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o 2.4 Sensing 2.4.1 Touch

o 2.5 Manipulationo 2.6 Locomotion

2.6.1 Rolling robots

2.6.2 Walking robots 2.6.3 Other methods of locomotion

o 2.7 Environmental interaction and navigationo 2.8 Human-robot interaction

3 Control 4 Dynamics and kinematics 5 Robot research 6 Education and training

o 6.1 Employment in robotics 7 Healthcare 8 See also 9 Notes

10 References

[edit] Origins

See also: History of robots andRobot

Stories of artificial helpers and companions likewise attempts to create them have a longhistory, but fully autonomous machines only appeared in the 20th century. The first

digitally operated and programmable robot, theUnimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hotpieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial andindustrial robots are in widespread use performing jobs cheaper or more accurately andreliably than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous, ordull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used inmanufacturing, assembly, andpacking; transport; earth and space exploration; surgery; weaponry; laboratory research;safety; and mass production of consumer and industrial goods. [4]

Date Significance Robot Name Inventor

FirstcenturyA.D. andearlier

Descriptions of more than 100 machinesand automata, including a fire engine, awind organ, a coin-operated machine, anda steam-powered engine, inPneumaticaandAutomata byHeron of Alexandria

Ctesibius,Philo ofByzantium, Heronof Alexandria, andothers
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Sensing#Sensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Touch#Touchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Manipulation#Manipulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Locomotion#Locomotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Rolling_robots#Rolling_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Walking_robots#Walking_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Other_methods_of_locomotion#Other_methods_of_locomotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Environmental_interaction_and_navigation#Environmental_interaction_and_navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Human-robot_interaction#Human-robot_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Control#Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Dynamics_and_kinematics#Dynamics_and_kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Robot_research#Robot_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Education_and_training#Education_and_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Employment_in_robotics#Employment_in_roboticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Healthcare#Healthcarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Notes#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Sensing#Sensinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Touch#Touchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Manipulation#Manipulationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Locomotion#Locomotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Rolling_robots#Rolling_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Walking_robots#Walking_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Other_methods_of_locomotion#Other_methods_of_locomotionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Environmental_interaction_and_navigation#Environmental_interaction_and_navigationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Human-robot_interaction#Human-robot_interactionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Control#Controlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Dynamics_and_kinematics#Dynamics_and_kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Robot_research#Robot_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Education_and_training#Education_and_traininghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Employment_in_robotics#Employment_in_roboticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Healthcare#Healthcarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#See_also#See_alsohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#Notes#Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#References#Referenceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_robotshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-3#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctesibiushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philo_of_Byzantium


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1206 programmable Humanoid AutomatonsBoat withfourmusicians

Al-Jazari

c. 1495 Designs for a humanoid robotMechanicalknight

Leonardo da Vinci

1738Mechanical duck that was able to eat, flapits wings, and excrete

DigestingDuck

Jacques deVaucanson

1800sJapanese mechanical toys that served tea,fired arrows, and painted

Karakuri toys Tanaka Hisashige

1921First fictional automatons called "robots"appear in the playR.U.R.

Rossum'sUniversalRobots

Karel apek

1930sHumanoid robot exhibited at the 1939 and1940World's Fairs

ElektroWestinghouseElectric Corporation

1948 Simple robots exhibiting biologicalbehaviors[5]

Elsie andElmer

William Grey Walter

1956

First commercial robot, from theUnimation company founded by GeorgeDevol and Joseph Engelberger, based onDevol's patents[6]

Unimate George Devol

1961 First installed industrial robot Unimate George Devol

1963 First palletizing robot[7] Palletizer Fuji Yusoki Kogyo

1973 First industrial robot with six Famulus KUKA Robot Group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Jazarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digesting_Duckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digesting_Duckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Vaucansonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Vaucansonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanaka_Hisashigehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_?apekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_(exhibition)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_(exhibition)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-4#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Grey_Walterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Engelbergerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Engelbergerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-5#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-6#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KUKAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Jazarihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vincihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digesting_Duckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digesting_Duckhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Vaucansonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Vaucansonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanaka_Hisashigehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_?apekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_(exhibition)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektrohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westinghouse_Electric_(1886)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-4#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Grey_Walterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Engelbergerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-5#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unimatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Devolhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-6#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robothttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KUKA


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electromechanically driven axes[8]

1975Programmable universal manipulation

arm, a Unimation productPUMA Victor Scheinman

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the word robotics was first used in print byIsaac Asimov, in his science fiction short story "Liar!", published in May 1941 inAstounding Science Fiction. Asimov was unaware that he was coining the term; since thescience and technology of electrical devices is electronics, he assumed robotics alreadyreferred to the science and technology of robots. However, in some of Asimov's otherworks, he states that the first use of the word robotics was in his short storyRunaround(Astounding Science Fiction, March 1942).[9][10]The word robotics was derived from theword robot, which was introduced to the public byCzech writerKarel apekin his play

R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), which premiered in 1921.[11]

[edit] Components of robots

This section needs additionalcitations for verification.Please helpimprove this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may bechallengedandremoved.(July 2009)

[edit] Structure

The structure of a robot is usually mostly mechanicaland can be called akinematic chain(its functionality being similar to the skeleton of the human body). The chain is formed oflinks (its bones), actuators (its muscles), and joints which can allow one or moredegreesof freedom. Most contemporary robots use open serial chains in which each link connectsthe one before to the one after it. These robots are called serial robots and often resemblethe human arm. Some robots, such as the Stewart platform, use a closed parallelkinematical chain. Other structures, such as those that mimic the mechanical structure ofhumans, various animals, and insects, are comparatively rare. However, the developmentand use of such structures in robots is an active area of research (e.g. biomechanics).Robots used as manipulators have an end effector mounted on the last link. This endeffector can be anything from a welding device to a mechanical handused to manipulate

the environment.[edit] Power source

At present; mostly (lead-acid)batteriesare used, but potential power sources could be:

pneumatic (compressed gasses) hydraulics (compressed liquids)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-7#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_Universal_Machine_for_Assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Scheinmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liar!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaroundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaroundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-8#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-8#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-9#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-9#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_?apekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.U.R._(Rossum's_Universal_Robots)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-KapekWebsite-10#cite_note-KapekWebsite-10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_platformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-7#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programmable_Universal_Machine_for_Assemblyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Scheinmanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Asimovhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liar!http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaroundhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_Science_Fiction_and_Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-8#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-9#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karel_?apekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.U.R._(Rossum's_Universal_Robots)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-KapekWebsite-10#cite_note-KapekWebsite-10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Inline_citationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiabilityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sourceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Facthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinematicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actuatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(mechanics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stewart_platformhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomechanicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_(electricity)


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flywheel energy storage organic garbages (through anaerobic digestion) feces (human, animal); may be interesting in a military context as feces of small

combat groups may be reused for the energy requirements of the robot assistant(see DEKA's project Slingshot stirling engine on how the system would operate)

still untested energy sources (eg Joe Cell, ...) radioactive source (such as with the proposed Ford car of the '50); to those

proposed in movies such as Red Planet

[edit] Actuation

A robot leg powered by Air Muscles

Actuators are the "muscles" of a robot, the parts which convertstored energy intomovement. By far the most popular actuators areelectric motors, but there are manyothers, powered by electricity, chemicals, and compressed air.

Motors: The vast majority of robots use electric motors, including brushed and

brushless DC motors. Stepper motors: As the name suggests, stepper motors do not spin freely like DC

motors; they rotate in discrete steps, under the command of a controller. Thismakes them easier to control, as the controller knows exactly how far theyshouldhave rotated, without having to use a sensor. The controller can't tell if the motorhas stalled and the shaft didn't turn. They are used on many robots and CNCmachines, as their main advantage over DC motors, is that you can specify how
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much to turn, for more precise control, rather than a "spin and see where it went"approach.

Piezo motors: A recent alternative to DC motors arepiezo motors orultrasonicmotors. These work on a fundamentally different principle, whereby tinypiezoceramic elements, vibrating many thousands of times per second, cause

linear or rotary motion. There are different mechanisms of operation; one typeuses the vibration of the piezo elements to walk the motor in a circle or a straightline.[12] Another type uses the piezo elements to cause a nut to vibrate and drive ascrew. The advantages of these motors arenanometerresolution, speed, andavailable force for their size.[13]These motors are already available commercially,and being used on some robots.[14][15]

Air muscles: Theair muscleis a simple yet powerful device for providing apulling force. When inflated with compressed air, it contracts by up to 40% of itsoriginal length. The key to its behavior is the braiding visible around the outside,which forces the muscle to be either long and thin, or short and fat (almost like aChinese finger trap). Since it behaves in a very similar way to a biological muscle,

it can be used to construct robots with a similar muscle/skeleton system to ananimal.[16]For example, the Shadow robot hand uses 40 air muscles to power its24 joints.

Electroactive polymers:Electroactive polymers are a class ofplastics whichchange shape in response to electrical stimulation.[17] They can be designed so thatthey bend, stretch, or contract, but so far there are no EAPs suitable forcommercial robots, as they tend to have low efficiency or are not robust.[18]

Indeed, all of the entrants in a recent competition to build EAP powered armwrestling robots, were beaten by a 17 year old girl.[19] However, they are expectedto improve in the future, where they may be useful for microroboticapplications.[20]

Elastic nanotubes: These are a promising, early-stage experimental technology.The absence of defects in nanotubes[disambiguation needed] enables these filaments todeform elastically by several percent, with energy storage levels of perhaps 10Jper cu cm for metal nanotubes. Human biceps could be replaced with an 8mmdiameter wire of this material. Such compact "muscle" might allow future robotsto outrun and outjump humans.[21]

[edit] Sensing

[edit] Touch

Current robotic and prosthetic hands receive far less tactile information than the humanhand. Recent research has developed a tactile sensor array that mimics the mechanicalproperties and touch receptors of human fingertips.[22]The sensor array is constructed as arigid core surrounded by conductive fluid contained by an elastomeric skin. Electrodesare mounted on the surface of the rigid core and are connected to an impedance-measuring device within the core. When the artificial skin touches an object the fluid patharound the electrodes is deformed, producing impedance changes that map the forces
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received from the object. The researchers expect that an important function of suchartificial fingertips will be adjusting robotic grip on held objects.

[edit] Manipulation

Robots which must work in the real world require some way to manipulate objects; pickup, modify, destroy, or otherwise have an effect. Thus the 'hands' of a robot are oftenreferred to as end effectors,[23] while the arm is referred to as a manipulator.[24] Most robotarms have replaceable effectors, each allowing them to perform some small range oftasks. Some have a fixed manipulator which cannot be replaced, while a few have onevery general purpose manipulator, for example a humanoid hand.

Mechanical Grippers: One of the most common effectors is the gripper. In itssimplest manifestation it consists of just two fingers which can open and close topick up and let go of a range of small objects. See industrial robot end effectors.

Vacuum Grippers: Pick and place robots for electronic components and for large

objects like car windscreens, will often use very simple vacuum grippers. Theseare very simple astrictive[25] devices, but can hold very large loads provided theprehension surface is smooth enough to ensure suction.

General purpose effectors: Some advanced robots are beginning to use fullyhumanoid hands, like the Shadow Hand, MANUS,[26]and the Schunk hand.[27]

These highly dexterous manipulators, with as many as 20degrees of freedomandhundreds of tactile sensors.[28]

For the definitive guide to all forms of robot endeffectors, their design, and usage consultthe book "Robot Grippers".[29]

[edit] Locomotion

See also: Robot locomotion

[edit] Rolling robots
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Segway in the Robot museum inNagoya.

For simplicity, most mobile robots have fourwheels. However, some researchers havetried to create more complex wheeled robots, with only one or two wheels.

Two-wheeled balancing: While the Segway is not commonly thought of as arobot, it can be thought of as a component of a robot. Several real robots do use asimilar dynamic balancing algorithm, andNASA's Robonaut has been mountedon a Segway.[30]

Ballbot:Carnegie Mellon University researchers have developed a new type ofmobile robot that balances on a ball instead of legs or wheels. "Ballbot" is a self-contained, battery-operated, omnidirectional robot that balances dynamically on asingle urethane-coated metal sphere. It weighs 95 pounds and is the approximateheight and width of a person. Because of its long, thin shape and ability tomaneuver in tight spaces, it has the potential to function better than current robots

can in environments with people.[31]

Track Robot: Another type of rolling robot is one that has tracks, like NASA'sUrban Robot, Urbie.[32]

[edit] Walking robots

iCub robot, designed by the RobotCub Consortium

Walking is a difficult and dynamic problem to solve. Several robots have been madewhich can walk reliably on two legs, however none have yet been made which are asrobust as a human. Many other robots have been built that walk on more than two legs,due to these robots being significantly easier to construct.[33][34] Hybrids too have beenproposed in movies such as I, Robot, where they walk on 2 legs and switch to 4(arms+legs) when going to a sprint. Typically, robots on 2 legs can walk well on flat
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floors, and can occasionally walk up stairs. None can walk over rocky, uneven terrain.Some of the methods which have been tried are:

ZMP Technique: The Zero Moment Point (ZMP) is the algorithm used by robotssuch as Honda's ASIMO. The robot's onboard computer tries to keep the total

inertial forces(the combination of earth's gravity and the acceleration anddeceleration of walking), exactly opposed by the floorreaction force(the force ofthe floor pushing back on the robot's foot). In this way, the two forces cancel out,leaving no moment (force causing the robot to rotate and fall over).[35] However,this is not exactly how a human walks, and the difference is quite apparent tohuman observers, some of whom have pointed out that ASIMO walks as if itneeds the lavatory.[36][37][38] ASIMO's walking algorithm is not static, and somedynamic balancing is used (See below). However, it still requires a smoothsurface to walk on.

Hopping: Several robots, built in the 1980s byMarc Raibert at the MITLegLaboratory, successfully demonstrated very dynamic walking. Initially, a robot

with only one leg, and a very small foot, could stay upright simply by hopping.The movement is the same as that of a person on apogo stick. As the robot falls toone side, it would jump slightly in that direction, in order to catch itself.[39] Soon,the algorithm was generalised to two and four legs. A bipedal robot wasdemonstrated running and even performing somersaults.[40]Aquadrupedwas alsodemonstrated which could trot, run,pace, and bound.[41]For a full list of theserobots, see the MIT Leg Lab Robots page.

Dynamic Balancing or controlled falling: A more advanced way for a robot towalk is by using a dynamic balancing algorithm, which is potentially more robustthan the Zero Moment Point technique, as it constantly monitors the robot'smotion, and places the feet in order to maintain stability.[42] This technique was

recently demonstrated by Anybots' Dexter Robot,

[43]

which is so stable, it can evenjump.[44]Another example is the TU Delft Flame. Passive Dynamics: Perhaps the most promising approach utilizespassive

dynamics where the momentum of swinging limbs is used for greaterefficiency.It has been shown that totally unpowered humanoid mechanisms can walk down agentle slope, using only gravity to propel themselves. Using this technique, arobot need only supply a small amount of motor power to walk along a flatsurface or a little more to walk up ahill. This technique promises to make walkingrobots at least ten times more efficient than ZMP walkers, like ASIMO.[45][46]

[edit] Other methods of locomotion
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RQ-4 Global Hawkunmanned aerial vehicle

Flying: A modernpassenger airlineris essentially aflyingrobot, with twohumans to manage it. The autopilot can control the plane for each stage of thejourney, including takeoff, normal flight, and even landing.[47] Other flying robotsare uninhabited, and are known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). They can besmaller and lighter without a human pilot onboard, and fly into dangerousterritory for military surveillance missions. Some can even fire on targets under

command. UAVs are also being developed which can fire on targetsautomatically, without the need for a command from a human. However theserobots are unlikely to see service in the foreseeable future because of the moralityissues involved. Other flying robots include cruise missiles, the Entomopter, andthe Epson micro helicopter robot. Robots such as theAir Penguin, Air Ray, andAir Jelly have lighter-than-air bodies, propelled by paddles, and guided by sonar.

Two robot snakes. Left one has 64 motors (with 2 degrees of freedom per segment), theright one 10.

Snaking: Several snake robots have been successfully developed. Mimicking theway real snakes move, these robots can navigate very confined spaces, meaningthey may one day be used to search for people trapped in collapsed buildings.[48]

The Japanese ACM-R5 snake robot[49]can even navigate both on land and inwater.[50]

Skating: A small number ofskating robots have been developed, one of which isa multi-mode walking and skating device, Titan VIII[dead link]. It has four legs, withunpowered wheels, which can either step or roll.[51] Another robot, Plen, can use aminiature skateboard or rollerskates, and skate across a desktop.[52]
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Climbing: Several different approaches have been used to develop robots thathave the ability to climb vertical surfaces. One approach mimicks the movementsof a human climberon a wall with protrusions; adjusting the center of massandmoving each limb in turn to gain leverage. An example of this is Capuchin,[53]

built by Stanford University, California. Another approach uses the specialised toe

pad method of wall-climbing geckoes, which can run on smooth surfaces such asvertical glass. Examples of this approach include Wallbot[54] and Stickybot.[55] Athird approach is to mimick the motion of a snake climbing a pole[citation needed].

Swimming: It is calculated that when swimmingsome fish can achieve apropulsive efficiency greater than 90%.[56] Furthermore, they can accelerate andmaneuver far better than any man-madeboatorsubmarine, and produce less noiseand water disturbance. Therefore, many researchers studying underwater robotswould like to copy this type of locomotion.[57] Notable examples are theEssexUniversity Computer Science Robotic Fish,[58]and the Robot Tuna built by theInstitute of Field Robotics, to analyze and mathematically model thunniformmotion.[59] The Aqua Penguin, designed and built by Festo of Germany, copies the

streamlined shape and propulsion by front "flippers" ofpenguins. Festo have alsobuilt the Aqua Ray and Aqua Jelly, which emulate the locomotion of manta ray,and jellyfish, respectively.

[edit] Environmental interaction and navigation

RADAR, GPS, LIDAR, ... are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacleavoidance

This section does not citeany references or sources. Please help improve this articleby adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may bechallenged andremoved. (July 2009)

Though a significant percentage of robots in commission today are either humancontrolled, or operate in a static environment, there is an increasing interest in robots thatcan operate autonomously in a dynamic environment. These robots require somecombination ofnavigation hardware and software in order to traverse their environment.
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In particular unforeseen events (eg. people and other obstacles that are not stationary) cancause problems or collisions. Some highly advanced robots asASIMO,EveR-1, Meinrobot have particularly good robot navigation hardware and software. Also,self-controlled cars, Ernst Dickmanns' driverless car, and the entries in theDARPA GrandChallenge, are capable of sensing the environment well and subsequently making

navigational decisions based on this information. Most of these robots employ a GPSnavigation device with waypoints, along withradar, sometimes combined with othersensory data such as LIDAR,video cameras, andinertial guidance systems for betternavigation between waypoints.

[edit] Human-robot interaction

Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.

If robots are to work effectively in homes and other non-industrial environments, the waythey are instructed to perform their jobs, and especially how they will be told to stop will

be of critical importance. The people who interact with them may have little or notraining in robotics, and so any interface will need to be extremely intuitive. Sciencefiction authors also typically assume that robots will eventually be capable ofcommunicating with humans through speech,gestures, and facial expressions, rather thanacommand-line interface. Although speech would be the most natural way for the humanto communicate, it is quite unnatural for the robot. It will be quite a while before robotsinteract as naturally as the fictional C-3PO.

Speech recognition: Interpreting the continuous flow ofsounds coming from ahuman (speech recognition), in real time, is a difficult task for a computer, mostlybecause of the great variability ofspeech. The same word, spoken by the same

person may sound different depending on local acoustics, volume, the previousword, whether or not the speaker has a cold, etc.. It becomes even harder whenthe speaker has a different accent.[60] Nevertheless, great strides have been made inthe field since Davis, Biddulph, and Balashek designed the first "voice inputsystem" which recognized "ten digits spoken by a single user with 100%accuracy" in 1952.[61] Currently, the best systems can recognize continuous,natural speech, up to 160 words per minute, with an accuracy of 95%.[62]
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Gestures: One can imagine, in the future, explaining to a robot chef how to makea pastry, or asking directions from a robot police officer. On both of theseoccasions, making hand gestureswould aid the verbal descriptions. In the firstcase, the robot would be recognizing gestures made by the human, and perhapsrepeating them for confirmation. In the second case, the robot police officer

would gesture to indicate "down the road, then turn right". It is quite likely thatgestures will make up a part of the interaction between humans and robots.[63]Agreat many systems have been developed to recognize human hand gestures.[64]

Facial expression:Facial expressions can provide rapid feedback on the progressof a dialog between two humans, and soon it may be able to do the same forhumans and robots. Frubber robotic faces have been constructed by HansonRobotics, allowing a great amount of facial expressions due to the elasticity of therubber facial coating and imbedded subsurface motors (servos) to produce thefacial expressions.[65]The coating and servos are built on a metalskull. A robotshould know how to approach a human, judging by their facial expression andbody language. Whether the person is happy, frightened, or crazy-looking affects

the type of interaction expected of the robot. Likewise, robots like Kismet and themore recent addition, Nexi[66]can produce a range of facial expressions, allowingit to have meaningful social exchanges with humans.[67]

Artificial emotions Artificial emotions can also be imbedded and are composedof a sequence of facial expressions and/or gestures. As can be seen from themovie Final Fantasy: The Spirits Within, the programming of these artificialemotions is quite complex and requires a great amount of human observation. Tosimplify this programming in the movie, presets were created together with aspecial software program. This decreased the amount of time needed to make thefilm. These presets could possibly be transferred for use in real-life robots.

Personality: Many of the robots of science fiction have apersonality, something

which may or may not be desirable in the commercial robots of the future.[68]

Nevertheless, researchers are trying to create robots which appear to have apersonality:[69][70] i.e. they use sounds, facial expressions, and body language to tryto convey an internal state, which may be joy, sadness, or fear. One commercialexample is Pleo, a toy robot dinosaur, which can exhibit several apparentemotions.[71]

[edit] Control
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A robot-manipulated marionette, with complex control systems

This section does not citeany references or sources. Please help improve this article

by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may bechallenged andremoved. (July 2009)

The mechanicalstructure of a robot must be controlled to perform tasks. The control of arobot involves three distinct phases - perception, processing, and action (roboticparadigms). Sensors give information about the environment or the robot itself (e.g. theposition of its joints or its end effector). This information is then processed to calculatethe appropriate signals to the actuators (motors) which move the mechanical.

The processing phase can range in complexity. At a reactive level, it may translate rawsensor information directly into actuator commands. Sensor fusion may first be used to

estimate parameters of interest (e.g. the position of the robot's gripper) from noisy sensordata. An immediate task (such as moving the gripper in a certain direction) is inferredfrom these estimates. Techniques from control theory convert the task into commandsthat drive the actuators.

At longer time scales or with more sophisticated tasks, the robot may need to build andreason with a "cognitive" model. Cognitive models try to represent the robot, the world,and how they interact. Pattern recognition and computer vision can be used to trackobjects. Mapping techniques can be used to build maps of the world. Finally, motionplanning and otherartificial intelligence techniques may be used to figure out how to act.For example, a planner may figure out how to achieve a task without hitting obstacles,

falling over, etc.

Control systems may also have varying levels of autonomy. Direct interaction is used forhapticor tele-operated devices, and the human has nearly complete control over therobot's motion. Operator-assist modes have the operator commanding medium-to-high-level tasks, with the robot automatically figuring out how to achieve them. Anautonomous robot may go for extended periods of time without human interaction.Higher levels of autonomy do not necessarily require more complex cognitive
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capabilities. For example, robots in assembly plants are completely autonomous, butoperate in a fixed pattern.

[edit] Dynamics and kinematics


The study of motion can be divided into kinematicsand dynamics. Direct kinematicsrefers to the calculation of end effector position, orientation, velocity, and accelerationwhen the corresponding joint values are known. Inverse kinematics refers to the oppositecase in which required joint values are calculated for given end effector values, as done inpath planning. Some special aspects of kinematics include handling of redundancy(different possibilities of performing the same movement),collision avoidance, and

singularity avoidance. Once all relevant positions, velocities, and accelerations have beencalculated using kinematics, methods from the field ofdynamicsare used to study theeffect offorces upon these movements. Direct dynamics refers to the calculation ofaccelerations in the robot once the applied forces are known. Direct dynamics is used incomputer simulations of the robot. Inverse dynamics refers to the calculation of theactuator forces necessary to create a prescribed end effector acceleration. Thisinformation can be used to improve the control algorithms of a robot.

In each area mentioned above, researchers strive to develop new concepts and strategies,improve existing ones, and improve the interaction between these areas. To do this,criteria for "optimal" performance and ways to optimize design, structure, and control ofrobots must be developed and implemented.

[edit] Robot research
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TOPIO, a robot can play ping-pong, developed by TOSY. [72]

Further information: Open-source robotics andEvolutionary robotics

Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but oninvestigations into new types of robots, alternative ways to think about or design robots,and new ways to manufacture them.

A first particular new innovation in robotdesign is the opensourcing of robot-projects. To

describe the level of advancement of a robot, the term "Generation Robots" can be used.This term is coined by ProfessorHans Moravec, Principal Research Scientist at theCarnegie Mellon UniversityRobotics Institute in describing the near future evolution ofrobot technology.First, second and third generation robots areFirst generation robots,Moravec predicted in 1997, should have an intellectual capacity comparable to perhaps alizardand should become available by 2010. Because thefirst generation robot would beincapable oflearning, however, Moravec predicts that thesecond generation robot wouldbe an improvement over thefirstand become available by 2020, with an intelligencemaybe comparable to that of amouse. The third generation robot should have anintelligence comparable to that of amonkey. Thoughfourth generation robots, robotswithhuman intelligence, professor Moravec predicts, would become possible, he does

not predict this happening before around 2040 or 2050.

[73]

The second is Evolutionary Robots. This is a methodology that uses evolutionarycomputation to help design robots, especially the body form, or motion and behaviorcontrollers. In a similar way to natural evolution, a large population of robots is allowedto compete in some way, or their ability to perform a task is measured using afitnessfunction. Those that perform worst are removed from the population, and replaced by anew set, which have new behaviors based on those of the winners. Over time the
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population improves, and eventually a satisfactory robot may appear. This happenswithout any direct programming of the robots by the researchers. Researchers use thismethod both to create better robots,[74]and to explore the nature of evolution.[75] Becausethe process often requires many generations of robots to be simulated, this technique maybe run entirely or mostly in simulation, then tested on real robots once the evolved

algorithms are good enough.[76]

Currently, there are about 1 million industrial robotstoiling around the world, and Japan is the top country having high density of utilizingrobots in its manufacturing industry.[77]

[edit] Education and training

The SCORBOT-ER 4u- educational robot.

Robotics as an undergraduate area of study is fairly common, although few universitiesoffer robotics degrees.

In the United States, only Worcester Polytechnic Institute (WPI) offers a Bachelor ofScience in Robotics Engineering. Universities that have graduate degrees focused onrobotics include Carnegie Mellon University, MIT, UPENN, UCLA,WPI, andSDSM&T.

In Australia, there are Bachelor of Engineering degrees at the universities belonging tothe Centre for Autonomous Systems (CAS)[78]: University of Sydney, University of NewSouth Wales, and the University of Technology, Sydney. Other universities includeDeakin University,Flinders University,Swinburne University of Technology,University
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of Western Australia, and the University of Western Sydney. Others offer degrees inMechatronics.

In India a post-graduate degree in Mechatronics is offered at Madras Institute ofTechnology,Chennai. Mechatronics at bachelor level is offered at SASTRA university,

Thanjur and kongu college of engineering,Erode.

In the UK, Robotics degrees are offered by a number of institutions including the Heriot-Watt University, University of Essex, the University of Liverpool, University of Reading,Sheffield Hallam University, Staffordshire University, University of Sussex, RobertGordon University, and theUniversity of Wales, Newport.

In Mexico, the Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education offers aBachelor of Science in Digital Systems and Robotics Engineering[79] and a Bachelor ofScience in Mechatronics.[80]

In Iran, the Shahrood University of Technology and Hamedan University of Technologyoffer a Bachelor of Science in Robotics Engineering. Others offer degrees inMechatronics. Universities that have graduate degrees focused on Mechatronics includeSharif University of Technology,Amirkabir University of Technology,K. N. ToosiUniversity of Technology, University of Tabriz, and Semnan University.

Robots recently became a popular tool in raising interests in computing for middle andhigh school students. First year computer science courses at several universities weredeveloped which involves the programming of a robot instead of the traditional softwareengineering based coursework. Examples include Course 6 at MIT and the Institute forPersonal Robots in Educationat theGeorgia Institute of Technology with Bryn Mawr

College.Some specialised robotics jobs require new skills, such as those of robot installer androbot integrator.[81] While universities have long included robotics research in theircurricular offerings and tech schools have taught industrial robotic arm control, newcollege programs in applied mobile robots are under development at universities in boththe US and EU, with help from Microsoft, MobileRobots Inc., and other companiesencouraging the growth of robotics.

Robotics courses are also available online, for example at RAS Robotic Courseware.

[edit] Employment in robotics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Sydneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heriot-Watt_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heriot-Watt_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Essexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Hallam_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sussexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wales,_Newporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wales,_Newporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterrey_Institute_of_Technology_and_Higher_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-78#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-79#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahrood_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharif_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharif_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amirkabir_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amirkabir_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._N._Toosi_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._N._Toosi_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tabrizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Personal_Robots_in_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Personal_Robots_in_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Personal_Robots_in_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-80#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsofthttp://roboticscourseware.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=19http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Australiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Western_Sydneyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madras_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chennaihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erodehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heriot-Watt_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heriot-Watt_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Essexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Readinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield_Hallam_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Sussexhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Gordon_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Wales,_Newporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexicohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterrey_Institute_of_Technology_and_Higher_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-78#cite_note-78http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-79#cite_note-79http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iranhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shahrood_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechatronicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharif_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amirkabir_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._N._Toosi_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K._N._Toosi_University_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Tabrizhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Personal_Robots_in_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_for_Personal_Robots_in_Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgia_Institute_of_Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryn_Mawr_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robotics#cite_note-80#cite_note-80http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsofthttp://roboticscourseware.org/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robotics&action=edit&section=19


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A robot technician builds small all-terrain robots. (Courtesy: MobileRobots Inc)

As the number of robots increases, robotics-related jobs grow. Some jobs require existingjob skills, such as building cables, assembling parts, and testing.

[edit] Healthcare


Script Pro manufactures a robot designed to help pharmacies fill prescriptions that consist

of oral solids ormedications in pill form. Thepharmacist orpharmacy technician entersthe prescription information into its information system. The system, upon determiningwhether or not the drug is in the robot, will send the information to the robot for filling.The robot has 3 different size vials to fill determined by the size of the pill. The robottechnician, user, or pharmacist determines the needed size of the vial based on the tabletwhen the robot is stocked. Once the vial is filled it is brought up to a conveyor belt thatdelivers it to a holder that spins the vial and attaches the patient label. Afterwards it is seton another conveyor that delivers the patients medication vial to a slot labeled with thepatient's name on an LED read out. The pharmacist or technician then checks the contentsof the vial to ensure its the correct drug for the correct patient and then seals the vialsand sends it out front to be picked up. The robot is a very time efficient device that the

pharmacy depends on to fill pres

Documents

The Shadow Robot Hand System Robotics is the Engineering Science