launched the NOW-RAMPinitiative in 2000 to map and assess the status ofcoral reef shallow-water habitats in the NWHI(Fig. 259). An additional expedition in 2001,sponsored primarily by the NOAA HonoluluFisheries Laboratory with additional participationby USFWS and UCSC, provided the opportunityto collect additional information and establish datamonitoring buoys on reefs at French FrigateShoals, Maro Reef, Lisianski Island, Pearl andHermes Atoll, Midway Atoll, and Kure Atoll, andalso included limited diver observations on RaitaBank (Maragos and Gulko 2002).
An early baseline assessment of shallow reef fishpopulations was conducted at French FrigateShoals and Midway Atoll during 1980-1983 byUSFWS fisheries biologists. Honolulu Laboratorybiologists completed new baseline assessments atFrench Frigate Shoals and Midway in 1992 and1993, respectively (DeMartini et al. 1996) andconducted annual monitoring surveys at both sitesduring 1995-2000 (DeMartini et al. 2002).
Since the early 1980s, NOAA Honolulu FisheriesLaboratory scientists have monitored endangeredHawaiian monk seals and sea turtles off FrenchFrigate Shoals, Laysan, Lisianski, Pearl andHermes, Midway, and Kure. Since 1992 NMFShas conducted annual reef fish surveys at FrenchFrigate Shoals and Midway Atoll. Since 1990,these scientists have also mapped NWHIunderwater benthic habitats using towed divers,video cameras, and submersible vehicles.
MPAsMPAsMPAsMPAsMPAs – The NWHI contain a number of examplesof species-specific, limited-take MPAs. Themajority of the NWHI is classified as CriticalHabitat for the endangered Hawaiian monk seal.By federal regulation, a 50-mile protected specieszone exists around the NWHI islands and atollsrestricting longline fishing, and seasonal areaclosure zones were in effect for the take of NWHIlobster until the entire fishery was recently closeddown.
On May 26, 2000, President Clinton directed theSecretaries of Commerce and the Interior, incooperation with the State of Hawai‘i, and inconsultation with the Western Pacific RegionalFisheries Management Council (WPRFMC), todevelop recommendations for a new coordinatedmanagement regime to increase protection for theunique coral reef resources of the NWHI. As aresult, discussions have ensued over their trustee-ship and jurisdictional authority. The State ofHawaii holds trusteeship of all reef resources out tothree nautical miles from any emerged point ofland in the NWHI173. The USFWS administers aNational Wildlife Refuge throughout the NWHI(with the exception of Kure Atoll), the boundariesof which are currently being solidified and mayvary in certain portions of the refuge. NOAAcurrently has jurisdictional authority over most reefresources outside of three nautical miles primarilythrough NMFS with the WPRFMC serving in anadvisory role. The result of this effort was Execu-tive Order 13178, which on December 4, 2000established the Northwestern Hawaiian IslandsCoral Reef Ecosystem Reserve.
The new NWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reservecontains provisions for a number of functional no-take areas distributed across the entire NWHI (withthe exception of Midway) in federal waters andranging from 25 to 100 fathoms in depth. Otherregulations to be included within these areasinclude restrictions on anchoring, discharge andnon-extractive uses.
Figure 259. This scientist is making a video record of one ofthe many reefs surveyed during the 2000 NOWRAMPassessment (Photo: James Maragos).
173 Midway, though geographically located within the NWHI, is the only portion of the Hawaiian Archipelago that is not part of the State of Hawai‘i. It is administered independently by the USFWS as a National Wildlife Refuge.
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180180180180180180180180180180174 Depending on the type of activity that the vessel is engaged in.
Gaps in Current MonitoringGaps in Current MonitoringGaps in Current MonitoringGaps in Current MonitoringGaps in Current Monitoring
Multiple agency jurisdictional authority over reefresources raises questions about effective steward-ship of the NWHI’s coral reefs, which is arguablythe last major set of reef ecosystems left in theworld that have not been heavily affected byhuman intrusion. The recent establishment of theNWHI Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve should helpsort out some of these conflicts and provide for aprotective umbrella within Federal waters underwhich the various agencies can partner to effec-tively manage these unique resources. CurrentlyState waters are not covered within this reserveand comparable effective State management struc-ture or resources are lacking. This is of criticalimportance as many reef scientists feel that themajority of high biodiversity coral reef habitat inthe NWHI is located within State waters. Currentlack of regulations controlling extractive activitieswithin NWHI waters pose a particular problem; theproposed State of Hawai‘i FMA for the NWHImay not fully close this gaping loophole toprotecting this fragile and unique wilderness area.
Difficulties in patrolling and enforcing regulationsthroughout the 1,600 km (1,000 miles) length ofthe NWHI poses a problem in encouragingcompliance from the various types of vessels(fishing, research, and eco-tourism) currently inthe area and the large number of vessels expectedto enter the area in the future. Creation of anautomated Vessel Monitoring System (VMS), witha transmitting unit required on all vessels operatingin the NWHI, and which automatically notifiesboth the ship in question and the appropriateenforcement and resource trustees of approach toprotected or off-limits174 areas would go a longways towards effectively solving this problemgiven the large distances and the extremely limitedresources available to the USCG and the resourcetrustees. Efforts are currently underway to fundinstallation of VMS on various types of vessels,though how the vessels will be monitored andwhich agencies will have access to the data stillneeds to be worked out.
Management of the NWHI has been shared amongagencies with differing missions. Reliance on theWPRFMC to advise NMFS on management ofNWHI fisheries resources at levels that do notimpact the sustainability of the fished species, nor
prevent reef ecosystem damage, may have been oflimited success. Federal court litigation has oc-curred during the last two years relating to NMFScompliance with federal fisheries management andendangered species laws in the NWHI. The pro-posed draft WPRFMC Coral Reef EcosystemFisheries Management Plan (FMP) proposes tomanage the coral reef ecosystems of the NWHI atan ecosystem level, yet excludes all other existingFMPs from the majority of listed managementmeasures. Since many of the coral reef species arealready listed under other existing FMPs (crusta-ceans, groupers, snappers, sharks) the ecosystemapproach is still subordinate to single-speciesdecision-making. Mechanisms (such as automatedVMS, active zoning, mitigative bonding) that havebeen successful in other managed coral reef areasof the Pacific have not been incorporated fully intothe existing or proposed WPRFMC’s FMPs for theNWHI.
The Hawaiian ArchipelagoThe Hawaiian ArchipelagoThe Hawaiian ArchipelagoThe Hawaiian ArchipelagoThe Hawaiian Archipelago
The last two sections of this report pertain to theentire Hawaiian Archipelago.
Government Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and Legislation
The majority of the shallow water coral reefs areunder the jurisdictional authority of the State ofHawai‘i (primarily DLNR). Direct military controlover areas of the NWHI has been phased out overthe last 30 years; Midway was turned over to theUSFWS, and the USCG abandoned LORANstations at Kure and Tern Island (French FrigateShoals) in the 1970s to 1980s.
In 1998, President Clinton signed Executive Order13089 for Coral Reef Protection which mandated“All Federal agencies whose actions may affectU.S. coral reef ecosystems shall: a) identify theiractions that may affect U. S. coral reef ecosystems;b) utilize their programs and authorities to protectand enhance the conditions of such ecosystems;and, to the extent permitted by law, c) ensure thatany actions they authorize, fund, or carry out willnot degrade the conditions of such ecosystems.”
This Executive Order also focused the resources ofthe various agencies of the federal government toassist the State and Territorial resource trustees inmaking serious inroads into protection of the
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country’s coral reef resources. To facilitate this, thePresident created the U. S. Coral Reef Task Forcemade-up of cabinet-level appointees to oversee theimplementation of the Executive Order.
The State of Hawai‘i has a number of existing lawsand regulations concerning uses and impacts oncorals and coral reefs. Sand, rubble, live rock, andcoral are protected from harvest or destruction inState waters. Many Hawaiian stony corals are alsoprohibited from being sold. Certain AdministrativeRules provide for protection of marine waterquality, and creation of MPAs. The State Constitu-tion can specifically be applied to protection ofcoral reef habitats. Portions of Section 1 state that“the State and its political subdivisions shallconserve and protect Hawaii’s natural beauty andall natural resources, including land, air, mineraland energy sources, and shall promote the develop-ment and utilization of these resources in a mannerconsistent with their conservation and in further-ance of the self-sufficiency of the State.” Section 9of the same document states that “each person hasthe right to a clean and healthful environment, asdefined by laws relating to environmental quality,including control of pollution and conservation,protection and enhancement of natural resources.”
In the Spring of 2000, the Hawai‘i Legislaturepassed a law banning the harvest of shark fins fromState waters or landing of shark fins in the Stateregardless of the waters in which the sharks werecaught. The result is a lessening of the fishingpressure on sharks, including species that play arole in reef ecosystems in Hawai‘i.
Public Education and Outreach for Coral ReefProtection – The DLNR, as the primary resourcetrustee for most nearshore coral reefs throughout theHawaiian Archipelago, has started to produce State-of-the-Reefs Reports for distribution to the public,policy-makers, and government agencies.
DLNR also distributes a variety of pamphlets oncoral reef MPAs, fishing regulations, laws andregulations and basic natural history information.
Under a grant from NOAA, the State is implement-ing a variety of public education and outreachprojects designed to facilitate coral reef manage-ment. These projects include community-basedmonitoring initiatives, a coral reef awarenessraising campaign, and community-based marinedebris removal coordination. Installation of day-usemooring buoys at Molokini MLCD and an assess-ment of marine tourism use in State MPAs are alsobeing funded under this grant.
The State of Hawai‘i Coastal Zone ManagementProgram has also supported both research andeducational activities related to Hawaiian coralreefs. A new booklet will be widely distributedthrough the local marine tourism industry to bettereducate visitors and help guide them in limitingtheir impacts on the natural resources.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
Coral reefs have always been an important compo-nent of human existence in Hawai‘i, as theyprovide habitat and other resources for fish andinvertebrates that are popular for human consump-tion (Fig. 260). The nearshore reefs once providedthe majority of the protein for the Hawaiian people,and today consumptive uses of reef resourcesinclude subsistence, commercial, and recreationalactivities. Despite their importance, coral reefs inHawai‘i suffer from degradation related to contin-ued human population growth, urbanization anddevelopment. Ocean outfalls, urbanization, andmassive coastal recreational development (e.g.,hotels, golf courses) are presently focal points forcoral reef degradation in Hawai‘i (Jokiel and Cox1996). New technologies for extraction, offshoreaquaculture, and bioprospecting raise concernsabout the ability of management agencies to keepup with new impacts to coral reef resources.Economic and business pressures to allow such
Figure 260. Popular throughout the Pacific, lobsters in theMHI are considered overfished while the NWHI lobsterfishery remains closed due to concerns for sustainability ofthe population (Photo: Hawai‘i DAR).
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impacts may have severe consequences for Hawai‘iwhere coral reefs represent a thin band of habitatdirectly next to the shore, yet are extremely impor-tant to the marine tourism industry which serves asa major lynchpin in the overall Hawaiian economy.
There are strong indications of overfishing for themajority of food fish and invertebrates in the MHI.Similar concerns are starting to be expressed inregards to the impact of the marine ornamentaltrade. These problems are compounded by therealization that the status of fisheries resources inthe MHI are considerably under-reported, makingproper management of these resources difficult atthis time.
The coral reefs of the Hawaiian Archipelagorepresent not only the majority of U.S. reef area,but also a set of unique ecosystems of unusuallyhigh endemism and diversity of reef types, alongwith a uniquely predator-dominated fish assem-blage within the NWHI. Given this, issues such asalien species introduction and marine ornamentalcollection175, are of stronger concern here then inmany other coral reef areas.
Hawai‘i has a wide variety of types of MPAs whichprotect coral reef habitat to some extent, yet verylittle of MHI reefs are ‘No-take MPAs’ whereextraction of any type is not allowed. With only0.3% of the MHI coral reef habitat protected as‘No-take MPAs,’ it’s going to be extremely chal-lenging to meet the USCRTF’s established goal ofsetting aside a minimum of 20% of the representa-tive coral reef habitat as ‘No-take MPA’ by the year2010. Even those few areas that are currently ‘No-take MPAs’ in the MHI are exposed to heavyhuman usage for recreation and marine tourismpotentially undermining their effectiveness inrepresenting ‘natural’ coral reef ecosystems.
While new efforts and joint partnerships have beeninitiated by the resource trustee agencies,academia, nongovernmental organizations and thevarious communities themselves, more support(financial and political) for the existing and pro-posed efforts is needed in order to effectivelysustain the exceptionally wide variety and area ofcoral reef habitat and resources found in theHawaiian Archipelago.
175 Especially focused on rare or endangered species.
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STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOAPeter CraigPeter CraigPeter CraigPeter CraigPeter Craig
STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOASTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN AMERICAN SAMOAPeter CraigPeter CraigPeter CraigPeter CraigPeter Craig
Table 33. American Samoan island’s and their coral reef area(Source: Hunter 1995).
Figure 261. After being impacted by hurricanes (A), a crown-of-thorns starfish outbreak,and coral bleaching, reefs in American Samoa are now recovering (B). (Photos: NationalPark of American Samoa and Kip Evans, Fagatele Bay NMS).
AAAAA B B B B B
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Territory of American Samoa is a group of fivevolcanic islands and two atolls in the central SouthPacific Ocean. These islands are small, ranging insize from the populated high island of Tutuila (142km2) to the uninhabited and remote Rose Atoll (4km2). The total area of coral reefs (to 100 m) in theterritory is 296 km2 (Table 33).
The Samoan reefs support a diverse assemblage of890 fishes, 200+ corals, and 80 algal species.These reefs provide an important source of food forvillagers through daily subsistence use and sales atlocal stores. They also provide invaluable infra-structure and shoreline protection from storm waveaction. Other potential uses of the reefs are low atpresent (e.g., tourism, or the extraction of reefproducts for aquariums).
Condition of CoralCondition of CoralCondition of CoralCondition of CoralCondition of CoralReefsReefsReefsReefsReefs
Due to the steepness ofthe main islands, shallowwater habitats around theislands are limited andconsist primarily offringing coral reefs (85%)with a few offshore banks(12%), and two atolls(3%). The fringing reefs
have narrow reef flats (50-500 m); depths of 1000m are reached within 2-8 km from shore.
CoralCoralCoralCoralCoral – The coral reefs are currently recoveringfrom a series of natural disturbances over the pasttwo decades: a crown-of-thorns starfish invasion(1979), three hurricanes (1986, 1990, 1991), and aperiod of warm water temperatures that causedmass coral bleaching (1994) (Fig. 261). Addition-ally, there are chronic human-induced impacts inareas like Pago Pago Harbor (Craig et al. 2000a).
By 1995, the corals were beginning to recover, asevidenced by an abundance of coral recruits(Mundy 1996, Birkeland et al. 1997). Coral growthhas continued through 2000, but a full recoverywill take time. There have also been improvementsto reefs in Pago Pago Harbor by the removal of 9shipwrecks; and another shipwreck was removed atRose Atoll (Green et al. 1998). Additionally, theexport of ‘live rock’ from coral reefs was banned inJune 2000.
AlgaeAlgaeAlgaeAlgaeAlgae – Information is limited, but with a fewexceptions, the algae found around the islandsindicate a low-nutrient environment and/or heavygrazing by herbivores. Encrusting coralline algaecover (Porolithon) is high (40-50%). These algaehelp cement and stabilize the loose surface below(Birkelandet al. 1997).
Fish and Harvested Invertebrates Fish and Harvested Invertebrates Fish and Harvested Invertebrates Fish and Harvested Invertebrates Fish and Harvested Invertebrates – Despitethe on-going recovery of corals on local reefs,many fish and invertebrates are not recovering asquickly. Harvested species such as giant clams and
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Figure 262. Today, giantclams are rare in populatedareas of American Samoa(Photo: Nancy Daschbach).
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Figure 263. Improvements in water quality in inner Pago PagoHarbor after canneries were reqired to dispose of wastesbeyond the innner harbor in 1991. Actual values of chloro-phyll a are 15 times greater than values shown graphically.(Source: ASEPA 2000).
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Figure 264. Population growth in American Samoa.
parrotfish are overfished (Fig. 262), and there isheavy fishing pressure on surgeonfish (Craig et al.1997, Page 1998, Green and Craig 1999). Fewerand/or smaller groupers, snappers, and jacks areseen. Most village fishermen and elders believethat numbers of fish and shellfish have also de-clined (Tuilagi and Green 1995). Also, in someareas, fish are now toxic with heavy metals, partic-ularly those from Pago Pago Harbor (AECOS 1991).
Since 1995, the nighttime artisanal spear fishermenbegan using SCUBA gear, greatly increasing theircatches. This led to a territorial ban on SCUBA-assisted fishing in April 2001.
Sea TurtlesSea TurtlesSea TurtlesSea TurtlesSea Turtles – Often overlooked as a part of thecoral reef ecosystem, Hawksbill sea turtles feed onreef sponges and other organisms. hawksbillpopulations are in serious decline for two majorreasons: 1) illegal harvest and 2) loss of nestinghabitat (Tuato’o et al. 1993). The hawksbill islisted as endangered and is rapidly approachingextinction in the Pacific (Eckert et al. 1995).
Green sea turtle populations in the South Pacifichave declined as well and should probably beclassified as endangered (Eckert et al. 1995).Conservation efforts are complicated by theturtles’ complex migration patterns. Some migratefrom American Samoa to both Fiji and FrenchPoly-nesia. Conserving ‘shared’ turtle populationswill require international cooperation.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Due to the steepness of theislands and their limited development of shallowwater habitats, the continual flushing by oceancurrents provide generally good water quality.There are three exceptions: 1) sedimentation from
improper land usepractices that poursinto coastal watersafter heavy rains, 2)nutrient enrichmentfrom human andanimal wastes inpopulated areas, and 3)contamination in PagoPago Harbor.
Pago Pago Harborsuffers from two kindsof pollution. First, fishand substrates in theharbor are contaminated with heavy metals andother pollutants (AECOS 1991). Second, nutrientloading from cannery wastes in the inner harborformerly caused perpetual algal blooms andoccasional fish kills due to oxygen depletion. In theearly 1990s, the canneries were required to disposeof their wastes beyond the inner harbor (Fig. 262),greatly reducing nutrient levels.
Coastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefCoastal Populations and ReefEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomicsEconomics
American Samo’s population was 57,300 in 2000.During the past 10 years, the population increasedby 10,500 people, an increase of 22%. The popula-tion is increasing at a yearly rate of 2.1%, addingabout 1,200 people each year (Fig. 264). It isexpected to continue, given the high birth rate (4.0children per female), the fact that 50% of thepopulation is younger than age 20, and the highimmigration rate. Adverse human-related impactswill likely increase with rapid population growth.
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Figure 265. Both commercial and subsistence fisheries playan important role in American Samoa (Photo: National Parkof American Samoa).
A recent Governor’s Task Force on PopulationGrowth report called for a population ceiling of115,000. This ceiling is calculated on resources(particularly drinking water) and the diminishingquality of life. An action plan for the Territoryidentifies specific steps to reduce birth and immi-gration rates (Craig et al. 2000b).
More than 18,000 tourists (calculated in 1995) visitthe islands annually and expend over $10 million(calculated on tourist receipts from 1990, UnitedNations Economic and Social Commission for Asiaand the Pacific 2002).
In 2001, ex-vessel landings from small boats in thedomestic commercial fisheries generated $2 mil-lion (NMFS 2001). However, the actual economicimpact of commercial fisheries in American Samoais far greater when distant-water tuna harvests areincluded. These fish are processed in two localcanneries in Pago Pago Harbor. Their ex-vesselvalue from both foreign and domestic vessels wasapproximately $232 million (Western PacificFishery Management Council 1999). AmericanSamoans still rely on local coral reefs for food, andit is estimated that the reefs provide an economicbase of $1 million per year (Fig. 265).
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – At a recent workshop on coralreefs in American Samoa (Craig et al. 1999), thefollowing list of human-related threats wasidentified and ranked.
HighOverfishing of reef resourcesCoastal development and habitat destructionOil and hazardous waste spills in Pago Pago Harbor
MediumSedimentationDumping/improper waste disposalNutrient loading/eutrophication in Pago Pago Harbor
LowNutrient loading/eutrophication elsewhereOil and hazardous waste spills elsewhereShip groundingsAnchor damageDestructive fishing habitsMarine debris from marine sourcesAlien species (e.g., from ballast water)Crown-of-thorns starfish predationCoral diseasesCollections for the aquarium marketBio-prospecting/natural products
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses – American Samoa lies close toa warmer than usual mass of seawater that tends toform south of the territory during La Niña years.Nearby Fiji and Western Samoa have been hit hardby mass coral bleaching in recent years, so itwould seem probable the reefs of American Samoamay be similarly impacted.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
Mapping Mapping Mapping Mapping Mapping – American Samoa needs coral reefhabitat mapping. NOAA habitat mapping activitiesare planned to begin in 2002. Fagatele Bay Na-tional Marine Sanctuary supported a multibeammapping effort in 2001 that resulted in maps for thesanctuary and Pago Pago Harbor, with partialcoverage elsewhere (D. Wright pers. comm.). Thisinformation is available on their web site (OregonState University 2002).
Monitoring and assessment of coral reefs has beenconducted in one of three ways to date: one-timesurveys, long-term monitoring, and fisheriesmonitoring. One-time surveys of corals and fisheshave been conducted over the years using variousmethods/sites/depths on all seven islands in theterritory (e.g., Hunter et al. 1993, Green 1996,Mundy 1996, Green and Hunter 1998). Some of thedata from these may be incorporated into futuremonitoring programs.
Water quality in Pago Pago Harbor has beenmonitored since 1984 (ASEPA 1998). Corals, otherinvertebrates, fish, and algae have been monitoredby Birkeland et al. (1997) for nearly 20 years inFagatele Bay National Marine Sanctuary and in
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Figure 266. Coral reef monitoring in Fagatele Bay NationalMarine Sanctuary (Photo: Kip Evans).
Table 24. Existing MPAs in American Samoa.
lesser detail at other Tutuila locations (Fig. 266).Corals along an historical transect on a Pago PagoHarbor reef flat have been monitored on severaloccasions since 1917 (Green et al. 1997).
Limited harvest information is available for fishand invertebrates caught on the surrounding coralreefs. Declining subsistence catches were moni-tored in 1979 and 1991-1995 (Wass 1980, Saucer-man 1996), but the surveys were discontinued. Theartisanal (small-scale commercial) catch was mon-itored in 1994 – it is currently assessed via marketinvoices, but compliance by vendors is incomplete,so the harvest levels are not well known. Threestudies have examined fishing pressure on harvest-ed surgeonfish (Craig et al. 1997), parrotfish (Page1998) and giant clams (Green and Craig 1999).
In 2002, a workshop was held to develop a territo-rial monitoring plan for coral reefs in the territory.Also, NOAA’s Townsend Cromwell conducted asurvey in 2002 of all the islands including mantatows, fish and coral surveys, and mapping.
MPAsMPAsMPAsMPAsMPAs – There are four Marine Protected Areas(MPAs) in American Samoa, one of which is a no-take area (Rose Atoll, Table 24). Together, theseMPAs account for about 6% of the territory’s coralreefs. But protection inthese areas through regularsurveillance andenforcement is generallylacking. In the main islandswhere overfishing occurs,there are no no-take MPAs.
Poaching in all MPAs is anproblem. Page (1998)determined that 9% of the
local artisanal fishery occurs illegally within theNational Park of American Samoa on TutuilaIsland.
Government Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and LegislationGovernment Policies, Laws, and Legislation
Legislation is in place for water quality standards,land use regulations, waste disposal, fishery man-agement, habitat protection, endangered species,protected areas, ship pollution, and other environ-mental issues. Environmental violations are morefrequently detected and prosecuted, but enforce-ment of these regulations is not widespread andmany problems persist.
Local environmental agencies have also undertakenaggressive education programs to increase commu-nity awareness and understanding of environmentalissues. This effort is commendable, but it is diffi-cult to keep pace with the territory’s rapidly grow-ing population and development pressures.
Gaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation Capacity
On-island expertise in environmental protectionhas increased in recent years. Various research,monitoring, and environmental compliance effortsare conducted by several groups within the Depart-ment of Marine and Wildlife Resources, the Amer-ican Samoa Environmental Protection Agency, theDepartment of Commerce and Fagatele BayNational Marine Sanctuary, American SamoaCommunity College, and the National Park ofAmerican Samoa (Craig and Basch 2001).
Nonetheless, these programs are generally smalland would benefit from increased on-islandcapacity. Also, there is little on-island expertise toaccurately identify the Indo-Pacific corals andfishes found on local reefs (200+ and 890 species,respectively). Consequently, it is necessary to
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focus on indicator species so the local staff canmonitor key reef resources at appropriate intervals.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
To date, coral reefs in American Samoa have beenresilient to a series of natural perturbations, al-though full recovery may take another decade. Themessage for managers is that the reefs will recoverno additional human pressure, but there are severalexamples where serious harm has already beendone, particularly overfishing of reef resources,reduced water quality in populated areas, and lossof turtle nesting beaches to coastal construction.Climatic change has uncertain consequences forlocal reefs. Several areas needing additional workfor coral reef conservation in the Territory.
Expand coral reef monitoring efforts, but focusthe objectives. Most quantitative monitoringefforts in American Samoa might be characterizedas ecological monitoring that tracks changes in theecosystem over time. These studies have providedvaluable insight, highlighting that coral reefs arevery dynamic systems.
From another perspective, however, these studiesdo not address questions commonly faced by coralreef managers. Such things as “Is overfishingoccurring?” “Is sediment from poor land-use prac-tices harming the reef?” Consequently, any moni-toring program must clearly identify 1) who is theintended user of the data, and 2) what parametersshould be measured to provide that information. Inaddition to this management-driven approach, amonitoring program in American Samoa should be1) achievable with local staff, although off-islandscientific expertise may be needed to address someissues, 2) stable to rotations of technical staff whoare typically hired on 2-year contracts, 3) compa-rable to other programs as much as possible, and4) open to community input and management.
Restart monitoring of coral reef fisheries. Aworkshop in American Samoa identified overfish-ing as the major problem hindering recovery oflocal reefs (Craig et al. 1999). It is essential tocollect basic harvest data to monitor trends in totalcatch, catch-per-unit-effort, etc.
Improve land-use practices that impact waterquality. Despite welcome improvements in waterquality in Pago Pago Harbor, coral reefs there havenot fully recovered nor is there safe swimming or
uncontaminated fish in the harbor. A phasedrecovery plan is needed to build on the progressalready made. Harbor fish and sediments also needto be re-tested for toxicity at regular intervals.Additionally, improvements in land-use and wastedisposal practices are needed to reduce sedimenta-tion and pollutants (Fig. 267).
Create a territorial network of no-take marineprotected areas. There are two issues here. First,existing MPAs in the territory are not adequatelyenforced. Second, no-take MPAs are needed in themain islands where there is overfishing.
Create a regional network of MPAs. A meaning-ful effort to protect coral reef resources requires aregional approach. In addition to the issue of larvaltransport of reef fishes and invertebrates, seaturtles provide an excellent example of a sharedresource that binds the islands in the regiontogether. Tagging data show green sea turtles nestin American Samoa and migrate to both Fiji andTahiti to feed, so conservation efforts are needed atboth ends of their migration routes. The SouthPacific biogeographic region needs a network ofMPAs to address these issues.
Figure 267. Land-use practices within nearby watershedsaffect coral reef health through their influence on sedimen-tation and nutrient levels (Photo: Kip Evans).
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STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. Davis
STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMSTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS OF GUAMRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. DavisRobert H. Richmond and Gerry W. Davis
Figure 268. Common Acroporaspecies (Photo: Gustav Paulay).
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
Guam is a U.S. territory located at 13o 28' N, 144o
45' E and is the southernmost island in the MarianaArchipelago. It is the largest island in Micronesia,with a land mass of 560 km2 and a maximumelevation of approximately 405 m. The northernportion of the island is relatively flat and consistsprimarily of uplifted limestone. The southern halfof the island is primarily volcanic, with moretopographic relief and large areas of highly erod-ible lateritic soils.
The island possesses fringing reefs, patch reefs,submerged reefs, offshore banks, and a barrier reefsurrounding the southern shores. The reef marginvaries in width, from tens of meters along some ofthe windward areas, to well over 100 meters. Thecombined area of coral reef and lagoon is approxi-mately 69 km2 in nearshore waters between 0-3nmi, and an additional 110 km2 in federal watersgreater than 3 nmi offshore (Hunter 1995).
Guam lies close to the center of coral reef bio-diversity. Sea surface temperatures range from
about 27-30OC withhigher temperaturesmeasured on the reefflats and in portions ofthe lagoons. Accord-ing to G. Paulay (pers.comm.), 4 seagrassspecies, 306 marinemacroalgae species,403 stony and 77 softcoral species, 128sponge species, 295foraminiferan species,53 flatworm species,1,673 mollusk spe-cies, 104 polychaetespecies, 840 arthropodspecies, 194 echino-derm species, 117ascidian species, 3 seaturtle species, and 13marine mammalspecies have been
recorded from Guam’s coral reef ecosystems.Myers and Donaldson (in press) list 1019 speciesof shorefishes (epipelagic and demersal speciesfound down to 200 m) from the islands of theSouthern Marianas, making no distinction amongGuam, Rota, Tinian, and Saipan.
Coral reef fisheries include both finfish and inver-tebrates. These fisheries are both economically andculturally important. Reef fish have been histori-cally important in the diet of the population, how-ever, westernization and declining stocks havereduced the role of reef fish overall. Many of theresidents from other islands in Micronesia continueto include reef fish as a staple part of their diet. Seacucumbers, a variety of crustaceans, molluscs, andmarine algae are also eaten locally.
In addition to the cash and subsistence value ofedible fish and invertebrates, reef-related fisheriesare culturally important as family and group fishingis a common activity in Guam’s coastal waters.
Condition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemsCondition of Coral Reef Ecosystems
The condition of Guam’s reefs is variable, rangingfrom excellent to poor, depending on adjacent landand land-use characteristics, accessibility, locationof ocean outfalls and river discharges, recreationalpressures and oceanic circulation patterns. Due tothe limestone nature of northern Guam (hence nonatural lakes or streams), the northern reefs aregenerally in better condition than those affected byerosion and sedimentation in the south. Aquiferdischarge and associated eutrophication effects areevident on some northern reefs. Coral cover anddiversity are generally highest on the northeastern(windward) exposures, with a variety of Acroporaspecies dominating the reef crest and slope (Fig.268). The eastern reefs along the central andsouthern portions of the islands are heavily affectedby sedimentation and freshwater runoff during therainy season that occurs from June through No-vember. During this period, terrigenous sedimentsoften accumulate on the reef flats and reef slope.
During the early 1990s, a road project along thesouthern shores of the island resulted in particu-larly heavy sedimentation of a 10 km section of
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Figure 269. Sewage from ocean outfalls (A) contributes to euthrophication (B) algaewashed up on tourist beaches (Photo: Bob Richmond and Donna Turgeon).
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Figure 270. Crown-of-thorns starfish (Photo: DonnaTurgeon).
fringing reef, killing all thecoral. Most of the fringingreefs along the southern partof the island, continuing upalong the southwesternshores are in poor to faircondition.
Apra Harbor is off the centralpart of the island, on thePhilippine Sea (western side).The harbor is home to a largeNavy Base and is also thelocation of the port facilities.Both fringing reefs andshoals (patch reefs) are found within the harbor,and those closest to the harbor mouth are in rela-tively good condition. Further into the harbor,corals and reefs have been impacted by freshwaterrunoff, sediment and thermal discharges from theIsland’s main power generation facilities.
Agana, Tumon, and Piti Bay (also known as Tapun-gun) Bays have heavy human use. The inner areasof these bays are in relatively poor condition,affected by discharges from land as well as the im-pacts of recreational activities. Agana and TumonBays are centers for tourism. East Agana Bayserves as a main site for commercial watercraft (jetski) operations. West Agana has a sewage treatmentplant built on the reef flat that had a pipe dischargein 60 ft of water (Fig. 269). Infrastructure upgradespresently underway are expected to improve waterquality within these bays, and limited/experimentalrestoration activities are planned.
Coral and other Invertebrates Coral and other Invertebrates Coral and other Invertebrates Coral and other Invertebrates Coral and other Invertebrates – Coral cover onthe good-to-excellent reefs ranges from 35-70%,while the most damaged sites have less than 10%
coral cover and fleshy algae and sediment domi-nate the substratum. Data compiled by Birkeland(1997b) found transect data taken in the 1960sgenerally showed reefs with over 50% live coralcover, but only 7 of 113 transects measured in the1980s-1990s had over 50% live coral cover, while88 had less than 25% live coral. In surveys takenoff the Northern District sewer outfall in the early1990s, not only was coral cover below 25%, mostof the live coral was restricted to a few species,particularly the rapidly growing, common lobe andplate coral [Porites (= Synarea) rus], with indica-tions of an overall reduction in coral speciesdiversity.
Recruitment data also support the observations ofan overall decline in coral reef condition. In 1979,278 coral recruits were found from 525 foulingplates placed out on reefs around Guam (0.53corals/plate), while data collected in 1989 and 1992found only 0.004 and 0.009 recruits/plate respec-tively (Birkeland pers. comm.).
Coral diseases, the competitive black encrustingspongeTerpios hoshinota, and coralline algal lethalorange disease (CLOD) have all been observed onGuam’s reefs, but none seem to be at a critical levelat this time.
While the crown-of-thorns starfish occurred insmall to moderate numbers over the past few years,a greater abundance of juveniles now is cause forconcern about the potential for a future outbreak(Fig. 270).
AlgaeAlgaeAlgaeAlgaeAlgae – Blue-green algae that recently areovergrowing coral have been a concern at somesites.
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Figure 271. Two species of Acanthurid fishfrom Guam (Photo: Gustav Paulay).
Figure 272. Two species of rabbitfish fromGuam (Photo: Gustav Paulay).
Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish – Fish populations havedeclined 70% over the past 15years, as documented by theGuam Division of Aquatic andWildlife Resources.
Total day and night finfishharvest for 1985 was esti-mated at 151,700 kg. In 1999,this number had dropped to62,689 kg. Acanthurid fishes(surgeons), important reefherbivores, accounted forapproximately 23% of thetotal catch in 1999 (Fig. 271).Catch-per-unit-effort hasdropped by over 50% since1985, and large reef fish are rare. Seasonal runs ofjuvenile rabbitfish (Fig. 272), a local favorite, wereconsidered poor for the 1997-1999 seasons, butnumbers increased last year. Regulations andprotected reserves are being enforced to deal withthis problem. SCUBA spear fishing and gill nettingare still allowed on Guam, which is contrary to theprevailing conservation ethic. Legislation is beingproposed to regulate these fishing methods.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Increased stormwater runofffrom an airport expansion project, new roads,hotels, shopping centers and golf courses resultedin reduced coastal water quality, especially in baysand areas of restricted water circulation. Thesalinity of waters over coastal reefs was found todrop below 28 ppt after periods of rainfall duringsummer coral spawning, which results in reproduc-tive failure (Richmond 1996). Stormwater collec-tion passes into sewer lines, and during heavy rainthe sewage treatment plantsdivert the wastewater directlyinto the ocean outfall pipes,often with only primary treat-ment. Three of the Island’soutfall pipes discharge within200 m of the shoreline, indepths of 20-25 m and in areaswhere corals are found. Exten-sion of the Northern andCentral District outfalls intodeeper waters further offshoreis planned.
A variety of pollutants hasbeen found in the sediments of
Apra Harbor, including PCBs,heavy metals, and PAHs. Aharbor dredging project is inthe planning stages and poses aconcern for surrounding reefs.Agrochemicals are also aconcern for coastal waters.
Coastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef Economics
The island underwent a devel-opment boom in the late 1980sand early 1990s, resulting in a15.4% increase in the past tenyears to its current populationof 154.8 thousand (U.S. Cen-
sus Bureau 2000). Additionally over 1.4 milliontourists visit the island each year (OIA 1997).
Tourism, primarily from Japan and other Asiancountries, is the largest industry on island. In 1990,tourist expenditures contributed $936 million toGuam’s economy (UNESCAP 2002). Hence, coralreefs and associated marine recreation are ofsubstantial economic value, contributing over $80million per year.
Guam’s coral reef fisheries, both finfish andinvertebrates, are economically and culturallyimportant. The annual ex-vessel value of commer-cial fisheries landings on Guam is currently $1.3million (NMFS 2001). Marine algae also are eatenlocally.
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – Sedimentation is the majoranthropogenic problem for thecentral and southern reefs. Forthe Ugum River Watershed,soil erosion was estimated at176,500 tons/km2/year (DeMeo1995). Forty six percent of thiswas attributed to sloped roads,while 34% was contributedfrom badlands. Ugum Water-shed erosion rates doubledfrom 1975 to 1993 (from1,547,250 to 3,039,750 tons/km2/year), from new roadconstruction and developmentprojects. Sediment accumula-tion on reefs has been docu-
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Figure 273. Sediment plume in Southeast Guam extends outtowards a reef (Photo: Gerry Davis).
Figure 274. Total fisheries harvest in Guam, 1985-1996(Modified from Birkeland 1997).
mented to substantially reduce both coral diversityand abundance (Fig. 273, Randall and Birkeland1978).
Fish populations and catch-per-unit-effort havemeasurably declined since data collection began in1985 (Fig. 274). Fishing practices, including theuse of unattended gill nets, bleach, SCUBAspearfishing, and fish traps have contributed to theproblem. However, habitat loss due to sedimenta-tion, pollution, and physical damage has also beenresponsible for reduced fish populations.
With over 1 million tourists visiting Guam eachyear, many from countries where a coral reef con-servation ethic is not fully developed, damage toreefs is inevitable. In addition to impacts fromSCUBA divers and snorkellers, underwater walk-ing tours using surface-supplied equipment and alarge number of personal watercraft (jet skis) haveaffected reefs and water quality. A coastal usezoning law called the Recreational Water UseMaster Plan was passed into law to address theseproblems but it needs enforcement support andupdating to cover new activities and areas ofconcern.
Groundings of fishing vessels, recreationalwatercraft, and ships carrying cargo and illegalimmigrants have resulted in localized damage toreefs.
Guam’s main power generation facilities arelocated on Cabras Island, in the northern portionof Apra Harbor (Fig. 275). Water that used to coolthe generators has killed coral. Cleaning chemi-cals have also been discharged, with subsequentimpacts on local coral populations.
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses – Guam is in the tropicalPacific ‘typhoon belt,’ and experiences an averageof one substantial tropical storm or typhoon eachyear. The coral reefs are of major value in provid-ing protection from storm waves and associatedcoastal erosion.
Climate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral Bleaching – Coralbleaching has been documented to coincide withelevated water temperatures associated with ElNiño events. Potential climate change impactsinclude inundation of low lying coastal areas, andincreased sedimentation from drought followed byheavy rains.
Coral bleaching has been observed at a number ofsites including within Apra Harbor and in Piti Bayjust to the north. Both scleractinians and alcyonar-ians have been affected, with a few pockets of highmortality. However, the 1998 bleaching event inthe Pacific did not cause widespread coral mortal-ity in Guam.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – Guam needs coral reef habitat mapping.With current funding levels, NOAA habitat map-ping of Guam’s coral reef ecosystems is planned tobegin in 2002.
MonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoring – In FY00, NOAA awarded a grant tothe Guam Division of Aquatic and Wildife Re-sources (DAWR) for water quality monitoring at30 stations (10 freshwater, and 20 marine) withinthe Agana and Tumon sub-watersheds. Afterreviewing existing data and survey work, sitesidentified as high risk for altered water qualitywere sampled for a battery of key microbial,chemical, and physical water quality parameters.
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Figure 275. Guam’s main power plant (Photo credit: DonnaTurgeon).
These two watersheds are located in urban-useareas (i.e., the primary hotel area and a majorportion of Guam’s business district), and are highhuman-contact zones (recreationally, commercially,and consumptively).
This project will be the basis for the developmentof future long-term coral reef monitoring strategiesand sound management approaches to preserve andrestore Guam’s coral reef systems. In FY01, Guamcontinued its water quality monitoring of urbanizedbays and initiated coral cover monitoring.
The University of Guam Marine Laboratory hasongoing coral reef monitoring programs, in col-
laboration with the DAWR and the Guam Environ-mental Protection Agency (GEPA). The MarineLab database dates back to 1970, and focuses onthe marine biota. The DAWR collects data on fishcatch through creel censuses, while GEPA hasroutine water quality sampling programs. A jointeducational outreach program exists as a collabora-tion among the three aforementioned groups aswell as the Guam Coastal Management Program.
MPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take Reserves – There are twoFederal (War in the Pacific National Historical Parkand Guam National Wildlife Refuge) and 11territorial MPAs. Five of the territorial MPAs areno-take marine reserves (Pati Point, Tumon Bay,Piti Bomb Holes, Sasa Bay, and Achang Reef Flat
Preserves) representing approximately 12% of thecoastline and 28% of the coral reefs. Established in1998, all five marine reserves are under fullenforcement.
In 1986 two ecological no-take reserves wereestablished as mitigation. These reserves would add2% more coastline and 5% more reef area to thetotal but they have not been enforced. An oceancurrent assessment is presently underway at thePati Point Preserve to determine the areas mostlikely to be seeded by larvae originating from thispreserve. Fish abundance, size, and diversity dataare being collected to document the value of thepreserves and the success of the program.
Government Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislation
Guam’s natural resource legislation protectingcoral reef resources is presented in two laws. Theprevailing legal authority is the Guam Legislatureor statutory law. These laws are relatively old andhave not been revised in the past 20 years. For thisreason, although it is specifically referenced, coralis considered a fish. When these laws were created,the only group likely to impact reefs were fisher-men. Guam’s statutory laws regulate the taking ofcoral and have penalties for fishing damage.
Coral can be taken only under a permit issued bythe Department of Agriculture. But no permits havebeen issued since 1982. The law has provisions forboth personal and commercial take but limits suchpermits to five days and requires specific collectinglocations be identified.
This same title (5 GCA chapter 63) also regulatesfishing net mesh sizes used in coastal waters aswell as illegal chemical and explosives. In addition,the legislature also delegated the authority andresponsibility of management and oversight for allaquatic and wildlife resources to the Department ofAgriculture. Recently, the Department of Agricul-ture’s DAWR used its regulatory authority toamend and expand the existing fishing regulations.
Title 16 regulates the size restrictions and seasonsfor aquatic fauna. Also contained in these regula-tions is an expanded definition section which nowproperly defines coral and other freshwater andmarine fauna types, with a section preventingtransplanting of corals or other aquatic fauna.
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Figure 276. Pati Point Preserve (a) and Piti Bomb HolesPreserve (b) are two of the newly established MPAs (Photos:Jay Gutierrez and Danko Taborosi/WERI UOG).
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A major component of these new regulations arethe rules governing the five newly establishedpermanent marine preserves and maps definingtheir boundaries (Fig. 276). These areas definenearly 12% of Guam’s coastline as no-take fisher-ies areas. Statutes have authority over regulations.The penalty for violating both statutes and regula-tions is a petty misdemeanor, with a fine of up to$500.
There are also laws that provide indirect protectionto coral reefs. GEPA has local water qualitystandards. These fines can be charged daily andcumulatively, up to $10,000 a day.
The Seashore Protection Commission has reviewand approval authority over construction projectsproposed within the area from 10 meters inland ofthe mean high tide mark out to a depth of 60 ft.This is a 21-member government review groupwho look at all the various impacts. Once thisgroup reviews the proposal for a project, theircomments are submitted to a commission made upof appointed members of the public for consider-ation of approval or rejection.
This commission has not been very successful inupholding their responsibilities. Guam still needslaws to address ship groundings and ways to assessdamage and levy fines for large-scale human in-duced coral reef damage. It is also in the process ofconverting the misdemeanor penalties to a magis-trate court system that could be used to issue cita-tions instead of requiring a court hearing to collectpenalties.
Gaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation Capacity
Guam is fortunate to have a large number oftechnical experts in coral reef ecology, manage-ment, and policy. Three government agencies havestaff dedicated to dealing with coral reef andcoastal resource monitoring and protection – theDAWR, the Guam Coastal Management Programwithin the Bureau of Planning, and GEPA. Inaddition, there are two research units at the Univer-sity of Guam that focus on coral reef and coastalenvironmental issues – The University of Guam
Marine Laboratory and the Water and Environmen-tal Research Institute. Collaboration and coopera-tion is high among these agencies and institutions.Funds specifically earmarked for monitoring arelimited, especially for water quality monitoring.More stakeholder involvement is needed.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
In general, Guam’s coastal reefs continue todecline, primarily as a result of land-based activi-ties. Data on coral recruitment indicate significantreductions over the past two decades. Areasimpacted by natural disturbances, includingtyphoons, crown-of-thorns outbreaks, and earth-quakes are simply not recovering in specific areas.Community education initiatives have been payingoff in terms of increased awareness and the politi-cal will to address reef decline is improving.However, there is far more to be done in theseareas. Overfishing is still a concern, but establish-ing five marine reserves that formally receivedenforcement protection in June 2000 is a verypositive step forward. Enforcement of existing lawsand environmental regulations is still a majorproblem. More infrastructure improvements anderosion control programs are needed to reduce theland-based stresses on reefs.
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IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Marianas Archipelago encompasses 15 islandsand numerous banks oriented on a north-south axisstretching over 460 nmi from Santa Rosa Reefsouth of Guam, to Uracas Bank north of the islandof Uracas, or Farallon de Pajaros. Approximately120 nmi west of the main island chain exists asuccession of seamounts also oriented on a north-south axis, referred to as the west Mariana Ridge.
The Commonwealth of the Northern MarianaIslands (CNMI) is a political subset of the MarianaArchipelago that includes Rota Island in the south,extending northward to Uracas Bank. The 14islands of the archipelago are geologically dividedinto two types; the southern arc characterized asraised limestone plateaus overlying volcanic cores,and the more recent northern islands are basalticand volcanically active.
The southern arc consists of islands and banks fromRota Island to Sonome Reef north of Farallon deMedinilla.
The oldest and most complex reefs in the CNMIare associated with the western (leeward) sides ofthese islands. The majority of the CNMI’s residentslive on three of these islands: Rota, Tinian, and theCapitol, Saipan.
The northern arc consists of all islands and banksfrom Esmeralda Bank to Uracas Bank north ofUracas Island. The chain of islands north of Saipanare collectively referred to by local CNMI residentsas the ‘Northern Islands.’ The extent of reefsaround these islands is unassessed, howeverpreliminary indications are that there is less reefdevelopment in comparison to the southern islands.Although some of these islands have held smallpermanent and seasonal communities, all perma-nent residents were evacuated in 1981 after theeruption of Pagan (Fig. 277). The banks andseamounts of the western Mariana Ridge are theyoungest geologically, with some of the banksrising to nearly 9 m from the surface.
There is currently no good estimate of the total areaof coral reefs in the CNMI. The length of totalcoastline is approximately 417 km (D. Mauro, pers.comm.). Nearly all of this is potential coral habitat,although active reef development may not beoccurring in all areas. This is exclusive of thenumerous offshore banks and reefs within CNMI’sEEZ, nor does it include the extensive coralplatform adjacent to Saipan.
Condition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral ReefsCondition of Coral Reefs
The local interagency Marine Monitoring Team(MMT) continues to survey reefs in the southernislands to develop a baseline assessment of reefhealth. While the majority of the surveyed reefs arein good condition, there are extensive areas in thepopulated southern islands where polluted runoff iseither preventing recovery or degrading coral reefs.Coral bleaching during the summer of 2001 causedextensive shallow water coral mortality, However,areas with good water quality are already showingsigns of recovery. Overfishing is a problem associ-ated with population centers near the southernislands. The status of coral reefs in the northernislands remains unassessed.
Marine Macroalgae and Higher PlantsMarine Macroalgae and Higher PlantsMarine Macroalgae and Higher PlantsMarine Macroalgae and Higher PlantsMarine Macroalgae and Higher Plants – Over150 species of algae in 80 genera, three seagrassspecies, and a species of mangrove have been
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-WEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter Houk
STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-STATUS OF CORAL REEFS IN THE COMMON-WEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSWEALTH OF THE NORTHERN MARIANA ISLANDSJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter HoukJohn Starmer, Michael S. Trianni, and Peter Houk
Figure 277. Volcanic activity on Pagan Island (Photo:Americopters, Inc.).
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identified from CNMI coral reef ecosystems.Documented algal species diversity continues togrow, due to an ongoing biodiversity survey beingconducted by the Coastal Resources ManagementOffice (CRMO). This project is documenting algaland plant species diversity and distributions withindiscrete habitats and throughout the archipelago. Itis supported primarily with a NOAA Coral ReefInitiative grant.
Seagrasses are found only within the extensiveSaipan Lagoon and in a small area on Rota. Therehave been extirpations (localized extinctions) onsouthern reef flats on both Rota and Saipan.
Mangrove habitat is restricted to two small areasnear the commercial port areas in Saipan. Althoughthese small areas represent the northernmost man-grove communities in the western Pacific and areunique habitat in the CNMI, they have no legalprotection.
Coral ConditionCoral ConditionCoral ConditionCoral ConditionCoral Condition – There have been 256 species ofcorals from 56 genera and 41 octocorals in 20 gen-era identified from CNMI coral reef habitats (Ran-dall, 1995, Houk, unpub. data, Starmer unpub.data). These numbers continue to grow as theMMT continues its surveys.
Diversity is higher in the southern islands wherereefs are older, more developed, and have morediverse habitats. Coral density, species richness,and coral cover on Saipan reefs all tend to increasemoving from the shoreline to the outer reef margin(Randall 1991, Fig. 278). Coral cover in the innerreef zone and on the reef flat of most reef areas onSaipan tends to be patchy with fewer species andless coverage than on the reef fronts and terraces(Randall 1991). This may be attributed to the low
level of water on many reef flats, resulting in highvariations of temperature and salinity.
Fewer coral studies have been conducted on Tinianand Rota. However, fringing reef communities onthese islands are expected to be similar to those onSaipan and Guam. Of the northern islands, detailedsurveys have only been conducted for Maug(Eldredgeet al. 1977), and indicate that coraldiversity is much lower, with only 74 species ofscleractinian corals and four species of non-scleractinians in localized coral communities.
The MMT is investigating disease incidences andpotential impacts of three common coral reefdiseases: coralline algae lethal orange disease,tumors, and black-band disease (Fig. 279).
Large Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile InvertebratesLarge Mobile Invertebrates – A marine specieslist was compiled for CNMI, documenting 101crustacean species, 15 echinoderm species, 30annelid species, and 520 molluscan species (Asak-ura and Furuki 1994). Two gastropods (Echininusviviparis and Nerita guamensis) are endemic to thesouthern Marianas and Guam (UNEP/IUCN 1988).Also, 28 species of sponges and 11 species ofascidians have been observed in the CNMI (J.Starmer pers. comm.).
At present, the U.S. Federal Aid in SportfishRestoration program, which provides the bulk ofthe Division of Fish and Wildlife’s (DFW) fisheriesresearch funding, limits invertebrate research. As aresult, there is only minimal data collection of bothcommercial and recreational/subsistence species.Only a small amount of data have been collectedon the topshell gastropod, sea cucumbers, and the
Figure 278. Coral reef located off of Saipan (Photo: DonnaTurgeon).
Figure 279. Detail of a coral with a tumor (Photo: PeterHouk).
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spiny lobster. The CRMO is currently conductingan invertebrate biodiversity survey with the MMT.
After initially publicized outbreaks in the late1960s and early 1970s, the crown-of-thorns starfishbriefly reappeared in large numbers on Saipan’sreefs in 1984 (Fig. 280). Presently this starfish hasbeen noted in low numbers on most reefs in Saipan,Tinian, and Rota. Two areas with apparentlypersistent populations have been identified by theMMT: the eastern side of Puntan Naftan nearBoyscout Beach on Saipan and Unai Babui on theeastern side of Tinian.
Fish and Harvested SpeciesFish and Harvested SpeciesFish and Harvested SpeciesFish and Harvested SpeciesFish and Harvested Species – The ichthyofaunaof CNMI belongs to the Indo-West Pacific (Myers1999). According to the latest information (Myersand Donaldson in press), there are 1,019 species ofshorefishes (epipelagic and demersal species foundto 200 m) from the islands of the Southern Mari-anas, making no distinction between Guam, Rota,Tinian, and Saipan. Previously,946 species of fish had beenrecorded in the Mariana Islands,with 933 recorded in the south-ern islands and 427 species inthe northern islands (Donaldson1995).
The bulk of the fish fauna in theMarianas, as in other parts of theregion, is comprised of the tenlargest fish families: Gobiidae,Labridae, Serranidae,Pomacentridae, Muraenidae,Apogonidae, Blennidae,Carangidae, Acanthuridae, andChaetodontidae (Moots et al. 2000). Only threespecies of shallow-water reef fish are known to beendemic to the Mariana Islands: the yellow-crowned butterflyfish (Chaetodon flavocoronatus,Fig. 281) and two species of Guam reef damselfish(Pomachromis gumaensis, Prealticus poptae; M.Trianni pers. comm.).
There is little data assessing the health of fishresources in the CNMI. The fish resources in thenorthern islands are perceived as healthier than thepopulated islands southern because they have theleast amount of fishing pressure. An analysis ofdata from 1992-1993 showed that fish caught bySCUBA and spearfishing around Saipan weregenerally smaller than those from Tinian and catch-per-unit-effort for Saipan was lower compared to
that for similar habitats off Tinian (Graham 1994,Trianni 1998). Trianni’s analysis includedGraham’s 1992-1993 data, data from 1995-1996collected from the same the SCUBA spearfisheryaround Saipan and Tinian, and 1995 data from aSCUBA spearfishery in the Northern Islands(Anatahan, Maug, Pagan, and Sarigan). Trianni’sanalysis agreed with Graham’s and confirmed thatthe fish populations in the southern islands are
impacted by fishing pressure.
The topshell gastropod is an intro-duced species in the Marianas.Imported in 1938 by the JapaneseSouth Seas Government (Asano1938, Adams et al. 1994), it wasseeded on Saipan, and then intro-duced from Saipan to Tinian, Rota,Guam, and Agrihan. Commer-cially-harvested in other parts ofMicronesia, its shell is used forbuttons, and the meat is a popularfood source of the local CNMIpopulation. A moratorium pro-tecting topshell from exploitation
within CNMI has been in effect since 1983, butwas lifted for commercial fishing from Octoberthrough December 1997. An ‘open season’ wasdeclared, requiring a basal diameter minimum of 3inches as per DFW regulations. Nearly 4 mt oftopshell were harvested during that open season.About 0.36 mt of topshell (over 1,000 animals)harvested at the beginning of the period weresampled by DFW Conservation Officers. About 3%were found to be undersized and subsequentlyreturned to the reef (Trianni 2002).
In 1993, along with the South Pacific Commission,the DFW conducted an assessment of the potentialfor a commercial or recreational/subsistence fish-ery for this gastropod. The assessment concludedthat densities in the CNMI would not be able to
Figure 280. Crown-of-thorns starfish (Photo: James McVey).
Figure 281. The yellow-crowned butter-flyfish is endemic to the MarianasArchipelago (Photo: Richard Pyle,FishBase).
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support a sustained fishery(Adamset al. 1994). Themoratorium protecting topshellhas now been extended for anindefinite time period.
In 1996, the CRMO contractedthe DFW to evaluate the pop-ulations of nine species ofedible sea cucumbers in theSaipan Lagoon (Fig. 282). Thatsurvey concluded that popula-tions were too low to supportcommercial fishing (Tsuda1997), but might be able tosustain a recreational/subsis-tence fishery.
Commercial harvesting of seacucumbers took place on Rotafrom October 1995 through May 1996 (Trianni2002), and on Saipan from July 1996 throughDecember 1996. Data collected by the Division andWildlife for the period from Saipan showed adecline in commercial landings of sea cucumbers,which was corroborated by a DFW post-harvestsurvey (Trianni 2002).
Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals – Green andhawksbill sea turtles are known to frequent near-shore waters in the CNMI (Fig. 283). A year-longstudy conducted on Tinian suggested that residentsubadult and nesting adult green turtles mightbelong to separate populations due to distinct sizedifferences between the two (Pultz et al. 1999).The study also indicated that nearly all of Tinian’sbeaches are potential nesting areas. The sameauthors also expressed concern over not seeing anyhawksbills during the 13-month study (Pultz et al.1999). There is not enough information about hab-itat use, population dynamics, or genetic structureto summarize status of sea turtles throughout theCNMI.
According to G. Paulay (pers. comm.), there areanecdotal accounts of the viviparous yellowbelliedsea snake (Pelamis platurus) from the CNMI. Thisspecies is pelagic and ranges from East Africa tothe Pacific coast of the Americas (Allen and Steene1996).
Marine mammals verified to frequent CNMIcoastal areas residentially, seasonally, or duringmigration include spinner, striped, and bottlenose
dolphins (Stenella longirostris,S. coeruleoalba and Tursiopstruncatus), and numerous whalespecies. These include pygmyand dwarf sperm whales (Kogiasimus and K. breviceps), pilotwhales (Globicephala macro-rhychus or G. mala), spermwhales (Physeter catadon), falsekiller whales (Pseudorca cras-sidens), humpback whales(Megaptera novaeangliae) andBryde’s whales (Balaenopteraedeni) (Trianni pers. comm.).Other circumtropical speciesmost likely traverse CNMI’sexclusive economic zone. Thespinner dolphin is the mostobserved cetacean in CNMI (Fig.
284), having been sighted at various islands andbanks, in addition to recent stranding episodes inSaipan Lagoon (Trianni and Kessler in press).
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Both point and nonpoint sourcesof pollutants are responsible for lowering the qual-ity of CNMI’s coastal water. Sewage outfalls,sewage overflows, dredging, and sedimentationfrom unpaved roads and development are signif-icant factors degrading marine water quality.Eutrophication and sedimentation are the twobiggest stressors.
All three southern islands have unpaved secondaryroads that funnel soil and sediment into nearshorewaters during heavy rains, increasing turbidity ofnearshore waters. There have been several reportsof sedimentation associated with major construc-tion projects (e.g., the Nikko Hotel, Lau Lau BayResort, and Bird Island Road) that covered near-
Figure 282. Two species of sea cucum-bers found in the Mariana Archipelago(Photo: Gustav Paulay).
Figure 283. Resident sea turtle (Photo: CNMI Division ofFish and Wildlife).
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shore corals. On several of the northern islandsdeforestation by feral animals is causing nearshoresedimentation. (T. de Cruz pers. comm.)
Farallon de Medinilla has been leased by the Navysince 1981 as a bombing target. No quantitativestudies have been conducted to determine whetherbombing has increased sediment runoff from theisland. Little quantitative data on sedimentationhave been collected and the impact of sediment oncoral reefs has not been well documented.
Nutrient loading is also a concern for the reefsadjacent to populated islands. Potential sources ofnutrients on the developed islands are septic sys-tems and sewage outfalls, fertilizer on golf coursesand agricultural land, and animal wastes. This in-cludes wastes from introduced animals (e.g., Paganhas high populations of cows and pigs; otherislands have goats). The impact of these on marinewater quality in general, and coral reef resources inparticular, is not well known.
The Division of Environmental Quality (DEQ)Surveillance Laboratory currently monitors salin-ity, dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, turbidity,and fecal coliform. These parameters are monitoredweekly for Saipan WestBeaches, and monthly forTinian, Rota, and ManagahaBeaches. Saipan EastBeaches are monitoredquarterly (Houk 2002).
The CNMI Water QualityStandards were largely basedon the review of existingwater quality standards forother tropical islands. Due tothe potential impact and
delicate aspects of the coral reef eco-systems andthe lack of existing data, stringent nutrient stan-dards were adopted for the CNMI (Houk 2002).The DEQ Laboratory recently began collectingdata on nutrient levels. There is concern whetherthe current readings of nutrients reflect natural oranthropogenic sources (Houk 2002). A finaldetermination will require monitoring nutrientlevels in marine waters surrounding uninhabitedislands over a sufficient period of time to establishthe natural ambient conditions.
Coastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef Economics
Prior to receiving U.S. Commonwealth status in1978, CNMI was part of the Pacific Trust Territo-ries under the administration of the United States,along with the Marshall Islands, Palau, and theFederated States of Micronesia. During the U.S.administration of the islands, economic develop-ment was limited, there were few commercial en-terprises, and the population relied primarily onsubsistence agriculture and fisheries, and Federal aid.
The population in the islands has increased 57.2%over the past ten years to 69,200 in 2000 (U.S.Bureau of Census 2002). In 1995, about 90% of theCNMI population was in Saipan, 6% was in Rota,5% was in Tinian, and less than 1% was in theNorthern Islands (Stewart 1997).
As with most tropical islands, marine-relatedtourism is an important part of the island economy(Fig. 285). In the early 1980s, Japan investedheavily in tourism development, bringing in largenumbers of foreign workers for facility construc-tion and operation (Stewart 1992), creating a periodof dramatic economic growth. In 1996, the CNMIreceived 737,000 visitors who spent over $587million (Stewart 1997).
Commercial fish landingsgenerate around $1 millionannually (NMFS 2001). Inaddition to invoice datapresented in Western PacificRegional Fisheries Manage-ment Council Plan Teams,numerous DFW TechnicalReports have been publishedover the past eight yearsspecifically addressingfishery resources based ondata collection programs.
Figure 285. Marine-based tourism at MicroBeach, Saipan (Photo: Bill Bezzant).
Figure 284. Spinner dolphins (Photo: Donna Turgeon).
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Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – The nearshore reefs closest tothe population centers on Saipan, Tinian, and Rota,as well as reefs surrounding Farallon de Medinillaand offshore banks used for fishing have the great-est potential to be impacted by human activities.The reefs adjacent to these southern populated is-lands are of great concern. They receive most ofthe human impact from coastal development, popu-lation growth, fishing, and tourism.
Tourism and Marine Recreation – Concerns overthe potential impacts of marine recreational sportson the nearshore marine environment caused theCRMO to limit the number of permitted motorizedmarine sports concessions. CRMO is currently con-ducting a study to determine the types and extent ofimpacts being caused by the various marine sportsso they can better manage the industry. Workingwith the local dive operators association, CRMO isalso installing and refurbishing mooring buoys atheavily used dive sites with funds made availablethrough the NOAA Coral Reef Initiative.
Fishing Impacts – The types of fishing and relatedimpacts have been historically varied and continueto change as technology and the islands’ demo-graphics change (Fig. 286). The reef-associatedfisheries resources that have been studied haveshown impacts from commercial fishery activities.Evaluation of CNMI-wide fisheries pressures is
complicated by the lack of staff, funding, and com-plexity of fishery target species and age classes as aresult of a growing and diverse contract workerpopulation.
Destructive fishing methods continue to be used.They are difficult to regulate due to lack of staffand funding for enforcement agencies. Thoughdynamite fishing using the remains of WWIIordnance was prevalent in the past, this practiceappears to be nonexistent today. While fishingusing poisons (e.g., household bleach) does occur,how common the practice is or the extent of damagecaused by poisons has not been documented.
Oil Spills and Ship Groundings – More than 20vessels have grounded in the CNMI over the pastseveral decades. The majority of these groundingswere typhoon related; two were the result of oper-ator error. While some of these vessels have sincebeen removed, nearly half remain in the water.Although most of these vessels were reportedlycleaned of fuel and oil, they still pose a threat tocoral reef habitat as they disintegrate and the debrisshifts across reefs during storms.
The CRMO recently held an interagency meetingin an attempt to address vessel-grounding issueswith a focus on prevention. The office intends tocoordinate the development of a Vessel GroundingAction Plan that will guide CNMI officials inclosing communication gaps, creating or revisinglaws and regulations, strengthening enforcement,developing preventive measures, and addressingfunding and resources limitations (B. Lizama pers.comm.).
Other Physical Damage to Coral Reefs – TheCNMI was a major battlefield during WWII, andthere is a significant amount of war debris andunexploded ordnance in the nearshore waters (Fig.287).
In 1996, through the former CNMI Governor, theformer Director of the CNMI Emergency Manage-ment Office requested the U.S. Navy detonatedepth charges on the wreck of a WWII subchaser atthe popular Coral Gardens dive site. They felt thecharges posed a hazard to recreational divers andfishermen (Worthington and Michael 1996). Inresponse, an assessment of the administrativerecord of unexploded ordinance operations wasconducted on Rota by the U.S. Navy and the CNMIEmergency Management Office. The force of the
Figure 286. Young spearfishermen with their gear at Pau PauBeach, Saipan (Photo: Bill Bezzant).
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detonation caused significant damage to the nearbySasanhaya Fish Reserve, one of CNMI’s few mar-ine reserves, killing numerous fish, decimatingcoral, and killing an endangered hawksbill turtle(Trianni 1998). In addition, secondary damage wascaused by an extensive sediment plume resultingfrom the blast, blanketing a large area in andaround the Coral Garden site. Two typhoons sub-sequently caused tertiary damage and expanded theimpacted area to approximately 29,000 m2 (Rich-mond 1998). Estimates based on a value of $2,833/m2 put the total economic impact at $82 million (J.Starmer pers. comm.).
Since World War II, the uninhabited island ofFarallon de Medinilla (FDM) has been under thecontrol of the U.S. Navy, and since 1971 has beenthe target site of live-fire military exercises. In1981 the Navy signed a 50-year lease with anoption to renew after 50 years, to use FDM forlive-fire exercises.
In developing an environmental impact statementfor military activities in the Marianas, the Navyconducted a preliminary survey of the nearshoremarine resources in 1997. In the completed Envi-ronmental Impact Statement the Navy agreed toconduct an annual nearshore marine survey ofFDM for three consecutive years (1999-2001). Thissurvey collected qualitative data on fish abundanceand species richness as well as coral speciesrichness, in addition to documenting habitatchanges from military exercises. Although the thirdyear of the survey concluded in 2001, the Navy has
agreed to continue the survey as long as live-fireexercises continue.
The FDM survey team has included a U.S. NavyContractor, and representatives from the NMFS,USFWS, and CNMI DFW. The survey team hasbeen composed of the same individuals for boththe preliminary and three-year annual survey (1997and 1999-2001).
As in the 1997, 1999, and 2000 surveys, results ofunderwater surveys off Farallon de Medinilla in2001 revealed no quantifiable impacts to marinecommunities from exploded ordnance, with theexception of an observation of damage to a singlecoral colony from the attachment wires of a fabricretardant (Belt Collins Hawaii 2001). Few frag-ments of exploded ordnance were noted on the reefsurface.
In the areas where explosive impact may haveresulted in accumulations of underwater rockslidesin 1999, the habitat was not altered in a fashion todisturb existing biotic communities. In fact, thenew habitat created by the rockslides providesmore suitable habitat for fish and invertebrates thanthe adjacent unaltered area. The impact of sedimen-tation from accelerated erosion of the island has notbeen determined.
The Navy also leases approximately two-thirds ofthe northern portion of Tinian for training exercisesand maneuvers. Results of qualitative surveys re-veal very little damage to the reef structure there.In a recent environmental impact statement, the
Navy had proposed landing amphibiousassault vehicles across the reef at UnaiBabui. After concerns were raised byboth the DFW and the DEQ, thisproposal was withdrawn.
However, the CNMI did agree to allowthe Navy to land air-cushioned craftover the reef if pre- and post-landingsurveys indicated little damage wouldresult. Staff from DFW participated inthese surveys of Unai Chulu for the air-cushioned landing-craft exercises, andfound very little damage to the reef. Ingeneral, military activities on Tinianhave been conducted with a high levelof sensitivity to the potential impact onthe environment. However, because of
Figure 287. Military relics from World War II abound throughout CNMIboth on the land and in the water (Photo: Donna Turgeon).
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the large number ofpersonnel and equipmentinvolved in the some ofthe Navy’s exercises, theCNMI should continueto monitor these activi-ties.
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses –Typhoons are a routinepart of the annualseasonal cycles in theCNMI. These storms canaffect coral reefs evenwhen they do not passdirectly over an island.Swells can cause coraldamage through in-creased wave actiondirectly and by shiftingloose objects (coral,debris, grounded vessels,etc.) around the reef.The precipitationassociated with typhoonsalso tends to increasesedimentation andnutrient inputs frompolluted runoff.
Climate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral Bleaching – Bleachingwas noted around Saipan in 1994, 1995, and nearboth Saipan and Pagan in 1997. There was noquantitative assessment of bleaching for any ofthese events. Over the summer of 2001, mostshallow-water reefs (less than 3 m) on Saipan,Rota, and Tinian were affected by coral bleaching;bleaching was noted as deep as 18 m. Many en-crustingMontipora and Acropora coral coloniesdied during this event. The MMT is currentlycollecting data to assess the effects of this bleach-ing event on CNMI reefs.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – The first habitat and reef map for theCNMI was developed by the USGS for Saipan(Cloud 1959). These maps are still useful for eco-logical comparisons.
A beach and reef atlas was commissioned by theCRMO in 1980 (Eldredge and Randall 1980). Itprovided information on reef location and someinformation regarding habitat types for Saipan,
Tinian, Rota, Aguijan,and Farallon de Men-dinilla based on aerialphotographs.
The MMT’s SaipanLagoon Habitat Assess-ment Project is cur-rently mapping coralreefs and associatedhabitats within Saipan’swestern lagoon. Fieldsurveys are verifyinghabitats in aerial photo-graphs (Fig. 288). Thiswill allow comparisonsamong historical aerialphotography to detectecological changes.
Expanding on this pro-ject, CRMO is nowworking with geo-rectified IKONOSsatellite imageryprovided throughNOAA to create initialcoral reef maps for the
entire CNMI. The MMT is ground-truthing reefhabitats in the southern islands for this mappinginitiative. The MMT will collaborate with NOAACoral Reef Ecosystem Monitoring Program toground-truth the northern islands imagery in 2003.
MonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoringMonitoring – CNMI DEQ has been testing waterquality at a number of sites adjacent to populationcenters on Saipan since 1980. More recently, waterquality testing has been extended to Tinian and
Figure 288. Aerial photograph of Saipan Lagoon with anoverlay of habitats delineated during the Saipan LagoonHabitat Assessment Project (Photo: CNMI Marine Monitor-ing Team).
Figure 289. Diver measuring the size of a reef fish during amonitoring survey (Photo: Fran Castro).
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Rota. DEQ posts warnings at local beaches whenwater quality parameters exceed the acceptablelimits for public health.
The CNMI also collects data on coral bleachingmortalities. The Fisheries Section of the DFW hasbeen collecting data on fish diversity and abun-dance primarily within the existing and proposedconservation areas on Saipan, Tinian, and Rotasince 1999 (Fig. 289). During fish surveys, data arealso collected on reef topography (vertical relief)and estimated hard coral cover.
There are three major monitoring activities carriedout in the CNMI. First, site surveys are conductedto satisfy local and regional requirements in EISwork. These surveys provide snapshots of CNMIreefs and can be very informative, but are usuallylimited to a single reef area. These have been andshould continue to be used to understand changesover time. For example, comparison between twosites in Lau Lau Bay (Fig. 290) that were surveyedin 1991 and recently re-surveyed in 2001 by theMMT (Houk 2001) to see how they differ.
Turf algae dominate the benthic cover (46.7% and52.3% ten years later). Coral cover was 28.1% thenand 42.0% now. The second site showed a long-term decrease in mean coral diameter and therelative frequencies of large branching corals,attributed to the 1983 crown-of-thorns starfishoutbreak. Between 1991-2001, the abundance ofmacroinvertebrates such as sea urchins and seacucumbers decreased at both sites (Houk 2001).
Second, the DFW is monitoring several MPAs onSaipan (Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area, BirdIsland Sanctuary, and Forbidden island Sanctuary)and Rota (Sasanhaya Bay Fish Reserve), as well asthe proposed Tinian Marine Sanctuary located tothe north of Puntan Diablo on Tinian. Done twice ayear, the surveys gather data on the diversity andabundance of fish and commercially-importantinvertebrates and benthic cover.
Third, the MMT surveys benthic cover, coralcommunities, invertebrate and fish abundance, andmuch more as part of its long-term marine monitor-ing program. These data are being incorporatedinto a GIS for local and federal agencies. TheMMT is also monitoring a portion of Saipan lagoonand creating habitat maps. This includes benthiccoverage, invertebrate abundance, biodiversity andwater quality.
Figure 290. The marine ecosystem within Lau Lau Bay hasbeen surveyed in 1991 and 2001 (Photo: Fran Castro).
Figure 291. Mañagaha Marine Conservation Area (Photo:Marianas Visitors Authority).
With NOAA grant support, the CNMI increasedlocal capacity to conduct long-term monitoring byhiring a manager to coordinate its coral reefprogram. Now the MMT monitors 13 sites offSaipan Island, 8 sites off Rota, 7 sites off Tinian,and 1 site off Aguijan. Parameters monitoredinclude benthic coverage, coral communities, coralbiodiversity, fish and macroinvertebrate abundanceand diversity, sedimentation rates, and waterquality. This program will provide the CNMI witha comprehensive baseline survey and the ability totrack and predict changes in coral reef ecosystemhealth through time.
MPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take ReservesMPAs and No-take Reserves – The CNMI haseight MPAs protecting an area of 12.32 km2. Ofthese, the Sasanhaya Bay Fish Reserve in Rota, theMañagaha Marine Conservation Area (Fig. 291),Forbidden Island Sanctuary, and Bird IslandSanctuary are established no-take zones for allmarine resources by CNMI Public Law. In addi-
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tion, permanent Topshell Gastropod Reserves existon a mile-long stretch of the Saipan Lagoon barrierreef, the Lighthouse Reserve, and at Tank Beach.The Tank Beach Reserve overlaps with the Forbid-den Island Sanctuary. Permanent Sea CucumberReserves have been established by DFW regulationat Lau Lau Bay and Bird Island, the latter of whichoverlaps with the Bird Island Sanctuary. A ten-yearmoratorium on the harvest of sea cucumbers andseaweeds was established by Public Law in 1998.The total area covered by no-take reserves isestimated at 9.63 km2.
All these MPAs are monitored and regulated by theDFW, with assistance from CRMO and DEQ.Regulations for the Mañagaha Marine Conserva-tion Area are currently in the final draft stage, andexpected to be released for public review by mid-summer.
In 1998, the Tinian Delegation to the CNMI Legis-lature proposed creating a marine protected areaalong approximately one-third of the westernshoreline of Tinian. Within this conservation area,the collection of any marine resources would belimited to seasonal runs of nearshore fish speciesincluding atulai (Selar crumenophthlmus) andjuvenile goatfish (Mullidae). The legislationestablishing this conservation has been sent to theCNMI Legislature for action in 2002.
A major impediment in protecting these areas is thelack of funding for enforcement. Most funding
comes from local appropriations. These have notbeen sufficient to provide the DFW’s officers withvessels and needed enforcement equipment.Currently NOAA Coral Reef Initiative funds from2000 have been earmarked to support the DFWConservation Officer Section through the purchaseof a vessel to be used for law enforcement pur-poses.
Government Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andGovernment Policies, Laws, andLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislationLegislation
Legislation is in place for water-quality standards,land-use regulations, waste disposal, fisherymanagement, habitat protection, endangeredspecies, protected areas, ship pollution, and otherenvironmental issues. Enforcement of theseregulations is hampered by a lack of funding andresources.
Funding to support MPA regulation developmentand enforcement was recently provided to theDFW through a NOAA Coral Reef Initiative grant.CRMO is also working with an interagency groupto refine or create legislation that will allowimproved local management of vessel groundingissues as part of the CNMI Coral Reef Program.Local resource management agencies areemphasizing education to increase understandingof and concern for the environment and, hopefully,increase voluntary compliance with regulations.
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From east to west, the Freely Associated Statesinclude the Republic of the Marshall Islands (theMarshalls or the RMI), the Federated States ofMicronesia (FSM), and the Republic of Palau. TheFederated States of Micronesia – Kosrae, Pohnpei,Chuuk, and Yap – along with Palau, are known asthe Caroline Islands, which are among the longestisland chains in the world at 2,500 km.
All of these Micronesian islands were formerly apart of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islandsadministered by the United States after World WarII. All three countries achieved independencewithin the past 25 years but retain close economicand strategic ties to the United States (Hezel 1995).Although the process was initiated as early as1979, the Compacts of Free Association for theRMI and FSM did not go into effect until 1986176.The Palau Compact was approved later177 but wasnot effected until a few years after that.
Mostly unmapped, estimates of coral reef habitatfor the Freely Associated States range from 11,600km2 (Spalding et al. 2001) to 81,500 km2 (Holthuset al. 1993, Maragos and Holthus 1999). Through-out the region, there is high diversity of corals andassociated organisms.
The human population is heavily dependent oncoral reefs and related resources both economicallyand culturally.
The Republic of the MarshallThe Republic of the MarshallThe Republic of the MarshallThe Republic of the MarshallThe Republic of the MarshallIslandsIslandsIslandsIslandsIslands178
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Republic of the Marshall Islands encompassesapproximately 1,225 individual islands and isletswith 29 atolls and 5 solitary low coral islands (Fig.292). Situated from 160o-173o E, and between 4o-
14o N, the Marshalls have a total dry land area ofonly about 181.3 km2. However, when the Exclu-sive Economic Zone (by statute, from the shorelineto 200 miles offshore) is figured in, the Republiccovers 1,942,000 km2 of ocean within the largerMicronesia region. There are 11,670 km2 of seawithin the lagoons of the atolls.
Land only makes up less than 0.01% of the area ofthe Marshall Islands. Most of the country is thebroad open ocean with a seafloor that reaches 4.6km (15,000 ft). Scattered throughout are nearly ahundred isolated submerged volcanic seamounts;those with flattened tops are called guyots179.
The average elevation of the Marshall Islands isabout 2 m (7 ft) above sea level. The air is warmand moist; humidity is around 80% with consider-able salt spray. The air temperature averages 27.8o
C (82o F) with a range of 24-32o C (76-90o F).Rainfall tends to be seasonal, ranging from 4 m ayear in the south to as little as 0.6 m a year in the
STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THEPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES
Charles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayGutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Robert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander Velde
STATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THESTATUS OF THE CORAL REEFS IN THEPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATESPACIFIC FREELY ASSOCIATED STATES
Charles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayCharles Birkeland, Ahser Edward, Yimnang Golbuu, JayGutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Gutierrez, Noah Idechong, James Maragos, Gustav Paulay,Robert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander VeldeRobert Richmond, Andrew Tafileichig, and Nancy Vander Velde
Figure 292. Satellite imagery of Aur and Maloelap Atolls(Photo: Earth Sciences and Image Analysis Laboratory,NASA Johnson Space Center).
176 Pub. Law 99-239, the Compact of Free Association Act of 1985.177 Pub. Law 99-658.178 Much of this information was from a report by the National Biodiversity Team of the Republic of the Marshall Islands (2000).179 These were geological masses formed millions of years ago that were not quite able to keep pace with subsidence or reach sea level to become or remain as islands or atolls.
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north. In extremely dry years, there may be noprecipitation on some of the drier atolls. Tropicalstorms (typhoons) are relatively rare, but can bedevastating.
The atolls vary in size from Kwajalein, the world’slargest atoll with 16.4 km2 of dry land and a lagoonof 2,174 km2, to Bikar with only 0.5 km2 of land,but with 37.4 km2 of lagoon, and Namdrik withmore land (2.7 km2) but only 8.4 km2 of lagoon.Individual islands range from tiny sand-spits andvegetated islets that are inundated during stormsand extreme high tides, to much larger islands suchas Kaben Island at Maloelap Atoll, and WothoIsland, the main island at Wotho Atoll; both areover 8 km2. Lagoons within the atolls typicallyhave at least one deep-pass access; however, some,such as Namdrik, have no natural passes.
The atolls and islands of the Marshalls formedwhen fringing reefs began to establish and growaround ancient emergent volcanoes. After that, thevolcanic peaks gradually sank and shrank, leavinglagoons in the vacated spaces and eventually becamecoral atolls after the volcanoes disappeared entirelybeneath the reefs and sediments of coral atolls. Thefive solitary islands were formed in much the sameway, but the peaks were small enough that no in-terior lagoon developed. With seamounts andguyots, the subsidence took those volcanoes andreefs far below the surface of the sea.
Mostly, the atolls of the Marshalls are not circular,nor do they have uniform islets. They are muchlarger than those in the Indian Ocean and aresurrounded by numerous islets. The islets are moredominant on the windward side and seeminglysprawl around a deep lagoon. They are also
different from other atolls because they are deeperand have more circulation within their lagoons.
The islets are extremely young geologically andlikely formed either when sea level dropped about2 m to its present level around 4,000 years ago orin the aftermath of large waves that cast large reefblocks, coral rubble, and sand up on top of shallowreefs. Then vegetation, birds, crabs and other ani-mals colonized the emergent islands, and eventu-ally the Micronesian ancestors of the present dayMarshall Islanders arrived. In contrast, the atollreefs are 50 million years old or more, and up to amile thick atop their volcanic foundation.
Condition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef Ecosystem
In general, the reefs of the Marshall Islands are ingood condition. Even those in the former nucleartest sites show remarkable recovery, although manyof the larger bomb craters may not fill in for years,if at all. The reefs near the urban areas of Majuroare stressed, but still have an abundance of fish andinvertebrates (Fig. 293). Recent information on thestatus of coral reefs of the Marshalls can be foundin Maragos and Holthus (1999), Price and Maragos(2000), and the National Biodiversity Team of theRepublic of the Marshall Islands (NBTRMI, 2000).
Marine Algae and Higher Plants Marine Algae and Higher Plants Marine Algae and Higher Plants Marine Algae and Higher Plants Marine Algae and Higher Plants – There havebeen 222 species of macroalgae, 3 species of sea-grass, and at least 5 species of mangroves identi-fied from the RMI. A salt-tolerant shrub or tree(Pemphis acidula) often forms monospecific standsin the intertidal region180. Other members of themangrove community are found in inland depres-sions rather than along the coast. The principalmangrove species (Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) is
Figure 293. As demonstrated by the lush coral garden in thispicture, there are still healthy coral reefs on Majuro (Photo:Marshall Islands Visitors Authority).
Figure 294. Three-banded anemonefish (Photo: MarshallIslands Visitors Authority).
180The area between low and high tide.181Jellyfishes, hydroids, anemones.
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found throughout the country. Sonneratia alba,Lumnitzera littorea and Rhizophora species, areonly found on a few of the atolls (NBTRMI 2000).
Corals and Other MacroinvertebratesCorals and Other MacroinvertebratesCorals and Other MacroinvertebratesCorals and Other MacroinvertebratesCorals and Other Macroinvertebrates – Thereare at least 362 species of corals and other cnidar-ians181 40 species of sponges, 1,655 species ofmollusks, 728 species of crustaceans, and 126species of echinoderms on the coral reefs of theRMI.
FishFishFishFishFish – There are at least 860 species of reef fishesrecorded throughout the country. Seven species offishes are endemic to the Marshalls and another 17to the nearby area. One of these endemics, thethree-banded anemonefish (Amphiprion tricinctus)is exported for aquariums (NBTRMI 2000, Fig.294).
The after-effects of some of the 67 nuclear tests inthe northern Marshalls between 1946-1958 on fishhave also been studied, but most studies were yearsafter the tests ended. Noshkin et al. (1997) summa-rized the results from all available data on the ra-dionuclide182 concentrations in flesh samples ofreef and pelagic fish collected from Bikini andEnewetak Atolls between 1964 and 1995. Although239 + 240Pu and 241Am have not significantly accumu-lated in the muscle tissue of any species of fish, avariety of other radionuclides had accumulated inall species of fish from Bikini and Enewetak la-goons (Noshkin et al. 1986). Over the years, manyof those radionuclides have diminished by radioac-tive decay and natural processes (Noshkin et al.(1997). Those authors report that fish collected inthe 1980s and 1990s show only low concentrationsof a few remaining long-lived radionuclides. By the1990s,207Bi remained below detection limits in
muscle tissue from all reef fish except goatfish.Levels of 137Cs diminished to detection limits inmullet and goatfish at many islands, and 60Co wasfound everywhere low in concentration or belowthe limit of detection.
Marine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and MammalsMarine Reptiles and Mammals – Five species ofsea turtles and 27 species of marine mammals havebeen observed in the Marshall Islands (NBTRMI2000).
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – Coastal construction for ports,docks, airfields, causeways, and roads has affectedwater quality in the RMI (Fig. 295). Developmentprojects often require sources of fill material ex-pand land areas. That lead to dredging and fillingadjacent reef areas (Maragos 1993). While under-way, construction along the shoreline mobilizessuspended sediments and turbidity and can changethe circulation patterns in lagoons.
Coastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef Economics
In 1999, the Marshall Islands supported a popula-tion of 50,840 people (J. Butuna pers. comm.). Thisrepresents a dramatic 9.9% increase in populationsize over the last ten years.
Tourism is low (Fig. 296). Only 5,246 visitorstraveled to the Marshall Islands in 2000 (B. Gra-ham pers. comm.). However, even though there arefew visitors, the contribution to the economy isimportant – an estimated $3 million in 1998 (U.N.Economic and Social Commission for Asia and thePacific 2002).
The gross value of fisheries output for the MarshallIslands was $19.2 million in 1995 (FAO 2002).Subsistence and artisanal fishing play an important
Figure 295. These trees were cleared for the constructionof the Majuro airport (Photo: James McVey).
Figure 296. Tourism has not been heavily developed in theMarshall Islands (Photo: James McVey).
182 Radionuclides and isotopic forms (chemical abbreviations and superscript numbers are in parentheses) mentioned in this paragraph are plutonium (239 + 240Pu), americium (241Am), bismuth (207Bi), cesium (137Cs), and cobalt (60Co).
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role in the Marshall Islands, especially in the outeratolls, where they provide the local population witha major source of animal protein.
Environmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental Pressureson Coral Reefson Coral Reefson Coral Reefson Coral Reefson Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – In gene-ral, the more apparent impactto the reefs of the MarshallIslands is lifestyle change,loss of traditional conserva-tion knowledge, and urbaniza-tion. Lack of proper trashdisposal results in occasionaldumping in the lagoon orocean, which, at the veryleast, causes aesthetic dam-age. Periodically, fishingvessels have broken loosefrom their anchor and hit thereef, damaging the coralstructure as well as spewing fuel over a large area.
Poaching reef species happens and surveillance islimited.
Invasive and non-native species are a subtle, butpotentially more permanent threat, especially onland. Many terrestrial invasive species have beendocumented, and some of these, such as ironwood(Casuarina equisetifolia), can impact coastal areasby out-competing the native vegetation protectingthe shoreline.
Fouling marine invertebrates have been introduced,especially in ports where they probably arrived onship hulls. Non-native algae and fishes have beendocumented, but the full impact of their presence
has not been studied. Indications are that invasivespecies have the highest potential to damage coralreefs. (NBTRMI 2000, N. Vander Velde pers.comm.).
Harvesting ‘live rock’ and other coral reef productsalso has serious implications. Many species areexported for the aquarium trade. Seashells areheavily used in handicrafts.
The most destructive series of human impacts in-volving RMI islands, atolls, and lagoons occurrednearly 50 years ago. On March 1, 1954, a thermo-nuclear test bomb, code-named “Bravo,” wasdetonated on Bikini Atoll (Fig. 297). Withinseconds, it was a mile-wide 15-megaton blast – afireball vaporizing entire islands and reefs – creat-ing a huge crater in the reef. Fish, corals, and othermarine and terrestrial animals were destroyed when
millions of tons of water anddebris were thrown high intothe air and then fell back tothe lagoon (Simon 1997,Walkeret al. 1997, Robisonand Noshkin 1999, Niedenthal2000). Winds spread theradiation to nearby atolls,including inhabited Rongelapand Utrik and uninhabitedRongerik and Ailinginae.
Unfortunately, the completepicture of nuclear testing onthe Marshalls’ biodiversity isneither simple, nor necessarilywhat it seems to casual obser-vers. For example, J. Delgado(1996) observed in his book,
Ghost Fleet, that there was “no tangible evidenceof the testing” on Bikini. J. Maragos (pers. comm.)counters, however, “the 2 km wide and 50 m deepcrater in the reef at the Bravo test site is certainlyevidence of lasting impacts, along with the islandsthat were evaporated by the Bravo blast.”
Although a half-century has passed, the full extentof the impact on the biota – radioactive materialsthat came through the nuclear testing program – areuncertain (NBTRMI 2000). As R. A. Kenchingtonand B. Salvat (1988) stated, “Radioactive wastesmay have long-term and largely unpredictableeffects upon the genetic nature of the biologicalcommunity.” Risks from the consumption of largeamounts of locally grown food are still acknowl-
Figure 297. Satellite imagery of Bikini Atoll (Photo: EarthSciences and Image Analysis Laboratory, NASA JohnsonSpace Center).
Figure 298. Residents now eat coconut crabsfrom islands affected by nuclear testing(Photo: James McVey).
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edged, even though returning residents are againeating the crabs (Fig. 298).
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses – Although major typhoons arerare, they are devastating when they hit, not only tothe land but also near-shore coral reefs. In 1991,Typhoon Zelda hit the southern atolls, quicklyfollowed in early 1992 by Typhoon Axel, whichscoured the south-facing reefs of Majuro, coveringthe land, including the airport with coral debris andrubble. Shortly thereafter, Typhoon Gaye ravagedmuch of the northern atolls, including Wotho. Inlate 1997, Paka changed from a tropical storm to atyphoon while over the Marshalls and causedconsiderable damage to Ailinglaplap (N. VanderVelde pers. comm.)
Climate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate ChangeClimate Change and Coral Bleachingand Coral Bleachingand Coral Bleachingand Coral Bleachingand Coral Bleaching – Of allecosystems, coral reefs are considered the mostsensitive to global warming. Coral reef countries,such as the Marshalls, are thus at risk, of not onlythe destruction of their critical services – fishing,shore protection, tourism and biodiversity – butalso of the possible disappearance of the lowest-lying countries, should the ocean level rise evenmoderately (NBTRMI 2000, Fig. 299). It wassuggested during an inter-governmental meetingthat such countries could be considered for UnitedNations Environmental Programme protection as‘endangered species’ (South Pacific RegionalEnvironmental Programme 1989).
Because they are low, any increases in sea levelwill severely impact the atolls. Moreover, it takestime for coral larvae (recruits) to successfullycolonize new surfaces, and the erosive forces ofwaves, currents, herbivorous fish, boring urchins,sponges, and algae all counteract constructiveforces. Under normal conditions, coral skeletonsand the other components of a coral reef canprovide sand and rock to replenish what is lost toislands from natural erosion. For instance, in theMarshalls, the growth rate for healthy reef is esti-
mated to be much lower than that of individual livecorals, and it is not clear whether upward reefgrowth could keep pace with erosion of the islands.
If the growth rates of corals are reduced, then atollislets become more vulnerable to erosion. If sealevel temperature rises, bleaching events and coraldeath could follow and effectively reduce overallreef growth. In 2002, the average sea temperaturearound the Marshall Islands is about 29o C, near theupper limit for coral survival. According to T.Goreau (pers. comm.) of the Global Coral ReefAlliance, the increase of 1oC (1.8oF) could triggermassive coral bleaching and die-off.
Climate change can impact ocean currents andweather patterns. A recent report on climate changein the Marshall Islands projected that air tempera-tures will continue to rise on all atolls with thehighest increases in the northern areas (Crisostoma2000). Total rainfall will decrease and there will bean increase in severe droughts especially in thenorthern atolls. And the intensity and frequency ofextreme events (storms and storm surge) willincrease.
These conditions also can negatively impactfreshwater supplies. A decrease in rainfall canresult in people using groundwater to the point itbecomes salty. An increase in sea level also allowsmore salt to seep into the groundwater.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – Benthic habitats need mapping. Al-though coastal resource atlases have been pre-pared, mapping of coral reef habitats and uses forArno, Majuro, and Kwajelein Atolls. A SouthPacific Applied Geoscience Commission (SOPAC)sponsored project was recently started to map thecoastal areas of Majuro.
Research, Assessment, and MonitoringResearch, Assessment, and MonitoringResearch, Assessment, and MonitoringResearch, Assessment, and MonitoringResearch, Assessment, and Monitoring –Pioneering studies on coral reefs in the MarshallIslands encompassed several atolls before 1955
(Tracey et al. 1948, Hiatt1950, Ladd et al. 1950, Wells1951 and 1954, Emory et al.1954). In 1987, a two-volumereport on the natural and bio-logical resources of EnewetakAtoll is perhaps the mostcomprehensive treatment ofany of the Marshall Islands(Devaneyet al. 1987). In
Figure 299. Low islands’ existence is threatened by sea level rise (Photo: JamesMcVey).
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1988, J. Maragos coordinatedcoastal resource inventoriesand atlases of Arno,Kwajalein, and MajuroAtolls. There were additionalmarine biodiversity surveysof the northern RMI islandsand atolls involving marinebiologists and culturalspecialists183. In 2001, S.Pinca led a systematic surveyof coral reef resources withcommunity support throughthe College of the MarshallIslands and the MarshallIslands Marine ResourcesAuthority. It was the first of such studies; similarstudies are planned for some of the northern atolls(including Ailinginae and Rongelap) and thesouthern atoll of Jaluit in 2002.
Several beaches on Majuro were surveyed as partof a training and monitoring program for the RMIEnvironmental Protection Agency in 1993-1994 (J.Maragos, pers. comm.). The status of subsequentbeach and reef monitoring is not known. A coastalmanagement program was conducted for Majuro inthe late 1990s. It produced several small publica-tions which have had a limited effect on conserva-tion of the RMI coral reef ecosystem (UNDP/Ma-juro Atoll Local Government/RMI EPA/MIMRA1998).
The U.S. Army regularly monitors Kwajalein Atollenvironments, marine life, and other wildlife ofislands and reefs that it leases and uses for itsballistic missile testing program (M. Molina pers.comm.).
Several RMI agencies are actively involved inprotecting coral reef ecosystems. Primarily, theseare the Marshall Islands Marine Resources Agencyand the Environmental Protection Authority. In2000, the National Biodiversity Strategy andAction Plan (NBSAP), as well as the NationalBiodiversity Report (NBTRMI 2000) were ap-proved by Cabinet. These documents are nowavailable to the general public. Both address to atleast some extent the need for conservation andmanagement of the natural resources. The NationalReport contains extensive lists of marine organ-isms. The NBSAP recommends strengthening the
concept of ‘mo,’ a traditionalsystem of taboo that identifiedcertain areas as ‘pantries’ thatcould be harvested onlyperiodically. This was done inboth terrestrial areas and coralreef ecosystems. The NBSAPalso addressed the need forsustainable fishing practices(Fig. 300) and a retention oflocal knowledge. Implementa-tion of these recommendationsis pending (NBTRMI 2000).
Government Policies,Government Policies,Government Policies,Government Policies,Government Policies,Laws, and LegislationLaws, and LegislationLaws, and LegislationLaws, and LegislationLaws, and Legislation
Harding (1992) summarized the relevant Interna-tional Laws. The Compact of Free Associationbetween the United States of America and theRepublic of the Marshall Islands (1986, Title One,Article VI) has a pledge between the two countriesto “promote efforts to prevent or eliminate damageto the environment and biosphere and to enrichunderstanding of the natural resources of theMarshall Islands.” In Section 161 (b), the MarshallIslands has an obligation to develop and enforcecomparable environmental standards and proce-dures to those of the United States.
The Convention for the Protection of the NaturalResources and Environment of the South PacificRegion and related protocols was ratified in 1987“to prevent, reduce and control pollution resultingfrom vessels, land-based sources, seabed activities,discharges into the air, disposal of toxic and non-toxic wastes, testing of nuclear devises, andmining.”
Figure 300. According to the RMI NationalBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, develop-ing sustainable fisheries is a priority (Photo:Marshall Islands Visitors Authority).
Figure 301. Mangroves are protected by the RMI PublicLands and Resources Act (Photo: Ben Mieremet).
183 Titgen et al. 1988, Thomas et al. 1988, AAA Drafting and Engineering et al. 1989a and b, Manoa Mapworks 1989, Maragos et al. (eds) 1993a and b, Maragos 1994.
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As a Compact Nation, a number of U.S. laws arelegal authorities for conservation of RMI reefresources (relevent U.S. laws are in Appendix IV).
TheMarine Mammal Protection Act providesprotection for dolphins and other marine mammalscaptured during commercial fishing operations inthe eastern Pacific Ocean.
TheNational Environmental Protection Actprovides for studies of the impact of humanactivities on natural resources to prevent degrada-tion or impairment of the environment; and mayinvolve the enforcement of regulations of humanactivities to ensure safe, healthful, protective, andaesthetically and culturally pleasing surroundings.
TheCoast Conservation Act protects and pre-serves the coast from sea erosion or encroachmentof sea-related to development activities. These lawsapply to coastal activities such as building, deposit-ing wastes or other material from outfalls, vessels,the removal of sand and living materials184, dredg-ing and land reclamation, mining or drilling forminerals. But it does not include fishing within 7.6m (25 ft) landward of mean high water line and 61m (200 ft) seaward of the mean low water line.
ThePlanning and Zoning Act requires localgovernments to establish a Planning Commissionand Planning Office to oversee coastal zoningactivities and assure compliance.
The United States Army Kwajalein Atoll is underU.S. laws and regulations, including CITES, NEPA,and the Migratory Bird Act.
Relevant RMI laws protecting coral reef resourcesinclude the Republic of the Marshall IslandConstitution (1979, Article X), which preservestraditional land tenure and titles system. It holdsthat no person with customary land rights mayalienate or dispose of land without approval oftraditional landowners, but the government retainsthe authority to acquire land or aquatic habitats andestablish conservation and research programs forresident endangered or threatened species.
Under the Public Lands and Resources Act (1988Title 9, Chapter 1, Section 3), all lands below meanhigh water mark belong to the government, withexceptions, but no one has the right to abuse,destroy, or damage mangroves or land (Fig. 301).
TheMarshall Islands Marine Authority Act of1988, revised in 1997, provides authority for the
licensing of foreign fishing vessels and activitiesother than foreign fishing. This includes the devel-opment of local fisheries, licensing local fishingvessels, non-commercial fishing, and fish process-ing. Section 3(1) of this act forbids the taking ofhawksbill turtles, sea turtles and their eggs on shoreand selling turtle products. Section 12 provides 15areas for which the Authority may make regula-tions, including the conservation of fishery waters,protection of fish, the operation of domestic andforeign fishing vessels, licensing, pollution, and theexport of fish. Part VI prohibits the use of explo-sives (Fig. 302), poisons, or other noxious sub-stances to catch fish, the possession of fishing netsor gear not conforming to prescribed standards,foreign fishing vessels from fishing without alicense, and the taking of artificially planted orcultivated sponges. It also sets size and seasonallimitations on the taking of black-lipped pearloysters.
TheMarshall Islands Marine Resources Author-ity Act (MIMRA) of 1989 prohibits the use andpossession of drift nets within the exclusive eco-nomic zone of the RMI. This act also regulates theharvesting of the imported topshell gastropod andestablishes an open season of no more than 3months in any 12-month period. Topshells may betaken only by citizens of the Marshall Islands whoeither live where they have the right to fish underlocal law or have a MIMRA fishing license. To beharvested, the gastropod must have a shell of atleast 3 inches in diameter at the base.
TheRepublic of the Marshall Islands Environ-mental Protection Authority (RMIEPA) hasregulations controlling all earthmoving activities,or any construction or other activity that disturbs or
Figure 302. Dynamite fishing is prohibited in the MarshallIslands (Photo: Wolcott Henry).
184 This covers coral, shells, vegetation, and sea grass.
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alters the surface of the land,coral reef ecosystems, or thebottom of a lagoon. This includesall excavations, dredging, em-bankments, land reclamation, landdevelopment, mineral extraction,ocean disposal, and the depositingor storing of soil, rock, coral orearth. Under these regulations,those engaged in earthmovingmust design, implement, andmaintain effective erosion controlplans, sedimentation controlplans, and cultural preservationmeasures to prevent acceleratederosion, accelerated sedimenta-tion, and disturbing potential cul-tural resources. RMIEPA regulates the uses forwhich marine waters shall be maintained andprotected, specifies water quality standards,prescribes standards necessary for implementing,achieving, maintaining specified marine waterquality, and assures that no pollutants are dis-charged into RMI waters without treatment orcontrol to prevent pollution, except for permittedactivities. Additionally, the Marshall Islands havestrict marine pollution control requirements, oilpollution prevention measures, and prohibitionsconcerning the discharge of sewage from vessels.
A variety of local regulations on Bikini, Ujae, Lae,Jabot, Jaluit, Utdrik, Mejit, and Wotje protectnesting turtles and their eggs and prohibit a varietyof activities (e.g., walking on reefs betweenislands) and regulate the taking of marine re-sources.
Conclusions andConclusions andConclusions andConclusions andConclusions andRecommendationsRecommendationsRecommendationsRecommendationsRecommendations
At present, the coral reefs of theMarshall Islands are in goodcondition. While the two atollsused for the nuclear testingprogram experienced uniquestresses, the reefs of the RMI as awhole have escaped the extensivedamage seen in other parts of theworld. The remoteness of many ofthe atolls and the fact that thecountry as a whole is relativelyisolated has helped to minimizemany potential impacts. However,this isolation also leaves the coral
reefs vulnerable to illegal or semi-legal exploita-tion. Moreover, increased globalization and thepressures to change from the traditional subsistenceeconomy could easily alter the present situationand allow at least some of the stresses discussedbefore to become more serious threats.
The Federated States ofThe Federated States ofThe Federated States ofThe Federated States ofThe Federated States ofMicronesiaMicronesiaMicronesiaMicronesiaMicronesia
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Federated States of Micronesia (FSM) is com-prised of four states – from east to west, Kosrae,Pohnpei, Chuuk, and Yap. Along with Palau, thesecomprise the Caroline Islands. Each island or grouphas its own language, customs, local government,and reef tenure system. Traditional leaders (Chiefsor their equivalent) and community groups areactive in traditional governance as well as western-style, democratically elected officials. This dualsystem provides opportunities and challenges toreef and marine resource protection.
FSM has high islands and low atolls, and a strongdependence on coral reefs and marine resources,both economically and culturally. Each statesupports population centers on high volcanicislands surrounded by barrier reefs (Pohnpei,Chuuk) or very broad fringing reefs that are nearlybarrier reefs (Kosrae, Yap). All states exceptKosrae also include remote clusters of atolls andlow coral islands (Maragos and Holthus 1999).Spaldinget al. (2001) estimated total shallow-water coral reef area off the FSM to be 5,440 km2.
Figure 304. Ship wreck in Chuuk Lagoon, FSM (Photo: FSMVisitors Board/Tim Rock).
Figure 303. Pohnpei is a volcanicisland (Photo: James McVey).
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Kosrae is a single volcanic island with a landmassof 109 km2 and an elevation of 629 m. It is sur-rounded by a fringing reef and has a single harbor.
The volcanic island of Pohnpei is the largest islandin the FSM and is the FSM capitol (Fig. 303). Ithas an area of 345 km2 with a well-developedbarrier reef surrounding a narrow lagoon. It and theeight nearby coral islands and atolls make up thestate of Pohnpei.
Chuuk State (formerly known as Truk) has 15inhabited volcanic and coral islands and atolls.Chuuk Lagoon is the largest atoll in the FSM andserves as the population and political center ofChuuk State. It is famous for the Japanese wrecksthat were sunk in the lagoon during World War II(Fig. 304).
Yap State has a main volcanic island approximately100 km2, along with 15 coral islands and atolls(Fig. 305). The peoples inhabiting the offshoreatolls and coral islands in Chuuk, Yap, and Pohnpeistatesare among the most traditional, with a highlysophisticated marine tenure and associated marineresource management system.
Condition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef EcosystemCondition of Coral Reef Ecosystem
The condition of FSM coral reef ecosystems isgenerally good to excellent (Fig. 306). Most of thereefs in the low islands are in excellent condition.The primary human impacts come from fishingpressure and ship groundings.
Reefs in Kosrae have been impacted by coastaldevelopment, specifically the construction of anairport built on top of a broad reef at Okat. Somedredging and road construction projects have
resulted in the destruction of specific reef areasincluding much of Okat.
Marine Algae and Higher PlantsMarine Algae and Higher PlantsMarine Algae and Higher PlantsMarine Algae and Higher PlantsMarine Algae and Higher Plants – Crustosecoralline algae are abundant on the reefs. FSM has14 species of mangroves.
Corals and Benthic CoverCorals and Benthic CoverCorals and Benthic CoverCorals and Benthic CoverCorals and Benthic Cover – The reefs around theisland of Pohnpei vary in condition. Surveys doneafter a ship grounding found the average coralcover above 20% adjacent to Sokehs channel, andlimited survey information from the barrier reefshows 50-70% at selected sites. Due to high annualrainfall and steep volcanic topography, erosion andsedimentation can be heavy. Upland clearing offorested areas to grow sakau (kava) has resulted inlandslides and other impacts to coastal villages andresources.
Surveys of 18 sites around Yap island made in1995 and repeated 16 months later found meancoral cover at 28.8% and 28.7% respectively(Richmond and Birkeland 1997a), even though atyphoon hit the island between those surveys.
Fish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and Fisheries – According to FishBase(2002), reef-associated fish comprise 873 of the1,125 marine fish species recorded for the FSM.Overall catch and export data are limited. Overfish-ing by foreign commercial fishers has been docu-mented.
Quantitative assessments of fisheries resourceswithin the FSM are needed.
The greatest impact on fish within the FSM hasbeen commercial export. To reduce this, Yap andKosrae have limited export largely for personal/family use, allowing only coolers of fish to be sent
Figure 305. Aerial view of two of the islands that make upYap State (Photo: Ben Mieremet).
Figure 306. Most reefs in FSM are quite healthy (Photo:James McVey).
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to relatives on Guam and inthe CNMI. Chuuk had thelargest commercial export,and some commercial exportof fish and crab had beenoccurring from Pohnpei. Arecent outbreak of cholera inPohnpei shut down the exportof fish and also affectedexports from the other islandsin the FSM (A. Tafileichigpers. comm).
Destructive fishing practices,including explosives takenfrom World War II wrecks,have caused localized reefdamage, especially in Chuuklagoon.
A small sea cucumber fisheryoperating in Yap was closeddown in the mid-1990s.
Water QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater QualityWater Quality – There are no problems withsedimentation and erosion or coastal pollution inthe uninhabited atolls. The coral cover in ChuukLagoon indicates generally acceptable waterquality. Dredging and filling for road expansion,causeways, ports, and airfields built on reefs havedegraded water quality on Kosrae, and to a lesserextent at the other high islands.
Coastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef EconomicsCoastal Populations and Reef Economics
The population for all FSM inhabited islands hasgrown by 22.6% over the past ten years to 133,100in 2000 (U.S. Census Bureau 2002). The mostpopulated centers occur at Kolonia, the nationalcapitol on the north side of Pohnpei Island, andwithin Chuuk lagoon on several volcanic islands.Population growth has been rapid, with Chuukalready considered overcrowded. In contrast, theneighboring coral islands and atolls retain stablepopulations. These islands also have more tradi-tional control over coral reefs.
Tourism has been growing in the FSM. In 1998,30,000 tourists visited and spent $3 million (B.Graham pers. comm.). Each of the states havemodern jet airfields and deep draft harbors.
Quantitative assessments of fish resources withinthe FSM are limited, but some market informationsuggests the scale of the fisheries operation may be
substantial (Fig. 307). In 1998,the gross value output of FSMfisheries was estimated at $86.4million (FAO 2002). Thegreatest impact on the fish inthe FSM has been from com-mercial export. FSM earnsabout $18-24 million annuallyfrom licensing fees for foreignvessels fishing for tuna in itswaters (U.S. Office of InsularAffairs 1999).
Environmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental PressuresEnvironmental Pressureson Coral Reefson Coral Reefson Coral Reefson Coral Reefson Coral Reefs
Human StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman StressesHuman Stresses – As with theother high islands, road con-struction and developmentprojects without adequate ero-sion control have been respon-sible for reef damage from sed-
imentation. Dredging projects associated withairport and harbor construction have destroyedspecific reefs (Fig. 306), and subsequent increasesin freshwater runoff have limited recovery.
Increased population is a concern for the future ofsome islands as they come to terms with the needfor associated infrastructure, including sewageprocessing plants and outfalls. And if not carefullyguided, planned tourism development has thepotential to impact reefs.
Export fisheries have been a problem for Chuukand there have been numerous reports of destruc-tive fishing practices in the past.
Ship groundings have been a problem for both thehigh and low islands. Foreign long-liners have beenabandoned on numerous FSM reefs, with no funds
Figure 307. Spearfisher with a barracuda inYap State (Photo: FSM Visitors Board andTim Rock).
Figure 308. Causeway on Chuuk with remnants of a coraldredging operation from construction (Photo: James McVey).
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available to clean up oil spills or remove the ships.Larger shipping vessels have also run aground,most recently in Satawal and on Pohnpei.
Maragos and Fagolimul (1996) reported extensivedirect (13,000 m2) and indirect (300,000 m2)impacts of the 1994 grounding and subsequentremoval of a large freighter at Satawal Island, YapState. Sediments generated by the erosion of reef atthe site migrated to other reef areas more than akilometer away, smothering corals, burying reefflats, creating new beaches on the island, anddamaging reef life in the largest fishery reserve.Later, the people of Satawal reached an out-of-court settlement of more than $2 million from theship owners (J. Maragos pers. comm.).
Global Warming and Coral BleachingGlobal Warming and Coral BleachingGlobal Warming and Coral BleachingGlobal Warming and Coral BleachingGlobal Warming and Coral Bleaching – There isconcern about potential sea level rise from globalwarming inundating the low islands and atolls.Tropical storms and related weather patterns arealso an issue. Marine scientists documented theimpact of a destructive 1990 typhoon passing overremote reefs in Pohnpei State (Holthus et al. 1993,Fig. 309), including large waves passing overMinto Reef. These picked up massive coral headsfrom the lagoon, depositing them on the reef flatand killing a variety of associated wildlife.
FSM reefs have experienced bleaching, but infor-mation is limited.
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – Some FSM shallow-water coral reef andassociated benthic habitats have been mapped butonly off the four high island population centers.Coastal resource inventories and atlases have beenprepared for the islands of Pohnpei, Yap, Kosrae,and Moen Island in Chuuk Lagoon185 and initiatedfor the rest of Chuuk Lagoon. Consistent withsimilar initiatives in the Marshalls, the FSMinventories summarized the species, habitats, uses,and conditions of reefs, and the atlas maps portraythe location of study sites, coastal uses, protectedareas, cultural sites, bathymetry and distribution ofreef habitats surrounding these islands.
Assessments and MonitoringAssessments and MonitoringAssessments and MonitoringAssessments and MonitoringAssessments and Monitoring – The College ofMicronesia-FSM has faculty and staff trained inmarine resource assessment and monitoring.
The FSM has regulatory agencies (Environmentaland Marine Resource) with trained personnel. Each
state has a Marine Resources Management officeand an Environmental Protection Agency office.Cooperation among regional institutions formalizedunder the Marine Resources Pacific Consortiumand funded by the DoI is intended to increase localand regional capacity for assessment and monitoring.
Non-governmental organizations are active in theFSM, primarily The Nature Conservancy, and offertechnical and financial assistance for relatedprograms. The Peace Corps also has a presence inthe FSM, and some of its volunteers have beeninvolved in monitoring programs.
Coral reefs are protected by MPAs in the TrochusSanctuaries Heritage Reserve and Kosrae IslandHeritage Reserve. Other conservation areas arepresently being negotiated in partnership with theFSM National Government.
Chiefs and other traditional leaders usually controlprotection of specific areas. In Yap, the villagesown the reefs, and have authority over resourceuse. A number of the islands have areas set asidefor reef protection and limit resource extraction,but currently the FSM lacks the enforcementcapacity to protect these MPAs (A. Edward pers.comm.).
Gaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation Capacity
Technical expertise in the FSM has been increas-ing, with a number of highly trained individualsdispersed among the College of Micronesia-FSM,the regulatory agencies, and local institutions likethe Pohnpei Environmental Research Institute.Funds are a limiting factor, especially as financialsupport from the Compacts of Free Association is
Figure 309. Damage done to a coconut and breadfruitplantation in FSM by a typhoon (Photo: James McVey).
185 Cheney et al. 1982, Elliott and Maragos (1985), Holthus 1985, Manoa Mapworks 1985 and 1987, U.S. Army Engineer Division 1986, Manoa Mapworks and Sea Grant 1988, Orcutt et al. 1989, Environmental Resources Section 1989.
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decreasing. Development of local talent and lessdependence on expatriate technical staff mustbecome a priority.
Both development projects and agricultural prac-tices have already been responsible for reef damage(Fig. 310), and are expected to get worse. Integra-ted watershed management programs need to bedeveloped.
Reef fisheries on Chuuk have been over-exploited.Improved coordination of management activitiesamong the states is recommended. Programs foreducating and involving the community need to beexpanded.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
The reefs within the FSM are in relatively goodcondition. However, land use practices on the highislands are a concern. Reef fisheries on someislands have been over-exploited. Damaging blastfishery practices have been documented in ChuukLagoon as late as 1994 (J. Maragos pers. comm.).
Integrated watershed management programs needto be developed. Improved coordination of man-agement activities among the states is recom-mended. Education and programs involving thecommunity need to be expanded. Ship groundingsneed to be addressed at the State and National levelpossibly requiring vessels to post bonds to coverany damage to the reefs. Additional support for theresource agencies is necessary if they are to meettheir mandates.
The Republic of PalauThe Republic of PalauThe Republic of PalauThe Republic of PalauThe Republic of Palau
IntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroductionIntroduction
The Republic of Palau is a separatesub-archipelago at the western endof the Caroline Islands. It is thewesternmost archipelago inOceania, located 741 km east ofMindanao in the southern Philip-pines and about 1,300 km southwestof Guam.
The islands and reefs of Palaustretch 700 km from NgaruangelAtoll and Velasco Reef in the northto Helen Atoll in the south. Thereare about 20 large and intermediateislands and over 500 small islands(Fig. 311). The biggest island,
Babeldaob, is volca-nic. Koror (thecapital) lies on thesouth of Babeldaobwith the other islandsin the chain south ofit. Koror and thesouthern islands areseparated fromBabeldaob by a deeppass (30-40 m),Toachel El Mid,which cuts in fromeast to west, separat-ing the reefs of Ba-beldaob from all thesouthern reefs. Thesouthwestern islandsof Palau lie about 339-599 km southwest of themain Palau archipelago.
Most of the population resides in Koror andBabeldaob. Beyond the main islands to the northare two atolls and one submerged atoll reef. Onelarge atoll (Helen) and five smaller low coralislands are up to 600 km to the south (Maragos andCook 1995). The islands exhibit numerous islandand reef types.
On the western coast of Palau there is a 144-km,well-developed barrier reef protecting the maincluster of islands from north of Babeldaob to thesouthern lagoon, then merging into the fringingreef. Peleliu is at the southern end of the fringingreef. Off the east coast of Babeldaob, the barrierreef is not well developed. Only Ngchesar and
Airai have a barrier reef.Ngerchelong, Ngarard, andMelekeok do not. Ngiwal has asubmerged barrier reef about 5-10meters below sea level.
The southern lagoon has much moreextensive barrier reefs, lackingpassage on the west side while thesoutheast side has numerous gapsand passes extending into the lagoon.Hundreds of rock islands or emergentcoral reefs are concentrated in thesouthern lagoon.
Maragos and Meier (1993) estimatedthe total area covered by shallow-water coral reefs to be 1,661 km2.
Figure 310. Betel nut agricultureon Yap (Photo: FSM VisitorsBoard and Tim Rock).
Figure 311. Palau contains over500 small islands (Photo: KevinDavidson/PICRC).
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Condition of the Coral ReefsCondition of the Coral ReefsCondition of the Coral ReefsCondition of the Coral ReefsCondition of the Coral Reefs
Marine Higher PlantsMarine Higher PlantsMarine Higher PlantsMarine Higher PlantsMarine Higher Plants – Nine species of seagrasshave been reported from Palau (Tsuda et al. 1977).Seagrass is found throughout Palau, from KayangelAtoll through Babeldaob to Peleliu. The wholeshoreline of Babeldaob, Koror, and Peleliu iscovered with seagrass; even the lagoon side of thebarrier reef has seagrass. Also, nine species ofmangroves have been confirmed along with severalmore subspecies on Palauan islands and islets.
Coral and Benthic CoverCoral and Benthic CoverCoral and Benthic CoverCoral and Benthic CoverCoral and Benthic Cover – Within the wholeIndo-Pacific region, Palau’s coral diversity ap-proaches the highest coral diversity of the Philip-pines, Indonesia, and Australia (Fig. 312). Whenassessments and biotic characterizations arecomplete, scientists expect diversity to be about25% higher than that for Guam (R. Richmond pers.comm.).
Maragos (1994b) estimates Palau has 425 namedspecies of stony corals belonging to 78 genera,although some of the species names may be syno-nyms (J. Maragos pers. comm.). There are anadditional 120 species of octocorals in 57 genera(J. Starmer unpubl. data). For reefs in good condi-tion, coral cover generally ranges from 50-70%.Coral diversity is moderate to high, ranging from45-95 species at different sites. Coral cover atlagoon slopes of the barrier reef is 60% with adiversity of 45 species.
The ocean reef slopes reach a total length of 62.7km. Coral cover at the northeast slopes average10% with an average of 35 species. The protectedbight at the southern end of Ngkesol has higher
coral cover and diversity (45 coral species account-ing for about 25% of total cover). Along westernocean-facing reef slopes, coral cover ranged from60 to 70% and diversity averaged 35 species.Northwestern ocean-facing reefs have lower coralcover (10-20%), but had higher diversity, with 50species encountered during the REA. The northernreef slopes protected by Ngerael, Ngkesol andKayangel reef have higher coral abundance anddiversity.
The lagoon of Kayangel Atoll generally has lowcoral cover and diversity, but the Atoll had a totalof 126 species of corals belonging to 47 genera.The Ulach channel along the western rim supportshealthy marine communities including corals.During the REA surveys in 1992, the average coralcover for the outer walls was 70%, 50% inside.Coral cover at the ocean slopes averaged 20-25%along its 62.7 km length, with 40-50 coral speciesat different sites along the ocean slopes.
The western Babeldaob lagoon has over 500 patchreefs. Coral cover on the slope of the patch reefs isaround 50%. Diversity ranges from 45 to 70species in different sites. Several rare coral generaare found in these patch reefs including Cynarina,Zoopilus, and Siderastrea.
The 1992 Ngermeduu Bay Natural Resource Sur-veys, found 200 species of corals (Maragos, 1992).Areas away from freshwater and sedimentationstress average 50 species of corals per site, withseveral sites with as many as 60 species. The siteswith higher diversity also have high coral coveraveraging over 50%, sometimes as high as 70%.
Figure 312. Palau’s coral reefs exhibit high biodiversity (Photo: Ethan Daniels, Kevin Davidson, and PICRC).
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In 1976 and 1991, there were quantitative surveyson the fringing reef at the southern tip of Malakal.These showed no significant differences in coralcover. In 1976, the coral cover at the reef marginwas 60.3%, the slope was 73.6%. During thesurvey of the same sites in 1991, coral cover was55.7% at the reef margin and 82.2% at the slope(Birkelandet al. 1976, Birkeland et al. 1993).
Before the 1998 bleaching event in Palau, theremote reefs were generally healthy and in goodcondition. The reefs closer to population centers orareas where there is development are showingsigns of degradation and are not as healthy as theremote reefs. The bleaching event severely affectedmost reefs in Palau.
Other MacroinvertebratesOther MacroinvertebratesOther MacroinvertebratesOther MacroinvertebratesOther Macroinvertebrates – Over 300 species ofsponges have been reported from the Palau Archi-pelago (Spalding et al. 2001). According to theseauthors, a total of 144 species of marine inverte-brates other than coral were observed aroundKayangel atoll alone.
The Ngermeduu Bay Natural Resource surveysidentified 170 species of invertebrates other thancorals (Richmond 1992). There, the seagrass bedssupport numerous species of echinoderms includ-ing edible sea cucumbers (Fig. 313), whereassuspension feeders dominate the mouth of the bay.
The crown-of-thorns starfish (Acanthaster planci)is a problem in areas of Palau. They target the fewremainingAcropora corals that survived bleaching.
Fish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and FisheriesFish and Fisheries – Palau has the largest numberof reef fish species within Micronesia, a total of1,278 known species. But based upon gaps of
known distribution of fish, Myers (1999) projectsthis should be 1,449 (Fig. 233).
Fish populations in the main islands of Palau areshowing signs of overfishing when compared to theSouthwest islands where fishing is less intense(Donaldson 1993). Highly desired species of fishare either absent or present in low numbers aroundthe main islands of Palau.
A 1991 REA recorded 467 species of fish fromKayangel, Ngeruangel/Velasco and 495 speciesfrom the Northern Lagoon and barrier reef complex(Amesbury 1992). These were the most diverseregions of Palau.
Ngermeduu Bay had 277 species of fish (Ames-bury 1992). This area is unique in that it has twooverlapping types of fish communities. One is therich coral reef assemblage typical of other areas inPalau and Micronesia. The second community isdominated by planktivores, more commonly foundin Indonesia.
There were 347 fish species recorded from WestBabeldaob during an REA (Maragos et al. 1994).Adding the 277 species from Ngermeduu BayNatural Resource Surveys (Amesbury 1992) bringsthe total for West Babledaob to 400 fish species.Three hundred thirty-seven species of fish wererecorded for East Babeldaob during the 1991 REA.
Figure 314. Newly discovered fish species and new rangeextensions found in Palau during exploration of deep reefs(Photos: Richard Pyle, Bishop Museum).
Figure 313. Sea cucumber species from Palau’s coral reefs(Photos: Gustav Paulay).
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Channels serve as importantpathways for migrating fish. Forexample, the Toachel Mlenguichannel, located slightly north ofthe Ngermeduu Bay entrance and15 km southwest ofDaimechesengel pass inNgardmau, is important to thecoral reef ecosystem because itserves as a pathway for fish travel-ing between the lagoon and oceanreefs. Located 85 km south, theSengelokl pass, however, only offers a subtidalconnection between the western ocean and thesouthern lagoon, so does not play a prominent role.
Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals Marine Reptiles and Mammals – There are fourspecies of sea turtles known to use Palauan reefs.Historically, the Rock Islands supported largenumbers of endangered hawksbill turtle nestingsites. But in recent years the poaching of eggs andthe take of turtle shell for bekko jewelry havedrastically reduced nesting activity. This speciesand part of its critical habitat is now protectedwithin the Rock Island Reserve. Elsewhere, onunprotected reefs, hawksbill turtle nesting isdiminished or has been eliminated altogether fromexcessive harvesting (NMFS and USFWS 1998).
According to G. Paulay (pers. comm.), two speciesof sea snakes are known from the reefs of Palau –the egg-laying banded sea snake (Laticaudacolubrina), and the viviparous yellowbellied seasnake (Pelamis platurus, Fig. 315). The latterspecies is pelagic, ranging from East Africa to thePacific coast of the Americas (Allen and Steene1996).
There are reports of two species of marine mam-mals, including the endangered dugong or sea cow(Dugong dugon).
Eutrophication in Malakal Harborhas been directly linked to fishingvessels anchored there, as fishersremain onboard with inadequatesanitation or waste disposalfacilities.
Coastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andCoastal Populations andReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef EconomicsReef Economics
Over the past ten years, thePalauan population increased23.4% to about 18,800 in 2000
(U.S. Bureau of Census 2002).
Tourism is now a major component of the econo-my. In 1999, over 78,000 tourists a year visited theislands, contributing around $78.8 million annuallyto the local economy (B. Graham pers. comm.).The number of foreign visitors and workers hasincreased dramatically over the past decade, andthe population center is shifting to Babeldaob, byfar the largest (volcanic) island in Palau.
As with the FSM, the more remote islands, atolls,and villages retain more traditional populationlevels and controls over coral reefs.
Commercial fisheries generate a reported $6.4million in gross value output (FAO 1998). Table 25shows the fish products sold to markets in Kororfrom different areas throughout Palau (MarineResource Division unpub. data).
Environmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral ReefsEnvironmental Pressures on Coral Reefs
Human Pressures Human Pressures Human Pressures Human Pressures Human Pressures – Palau has already done agreat deal toward limiting the impacts of tourists onreef resources. Mooring buoys, laws preventing thecollection of corals, and diving tour operator edu-cation help conserve the culturally and economi-cally important reef resources. Now the largestdirect impact on some reef sites is the volume ofdivers with varying levels of training.
At the moment, the single greatest concern is theCompact road project for Babeldaob. It has a num-ber of potential impacts on reefs. First, acute anddramatic erosion and sedimentation are likely tooccur during and after construction. There arelikely to be chronic, long-term impacts fromdamaged upland habitats.
Second, the road will open large areas to develop-ment, increasing both land and reef use with the
Figure 315. Sea snake (Photo: NationalUndersea Research Program).
Table 25. Sale of fishery products from areas throughoutPalau (Source: Palau Marine Resource Division).
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resulting impacts on waterquality and reef health. Finally,plans to dredge for fill materialneeded to build the road basehave the potential for reefdamage. Once built, the in-creased population (both localand visitors) will requireadditional sewage treatment andother support facilities.
Foreign-based fishing activitiesare already a problem (Fig. 316).Poachers from Indonesia andthe Philippines are frequentlyencountered on Helen’s Reef.
Ship groundings have also beenoccurring off the main islands aswell as those in the south (Fig.317).
Natural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural StressesNatural Stresses – Naturalstress includes outbreaks of crown-of-thorn star-fish, typhoons (even though rare), and big wavesfrom storms. Although the Palau islands generallylie south of the main pathway for typhoons in thenorthwestern tropical Pacific, infrequent tropicalcyclones do pass over the islands.
Climate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral BleachingClimate Change and Coral Bleaching – Palauexperienced substantial coral bleaching in 1997,when an estimated 30% of its reefs were heavilyimpacted.Acropora corals were especially suscep-tible, and in many places mortality was high (Figs.318 and 319). In 1998 surveys of Ngaruangel, livecoral coverage ranged from 10-30% with anaverage cover of 5-10%. An estimated 30-50% ofthese were bleached. All adult Acropora table-typecorals were dead, yet juvenile colonies less that 10cm in diameter had almost full survival (C.Birkeland pers. comm.). An estimated 75-85% ofsoft corals in the west and south side of Ngeruangelwere also bleached.
On the eastern side of the atoll, coral cover on theslopes ranged from 1-10%, averaging 4%; about20% of the live coral was bleached and all staghorncoral had died. Live corals consisted mainly ofmassive corals. Dead coral cover averaged 10-25%.
The lagoon patch reefs showed very low live coralcoverage. Only a few blue-colored coral(Heliopora) and brain corals (Porites) remained onthe patch reefs. All the Acropora corals were dead.
The southern side of the mainchannel was similar to the patchreefs, with most corals dead(PCS unpub. data).
Moderate coral bleaching wasobserved at Helen and TobiReefs in early December 1996(P. Colin pers. comm.).
During the summer of 1999,most corals at Helen reef diedfrom a bleaching event (P. Colinpers. comm.). Other islands inthe Southwest must have alsobeen affected, since offshorereefs in the Palau main islandswere impacted the most (C.Birkeland pers. comm.).
During a late 1998 survey ofOruaol Libuchel patch reef, astate conservation area for
Ngatpang, live coral cover at the western side ofthe reef was 17% and dead coral covered 21% ofthe area (Golbuu, 2001). The eastern side had ahigher coral cover (26%) and lower dead coralcovered (11%). A nearby patch reef was alsosurveyed as a control for the conservation areamonitoring. It had 31% live coral cover and 14%dead coral cover.
Ngchesar in east Babeldoab was seriously hit bybleaching in 1998. Most of the corals at the barrierreef died. The fringing reefs at Ngchesar were notas badly affected as the barrier reef. Some coralssurvived, mainlyPorites, but most of theAcroporas in the fringing and patch reefs are dead.
Surveys at Ngerumekaol (Ulong Channel) in Kororrevealed a high percentage of dead coral. In the
Figure 316. Foreign fishermen and theircatch on Sonsorol Island in SouthwestPalau (Photo: James McVey).
Figure 317. Ship hard aground on Helen’s Reef (Photo: JamesMcVey).
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northern channel, 35% of the coral cover was dead,while live coral was only 23%. Similar patternswere seen at the southern side, with 41% dead coraland only 24% live coral. The reef slope atNgerumekaol had 23% coral cover, 33% of whichwas dead (Golbuu et al. 1999).
Before the bleaching, Ngerumekaol had a healthyand diverse coral community with 52% live coralcover (Maragos 1991). During surveys of selectedsites, a team from the University of Guam MarineLaboratory in July 1999 found bleaching waswidespread and variable among the sites. Acroporacorals have been devastated, experiencing thehighest overall mortality.
Interestingly, corals found in estuaries close toshore survived better than corals farther away. Thiswas very evident in Ngiwal where coral survivalwas highest closer to land. Offshore reefs, likeShort Drop-Off, have been hit the hardest; mortal-ity of Acroporas was nearly 100% (G. Paulayunpub. data). Even at 90 ft, there was around 90%coral mortality, including Favia, Porites, Fungia,andAcropora. Out of 3,630 colonies of corals from52 genera surveyed in 1999 at several sites, 48%were living, 31% were dead, and 21% sufferedvarying mortality (G. Paulay unpub. data).
Fish populations were also affected by the recentbleaching event. Surveys at the Southwest Islandsrevealed the abundance of fish that prey on corals,use corals for shelter, or feed on fish that feed oncorals decreased dramatically from 1992 levels (T.Donaldson pers. comm.).
Current Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation ManagementCurrent Conservation Management
MappingMappingMappingMappingMapping – Palau’s shallow-water coral reef andassociated benthic habitats have yet to be mapped.
Assessment and MonitoringAssessment and MonitoringAssessment and MonitoringAssessment and MonitoringAssessment and Monitoring – The Palau Interna-tional Coral Reef Center (PICRC) was created toenhance the knowledge about coral reefs andrelated marine environments so they can be effec-tively managed and conserved within the Republicand the Western Pacific. PICRC has established 14permanent sites on shallow reefs to monitor corals,coral recruitment, and fish. In addition, PICRC hasalso surveyed close to 200 non-permanent sitesaround Palau.
The Palau Conservation Society is active in conser-vation activities in the archipelago, and collabo-rates on monitoring and assessment programs withthe Coral Reef Research Foundation, Palau Com-munity College, the Environmental Quality Protec-tion Board (EQPB) and the Marine ResourcesDivision. The Nature Conservancy has an office onPalau, and works with the other agencies andorganizations on coral reef conservation. Palau hassubstantial expertise, but financial resources aresomewhat limiting.
MPAs and No-take ZonesMPAs and No-take ZonesMPAs and No-take ZonesMPAs and No-take ZonesMPAs and No-take Zones – Currently, Palau hasa total of 13 established MPAs. In 1956, the RockIsland Management and Preservation Actdesignated certain areas of the Rock Islands asreserves and others as tourist activity areas. Thiswas Palau’s first MPA.
The total area of Palau’s coral reef ecosystemsprotected by no-take reserves is 65.3 km2, which isequivalent to about 3.9% of the country’s coral reefarea.
Gaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andGaps in Current Monitoring andConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation CapacityConservation Capacity
Palau’s PICRC needs funding to continuemonitoring of its established long-term coral reef
Figure 318. Acropora corals on a Palauan reef prior to the1998 bleaching event (Photo: Bruce Carlson).
Figure 319. A bleached Acropora (Photo: Wolcott Henry).
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sites and other surveys ofPalau islands and atolls.Additionally, training in coralreef monitoring and assess-ment is required to monitorconservation areas forchanges in structure.
Only with regular monitoringcan resource managers ef-fectively implement manage-ment plans. Currently, thereare not enough technicalpersonnel to do the requiredmonitoring. Additional peopleneed to be trained if consis-tent and robust monitoring isto be done.
So far, most of the traininghas been for short-term monitoring and is focusedon collection techniques that are easy and not time-consuming. Coral identification is usually notcovered. Without it, biological diversity surveyscannot be done, and the data that is collected maynot truly reflect the actual condition of the coralreef ecosystem. For example, the Malakal seweroutfall study determined percent coral cover, andfound no significant difference between 1976 and1991. But species diversity decreased dramaticallysince 1973. So without taxonomic information, theconclusion would be that the reefs were doing wellwhen they were not.
Periodically, funds are needed to bring peopletogether for an REA of the entire reef environmentfrom Ngeruangel to the Southwest Islands (Fig. 320).Reef studies tend to be limited to Koror and select-ed places in Babeldaob, neglecting unique areas far
from Koror. The last compre-hensive work on Palau reefswas in 1992 during the REA.Many of the places that weresurveyed during that REAhave not been studied since.
Government Policies,Government Policies,Government Policies,Government Policies,Government Policies,Laws, and LegislationLaws, and LegislationLaws, and LegislationLaws, and LegislationLaws, and Legislation
Palau National Governmentpolicies regarding environ-mental issues are given in thePalau National Master Devel-opment Plan (SAGRIC 1996).The Plan recommends actionsnecessary to protect the en-vironment, including formal-izing a policy process, insti-
tuting and strengthening education and researchprograms, protecting habitats and wildlife, manag-ing waste, reducing pollution, and implementingnew coral reef conservation legislation.
As a Compact Nation, U.S. laws apply to theconservation of Palau’s coral reef resources. TheMarine Protection Act regulates taking certainspecies of marine organisms, prohibits or limitscertain fishing methods, and authorizes the Minis-ter of Resources and Development to developregulations regarding the collection of marineanimals for aquaria or research (Fig. 321).
TheEnvironmental Quality Protection Act wasconsolidated into Palau National Code as Title 24.Division 1 of this Act creates the EQPB andmandates it to protect the environment of Palau.Division 2 (Chapter 10) deals with wildlife protec-tion. Protected sea life includes turtles (Fig. 322),sponges, mother-of-pearl, dugong, topshell gastro-pods and clams. Chapter 13 deals with illegalfishing methods including the use of explosives,poisons, or chemicals. Division 3 deals with theprotected areas of Ngerukewid and Ngerumkaol.
The Natural Heritage Reserve System Actmandates a set of reserves, sanctuaries, and refugesto be identified, developed, and strengthened. ThePalau Bureau of Natural Resources and Develop-ment is the body responsible for designating andnominating areas for inclusion in the reserve anddeveloping regulations to implement the Act.
State Government legislation is also helping topreserve the reefs. The Rock Island Management
Figure 320. Helen’s Reef is a remote areathat has been monitored mainly through REAs(Photos: James McVey).
Figure 321. The Marine Protection Act regulates thecollection of species targeted by the aquarium trade, suchas the Moorish Idol (Photo: James McVey).
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and Preservation Act designated certain areas of therock islands as reserves and others as tourist activ-ity areas (Fig. 323). Koror State Public Law K6-101-99 established the Ngerukewid Islands Wild-life Preserve and prohibited fishing in Ngerumkaolspawning area. Koror State Public Law (No. K6-119-2201, effective as of January 10, 2001) closedoff Ngederrak reef (C. Emaurois pers. comm.).
The Fishing Conservation Act 1987 set aside tworeef areas in Ngeremlengui State as a fish reserveand prohibited fishing in Toachel Mlengui channelduring the summer months when fish are spawning.The Ngatpang Conservation Act of 1999 estab-lished the Ngatpang Reserve which includes threeareas and Ngatpang’s portion of Ngermeduu Bay.And the Ngiwal State Conservation Act of 1997established Ngemai Conservation Area.
Conclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and RecommendationsConclusions and Recommendations
For effective coral reef management, regularassessment and monitoring of Palau coral reefs isrequired. Regular monitoring programs detectproblems earlier, allowing more effective strategiesto be developed. There should also be an emphasison reports and publications from the monitoringprogram. There are many reports dealing withcoral reefs buried in government offices andgenerally inaccessible to the public. Having thisavailable to the community would increaseawareness and support for conservation.
Palau Community College has a public librarystaffed by one librarian and five full-time staff. Allthe materials in the library are cataloged andavailable for online computer search. Since thelibrary already has the facility, staff, and resources,
it would be wise to designate it as a depository forall documents relating to coral reefs.
Effective management of marine resourcesrequires an informed and supportive public, soeducation is another important aspect of reefconservation. School curricula from elementary tosecondary and post secondary should incorporateenvironmental issues and concerns. Communityoutreach projects could extend this education andawareness to the communities. Efforts shouldfocus on raising awareness among policy makers,traditional and political leaders, and villagers.
Catch levels and trends for reef fisheries should bemonitored closely and accurately so effectivemanagement of coral reef fish resources can beimplemented. Currently, only two fish markets inKoror are providing landings information to theMarine Resources Division. To have accuratemarket data, the Marine Resources staff need tohave landings and catch data from all fish markets.Other information such as the type of fishing gearused and the number of hours spent fishing wouldhelp in determining the level of exploitation.
Finally, a collaborative program needs to be estab-lished between all the agencies and organizationsinvolved with coral reef monitoring and manage-ment. This could be a strategic planning group,setting priorities and areas of focus for each group/area and focusing on problems that can only besolved with cooperation. With limited resources(time, money, and people) and a large coral reefarea, everyone needs to work together to avoidduplication of effort and competition between thedifferent groups. With a more coordinated effort,coral reef conservation will no doubt improve.
Figure 322. Green sea turtles and their eggs are protectedby the Environmental Quality Protection Act (Photo: JamesMcVey).
Figure 323. Palau’s rock islands have been zoned to serve asmarine reserves or tourism and recreation areas (Photo:William Perryclear/PICRC).
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APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: Acronyms
Appendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificName to Common Name)Name to Common Name)Name to Common Name)Name to Common Name)Name to Common Name)
Appendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonName to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)
Appendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef Ecosystems
BibliographyBibliographyBibliographyBibliographyBibliography
APPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHYAPPENDICES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
Appendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: Acronyms
Appendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificAppendix II: Species Names (ScientificName to Common Name)Name to Common Name)Name to Common Name)Name to Common Name)Name to Common Name)
Appendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonAppendix III: Species Names (CommonName to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)Name to Scientific Name)
Appendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forAppendix IV: Federal Protection forU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsU.S. Coral Reef Ecosystems
BibliographyBibliographyBibliographyBibliographyBibliography
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Appendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: AcronymsAppendix I: Acronyms
AECOS AECOS, Inc., Hawaii, SamoaAIMS Australian Institute for Marine ScienceAISATM Airborne Imaging Spectroradiometer for ApplicationsAGRRA Atlantic and Gulf Rapid Reef AssessmentASEPA American Samoa Environmental Protection AgencyBC DPEP Broward County Department of Planning and Environmental ProtectionBINM Buck Island Reef National Monument, DoICARICOMP Caribbean Coastal Marine ProductivityCARRUS Comparative Analyses of Reef Resilience Under StressCDHC Coral Disease and Health Consortium, NOAA, USEPA, DoICFR Code of Federal RegulationsCITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered SpeciesC-MAN Coastal Marine Automated Network, NOAACMES Center for Marine and Environmental Science, University of the Virgin IslandsCMC Center for Marine ConservationCORIS Coral Reef Information System, NOAACNMI Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana IslandsCRAMP Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program, Hawai‘iCRCA Coral Reef Conservation ActCREWS Coral Reef Early Warning System, NOAACRMO Coastal Resources Management Office, CMNICRMP Coral Reef Monitoring Program, FKNMSCZMA Coastal Zone Management ActCZMP Coastal Zone Management Program, NOAADAR Division of Aquatic Resources, Hawai‘i DLNRDAWR Division of Aquatic and Wildlife Resources, GuamDDT Dichloro-Diphenyl-TrichloroethaneDEQ Department of Environmental Quality, CNMIDFW Department of Fish and Wildlife, CNMIDLNR Department of Land and Natural Resources, Hawai‘iDNER Department of Natural and Environmental Resources, Puerto RicoDOBOR Division of Boating and Ocean Recreation, Hawai‘iDoC Department of CommerceDoD Department of DefenseDoH Department of Health, Hawai‘iDoI Department of the InteriorDPNR Department of Planning and Natural Resources, USVIEEZ Exclusive Economic ZoneEIS Environmental Impact StatementFDM Farallon de Medinilla, CNMIEPA Environmental Protection Agency, state and jurisdictionalESA Endangered Species ActEQB Environmental Quality Board, Puerto RicoEQPB Environmental Quality Protection Board, PalauFGB Flower Garden BanksFGBNMS Flower Garden Banks National Marine Sanctuary, NOAA
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FKNMS Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary, NOAAFMA Fisheries Management Area, Hawai‘iFMP Fisheries Management PlanFMRI Florida Marine Research InstituteFRA Fisheries Replenishment Area, Hawai‘iFSM Federated States of MicronesiaFWCC Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, FloridaGEPA Guam Environmental Protection AgencyGCRMN Global Coral Reef Monitoring NetworkGIS Geographic Information SystemHAPC Habitat Area of Particular Concern, Florida designated MPAHCRI-RP Hawai‘i Coral Reef Initiative Research ProgramICW Intracoastal waterway, FloridaIKONOSTM High-resolution commercial earth imaging satellite operated by Space Imaging, inc.IPCC Inter-governmental Panel on Climate ChangeIUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature And Natural Resources, World
Conservation UnionLORAN Long Range NavigationKIRC Kaho‘olawe Island Reserve Commission, Hawai‘iLADS LAser Depth SoundingMEGIS Marine Ecosystems Global Informational SystemsMIMRA Marshall Islands Marine Resources Authority ActMHI Main Hawaiian IslandsMLCD Marine Life Conservation District, Hawai‘iMMS Minerals Management Service, DoIMMT Marine Monitoring Team, CNMIMPA Marine Protected AreaNAR Natural Area Reserve, Hawai‘iNBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action PlanNEPA National Environmental Policy ActNCRI National Coral Reef Institute, FloridaNCORE National Center for Caribbean Coral Reef Research, Univeristy of MiamiNERR National Estuarine Research Reserve, NOAANFWF National Fish and Wildlife FoundationNGO Non-Governmental OrganizationNHP National Historic Park, National Park ServiceNMFS National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Marine Fisheries ServiceNMS National Marine SanctuaryNMSA National Marine Sanctuaries ActNOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, DoCNOAA NESDISNOAANational Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information ServiceNOAA OAR NOAA Oceanic and Atmospheric ResearchNOS National Ocean Service, NOAA Ocean ServiceNOW-RAMP Northwestern Hawaiian Island Rapid Ecological Assessment and Monitoring ProgramNPDES National Pollution Discharge EliminationNPS National Park Service, DoINSU Nova Southeastern University, FloridaNURC National Undersea Research Center, NOAANURP National underwater Research Program, NOAANWHI Northwestern Hawaiian IslandsNWR National Wildlife Refuge, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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OCRM Office of Coastal Resources Management, NOAAPADI PADI International, Inc., a SCUBA organizationPAH Polycyclic Aromatic HydorcarbonsPCB PolyChlorinated BiphenylsPCS Palau Conservation SocietyPICRC Palau International Coral Reef CenterRACE Restoration and Assessment of Coral Reef Ecosystems, NOAAREA Rapid Ecological AssessmentRECON Reef Ecosystem Condition, The Ocean Conservency and the USEPAREEF Reef Environmental Education Foundation, a non-governmental organizationRMI Republic of the Marsahll IslandsRMIEPA Republic of the Marshall Islands Environmental Protection AuthorityROV Remotely Operated VehicleRPA Regulation and Permits Administration, Puerto RicoSCUBA Self-Contained Underwater Breathing ApparatusSEAKEYS Sustained Ecological Research Related to Management of the Florida Keys, NOAASOPAC South Pacific Applied Geoscience CommissionSPA Special Planning Area, Puerto RicoSST Sea Surface TemperatureUCSC University of California at Santa CruzUNCW University of North Carolina at WilmingtonUNEP United Nations Environmental ProgrammeUNEP WCMC United Nations Environmental Programme World Conservation Monitoring CenterUNDP United Nations Development ProgramUSAID U.S. Agency for International DevelopmentUSCG U.S. Coast GuardUSCRTF U.S. Coral Reef Task ForceUSDA U.S> Department of AgricultureUSEPA U.S. Environmental Protection AgencyUSFWS U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, DOIUSGS U.S. Geological Survey, DoIUSVI U.S. Virgin IslandsUVI University of the Virgin IslandsVICRNM Virgin Islands Coral Reef National MonumentVMAS Virgin Islands Marine Advisory ServiceVMS Vessel Monitoring SystemVINP Virgin Islands National Park, DOIWQPP Water Quality Protection Program, FKNMSWPRFMC Western Pacific Regional Fisheries Management CouncilWWII World War II
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Appendix II: Species NamesAppendix II: Species NamesAppendix II: Species NamesAppendix II: Species NamesAppendix II: Species NamesScientific Name to Common NameScientific Name to Common NameScientific Name to Common NameScientific Name to Common NameScientific Name to Common Name
Marine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and Cyanobacteria
Cladophora spp. Green algal speciesCodium isthmocladum Dead man’s fingers, a green algal speciesDictyota spp. Brown algal speciesHypnea spp. Brown algal speciesHypnea musiformis A brown algal speciesKappaphycus spp. Red algal speciesKappaphycus alverezii1 A red algal speciesPorolithon spp. Encrusting coralline red algal speciesSargassum spp. Brown algal species
Higher PlantsHigher PlantsHigher PlantsHigher PlantsHigher Plants
Bruguiera gymnorrhiza Large-leafed orange mangroveHalodule wrightii Shoal grassHalophila decipiens Balloon grassHalophila hawaiiana Endemic Hawaiian seagrassLumnitzera litorea Black mangroveRhizophora mangle1 Red mangroveSonneratia alba Mangrove appleSyringodium filiforme Manatee grassThalassia testudinum Turtle grass
CnidariansCnidariansCnidariansCnidariansCnidarians (hard corals, soft corals, sea fans)
Acropora cervicornis Staghorn coralAcropora cytherea Table coralAcropora gemmiferaAcropora palmata Elkhorn coralAcropora prolifera Fused staghorn coralAgaricia agaricites Lettuce coralAntipathes spp. Black coral speciesCarijoa riisei Snowflake coralColpophyllia natans Boulder brain coralDichcoenia stokesii Elliptical star coralDiploria clivosa Knobby brain coralDiploria strigosa Symmetrical brain coralEusmilia fastigiata Smooth flower coralFavia fragum Golfball coralGorgonia ventalina Common sea fanIsophyllastrea rigida Rough star coralMadracis decactis Ten-ray star coralMadracis mirabilis Yellow pencil coralMeandrina meandrites Maze coralMillepora spp. Fire coral speciesMillepora alcicornis Branching fire coralMillepora complanata Blade fire coralMontastrea annularis Lobed star coral
1 Considered an invasive species in Hawaii
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Montastrea cavernosa Great star coralMontastrea franksi Boulder star coralMontipora capitata Rice coralMussa angulosa Spiny flower coralOculina spp. Ivory coral speciesPalythoa caribaeorum White encrusting zoanthidPalythoa mammillosa Knobby zoanthidPocillopora eydouxiPorites astreoides Mustard hill coralPorites compressa Clubtip finger coralPorites lobata Lobe coralPorites porites Finger coralPorites (=Synarea) rus Plate coralSiderastrea radians Lesser starlet coralSiderastrea siderea Massive starlet coralScolymia cubensis Artichoke coralSolenastrea bournoni Smooth star coral
SpongesSpongesSpongesSpongesSponges
Cliona spp. Encrusting sponge speciesIanthella basta Elephant ear spongeTerpios hoshinota Black encrusting spongeVasum muricatum Caribbean vaseXestospongia muta Giant barrel sponge
PolycheatesPolycheatesPolycheatesPolycheatesPolycheates (worms)
Sabellastarte sanctijosephi Featherduster worm
Molluscs Molluscs Molluscs Molluscs Molluscs (bivalves, gastropods)Cellana talcosa Turtle limpetEuprymna scolopes Endemic Hawaiian sepiolid squidEchininus viviparis Endemic gastropodLingula reeviiNerita guamensis2 Guam neritePinctada spp. Pearl oyster speciesPinctada margaritifera Black-lipped pearl oysterStrombus gigas Queen conchTridacna spp. Giant clam speciesTrochus niloticus Topshell gastropod
CrustaceansCrustaceansCrustaceansCrustaceansCrustaceans (lobsters, crabs)
Birgus latro Coconut crabMithrax spp. Clinging crab speciesPanulirus argus Caribbean spiny lobsterPanulirus guttatus Spotted spiny lobster
EchinodermsEchinodermsEchinodermsEchinodermsEchinoderms (starfish, sea urchins)
Acanthaster planci Crown-of-thorns starfishDiadema antillarum Long-spined sea urchinEchinometra lucunter Rock-boring sea urchinEucidaris tribuloides Slate-pencil urchin
2 Endemic gastropod found in Guam and Northern Mariana Islands
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FishesFishesFishesFishesFishes
Acanthuridae Surgeonfish familyAbudefduf saxatilis Sergeant majorAbudefduf sordidus Blackspot sergeantAetobatus narinari Spotted eagle raysAmphiprion tricinctus Three-banded anemonefishBodianus rufus Spanish hogfishBolbometopon muricatum Bumphead parrotfishCanthigaster rostrata Sharpnose pufferCaranx ignobilis Giant trevallyCaranx melampygus Bluefin trevally jack (Omilu = Hawaiian name)Caranx crysos HardnoseCarcharhinus falciformis Silky sharkCarcharhinus galapagensis Galapago sharkCarcharhinus leucas Bull sharkCentropyge loriculus Flame angelfishCephalopholis argus Bluespotted grouperChaetodon flavocoronatus Yellow-crowned butterflyfishChaetodon sedentarius Reef butterflyfishCheilinus undulatus Humphead or Napoleon wrasseChlorurus perspicillatus Spectacled parrotfishChromis multilineata Brown chromisCoryphopterus personatus Masked gobyDasyatidae Stingray familyEnchelycore pardalis Dragon eelEpinephelu drummondhayi Speckled hindEpinephelus lanceolatus Giant grouperEpinephelus morio Red grouperEpinephelus mystacinus Misty grouperEpinephelus nitrigus Warsaw grouperEpinephelus niveatus Snowy grouperEpinephelus quernus Hawaiian black grouperEpinephelus striatus Nassau grouperGenicanthus personatus Masked angelfishHaemulon aurolineatum TomtateHaemulon chrysargyreum Smallmouth gruntHaemulon flavolineatum French gruntHaemulon plumieri White gruntHaemulon sciurus Bluestriped gruntHalichoeres bivittatus Slippery dickHypoplectrus spp. Hamlet speciesKyphosus sectatrix Bermuda chubLactophrys triqueter Smooth trunkfishLutjanus apodus SchoolmasterLutjanus campechanus Red snapperLutjanus fulvus Blacktail snapperLutjanus griseus Gray snapperLutjanus kasmira Blueline snapperLutjanus vivanus Silk snapperMegalops atlanticus TarponMelichthys niger Black triggerfish
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Mobula hypostoma Devil rayMullidae Goatfish familyMulloidichthys martinicus Yellow goatfishMustelus canis Smooth dogfishMycteroperca tigris Tiger grouperMypteroperca microlepis GagOyurus chrysurus Yellowtail snapperPagrus pagrus Red porgyParanthias furcifer CreolefishPlatax orbicularis Orbicular batfish, Pacific batfishPolydactylus sexfilis Pacific threadfin (Moi = Hawaiian name)Pomachromis gumaensis Guam reef damselfishPomocanthus maculous Emperor angelfishPrealticus poptae Marianas rockskipperPterois sphex Hawaiian lionfishPterois volitans Indo-Pacific lionfishRhincodon typus Whale sharkRhomboplites aurorubens Vermillion snapperScarus perspicillatus Speckled parrotfishScarus croicensis Striped parrotfishScarus vetula Queen parrotfishScomberomerus cavalla King mackerelSparisoma viride Stoplight parrotfishSciaenops ocellatus Red drumSphyna lewini Hammerhead sharkSphyraena barracuda Great barracudaSphyrna lewini Scalloped hammerhead sharkStegastes partitus Bicolor damselfishStegastes planifrons Three-spot damselfishThalassoma bifasciatum Bluehead wrasseTriaenodon obesus Whitetip reef sharkZebrasoma flavescens Yellow tang
Marine ReptilesMarine ReptilesMarine ReptilesMarine ReptilesMarine Reptiles
Caretta caretta Loggerhead turtleChelonia mydas Green sea turtleDermochelys coriacea Leatherback turtleEretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtleLaticauda columbrina Banded sea snakeLepidochelys kempii Kemp’s ridleyLepidochelys olivaea Olive ridleyPelmais platurus Yellowbellied sea snake
BirdsBirdsBirdsBirdsBirds
Falco peregrinus Peregrine falconPelecanus occidentalis Brown pelicanSula leucogaster Brown booby
Marine MammalsMarine MammalsMarine MammalsMarine MammalsMarine Mammals
Balaenoptera edeni Bryde’s whale
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Dugong dugon Dugong, seacowGlobicephala macrorhychus Short-finned pilot whaleGlobicephala mala Long-finned pilot whaleKogia breviceps Dwarf sperm whaleKogia simus Pygmy sperm whaleMegaptera novaeangliae Humpback whaleMonachus schauinslandi Hawaiian monk sealMonachus tropicalis Caribbean monk sealPhyseter catadon Sperm whalePseudorca crassidens False killer whaleStenella attenuatus Pan-tropical spotted dolphinStenella coeruleoalba Striped dolphinStenella longirostris Spinner dolphinStenella plagiodon Atlantic spotted dolphinTrichechus manatus West Indian manateeTursiops truncatus Bottlenose dolphin
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Appendix III: Species Names Appendix III: Species Names Appendix III: Species Names Appendix III: Species Names Appendix III: Species Names Common Name to Scientific Name Common Name to Scientific Name Common Name to Scientific Name Common Name to Scientific Name Common Name to Scientific Name
Marine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and CyanobacteriaMarine Algae and Cyanobacteria
Dead man’s fingers Codium isthmocladumEncrusting coralline algal speciesPorolithon spp.
Higher PlantsHigher PlantsHigher PlantsHigher PlantsHigher Plants
Balloon grass Halophila decipiensBlack mangrove Lumnitzera litoreaEndemic Hawaiian seagrass Halophila hawaiianaLarge-leafed orange mangrove Bruguiera gymnorrhizaMangrove apple Sonneratia albaManatee grass Syringodium filiformeRed mangrove1 Rhizophora mangleShoal grass Halodule wrightiiTurtle grass Thalassia testudinum
CnidariansCnidariansCnidariansCnidariansCnidarians (hard corals, soft corals)
Artichoke coral Scolymia cubensisBlack coral species Antipathes spp.Blade fire coral Millepora complanataBoulder brain coral Colpophyllia natansBoulder star coral Montastrea franksiBranching fire coral Millepora alcicornisClubtip finger coral Porites poritesCommon sea fan Gorgonia ventalinaElkhorn coral Acropora palmataElliptical star coral Dichcoenia stokesiiFinger coral Porites compressaFire coral species Millepora spp.Fused staghorn coral Acropora proliferaGolfball coral Favia fragumGreat star coral Montastrea cavernosaIvory coral species Oculina spp.Knobby brain coral Diploria clivosaKnobby zoanthid Palythoa mammillosaLesser starlet coral Siderastrea radiansLettuce coral Agaricia agaricitesLobe coral Porites lobataLobed star coral Montastrea annularisMassive starlet coral Siderastrea sidereaMaze coral Meandrina meandritesMustard hill coral Porites astreoidesPlate coral Porites (=Synarea) rusRice coral Montipora capitataRough star coral Isophyllastrea rigidaSmooth flower coral Eusmilia fastigiataSmooth star coral Solenastrea bournoniSnowflake coral Carijoa riisei
1 Considered an invasive species in Hawaii
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Spiny flower coral Mussa angulosaStaghorn coral Acropora cervicornisStaghorn coral Acropora cythereaSymmetrical brain coral Diploria strigosaTable coral Acropora cythereaTen-ray star coral Madracis decactisWhite encrusting zoanthid Palythoa caribaeorumYellow pencil coral Madracis mirabilis
SpongesSpongesSpongesSpongesSponges
Black encrusting sponge Terpios hoshinotaCaribbean vase Vasum muricatumElephant ear sponge Ianthella bastaEncrusting sponge species Cliona spp.Giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta
PolychaetesPolychaetesPolychaetesPolychaetesPolychaetes (worms)
Featherduster worm Sabellastarte sanctijosephi
MolluscsMolluscsMolluscsMolluscsMolluscs (bivalves, gastropods)
Black-lipped pearl oyster Pinctada margaritiferaEndemic gastropod Echininus viviparisEndemic Hawaiian sepiolid squidEuprymna scolopesGiant clam species Tridacna spp.Guam nerite Nerita guamensis2
Queen conch Strombus gigasPearl oyster species Pinctada spp.Topshell gastropod Trochus niloticusTurtle limpet Cellana talcosa
Echinoderms Echinoderms Echinoderms Echinoderms Echinoderms (starfish, sea urchins)
Crown-of-thorns starfish Acanthaster planciLong-spined sea urchin Diadema antillarumRock-boring sea urchin Echinometra lucunterSlate-pencil urchin Eucidaris tribuloides
Crustaceans Crustaceans Crustaceans Crustaceans Crustaceans (lobsters, crabs)
Caribbean spiny lobster Panulirus argusClinging crab species Mithrax spp.Coconut crab Birgus latroSpotted spiny lobster Panulirus guttatus
FishesFishesFishesFishesFishes
Great barracuda Sphyraena barracudaBermuda chub Kyphosus sectatrixBicolor damselfish Stegastes partitusBlack triggerfish Melichthys nigerBlackspot sergeant Abudefduf sordidus
2 Endemic gastropod found in Guam and Northern Mariana Islands
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Blacktail snapper Lutjanus fulvusBluefin trevally jack, or Omilu Caranx melampygusBluehead wrasse Thalassoma bifasciatumBlueline snapper Lutjanus kasmiraBluespotted grouper Cephalopholis argusBluestriped grunt Haemulon sciurusBrown chromis Chromis multilineataBull shark Carcharhinus leucasBumphead parrotfish Bolbometopon muricatumCreolefish Paranthias furciferDamselfish Stegastes planifronsDevil ray Mobula hypostomaDragon eel Enchelycore pardalisEmperor angelfish Pomocanthus maculousFlame angelfish Centropyge loriculusFrench grunt Haemulon flavolineatumGag Mypteroperca microlepisGalapago shark Carcharhinus galapagensisGiant grouper Epinephelus lanceolatusGiant trevally Caranx ignobilisGoatfish family MullidaeGray snapper Lutjanus griseusGreat barracuda Sphyraena barracudaGuam reef damselfish Pomachromis gumaensisHamlet species Hypoplectrus spp.Hammerhead shark Sphyna lewiniHardnose Caranx crysosHawaiian black grouper Epinephelus quernusHawaiian lionfish Pterois sphexHumphead or Napoleon wrasse Cheilinus undulatusIndo-Pacific lionfish Pterois volitansKing mackerel Scomberomerus cavallaMasked goby Coryphopterus personatusMarianas rockskipper Prealticus poptaeMasked angelfish Genicanthus personatusMisty grouper Epinephelus mystacinusNassau grouper Epinephelus striatusPacific batfish Platax orbicularisPacific threadfin, or Moi Polydactylus sexfilisQueen parrotfish Scarus vetulaRed drum Sciaenops ocellatusRed grouper Epinephelus morioRed porgy Pagrus pagrusRed snapper Lutjanus campechanusReef butterflyfish Chaetodon sedentariusScalloped hammerhead shark Sphyrna lewiniSchoolmaster Lutjanus apodusSergeant major Abudefduf saxatilisSharpnose puffer Canthigaster rostrataSilk snapper Lutjanus vivanusSilky shark Carcharhinus falciformis
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Slippery dick Halichoeres bivittatusSmallmouth grunt Haemulon chrysargyreumSmooth dogfish Mustelus canisSmooth trunkfish Lactophrys triqueterSnowy grouper Epinephelu niveatusSpanish hogfish Bodianus rufusSpeckled hind Epinephelus drummondhayiSpeckled parrotfish Scarus perspicillatusSpectacled parrotfish Chlorurus perspicillatusSpotted eagle rays Aetobatus narinariStingray species DasyatidaeStoplight parrotfish Sparisoma virideStriped parrotfish Scarus croicensisSurgeonfish family AcanthuridaeTarpon Megalops atlanticusThree-banded anemonefish Amphiprion tricinctusThree-spot damselfish Stegastes planifronsTiger grouper Mycteroperca tigrisTomtate Haemulon aurolineatumVermillion snapper Rhomboplites aurorubensWarsaw grouper Epinephelus nitrigusWhale shark Rhincodon typusWhite grunt Haemulon plumieriWhitetip reef shark Triaenodon obesusYellow-crowned butterflyfish Chaetodon flavocoronatusYellow goatfish Mulloidichthys martinicusYellow tang Zebrasoma flavescensYellowtail snapper Oyurus chrysurus
Marine ReptilesMarine ReptilesMarine ReptilesMarine ReptilesMarine Reptiles
Banded sea snake Laticauda columbrinaGreen sea turtle Chelonia mydasHawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricataLeatherback turtle Dermochelys coriaceaLoggerhead turtle Caretta carettaKemp’s ridley Lepidochelys kempiiOlive ridley Lepidochelys olivaeaYellowbellied sea snake Pelmais platurus
BirdsBirdsBirdsBirdsBirds
Brown booby Sula leucogasterBrown pelican Pelecanus occidentalisPeregrine falcon Falco peregrinus
Marine MammalsMarine MammalsMarine MammalsMarine MammalsMarine Mammals
Atlantic spotted dolphin Stenella plagiodonBottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatusBryde’s whale Balaenoptera edeniCaribbean monk seal Monachus tropicalis
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Dugong Dugong dugonDwarf sperm whale Kogia brevicepsFalse killer whale Pseudorca crassidensHawaiian monk seal Monachus schauinslandiHumpback whale Megaptera novaeangliaePan-tropical spotted dolphin Stenella attenuatusShort-finned pilot whale Globicephala macrorhychusLong-finned pilot whale Globicephala malaPygmy sperm whale Kogia simusSeacow Dugong dugonSperm whale Physeter catadonSpinner dolphin Stenella longirostrisStriped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalbaWest Indian manatee Trichechus manatus
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Appendix IV: Federal Protection for U.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsAppendix IV: Federal Protection for U.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsAppendix IV: Federal Protection for U.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsAppendix IV: Federal Protection for U.S. Coral Reef EcosystemsAppendix IV: Federal Protection for U.S. Coral Reef Ecosystems
A variety of Federal legislation currentlyauthorizes protection for aspects of coral reefecosystems inside and outside Federal MPAs.These include the following.
• National Marine Sanctuaries Act, 16 U.S.C.1431 et seq. Authorizes NOAA to designateareas as national marine sanctuaries andpromulgates regulations for the conservationand management of those areas.
• National Park Service Organic Act of 1916,16 U.S.C. 1 et seq. Authorizes the creation ofNational Parks “to conserve the scenery andthe natural and historic objects and the wildlifetherein and to provide for the enjoyment of thesame in such a manner and by such means aswill leave them unimpaired for the enjoymentof future generations.”
• National Wilderness Preservation System,16 U.S.C. 1131 et seq. Authorizes designationof federally owned areas as “wilderness areas”to be administered to preserve their pristinecharacter.
• National Wildlife Refuge SystemImprovement Act of 1997, 16 U.S.C. 668ddet seq. Authorizes National Wildlife Refugesto conserve fish, wildlife, and plants and theirhabitats; requires all Refuges to completeComprehensive Conservation ManagementPlans within 15 years of enactment.
• Sikes Act, 16 U.S.C. 670a-o. Requires theDepartment of Defense to provide forconservation and rehabilitation of naturalresources on military installations.
• The Clean Water Act (CWA). Among otherobjectives, the CWA regulates the discharge ofdredged or fill materials into waters of theUnited States (marine and freshwater). It alsocontains provisions governing the filling ordraining of wetlands (which include seagrassbeds, mangroves and salt marshes).
• The Coastal Zone Management Act (CZMA).Through cooperation between federal and stateagencies, the CZMA provides for controlledmanagement and development of shorelineareas.
• The Endangered Species Act (ESA). Providesfederal resources, including money andinstitutional support, for monitoring,conserving, and promoting the recovery ofspecies listed as either “endangered” or“threatened”.
• The National Environmental Policy Act(NEPA). Environmental Impact Assessments(EIAs) or Statements (EISs) are required byNEPA for proposed projects that involvefederal sponsorship or approval.
• Lacey Act, 16 U.S.C. 3372 et seq., 18 U.S.C.42. Makes it unlawful to import, export, sell,receive, posess, or transport wildlife taken inviolation of state, federal, tribal, or foreignlaws or regulations.
• Magnuson Stevens Fishery Conservation andManagement Act, 16 U.S.C. 1801 et seq.Conserves and manages fish stocks throughoutthe 200-mile U.S. Fishery Conservation Zoneby developing fishery management plans anddesignating essential fish habitat.
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