1

APA Format Guide

Psychology Department

Mount Allison University

September 2016

2

Table of Contents

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................3

Section 1: General Requirements of APA Format......................................................................4

Setting up the Document .........................................................................................................4

Writing Style ...........................................................................................................................6

Citations ...................................................................................................................................7

References ...............................................................................................................................8

Other APA Requirements ......................................................................................................12

Section 2: APA Format for Lab Reports ...................................................................................13

Lab Reports: The Title Page .......................................................................................................13

Lab Reports: The Abstract ........................................................................................................14

Lab Reports: The Introduction ...................................................................................................15

Lab Reports: The Method Section .............................................................................................16

Lab Reports: The Results Section ..............................................................................................20

Tables and Figures .............................................................................................................21

Lab Reports: The Discussion Section ........................................................................................24

Lab Reports: The References Section ........................................................................................26

Lab Reports: Appendices ..........................................................................................................26

Section 3: Paraphrasing and Avoiding Plagiarism ...................................................................27

Section 4: Resources ....................................................................................................................30

Section 5: Sample Lab Report ....................................................................................................32

Section 6: APA Checklist.............................................................................................................45

3

APA Format Guide

Mount Allison’s Psychology department follows the American Psychological Association

(APA) format for most written assignments, including essays and lab reports. It is the standard

format used in the field of psychology. Students taking psychology courses at MTA are expected

to master APA format. This guide is adapted from the Publication Manual of the American

Psychological Association, 6th Edition, which sets out all the criteria for APA format.

This guide has been developed for students who are beginning to learn and apply APA

format. Therefore, it gives the minimum information necessary for 2nd year reports and papers

(students in upper year courses, doing research in psychology, or majoring in psychology may

wish to purchase the APA manual, which is available at the bookstore).

When using this guide, it is important to note the following points:

It helps to keep the guide nearby and refer to it often when writing, editing, and doing a

final check of your work. Even writers who regularly use APA format double-check their

papers before submitting them.

Some professors may want other APA formatting that is not included in this guide. For

example, third and fourth year assignments often involve more detailed APA

requirements. Your professor or lab instructor will explain their preferences to you in

class, lab, or in a written document (e.g., on an assignment, in the course syllabus, etc.).

By providing you with an introductory APA guide, we have left out many of the finer

points of APA style that you may encounter elsewhere. Follow this guide and your

instructor’s requirements. If you are uncertain, check with your instructor.

In some instances, we have modified APA format to meet our needs. These modifications

are rare and are noted in this guide. One primary example is on the title page, where we

4

have deleted the running head and author’s note and have added the course name and

date of submission.

There is a list of APA and other writing resources provided in this guide. They are

reliable resources that may be helpful to you. Be cautious with other resources; some

resources that claim to follow APA are not very reliable. For example, many websites

that claim to be able to format a references list in APA style are not very accurate.

One final note: Once journal articles have been published, they have been converted into the

journal’s final publishing style and are no longer in APA style. This can cause confusion, so

remember that APA format is a template that is followed before final publication. Follow the

guide, not what you see in journals.

SECTION 1: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF APA FORMAT

The following list outlines the general formatting requirements of all types of APA

assignments, including essays, lab reports, research proposals, and so on.

Setting up the Document

Use one-inch (2.54 cm) margins on sides, top, and bottom.

Include a title page, as described in Section 2 of this document (page 12).

Number all pages in the top right corner, beginning with the title page as page 1.

Use a 12 point SERIF style font (these are fonts that have “curls” on the letters, such as

Times New Roman, Cambria, or Garamond).

Use plain text formatting, or boldface or italics as outlined in the guide. Do not add extra

design, colour, word art, underlining, and so on.

Type and double-space the entire document including the title page (exception: tables,

drawings and/or math can be spaced smaller to make them easier to read).

5

Left-justify, which means straight edges on left and jagged on the right, like this

document.

Indent each paragraph (except the Abstract – see lab reports below).

There are 5 levels of headings in APA format; however, most papers only use the first

two or three:

o Level 1: Centered horizontally, bolded, title case, text begins on the next line.

o Level 2: Left-justified, bolded, title case, text begins on the next line.

o Level 3: Indented (from left), bolded, sentence case with a period. Text begins on

the same line.

Example of levels of heading (note that any section can have Level 2 and 3 headings).

Method

Participants

Text begins here.

Materials

Text begins here.

Attitude towards campus curfew survey. Text begins here.

Perceived safety on campus questionnaire. Text begins here.

Procedure

Text begins here.

Results

Text begins here.

Discussion

Text begins here.

6

Writing Style

APA documents are written in scientific style, meaning that the writing is formal, factual,

precise, and concise. The APA manual contains two chapters on writing style and mechanics.

The main points are summarized here:

Always paraphrase, cite, and reference your sources of information.

o Paraphrase: put the material entirely into your own words (see Section 3 for more on

how to paraphrase).

o Cite: add notations in the body of the paper to acknowledge the source of the material

you present, even when you have paraphrased (see below for instructions on how to

cite).

o Reference: a separate page at the end of the main document with a listing of the full

information for each source you have cited, providing the detail needed to obtain the

material (see below for instructions on how to format the list).

Avoid direct quotes. Most instructors prefer that you do not use any direct quotes.

Use full sentences and paragraphs, unless otherwise specified.

Use transition sentences to continue the flow of ideas between paragraphs.

Avoid the use of jargon, colloquial writing (informal; writing like you speak), and

clichés.

Avoid biased language, such as using “men” to represent both males and females.

Use accepted terms for minority groups, those with disabilities, various age groups, and

sexual orientation.

Use active voice instead of passive voice.

7

Citations

Citation refers to naming the author or authors whose work you used to help you answer a

question, develop an essay, or write a lab report. Failure to cite someone when you have used

his/her material is plagiarism, which is a serious academic offense. (There is information on how

to avoid plagiarism in Section 3). Citations can be integrated into the body of a sentence or

inserted into parentheses. The following list provides examples of how to cite in APA format:

Always include the author(s)’ last name(s) and the year of publication.

Citations can be in the body of the sentence:

o E.g., “Wilson (1998) proposed that attribution theory…”

Or at the end of the sentence in parentheses:

o E.g., “…and the consequences are apparent in all aspects of social functioning

(Wilson, 1998)”.

List all authors’ last names in the first citation of a source.

If a source has two authors, always cite both names.

If a source has three to five authors, cite all authors’ last names the first time. For

subsequent citations, use the first author’s last name followed by ‘et al.’

o E.g., “Past research (Evans, Smith, & Jones, 2000) ....Indeed, Evans et al. (2000)

found that...”

o E.g., “Lilienfeld, Lynn, Woolf, Cramer, and Schmaltz (2011) stress that

psychology is a science” …and later, “Psychology uses the scientific method

(Lilienfeld et al., 2011).”

Use the word ‘and’ before the last author’s name when the citation in in the body of the

sentence. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name when the citation is in

8

parentheses. (See the preceding examples.)

When a source has six or more authors, cite only the last name of the first author

followed by ‘et al.’ and the year for the first and all subsequent citations.

Every paragraph that uses source material must have a citation, even if the same source

was cited in the previous paragraph.

Pronouns can be used when the same source is repeated within the same paragraph as

long as it is clear that you are referring to the same work. For example: “Smith and Jones

(2006) stated that children learn many social behaviours through imitation. They

explained that… They also suggested that…”

o If there is any possible confusion, use citations instead of pronouns.

Avoid secondary source citations. If you absolutely must use a secondary source citation,

you would put something like: “Freud (1921; cited in Lilienfeld et al., 2011) claimed

that…”

Note that many instructors do not allow secondary source citations. Always check before

you submit your paper.

References

The references provide the full information for every unique source that is cited in the paper.

This allows the reader to find and obtain the original work if they wish. To format the references:

List the sources in alphabetical order by the last name of the first author of each work.

Use a hanging indent for each reference, in which the first line is flush with the left

margin and the other lines are indented (as shown below).

If there are multiple sources by the same author(s), present them from earliest year to

most recent year.

9

o E.g., Smith, P. A., & Jones, M. M. (1988) comes before Smith, P. A., & Jones, M.

M. (1998).

If a source has seven or fewer authors: Include all the authors’ last names and initials in

the reference, in the order that they appear on the source.

If a source has eight or more authors, list the first six authors followed by an ellipse and

then the last author.

o E.g., Smith, H., Aaron, S., MacKenzie, T., Barns, M., Michaud, F., Leaman, P.,

… & Carlton, N.)

The other information to include varies according to the type of source being referenced.

Common formats (some with examples) are shown below. You can find information on

other types of sources in the APA Manual, the APA blog site, or other APA resources

(see Section 4 for a resource list).

Book/Textbook

Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,

Initial. (year). Title of book in italics and sentence case. Location: Publisher.

*Note: If the title of a source has punctuation that ends a sentence or clause such as a period,

colon, question mark, or exclamation point, capitalize the first word after the punctuation

as well. This can be seen in many of these reference examples.

Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Namy, L. A., Woolf, N. J., Cramer, K. M., & Schmaltz, R. (2011).

Psychology: From inquiry to understanding (Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson

Publishing.

Chapter in an Edited Book (book with different authors for each chapter)

Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,

Initial. (year). Title of chapter or entry in sentence case. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C.

10

Editor (Eds.), Title of book in italics and sentence case (pp. xxx-xxx). Location:

Publisher.

Hartline, H. K. (1972). Visual receptors and retinal interaction. In D. Singh & C. T. Morgan

(Eds.), Current status of physiological psychology: Readings (pp. 25-33). California:

Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.

E-Book

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book in italics and sentence case [E-reader version, if applicable].

Retrieved from http://xxxxx

OR

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book in italics and sentence case [E-reader version, if applicable].

doi:xxxxx

Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing,

recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi1: 10.1036/0071393722

E-Book, Chapter in Edited Book

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In B. B. Editor (Ed.), Title of book in italics and sentence

case [E-reader version, if applicable] (pp. xxx–xxx). Retrieved from http://xxxxx

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In B. B. Editor (Ed.), Title of book in italics and sentence

case [E-reader version, if applicable] (pp. xxx–xxx). doi:xxxxx

Journal Article (Published)

Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,

Initial. (year). Title of article in sentence case. Title of Journal in Italics and Title Case,

1 A DOI or “Digital Object Identifier” is a unique code assigned to electronic documents. Many -but not all -

publishers will provide an article's DOI on the first page of the document, or it will be listed in PsychINFO. If the

DOI is available, list it as shown in the example.

11

Volume # in italics, page numbers. doi: #

Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the survival

times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24, 225-229. doi:10.1037/0278-

6133.24.2.225

* Note: The words “Volume”, “Vol.”, or “Pages” do NOT appear in a journal reference, nor does

the issue number.

Journal Article (Advanced online edition)

Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,

Initial. (year). Title of article in sentence case. Title of Journal in Italics and Title Case.

Advance online publication. doi: #

Website (preferred version - with author information)

Name of the site author (year of article or year, month day retrieved). Name of webpage article

in sentence case. Retrieved from: website URL

Indiana University. (2008). Plagiarism: What it is and how to recognize and avoid it. Retrieved

from: http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml

Website (use only when no author information is available)

Name of webpage article (year of article or year, month day retrieved). Retrieved from: website

URL

APA Style. (2010, July 12). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_format

Government Reports

Name of government department that published the report. (year). Report title in italics and

sentence case (Publication number). Retrieved from Agency name website and URL info.

12

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart,

Lung, and Blood Institute. (2003). Managing asthma: A guide for schools (NIH

Publication No. 02-2650). Retrieved from

http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/asthma/asth_sch.pdf

Other APA Requirements

There are many other formatting requirements outlined in the APA manual that often are

tailored to specific situations. This list provides a few common examples that you should follow:

Writing numbers (does not apply to mathematical copy, statistical results, etc.):

o Always spell out numbers that start a sentence.

o Except for the beginning of a sentence, present numbers 10 and above as numerals

(e.g., 65) and spell out numbers under 10 (e.g., seven).

o E.g., “The researchers administered three measures of depression to 67 participants.”

o There are many exceptions to this general rule; if you need clarification, check one of

the APA resources in Section 4.

Give the full text before using abbreviations.

o E.g., “The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a style manual.

The APA manual is used to…”

Italicize mathematical and statistical symbols (see the Results section below for

examples).

13

SECTION 2: APA FORMAT FOR LAB REPORTS

You will write APA lab reports in most of your lab courses. Always follow the general APA

formatting described above and also the specific requirements for lab reports that are detailed

below. There is also a sample lab report at the end of this document, which models APA format

and content and also a lab report checklist to double-check your work.

Lab Reports: The Title Page (Modified from strict APA format)

Write your own unique title (e.g., don’t put “Social Psychology Lab Report” as your

title).

Write a descriptive title, meaning that you should give information about the topic,

variables, the participants, and the method of study (e.g., The Effects of Text Messaging

during Lectures on Course Grades among Undergraduate University Students).

APA recommends a title length of about 12 words but we are more flexible on this. In

general, give more than a few words but nothing that goes on for several lines.

Capitalize important words (called “title case”).

Number the title page as page 1.

Include the title of the paper, your name, the course name or number, the name of the

institution, and the date of submission, each on a separate line.

Type the title about one-third of the way down the page and center and double-space

everything.

14

Sample title page:

Lab Reports: The Abstract

The abstract is a summary of the study. It is generally about 120 words long (about ½ a page,

double-spaced) and should be clear and concise. (Note: Although the APA manual does not

specify an exact number of words, lab reports typically are written for simple, single study

research designs and therefore have short abstracts.)

Begin the abstract on a new page.

Type the word “Abstract” at the top centre of the page (not bolded and without quotation

marks).

Do not indent the first line of the abstract.

Include information on the following:

1

The Effects of Text Messaging During Lectures on Course

Grades Among Undergraduate University Students

Jane Doe

PSYC 1005

Mount Allison University

September 5, 2015

15

o The problem investigated or purpose of the study.

o The participants (specifying important demographic characteristics such as age and

sex, or genus and species for animal studies).

o The essential parts of the method and design (variables, general procedure).

o The basic findings or outcome of the study (including effect sizes and/or statistical

significance levels).

o The conclusions and the implications or applications.

Lab Reports: The Introduction

The introduction provides the reader with background information about the topic that was

investigated and about previous research that has been performed.

Format

Start the introduction on a new page, after the abstract.

Type the title of the paper in plain text (not bolded) at the top of the page and center it.

Do not type the word “Introduction.”

In general, write the introduction in past tense.

Content

A lab report introduction typically has three main components:

A section describing the general topic of interest or problem that exists, including a

review of past research;

A section that describes how the general topic was studied in the present research;

A section that defines and clarifies the terms of the study and clearly states the hypothesis

that were tested.

The figure that follows provides some ideas of what to include in the introduction. For

16

courses with labs, the lab instructor will provide more information on the content of the

introduction.

Lab Reports: The Method Section

This section describes in detail how your study was done. It should contain enough detail so

that others could replicate your study.

Begin the method section after the end of the introduction (not on a new page)

Type the word “Method” (bold and no quotation marks) centered on the next line right

after the last sentence of the introduction.

Write the method section in past tense.

Method sections are broken down into subsections. The typical subsections are for

participants, materials, and procedure; however, other options can be used, such as:

17

apparatus, survey design, data coding, and so on.

Type the subsection headings, in bold, on the left hand side of the page (as shown below).

What follows is a list of the kind of information that should be included in each of the most

common subsections. If you want to include other subsections, check with your instructor. He or

she might also provide you with this information when presenting the method for the lab report.

Participants

The purpose of this section is to describe the study sample. For humans, the preferred

term is “participants” and for other animals, the preferred term is “subjects.”

Lab instructors will often provide you with a list of information to include in this section.

If not, include the following (if the information is available):

o Eligibility and exclusion criteria;

o Total number of participants;

o Major demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, education, etc.);

o Other characteristics relevant to the study (e.g., number of left-handed and right-

handed participants);

o Recruitment and sampling procedures, including an explanation of whether

incentives were given for participation (e.g., course credit, monetary

compensation, gift draw, etc.);

o For animals, provide the genus, species, strain number or other specific

identification (e.g., name and location of supplier), as well as sex, age, weight,

and physiological condition;

o For experiments, the number of participants in each group of the experimental

manipulation (e.g., “Of the 130 participants, 43 were in the low caffeine group, 44

18

were in the high caffeine group, and 43 were in the control group.”).

o Include the number participants who dropped out of the study as it was in

progress, and reasons why when possible (e.g., “One participant had a broken

wrist and could not take part in the mirror tracing portion of study,” or “One male

rat developed an illness on the third day of testing and was removed from further

trials.”)

o Include any other information provided by the instructor for this section.

Materials

There is a wide variety of materials that may be included in a study. This list provides a

general idea of the most common. As for the participant section, your instructor will explain

what should be included in this section for your lab report.

In general, include things like questionnaires, booklets, tests, or equipment that were

unique to the study.

Do not include common materials such as chairs, desks, paper, pencils or pens for

writing, etc., unless these items adhered to specific criteria (e.g., “Each participant used a

black pen for the note-taking condition and a blue pen for the underlining condition.”).

Describe the materials, including how they were obtained or designed (e.g., reliability

and validity of questionnaires, range of scores and what the scores signify, procedures

established for observational methods, etc.).

Describe any apparatus used, including publisher/company information.

Describe any other relevant materials (e.g., if booklets were assembled, the order of the

contents; if voice recordings of word lists, the type of voice, speed, etc.)

When describing, include enough information so that someone could obtain or create

19

similar materials to replicate the study.

Provide appropriate citations (e.g., test publishers, source articles from which

questionnaires were taken, instrument company information, etc.).

Procedure

Summarize each step of the research including instructions to participants, randomization

(how participants were assigned to groups), counterbalancing and other control features

of the design.

Include the steps that are necessary but leave out unimportant information (e.g., do not

include that you said “hello” to the participants, that it was a rainy day, that it was a

Wednesday at 1:30, etc.)

Describe the type of design – within-subject, between-subject, correlational, mixed?

For experiments, describe how the various conditions were manipulated.

Describe the instructions given to participants (if very detailed or if they must be repeated

exactly as in the experiment, add the verbatim instructions in an appendix).

Include information on the setting, duration, timespan, etc.

Be as concise as possible and avoid repetition. Example:

o This: “First, the participants completed the demographic questionnaire. After they

completed this questionnaire, the participants read the study passages.”

o Can be condensed to this: “Participants first completed the demographic

questionnaire and then they read the study passages.”

NOTE: In lab studies, we often require specific information to be in each subsection of the

method. Use your lab notes to ensure you are putting things in the correct place.

20

Lab Reports: The Results Section

This section summarizes the data collected and the analytic treatment of the data.

Start after the end of the method section (not on a new page) and type the word “Results”

in bold in the center of the line (no quotation marks).

Write the section in past tense.

Report sample sizes, means and standard deviations for each category.

Include the test statistic value, degrees of freedom, probability (exact p value), effect size

and direction of effect, and confidence intervals

Report in sufficient detail to justify your conclusions.

Mention all results, even those that run counter to expectation or those that are non-

significant.

Do not report individual scores or raw data.

Give a clear statement about whether each hypothesis was supported (but do not give

explanations of or conclusions from this).

Present results in sentence format.

o E.g., “The effect for age was statistically significant, F(4,43) = 3.54, p = .042, η2

= .21. On average, older participants (M = 29.45, SD = 2.14) performed better on

the verbal task compared to younger participants (M = 22.45, SD = 1.87).

Therefore, the hypothesis that older participants would outperform younger

participants on this task was supported. ”

Do not duplicate information; display descriptive information in a sentence, table, or a

figure.

Your instructor may give you the numerical results to present in your lab report. If so,

21

your task likely will be to format them correctly and to present a table or figure.

Here is the format for commonly used statistics:

F test: F(4,43) = 3.54, p = .004, η2 = .092

t test: t(68) = 5.29, p = .033, d = .213

Correlation: r(58) = .87, p = .001

Chi-square test: X2 (4, N = 90) = 3.51, p = .024

A note on p values: The APA manual is not clear on the standard for reporting these values,

except to say that authors should be consistent in how they are reported, and that exact values

should be reported. Follow the norm established by your instructor. Typically, they will ask for 2

places or 3 places past the decimal.

Additional formatting for results:

Report numbers consistently, usually to two or three decimal places.

Report exact p-values and effect sizes. One exception is when a statistical software

reports the p value as .000. In this case, report p < .001. If you have hand calculated the

statistics, report the p value that was used to decide significance (e.g., p < .05)

Italicize all statistical symbols.

When a statistic can have a range of values greater than 1 or less than -1, place a zero in

front of the decimal (e.g., M = 0.37).

When a statistic has a restricted range of +1 to -1, do not place a zero in front of the

decimal (e.g., p = .084, r = .75).

Tables and Figures

Tables and figures may be used to present the results. Choose the format that presents the

results in the clearest way: Tables are good for reporting descriptive information such as means

22

and standard deviations, especially when there are several experimental conditions. Figures are

good for displaying differences or interactions among conditions. Tables and figures have

specific APA formatting guidelines, as shown in the examples below.

Formatting

Introduce the table in the text that precedes it, using numerals to identify each table as it

appears in the paper (e.g., “Table 1 shows participants’ mean test scores according to

gender and drug level”).

To create the table, first type the table label in plain text and then on the line below that,

type the table title.

Format the title in title case (all important words capitalized) and in italics.

Use tabs to line up the table columns and horizontal lines to distinguish the top, bottom,

and subsections of the table. Do not use vertical lines.

Do not split a table across pages and do not leave large amounts of blank space before or

after a table.

Sample Table

Table 1

Mean Age and Test Scores by Drug Level and Gender

Gender

Group Female Male Mean Age (SD)

_________________________________________________________

Placebo 6 7 28.43 (3.19)

Low dose 6 5 29.12 (3.83)

High dose 7 8 27.97 (3.89)

_________________________________________________________

23

Formatting

Introduce the figure in the text that precedes it, using numerals to identify each figure as

it appears in the paper (e.g., “Figure 2 shows participants’ average recall scores for novel

and retested items”).

Use a 12 point Sans Serif font for the label, description, and caption. Examples are

Calibri, Tahoma, and Arial.

Label both axes and provide a legend if applicable.

Place the figure label in italics below the figure, then place a period after the figure label,

followed by the figure caption in plain text. Use full sentences with punctuation for the

figure description.

The range of values on the y-axis should match the total possible range of the variable

that was tested (e.g., if a test was graded out of 100 points, the axis should range from 0

to 100).

Use grayscale and patterns to distinguish among figure elements; do not use colour.

Add error bars if required by your instructor.

Eliminate any distracting formatting, which can include 3D effects, gridlines, double

borders, and so on.

Embed the figure in the paragraphs of text, as soon as possible after it is introduced OR

place each figure on a separate page after the references section (different instructors

have different preferences).

Do not split a figure across pages and do not leave large amounts of blank space before or

after a figure.

24

Sample Figure

Figure 1. Average recall scores on the final test of the two study passages. Retested items

included six items from each passage that was tested one week prior. Novel items included six

items from each passage that had not been seen previously.

Lab Reports: The Discussion Section

This section is where you interpret the results and discuss the implications of the research.

Format

Begin immediately after the results section (not on a new page).

Type the word “Discussion” (bold, no quotations) centered on the page.

Describe the results in past tense and discuss conclusions in present tense.

Content

Begin with a short restatement of the purpose of the study.

Discuss the result of each hypothesis test, beginning with a statement of whether the

hypothesis was supported.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Retested Items Novel Items

Ave

rage

Rec

all S

core

25

Discuss all results, even non-significant ones.

Provide information on limitations and next steps.

End with an overall summary and conclusion (“take home” message).

A special note on wording: Non-significant and insignificant have different meanings.

Non-significant refers to whether the results occurred significantly above chance levels,

while insignificant means that something is trivial or not important.

The figure that follows provides some ideas of what to include in the discussion. For

courses with labs, the lab instructor will provide more information on the content of the

discussion section.

26

Lab Reports: The References Section

The reference list appears at the end of the discussion. It provides the information necessary

for the reader to locate and retrieve any source you have cited in your paper.

Begin on a new page and type the word “References” centered at the top of the page (not

bolded and without quotation marks).

Follow the guidelines specified in Section 1 of this document.

Lab Reports: Appendices

Appropriate for materials that are relatively brief and that are easily presented in print

format (e.g., copy of an unpublished questionnaire, word lists, detailed description of a

complex piece of equipment, etc.)

Each appendix begins on a new page and appears after the list of references and any

attached figures.

If there is only one appendix, label it Appendix.

If there is more than one, use letters to identify each, in the other that they appear in the

paper (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B)

To create an appendix, go to a new page and type the label at the top center, in bold (e.g.,

Appendix or Appendix A). On the line below the label, type the title of the appendix in

bold lettering and in title case. Attach the appended materials starting on the line below

the title. An example is shown in the sample lab report.

27

SECTION 3: PARAPHRASING AND AVOIDING PLAGIARISM

In general, plagiarism is the use of another person’s words, phrases, or ideas without proper

acknowledgement. Mount Allison, like most other educational institutions, regards plagiarism as

a form of academic dishonesty and the penalties for plagiarism can be severe.2 In writing,

plagiarism can occur when:

You copy a direct quote from an author without citing the source of the quote and/or

without indicating that it is a direct quote;

You paraphrase another’s work too closely, even if you cite the source (often called

mosaic plagiarism); and

You model your work too closely on the work of another person.

Many students understand how to avoid the first type of plagiarism but struggle to avoid the

second two types. A general strategy to avoid plagiarism is to:

1) Place the information completely in your own words, and

2) Always cite the source of your facts and information, and

3) List your sources in a reference list.

Use Your Own Words (Paraphrase Properly)

The phrase “use your own words” sounds simple but it is often very challenging for students,

especially those in first and second year. Placing the material into your own words takes practice

and effort. Here are some strategies you can use:

Take notes in your own wording as you read the original work (better than

highlighting the original).

2 See Mount Allison’s Academic Calendar, section 10.6 “Academic Integrity” for more information:

http://www.mta.ca/calendar/_10.html#_10.6

28

o Be sure to mark down the information necessary to create the reference entry

o If you must write something word for word, put it in direct quotes and put the

page number. Remember to paraphrase it when you add it to your paper. As

mentioned above, many instructors do not allow direct quotes on assignments or

lab reports.

Make sure you understand the material very well before you start to write your paper.

The more you understand it, the less likely you will be to plagiarize.

When it is time to write, use your notes to make a point form outline of what you want

to say.

Put all of the original sources away and write from memory, using your notes and

outline as a guide. (If you cannot do this, you may not be ready to write and should

consider re-reading the source materials.)

Finally, compare your writing to the sources to make sure you adequately paraphrased

and have kept the meaning of the material. Look also for important ideas or concepts

that you may have missed and add those to your paper.

There are several resources on how to recognize and prevent plagiarism listed in

Section 4, below.

An Example of Improper and Correct Paraphrasing

Original Source *

Where most students err in terms of unintentional plagiarism is not in failing to

acknowledge ideas, but in paraphrasing incorrectly. Many novice researchers

assume that if paraphrasing means putting a passage "in your own words," this

can be accomplished by simply substituting synonyms for key terms. Stealing

syntax, or sentence structure, is as significant an offence as stealing an idea

because, as you know from your own writing experience, trying to phrase a

point exactly is a difficult art. Proper paraphrasing depends on thorough

29

comprehension of material, not on a thesaurus.

Trent University (2015). Summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting. Retrieved from

https://www.trentu.ca/history/workbook/summarizingparaphrasingandquoting.php

Improper Paraphrase (Mosaic Plagiarism)

Where most students make the mistake of unintentional plagiarism is not by

failing to cite, but in paraphrasing improperly. Many novice researchers

assume that if paraphrasing means putting the material "in your own words,"

this can be done easily by substituting synonyms for key terms. Copying

syntax, or sentence structure, is just as bad as stealing an idea because, as you

know from your own writing experience, trying to phrase a point exactly is

difficult. Proper paraphrasing requires thorough comprehension of material,

not a thesaurus (Trent University, 2015).

Notice how most of the words, the sentence structures, and the order of the sentences are the

same as the original. This is not properly paraphrased, even though there is a citation.

Proper Paraphrase

Unintentional plagiarism often occurs because novice researchers do not

understand how to paraphrase properly. They have been told to put the material

“into your own words” but they may assume that it is acceptable to merely

replace a few words with synonyms or to change the sentences around.

However, this still a theft of ideas, as it requires no real effort. Paraphrasing is

difficult and requires a solid understanding of the material to be done correctly

(Trent University, 2015).

Notice that the meaning of the original content is kept, but the word choice, sentence

structure, and overall style is clearly different than the original. A citation is provided.

30

SECTION 4: RESOURCES

APA Style (These resources present the FULL APA format requirements)

APA Help: http://www.apastyle.org/apa-style-help.aspx

Basics of APA Tutorial: http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm

Using APA Format: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Tricks for APA Format in Microsoft Word: http://info.csp.edu/Academic-

Resources/WritingCenter/Instructional-Videos/

Planning to Write

Very, Very Useful Assignment Calculator (helps plan a detailed timeline based on type of

assignment and due date): https://www.lib.umn.edu/apps/ac/

Research Tips (a series of short how-to articles):

http://libraryguides.mta.ca/research_help/research_tips

Understanding Your Research Paper Assignment:

http://guides.jwcc.edu/content.php?pid=65900&sid=486801

Writing & Grammar

Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/ Also:

Exercises for practice: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/exercises/

How to Avoid Colloquial (Informal) Writing:

http://concordia.csp.edu/writingcenter/WriterResources/Colloquial_Writing_-.pdf

Resources for Writers (also has some APA material): http://info.csp.edu/Academic-

Resources/WritingCenter/Resources-for-Writers/

Transitional Words and Phrases (great list!):

https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Transitions.html

31

Commonly Misused Words: http://wsuonline.weber.edu/wrh/words.htm

Basic Grammatical Terms That You May Have Forgotten Since High School:

http://grammar.about.com/od/terms/a/topgramterms.htm

Passive versus Active Voice: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-active-and-

passive-voice.html and also: http://www.grammarly.com/blog/2014/a-scary-easy-way-to-

help-you-find-passive-voice/

Recognizing and Avoiding Plagiarism

What is Plagiarism: http://gervaseprograms.georgetown.edu/honor/system/53377.html

Note Taking and Avoiding Plagiarism:

http://guides.jwcc.edu/content.php?pid=65900&sid=538553

The Writer’s Handbook: Avoiding Plagiarism:

http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QuotingSources.html

Plagiarism: How to Recognize and Avoid It:

http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml

32

Name, course, university, date – all centered and double-spaced under the title.

Descriptive title about 12 words long. Variables are clear, type of study is clear (effects of), and population is

named.

Page # in header above margin (this

would normally be page 1) SECTION 5: SAMPLE LAB REPORT

Effects of Retesting, Note-taking, and Highlighting on Recall in Undergraduate Students

Monique LeBlanc

Cognitive Processes

Mount Allison University

August 1, 2014

NOTE: This is a sample report to help students visualize the final product. This document does not point out all the APA

requirements, so always double-check the department’s APA guide and the requirements for your specific assignment.

33

Centered and not bolded. Starts on a new page.

Not indented. One paragraph for entire abstract.

Includes something from each section. Purpose, participants, design/tasks, main results, conclusion.

Be concise – this abstract has 93 words. Aim for about 120 words, but make sure you include all the main parts.

Abstract

The current study examined the effectiveness of various study strategies among 118

undergraduate participants (87 female, 31 male, mean age = 19.52 years). Participants studied

two text passages by highlighting one and taking notes on the other. They completed two tests;

one immediately after studying and another one week later. The second test included repeated

test items and new test items. The results indicated a strong testing effect with performance on

repeated items significantly better than on new test items (p < .001). These results suggest that

students should integrate repeated testing into their studying.

34

1 inch (2.54 cm) margins

all sides

Title, centered

and not bolded

Indent all paragraphs

Define

and explain new terms

Purpose &

rationale

Basic method

& design

Effects of Retesting, Note-taking, and Highlighting on Recall in Undergraduate Students

Students are often faced with the challenging task of studying for several midterms or exams

at once, while also juggling class schedules, assignments, or work schedules. It is therefore

important for students to maximize their study time and to employ strategies that will promote a

high rate of recall. The purpose of the current study was to examine three such strategies:

retesting, note-taking, and highlighting.

Roediger and Karpicke (2006) performed one of the first studies examining the effect of

retesting on recall. They felt that taking tests was not seen by students or educators as a study

strategy but only as a method of assessment and that tests could assume a formative role as well

as an evaluative one. They explained that taking multiple tests on material to be learned could

promote better recall, a phenomenon called the testing effect. Roediger and Karpicke (2006)

suggested that the experience of attempting to answer test questions promoted practice in

recalling information and this practice could lead to enhanced recall on a subsequent test.

Roediger and Karpicke (2006) sought to recreate the testing effect found in previous

experiments and to eliminate a possible “exposure” confound in previous research. They

explained that in past experiments, participants were divided into two groups: one group studied

the test materials and the other studied the materials and completed a pretest on the materials.

The confound was that participants who studied and took a pretest were exposed to the test

material twice before the final test; perhaps the testing effect was simply due to this added

exposure. Roediger and Karpicke (2006) asked their participants to read and study two prose

passages in one of two ways: by rereading (Study-Study condition) or by testing (Study-Test

condition), thus controlling exposure. In a series of experiments, they also manipulated the

length of study time, the number of repeated study sessions, and measured recall at various time

35

Their major finding and

their explanation of why it happened.

Full citation first time in paper

Short form for rest of paper

intervals.

Overall, Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found no differences on recall performance when

participants were tested within five minutes of studying but they did find differences in recall

after two days and after one week. On these tests, passages studied through retesting were

recalled better, even if no feedback was given regarding performance on earlier tests. Therefore,

Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found support for the testing effect and eliminated exposure as a

possible confound, suggesting that practice in recalling information enhanced overall learning.

They suggested that this occurs because it allows students to practice the skill of test-taking and

information retrieval and that educators should incorporate repeated testing into their class

schedules.

Einstein, Mullet, and Harrison (2012) were aware of the research on testing effect but

suggested that students were not and tended to use rereading as their predominant strategy

instead. Einstein et al. (2012) suggested that students might overestimate their ability to recall

information simply due to their familiarity with the material from rereading. Furthermore, they

suggested that students may not realize that the struggle to recall information is an effective way

to improve memory. Therefore, they sought to replicate Roediger and Karpicke’s (2006) study in

an applied classroom setting to encourage students to use testing as a study strategy.

Twenty-six male and female students enrolled in a Memory and Cognition course

participated in Einstein et al.’s (2012) study, which followed the procedures established by

Roediger and Karpicke (2006). Students completed the experiment as part of a laboratory project

for the course. At the end of the semester, the students also anonymously rated the laboratory

project and whether they were more likely to use retesting as a study strategy as a result of the

project. The overall results of Einstein et al.’s (2012) study demonstrated the testing effect:

36

Format check: If your margins, spacing, and font size are correct there will be 23 lines per page

Transition sentence linking studies and ideas

students recalled more information for passages using the Study-Test strategy than for the Study-

Study strategy. They also indicated that although students were initially unaware of the testing

effect, they intended to use it more often in the future. Overall, Einstein et al. (2012) concluded

that the testing effect methodology is applicable in classroom settings.

While the testing effect has received much scrutiny over the past several years, students do

commonly employ other methods of studying, such as taking notes from or highlighting

information in their textbooks. As such, it is important to examine the effectiveness of some of

these alternate strategies. Researchers examining study strategies often base their methods on

depth-of-processing theory proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972). Craik and Lockhart’s (1972)

classic study was designed to address the limitations of memory theories that were popular at

that time, which indicated that memory was simply the transfer of information to and from

various memory stores in the brain. Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that the process of

storing and retrieving involved more than the simple transfer of information and felt that memory

operated more like a processor. They argued that information processed more deeply (i.e.,

semantic encoding) would benefit recall when compared to information processed more

shallowly (i.e.: visual encoding).

Depth of processing theory is now widely accepted in the field of memory; however, few

studies have examined the testing effect from a depth of processing viewpoint. The present study

was designed to examine both the testing effect and the difference between note-taking and

highlighting on recall in a classroom setting. Following the general method outlined by Roediger

and Karpicke (2006), participants studied by note-taking or highlighting. They were also

pretested on half of the studied material to examine the testing effect. Final testing took place

immediately after the study sessions and again after a one-week delay.

37

After intro, bold & centered

Subsection: left justify and bold

Citation for source of materials

Even with citation, materials are described and

appended

“Numbers” rule (spell out, digits, etc.)

Depth of processing theory suggests that deeper processing of information should produce

better recall over shallow processing of information. The literature on the testing effect suggests

that practice in retrieving and recalling information though testing should produce better recall

over other study strategies, especially in the long term. Three hypotheses were developed to

examine these possibilities: First, scores on a final recall test should be higher for material

studied by taking notes than for material that was highlighted; second, scores on a final recall test

should be higher for the items that were pretested, displaying a testing effect; and third, the

difference between the scores on pretested items and non-pretested items should be larger after a

one week delay than at immediate testing.

Method

Participants

One hundred and eighteen students from a pool of 124 students enrolled in an

undergraduate psychology class at a small Liberal Arts university participated as part of a class

project. Participants’ mean age was 19.52 years (SD = 1.04) and most (60.23%) were in their

second year of studies. There were 31 males and 86 females and the majority of the participants

were Caucasian (88.41%). Of the 118 participants, 60 were in the note-taking condition and 58

were in the highlighting condition. Incentives were not provided and participation was voluntary.

Materials

The two passages used by Einstein et al. (2012) were used in this study. These passages

were originally taken from an English as a second language test and discuss one of two topics:

sea otters and the sun. Each passage is approximately 350 words long. Einstein et al. (2012) had

also developed 12 short answer questions for each passage; these questions and the

corresponding answer keys were used in the present study. A copy of these materials is included

38

After method, bold & centered

Can use subsections

in other parts of paper

Materials described – nothing about procedure here

Straightforward

& concise

in Appendix A.

A short demographic questionnaire asking about participants’ age, gender, year of study,

and ethnicity was developed and included in a study and pretest booklet that contained the

reading passages and instructions, a distraction task (a general hidden figures test), and the first

short answer test that was comprised of six items from each 12-item test. There were four

versions of this booklet so as to counterbalance the order of passages (sea otter or the sun) and

study format (highlight or take notes). A follow-up testing booklet was designed for the final

recall test. This booklet included six previously tested and six novel questions for each study

passage. Two versions of this booklet were created to counterbalance the order of the topic of the

tests. Sample booklets are included in Appendix B.

Procedure

Participants were told about the study and provided consent. Participation was in a group

setting, with a within-subject repeated measures design. First, participants received the study

and pretest booklet, with the various booklets assigned at random to each participant.

Participants were given seven minutes to study the first passage according to the instructions for

that passage and then did the same for the second passage. They then completed the

demographics questionnaire and were given six minutes to complete the hidden figures test.

Finally, participants answered the 12 pretest questions. Participants were not given feedback on

the results of this pretest. One week later, participants returned to complete the final short answer

test and were debriefed.

Results

Test Scoring

Participants’ free recall answers were scored as either correct or incorrect according to

39

Describes how raw data were treated before the analysis

Stat symbols in italics

Statement of support (or lack of) for hypothesis

There’s even a citation here

Numbers rule is being broken for clarity and continuity.

the marking key developed by Einstein et al. (2012). This resulted in six scores for each

participant: 1) a pretest score for the highlighted passage, out of 6 points; 2) a pretest score for

the note-taking passage, out of 6 points; 3) a score for the final test on the highlighted passage

for novel items, out of 6 points; 4)a score for the final test on the note-taking passage for novel

items, out of 6 points; 5) a total score on the final test for retested items, out of 12 points; and 6)

a total score on the final test for novel items, out of 12 points.

Note-Taking versus Highlighting

The first two hypotheses examined differences between the highlighting study strategy

and the note-taking strategy. First, the study method on pretest scores was examined with a

paired t-test. No significant difference between test scores for highlighting (M = 4.51, SD = 1.42)

and for note-taking (M = 4.67, SD = 1.21) was found, t (115) = -1.21, p = .230. Therefore, this

hypothesis was not supported.

The second hypothesis examined the possible difference between highlighting and note-

taking after a one-week delay, on questions not previously tested. A paired t-test showed no

significant difference between test scores on novel items for highlighting (M = 2.15, SD = 1.23)

and for note-taking (M = 2.04, SD = 1.42), t (110) = 0.68, p = .501. Therefore, this hypothesis

was not supported.

The Testing Effect

The third analysis examined the testing effect hypothesis by comparing the scores on

retested items to scores on novel items, both tested one week after studying. A paired t-test

showed a significant difference between test scores for new items and repeated items, t (110) =

14.97, p < .001, with higher scores for repeated items, as shown in Figure 1. This indicates

support for the testing effect hypothesis.

40

After results, bold & centered

Restate purpose and brief outline of results.

Sans-serif, grayscale, y-axis shows total range of possible scores, axes labeled, no gridlines or other distracting features.

Sans-serif

Figure 1. Average recall scores on the final test of the two study passages. Retested items

included six items from each passage that was tested one week prior. Novel items included six

items from each passage that had not been seen previously.

Discussion

The current study sought to examine two common study strategies, highlighting and note-

taking, and a less-known strategy known as the testing effect. Participants studied passages by

highlighting, note-taking, or by repeat testing. The results indicated no difference in recall

performance between highlighting and note-taking, either immediately after studying or after a

one week delay. Support for repeat testing was found, regardless of original study method. On a

final test, questions that participants had answered previously were answered correctly more

often than novel questions. This testing effect occurred even though participants had not been

given feedback on their pretest performance.

The current findings mirror those of Roediger and Karpicke (2006), who also found a

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Retested Items Novel Items

Ave

rage

Rec

all S

core

41

Comparing and contrasting to other studies.

Explain non-sig. results, using theory to guide the explanation.

Limitations and next steps.

testing effect after a two-day and one week-delay. While Roediger and Karpicke (2006) did not

manipulate the type of studying used by their participants, the current study specifically asked

students to highlight or to take notes. The fact that the testing effect still emerged with varying

encoding strategies indicates that it is a robust effect that can be used in many situations. In

addition, the current results replicated those of Einstein et al. (2012), who also examined the

testing effect in a classroom setting with the same materials and overall design.

Contrary to depth-of-processing theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), note-taking while

studying the passages did not result in higher recall performance over highlighting while

studying. It is possible that in the current study, participants were not motivated to create detailed

notes or to take notes in their own words as they studied, knowing that the test was for

experimental purposes only. In this case, the note-taking strategy may have been shallow due a

simple transcription of words onto a piece of paper.

These current findings lend support to the growing body of research on the testing effect,

suggesting that the effect can be found in various learning situations. However, our findings are

limited in that only free recall questions were answered. It is possible that the testing effect might

not apply to a recognition task, such as multiple choice questions. Future studies may wish to

examine both free recall and recognition tests to see whether the testing effect will emerge in

both.

A second limitation is the nature of the task itself. While this study was designed and

conducted in a lab setting and mimicked a class setting, students do not typically learn materials

in a only few minutes, followed by an immediate test. As also noted by Einstein et al. (2012),

future researchers may want to apply this general design using real course-related materials that

apply to actual grades in a course, following a typical lecture and midterm timeframe.

42

Strong concluding paragraph with final “take

home” message

Overall, the current study found evidence that the testing effect is a robust phenomenon

that may be applied in a real-life class setting. It also found no overall differences between note-

taking and highlighting as study strategies. Taken as a whole, this suggests that students wishing

to learn information for their courses should study using their preferred method and that they

should test themselves as they study in order to maximize the benefits of their study sessions.

Not only will this help them to learn and recall the material in the short term, it may also help

them remember their course materials until – and after – the final exam.

43

New page after discussion, centered not bolded

Hanging indents. Use the ruler feature. Search Word’s help for “hanging indent” to learn how.

Alphabetical list

References have very detailed formatting. Follow the APA guide and pay attention to punctuation, uppercase lettering, italics, etc.

References

Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory

research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.

Einstein, G. O., Mullet, H. G., & Harrison, T. L. (2012). The testing effect: Illustrating a

fundamental concept and changing study strategies. The Teaching of Psychology, 39, 190 -

193. doi: 10.1177/0098628312450432

Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, III, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning.

Science, 319, 966 – 968. doi: 10.1126/science.1152408

44

Appendix heading and title, centered and bolded.

Content – formatted as it was used; do not reformat to APA style

Appendix A

Study Passages and Short Answer Quiz with Answers

The Sun

The Sun today is a yellow dwarf star. It is fueled by thermonuclear reactions near its center that

convert hydrogen to helium. The Sun has existed in its present state for about 4 billion, 600

million years and is thousands of times larger than the Earth.

By studying other stars, astronomers can predict what the rest of the Sun’s life will be like.

About 5 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will shrink and become hotter. The surface

temperature will fall. The higher temperature of the center will increase the rate of thermonuclear

reactions. The outer regions of the Sun will expand approximately 35 million miles, which is

about the distance to Mercury. The Sun will then be a red giant star. Temperatures on the Earth

will become too hot for life to exist.

Once the Sun has used up its thermonuclear energy as a red giant, it will begin to shrink.

After it shrinks to the size of the Earth, it will become a white dwarf star. The Sun may throw off

huge amounts of gases in violent eruptions called nova explosions as it changes from a red giant

to a white dwarf.

After billions of years as a white dwarf, the Sun will have used up all its fuel and will have lost

its heat. Such a star is called a black dwarf. After the sun has become a black dwarf, the Earth

will be dark and cold. If any atmosphere remains there it will have frozen onto the

Earth’s surface.

Sea Otters

Sea otters dwell in the North Pacific. They are the largest of the mustelids, a group that also

includes freshwater otters, weasels, and badgers. They are from 4 to 5 feet long and most weigh

from 60 to 85 pounds. Large males may weigh 100 pounds or more.

Unlike most marine mammals, such as seals or dolphins, sea otters lack a layer of blubber, and

therefore have to eat up to 30 percent of their body weight a day in clams, crabs, fish, octopus,

squids, and other delicacies to maintain body heat. Their voracious appetites do not create food

shortages, however, because they are picky eaters, each animal preferring only a few food types.

Thus no single type of food source is exhausted. Sea otters play an important environmental role

by protecting forests of seaweed called kelp, which provide shelter and nutrients to many

species. Certain sea otters feast on invertebrates, like sea urchins and abalones that destroy kelp.

Sea otters eat and sleep while floating on their backs, often on masses of kelp. They seldom

come on shore. Sea otters keep warm by means of their luxuriant double-layered fur, the densest

among animals. The soft outer fur forms a protective cover that keeps the fine underfur dry. One

square inch of underfur contains up to one million hairs. Unfortunately, this essential feature

45

SECTION 6: APA STYLE CHECKLIST

Section 1: General Requirements – Apply to all assignments

1-inch margins on all sides

Pages numbered on the top right with title page numbered as page 1

Title is descriptive and about 12 words

Title page includes your name, course, university, and date

Font is 12 point Serif style throughout (except for figures)

There is no “fancy” formatting; only plain, bold, or italicized text is used

Entire document is double-spaced

Text is left-justified

Paragraphs are indented

Proper heading formats are used

Document has been checked for typos, spelling, and grammatical errors

There is no biased language

No jargon, clichés, or other informal language is used

Material is paraphrased, cited, and referenced

There are no direct quotes (unless your professor allows them)

Citations formatted correctly (name(s), year)

Proper use of long and short citation formats

Citations use ‘and’ in text and ‘&’ in parentheses

Reference list is on a new page and headed by the word ‘References’ centered, and not

bolded

References are listed in alphabetical order

References are hanging indented

Every citation has a reference and every reference has a citation

References are formatted properly (punctuation, italics, etc.)

The “numbers” rule is followed (starting a sentence, 10 and over, etc.)

No contractions are used

Mathematical and statistical symbols are italicized

46

Section 2: Additional Requirements for Lab Reports

Abstract begins on a new page

Abstract is headed by the word ‘Abstract’ centered at the top, and not bolded

Abstract text is one paragraph and is not indented

Abstract is about 120 words long (1/2 page)

Abstract contains information from each section of the report

Introduction begins on a new page, headed by the paper’s title

Title is centered, not bolded, with important words capitalized

Method, results, and discussion sections immediately follow the previous sections

Section headings are centered and in bold type

Subsection headings are left-justified and in bold type

Past tense is used when writing the introduction, method, and results sections

Tables are introduced in the preceding text

Tables are formatted properly

o Correct format for table label and title

o Horizontal lines used to denote headings and content

o No vertical lines

o Table is not split across pages

Figures are introduced in the preceding text

Figures are formatted properly

o Correct format for figure label and caption

o Sans-serif font is used

o Y-axis reflects possible range of scores

o Both axes are labelled and legend is provided (if applicable)

o Grayscale and patterns are used (no colour)

o No distracting formatting (e.g., no 3D, gridlines, etc.)

o Figure is not split across pages

In the discussion, past tense is used to describe results and present tense is used to

discuss conclusions

All results are reported and discussed (including non-significant results)