The Science of PsychologyThe Science of PsychologyChapter 1

Psychology as a SciencePsychology as a Science•PsychologyPsychology - scientific study of behavior - scientific study of behavior and mental processesand mental processes

•Goals of Psychology Goals of Psychology •describe behaviordescribe behavior

•explain behaviorexplain behavior

•predict behaviorpredict behavior

•control “some” behaviorcontrol “some” behavior

The Fields of PsychologyThe Fields of Psychology

Developmental PsychologyDevelopmental Psychology

Studies changes that accompany ageStudies changes that accompany age

• • child psychologistschild psychologists

• • gerontologistsgerontologists

• • life-span psychologistslife-span psychologists

Physiological PsychologyPhysiological Psychology

Studies Biological basis of behaviorStudies Biological basis of behavior • • neuropsychologyneuropsychology

• • psychobiologypsychobiology

• • genetics and hereditygenetics and heredity

Experimental PsychologyExperimental Psychology

• learninglearning

• memorymemory

• perceptionperception

• emotionemotion

Research on basic psychological Research on basic psychological processes:processes:

Personality PsychologyPersonality Psychology

• study differences among individualsstudy differences among individuals

• develop theories about the causes of develop theories about the causes of these differencesthese differences

• use tests and questionnaires to measure use tests and questionnaires to measure these differencesthese differences

Social PsychologySocial Psychology

• How do people influence one another?How do people influence one another?

• group behaviorgroup behavior

• leadershipleadership

• altruismaltruism

• conformity and obedienceconformity and obedience

Industrial & Organizational Industrial & Organizational PsychologyPsychology

I/O psychologists are interested in I/O psychologists are interested in • selecting and training personnel selecting and training personnel

• improving productivity and working conditionsimproving productivity and working conditions

• stress and other worker problemsstress and other worker problems

• Designing products for comsumer Designing products for comsumer convenience, safety, appealconvenience, safety, appeal

Clinical & Counseling PsychologyClinical & Counseling Psychology(Applied Psychology)(Applied Psychology)

• Clinical psychologistsClinical psychologists - diagnosis, cause, - diagnosis, cause, and treatment of psychological disorders.and treatment of psychological disorders.

• Counseling psychologistsCounseling psychologists - “normal” - “normal” problems of adjustments in life.problems of adjustments in life.

Areas by ProfessionAreas by ProfessionClinical

Counseling

Education/School

Industrial/Organizational

Other

•More than half of all psychologists work in “Applied” areas such as clinical

Professional AssociationsProfessional Associations

1. American Psychological Association 1. American Psychological Association (APA)(APA)largestlargest organization, founded in 1892 organization, founded in 1892

2. American Psychological Society (APS)2. American Psychological Society (APS)

founded in 1988, more “research” focusedfounded in 1988, more “research” focused

Enduring Issues in PsychologyEnduring Issues in Psychology

Person Person vs. vs. Situation Situation

Nature vs. NurtureNature vs. Nurture

Stability vs. ChangeStability vs. Change

Determinism vs. Free WillDeterminism vs. Free Will

The “mind - body” problemThe “mind - body” problem

Psychology is a SciencePsychology is a Science• Scientific Method Scientific Method --

– generate theory-based testable hypotheses– collect data– use data to further develop the theory

• TheoryTheory - - systematic organization of facts systematic organization of facts relating to a general area (big bang theory) relating to a general area (big bang theory)

• HypothesisHypothesis - - A specific testable prediction A specific testable prediction (planets are moving apart)(planets are moving apart)

The History of PsychologyThe History of Psychology• Psychology is only about 100 years oldPsychology is only about 100 years old

• It developed out of two other sciencesIt developed out of two other sciences

Philosophy Physiology

Psychology

The Growth of PsychologyThe Growth of Psychology

• Beginning in the late 1800s different Beginning in the late 1800s different “schools of thought” developed, first in “schools of thought” developed, first in Europe and later in the United StatesEurope and later in the United States

Structuralism: Wilhelm WundtStructuralism: Wilhelm Wundt• Wundt is considered by many to be the Wundt is considered by many to be the

“father of psychology”“father of psychology”

• Wundt opened the first psychological Wundt opened the first psychological laboratory in Liepzig, in 1879laboratory in Liepzig, in 1879

• Goal Goal - - to discover the basic units of to discover the basic units of conscious “atoms of thought” To discover conscious “atoms of thought” To discover the mind’s “structure”the mind’s “structure”

• MethodMethod - - Objective introspection Objective introspection

Functionalism: William JamesFunctionalism: William James

• Consciousness is constantly “flowing like a Consciousness is constantly “flowing like a river” and cannot be broken into “atoms of river” and cannot be broken into “atoms of thought”thought”

• James felt that Wundt left out James felt that Wundt left out the“associations” of consciousnessthe“associations” of consciousness

• Goal - to understand how our senses allow Goal - to understand how our senses allow us to “function” in the environmentus to “function” in the environment

Psychoanalysis: Sigmund FreudPsychoanalysis: Sigmund Freud• First modern personality theoristFirst modern personality theorist

• Focused on the unconscious Focused on the unconscious determinants of behaviordeterminants of behavior

• Freud developed a method of therapy Freud developed a method of therapy called psychoanalysiscalled psychoanalysis

• Psychoanalysis is also Freud’s theory of Psychoanalysis is also Freud’s theory of personality and method of researchpersonality and method of research

• biologically “deterministic” little free willbiologically “deterministic” little free will

Behaviorism: Watson & SkinnerBehaviorism: Watson & Skinner• Founder - John B. WatsonFounder - John B. Watson

• Goal - Psychologists should study only Goal - Psychologists should study only “observable behaviors” “observable behaviors”

• Watson & Raynor’s (1921) “Little Albert Watson & Raynor’s (1921) “Little Albert Study” demonstrated that Pavlov’s classical Study” demonstrated that Pavlov’s classical conditioning works in humans conditioning works in humans

• B. F. Skinner - focused on Operant B. F. Skinner - focused on Operant (Instrumental) conditioning in which the (Instrumental) conditioning in which the learner plays an active rolelearner plays an active role

• Environmentally “Deterministic” little free willEnvironmentally “Deterministic” little free will

Cognitive PsychologyCognitive Psychology

• Has grown rapidly since the1950s, thoughts Has grown rapidly since the1950s, thoughts are considered behaviors and therefore open are considered behaviors and therefore open to scientific studyto scientific study

• Often views the brain within a “computer” Often views the brain within a “computer” model with input, output, storage, etc. model with input, output, storage, etc.

• Concerned with memory, thinking, Concerned with memory, thinking, language, learning, decision makinglanguage, learning, decision making

Gestalt: Max WertheimerGestalt: Max Wertheimer• Goal - to understand how we “perceive” Goal - to understand how we “perceive”

objects in our worldobjects in our world

• Gestalt - means Gestalt - means “whole” “whole” or good formor good form

• Law of Pragnanz Law of Pragnanz - We tend to see things in - We tend to see things in the simplest possible waythe simplest possible way

• Gestalt Principles - closure, similarity, Gestalt Principles - closure, similarity, proximity, continuity, etc.proximity, continuity, etc.

Gestalt Principles of GroupingGestalt Principles of Grouping

• proximity:proximity: • similarity:similarity:

Gestalt Principles of GroupingGestalt Principles of Grouping

• closureclosure:: filling in a filling in a figure’s gaps to figure’s gaps to create a whole objectcreate a whole object

Humanistic: Carl RogersHumanistic: Carl Rogers

• Humanism - An optimisitc view of human Humanism - An optimisitc view of human nature. Developed in the 1940s-50s in nature. Developed in the 1940s-50s in response to the “response to the “determinismdeterminism” of ” of psychoanalysis and behaviorism psychoanalysis and behaviorism

• People are basically good and strive to People are basically good and strive to reach their full potentialreach their full potential

• Optimistic view, we have free willOptimistic view, we have free will

Existentialism: Rollo MayExistentialism: Rollo May

• Based on existential philosophyBased on existential philosophy

• Concerned with the “alienation” and “lack Concerned with the “alienation” and “lack of meaning” in our modern technological of meaning” in our modern technological society.society.

• Addresses difficult questions such as What Addresses difficult questions such as What is the “is the “meaning of lifemeaning of life.”.”

Evolutionary PsychologyEvolutionary Psychology

• studies the evolutionary origins of studies the evolutionary origins of behaviors and characteristicsbehaviors and characteristics

• their adaptive valuetheir adaptive value

• how they change over time to meet the how they change over time to meet the demands of the environmentdemands of the environment

Positive PsychologyPositive Psychology

• A recent addition to the fieldA recent addition to the field

• Focuses on the characteristics that Focuses on the characteristics that make people happy and successfulmake people happy and successful

• Asserts that psychology has, in the Asserts that psychology has, in the past, focused too much on the negativepast, focused too much on the negative

Research MethodologiesResearch Methodologies

• Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

• Case StudiesCase Studies

• Surveys and QuestionnairesSurveys and Questionnaires

• Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research

• Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation Observing and recording the behavior of Observing and recording the behavior of

people (or animals) in their natural people (or animals) in their natural environmentenvironment

AdvantagesAdvantages• we see behavior as we see behavior as

it naturally occursit naturally occurs

• no “artificial” no “artificial” laboratory settinglaboratory setting

DisadvantagesDisadvantages• cannot control all cannot control all

variablesvariables

• possible observer possible observer biases or errorbiases or error

Case StudiesCase Studies• In depth description and analysis of a In depth description and analysis of a

single individual (or a few individuals).single individual (or a few individuals).

• Main Advantage Main Advantage - detailed understanding of - detailed understanding of human phenomena such as serial killing (e.g., human phenomena such as serial killing (e.g., Jeffrey Dahmer, or Charles Manson)Jeffrey Dahmer, or Charles Manson)

• Main Disadvantages Main Disadvantages - costly , time - costly , time consuming, inaccurate retrospective consuming, inaccurate retrospective inforamtioninforamtion

Survey/QuestionnairesSurvey/Questionnaires Questionnaires or Surveys are administered Questionnaires or Surveys are administered

to a large group of people.to a large group of people.

AdvantagesAdvantages• much informationmuch information

• inexpensiveinexpensive

• fast and efficientfast and efficient

DisadvantagesDisadvantages• response biasesresponse biases

• quality of responsesquality of responses

Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research• CorrelationCorrelation - Number that indicates the - Number that indicates the

relationship between two or more variablesrelationship between two or more variables

• ValuesValues - can range from -1 to +1 - can range from -1 to +1

• Scatterplot: Scatterplot: visually represents a correlationvisually represents a correlation

• When a strong correlation exists, one variable When a strong correlation exists, one variable (SAT score) can be used to PREDICT the (SAT score) can be used to PREDICT the value of a second variable ( college GPA)value of a second variable ( college GPA)

Correlation (cont.)Correlation (cont.)• +1 +1 indicates a perfect positive relationshipindicates a perfect positive relationship

• (e.g., X = Y)(e.g., X = Y)

• Example - Hours studying and GPAExample - Hours studying and GPA

• -1 -1 indicates a perfect negative relationshipindicates a perfect negative relationship

• (e.g., X = -Y)(e.g., X = -Y)

• Example - Hours partying and GPAExample - Hours partying and GPA

• 00 indicates no relationship indicates no relationship

• Example - IQ and shoe sizeExample - IQ and shoe size

Correlation (cont.)Correlation (cont.)

• In the real world +1 and -1 are really seen.In the real world +1 and -1 are really seen.

• Values will range Values will range betweenbetween 0 and + or - 1 0 and + or - 1

• Two variables may correlate highly but that Two variables may correlate highly but that does does NOTNOT mean one variable caused the mean one variable caused the otherother

““CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION”CAUSATION”

Experimental MethodExperimental Method

• the experimenter deliberately the experimenter deliberately manipulates a variable (e.g., therapy manipulates a variable (e.g., therapy vs. no therapy)vs. no therapy)

• the effect of that manipulation on the effect of that manipulation on another variable (e.g., depressive another variable (e.g., depressive symptoms) is then measuredsymptoms) is then measured

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

• independent variable:independent variable: variable that is variable that is manipulated by the experimentermanipulated by the experimenter

• dependent variable:dependent variable: variable that is variable that is measured to see the effect of the measured to see the effect of the independent variable (e.g., does independent variable (e.g., does therapy group get better?)therapy group get better?)

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research• experimental group:experimental group: receives some “ receives some “treatmenttreatment” ”

like getting a drug or psychotheraylike getting a drug or psychotheray• control group:control group: treated exactly the same as the treated exactly the same as the

experimental group but does experimental group but does NOTNOT receive the receive the “treatment”“treatment”

• random assignmentrandom assignment:: subjects must be assigned subjects must be assigned to groups randomly to avoid “bias”to groups randomly to avoid “bias”

Choosing the SampleChoosing the Sample• sample:sample: group of participants selected group of participants selected

to represent the populationto represent the population

• random sample:random sample: each member of the each member of the population has an equal chance of being population has an equal chance of being selected for the sampleselected for the sample

• representative sample:representative sample: makeup of the makeup of the sample (e.g., proportion of males and sample (e.g., proportion of males and females) matches the populationfemales) matches the population

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

• AdvantagesAdvantages

• conclusions about conclusions about causality can be causality can be mademade

• unwanted variables unwanted variables can be controlled or can be controlled or eliminatedeliminated

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages

• ethical issues ethical issues

• lab situation is lab situation is “artificial” and “artificial” and results may not results may not generalize to the generalize to the “real world”“real world”

Stanley Milgram’s Obedience StudyStanley Milgram’s Obedience Study• 1963 social psychology experiment, 1963 social psychology experiment,

subjects thought they were shocking subjects thought they were shocking another person to promote “learning”another person to promote “learning”

• Many subjects delivered high level shocks Many subjects delivered high level shocks and were upset when they later learned the and were upset when they later learned the true nature of the experimenttrue nature of the experiment

• This study, This study, and other factorsand other factors, led to much , led to much more stringent APA resarch guidlines more stringent APA resarch guidlines

APA Ethical Guidelines (humans)APA Ethical Guidelines (humans)

• informed consentinformed consent

• awareness of risksawareness of risks

• confidentialityconfidentiality

• deception can be used ONLY if benefits deception can be used ONLY if benefits justify it and there is no other way to do the justify it and there is no other way to do the studystudy

APA Ethical Guidelines (animals)APA Ethical Guidelines (animals)

• Researchers must ensure “appropriate Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration of [the animal’s] consideration of [the animal’s] comfort, health, and humane comfort, health, and humane treatment.”treatment.”

• Animals may not be subjected to “pain Animals may not be subjected to “pain or stress” when an alternative or stress” when an alternative procedure is available.procedure is available.