THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD … · THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD AND ... The Routledge handbook of sustainable food and gastronomy / edited by ... 9 Sustaining

THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD AND

GASTRONOMY

Edited by Philip Sloan, Willy Legrand and Clare Hindley

Preface by Roberto Flore, Nordic Food Lab

Copyrighted material - Provided by Taylor & Francis Josh Evans. Nordic Food Lab. 10/07/2015

First published 2015by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

and by Routledge711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa busi ness

© 2015 Editorial matter and selec tion: Philip Sloan, Willy Legrand and Clare Hindley; indi vidual chapters: the contrib ut ors.

The right of Philip Sloan, Willy Legrand and Clare Hindley to be iden ti fied as the author of the edit or ial mater ial, and of the authors for their indi vidual chapters, has been asser ted in accord ance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

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British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA cata logue record for this book is avail able from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication DataThe Routledge handbook of sustainable food and gastronomy / edited by Philip Sloan, Willy Legrand and Clare Hindley. Includes bibliographical references and index.1. Food supply—Environmental aspects. 2. Food industry and trade—Environmental aspects. 3. Gastronomy. I. Sloan, Philip. II. Legrand, Willy. III. Hindley, Clare. HD9000.5.R68 2015338.1′90286—dc23

2014042676

ISBN: 9780415702553 (hbk)ISBN: 9780203795699 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk, UK


v

CONTENTS

Foreword xEditors’ biography xiiEditorial intro duc tion xivAcknowledgements xviiNotes on contrib ut ors xviii

PART 1

Anthropology of food 1

1 “Luxurioussimplicity”:self-sufficientfoodproductioninItalianecovillages 3Alice Brombin

2 Spirituality,socialidentity,andsustainability 21Peter Varga

3 ‘Sustainablefood’:whoseresponsibilityisitanyway?Apersonalcommentary 29Clare Hindley

4 Foodforthought:culinaryheritage,nostalgia,andfoodhistory 34Paul Cleave


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Contents

PART 2

Local food initi at ives 45

5 Does the pursuit of local food destroy our envir on ment? Questions of authen ti city and sustain ab il ity 47Sean Beer

6 Back to the roots – when hip meets sustain able: a case study of the Kartoffelkombinat in Munich 57Thomas Berron

7 Nutrition in rural India 65Richa Govil

8 Aboriginal food: tradi tional dishes surviv ing in the fast food era 76Donald Sinclair and Carolann Marcus

9 Sustaining and spread ing local food culture through cooking classes: a case study of Chiang Mai, Thailand 86Wantanee Suntikul, Rodrigues Ng Iris, Ho Weng, Luo Xiao Yan, Lam Iok Cheng and Chan Weng San

10 The use of local culture and sustain ab il ity in local food and bever age entre pren eur ship: case studies in Cornwall 96John Tredinnick-Rowe and Tim Taylor

PART 3

Food move ments 111

11 Vegetarianism for public health and for the envir on ment: major F&B implic a tions 113Maryam Fotouhinia Yepes

12 Reducing the food miles: loca vor ism and seasonal eating 120Jan Arend Schulp

13 Spa cuisine: an oppor tun ity for the hospit al ity industry? 126Sandra J. Cooper

14 Discussions on Slow Food and San Francisco 135Alissa Folendorf, Colin Johnson and Mehmet Ergul


vii

Contents

PART 4

Social pillar/social entre pren eur ship 143

15 Ethical employ ment in the cater ing industry 145Gaurav Chawla

16 The Peruvian cacao value chain’s success: foster ing sustain able entre pren eur ship, innov a tion, and social inclusion 157Sandor G. Lukacs de Pereny

17 An analysis of the poten tial restaur ant oper a tions have for rehab il it at ing offend ers: a case study of Her Majesty’s Prison, The Verne 187Sonja Beier

PART 5

Food innov a tion/future 197

18 Broadening insect gast ro nomy 199Afton Halloran, Christopher Münke, Paul Vantomme, Benedict Reade and Josh Evans

19 Wild ideas in food 206Christopher Münke, Afton Halloran, Paul Vantomme, Josh Evans, Benedict Reade, Roberto Flore, Roland Rittman, Anders Lindén, Pavlos Georgiadis and Miles Irving

20 Foods from aquacul ture: varied and growing 214Ricardo Radulovich

21 Fermentation art and science at the Nordic Food Lab 228Benedict Reade, Justine de Valicourt and Josh Evans

PART 6

A sustainable restaur ant system 243

22 Sustainable restaur ant concepts, focus on F&B 245Elena Cavagnaro

23 Foodservice, health and nutri tion: respons ib il ity, strategies and perspect ives 253Laure Saulais


viii

Contents

24 Sustainable supply chains and envir on mental and ethical initi at ives in restaur ants 267Christine Demen Meier, Nicolas Siorak, Stéphanie Bonsch Buri and Clémence Cornuz

25 How self suffi cient can a restaur ant be? Introducing the Foodzone model, a mana gerial tool 279Jaap Peter Nijboer, Peter R. Klosse and Jan Arend Schulp

26 Business model devel op ment for a sustain able and respons ible restaur ant concept: the dimen sions and busi ness rationales of CSR and sustain ab il ity 286Anders Justenlund

27 The sustain able restaur ant: does it exist? 297Charles Barneby and Juline E. Mills

PART 7

Culinary tourism 305

28 Local foods: market ing and the destin a tion 307Martyn Pring, Sean Beer, Heather Hartwell and Jeffery Bray

29 Authenticity and exper i ence in sustain able food tourism 315Sonia Ferrari and Monica Gilli

30 The autumn pear: a symbol for local iden tity, local speci al it ies, biod iversity and collab or at ive park manage ment, an Austrian case study 326Ulrike Pröbstl-Haider, Elisabeth Hochwarter and Josef Schrank

31 Tourism, food tradi tions and support ing communit ies in Samoa: the Mea’ai Project 338Tracy Berno

32 Foodways of lowland Sariaya: towards a sustain able food tourism 348Shirley V. Guevarra and Corazon F. Gatchalian

33 Gastronomic tourism: devel op ment, sustain ab il ity and applic a tions – a case study of County Cork, Republic of Ireland 360Clare Carruthers, Amy Burns and Gary Elliott


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Contents

34 Responsible travel as a means to preserve cultural and natural herit age: initi at ives in Crete, Greece 370Nikki Rose

PART 8

General issues/world food crisis 377

35 International and national regu la tions in favour of sustain able oper a tions in food service 379Nicolas Siorak, Christine Demen Meier, Stéphanie Bonsch Buri and Clémence Cornuz

36 The polit ical and economic real it ies of food system sustain ab il ity 391Christina Ciambriello and Carolyn Dimitri

37 Customer expect a tions regard ing organic and healthy food 408Christine Demen Meier, Nicolas Siorak, Stéphanie Bonsch Buri and Clémence Cornuz

Index 421


199

18

BROADENING INSECT GASTRONOMY

Afton Halloran, Christopher Münke, Paul Vantomme, Benedict Reade and Joshua Evans

Introduction

In recent years there has been a trend among chefs to diver sify their ingredi ents and techniques, drawing inspir a tion from other cultures and creat ing new foods by blend ing this know ledge with the flavours of their local region. Edible insects, with their pleth ora of taste, aromatic, textural and visual char ac ter ist ics, is an example of an area of nature that requires further gast ro nomic explor a tion. Many parts of the world consume insects, neither as a novelty nor as a fall back famine food (FAO, 2013). Insect consum ing popu la tions often eat them as a delic acy, seeing each insect as an ingredi ent in its own right – not collect ively as ‘insects’, as it is easy for many unini ti ated to do. Many of these insects frequently fetch higher prices than other meat sources in the market, and it is this approach of invest ig at ing insects as a deli cious gast ro nomic product that interests us. Indeed, if people might be expec ted to adopt a new food, it is neces sary that it tastes good!

Despite the diversity of insect flavours, those who do not eat insects often react adversely when confron ted with a six legged meal. The univer sal emotion of disgust is some thing that has only recently been studied. Nonetheless, it is under stood that disgust (lit. ‘bad taste’) most likely origin ates from a rejec tion response that protects the body from poten tially harmful foods. The sensa tion most distinctly asso ci ated with disgust is nausea, which inhib its the body from ingest ing food; in a sense, disgust becomes ‘a guard ian to the temple of the body’ (Rozin et al., 2008: 764).

Because some insects live in contact with rotting flesh or faeces, in general they are often asso ci ated with filth and unsan it ary condi tions even though many are in fact quite clean (DeFoliart, 1999). Moreover, some arth ro pod species like spiders invoke mixed sensa tions of fear and disgust, despite the fact that they are seldom of danger to humans (Rozin et al., 2008). Humans are omni vores who make choices of what to eat based partly on exper i ence (Rozin, 2002). In addi tion to biology, culture also plays a major role in food selec tion (Rozin, 1984). Thus, given that most human–food rela tion ships are acquired, they may also be altered both posit ively and negat ively. Cuisines, as systems of select ing and prepar ing food, emerge out of geography, climate, culture, dispos i tion and other factors, and can also change through social needs and advances in tech no logy (Rozin, 2002).


Afton Halloran et al.

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Developing broader culin ary roles for insects is one way to change the disgust that many Westerners commonly asso ci ate with them. Chefs and other gast ro nomic leaders thus play an integ ral role in broad en ing the percep tion of what is edible and (re)intro du cing ingredi ents, like insects, into deli cious foods. To illus trate this process, Nordic Food Lab (NFL) describes their gast ro nomic innov a tion through their exper i ments with three differ ent kinds of insect: ants (wild), grasshop pers (domest ic ated) and bees (semi domest ic ated).

These three categor ies (wild, semi domest ic ated and domest ic ated) are considered in relation to the methods for their harvest and sustain able manage ment. Wild insects are collec ted from wild sources, which are often not monitored and can there fore be more prone to overhar vest ing. Wild gath er ing there fore requires strong know ledge about the ecology and biology of the species in order to minim ize the impact on a specific area’s popu la tion (Yen, 2009). Ants, as described in the follow ing by Nordic Food Lab, are in prin ciple wild, but can be semi domest ic ated by creat ing favour able condi tions. Semi domest ic a tion allows a more consist ent supply, while keeping insects in their natural habitat or a habitat closely mimick ing their natural envir on ment. This tech nique is mostly used for species that cannot be taken completely out of their envir on ment as they are too diffi cult to be domest ic ated fully (FAO, 2013). In order to provide a suffi ciently consist ent supply of insects for gast ro nomic insti tutions, farmed insects are an option for species that can live outside of their natural habitat and are relat ively easy to breed in captiv ity relat ive to the initial cost of invest ment (FAO, 2013). However, in order to be util ized for human consump tion, farmed insects have to be produced in hygienic and food safe condi tions.

The object ive of this chapter is to discuss the growing interest in the poten tial of insects as food. Moreover, we describe how edible insects can help secure sustain able food systems for the future. Furthermore, we use insects as a case to explore the poten tial of diver si fied, wild and under val ued food sources. This is done by analys ing how insects can be shifted from the category ‘ined ible’ to edible and integ rate them as a valued compon ent of a cuisine, rather than just a novelty food or gimmick.

Ants

Many soci et ies around the world eat ants. In Mexico the larvae of (Liometopum sp.) are known as escamoles and consumed as a delic acy at celeb ra tions. In Colombia and other coun tries, (Atta laev igata) is valued for its large abdomen, hence its Spanish name, hormi gas colunas, trans lated liter ally as ‘big arsed ants’. In Denmark we (NFL) have been working with two species of ant: the smelling carpenter ant (Lasius fuli ginosus) and the common wood ant (Formica rufa). These two ants have inter est ing organ o leptic char ac ter ist ics, one quite differ ent from the other – this diversity is the key to devel op ing gast ro nomic context for insects in a region, where each species can be recog nized for its partic u lar qual it ies. Many ants produce formic acid as a defence mech an ism, which gives them acidity. Because of their big taste and small size, we use both these species mainly in the context of a spice or season ing. The wood ant has quite a straight and sharp acidity with the aroma of charred lemon, while the smelling carpenter ant has a gentler acidity and a pronounced aroma of kaffir lime. It seems as well that differ ent popu la tions can express differ ent aromas. This aromatic diversity arises from the ants’ use of pher omones for commu nic a tion, which humans exper i ence as a myriad of aromas, similar to those of other herbs and spices (Morgan, 2009).

There has arisen one poten tial food safety concern regard ing ants. Some of the wood ants can harbour a para sitic flat worm called a lancet liver fluke (Dicrocoelium dend rit icum) that is poten tially para sitic to humans (Cengiz et al., 2010), so it is neces sary to ensure the ants are


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Broadening insect gastronomy

safe before consump tion. We are currently invest ig at ing differ ent treat ments that make the ants safe for consump tion, like thor ough freez ing.

Because the formic acid in the ants can be distilled at Nordic Food Lab relat ively easily, we decided to make a gin by infus ing the ants into alcohol, then distilling the alcohol under a strong vacuum to collect a concen trate of the aromatic mixture. The gin has a distinct note of nastur tium seed spice, which leaves a tingle on the tip of the tongue. It is completely deli cious.

Grasshoppers/locusts

Grasshoppers are commonly farmed around the world and for that reason make an inter est ing case study due to their relat ively wide access ib il ity (Hanboonsong et al., 2013; FAO, 2013). They are also notable as locusts so often decim ate human crops, espe cially in Africa. Most farming of grasshop pers takes place to provide pet reptiles with feed, so pet shops are often a good source for these food grade insects. As with any food, the sourcing of the product must be under taken care fully. We choose locusts that have been fed only grass which has not been exposed to synthetic pesti cides or fertil izers. The locusts are then purged (kept without food) for 24 hours before we freeze them. They can also be blanched for five minutes and kept at 5–7 °C – a tech nique that has proven to keep the insects micro bi ally stable for two weeks (Belluco et al., 2013). The insects are excel lent toasted in a tiny amount of oil on medium heat, or roasted in butter in the oven. The most appro pri ate prepar a tion tech nique is largely informed by the devel op mental stage of the insect. Locusts in the third or fourth instar (develop mental stage) tend to be optimal for eating whole, as the wings are not fully developed but the main body has reached a size which gives some amount of substance. With larger locusts we have exper i mented with making a salt rich ferment a tion using a barley koji moulded with Aspergillus oryzae to create a umami tasting sauce, much like a fish sauce but without fish. We call the sauce ‘grasshop per garum’. Our recipe is as follows:

Nordic Food Lab’s grasshop per garum

800g whole grasshop pers (usually adult Schistocerca gregaria or locusta migrat oria)

225g of pearl barley koji made with Aspergillus orzyae

300g of filtered water

240g of salt

Place everything in a blender and mix.

Incubate at 40 °C for ten weeks.

It is inter est ing to remem ber that in some places in the world people get a consid er able amount of their protein from fish sauce. In the Philippines, for example, up to 18 per cent of daily protein may be obtained through fish sauce. When consid er ing the immense biomass in a swarm of locusts, perhaps this incred ibly damaging force to agri cul ture should instead be harves ted, processed and used as human food and animal feed which can be used to provide valu able nutri tion to people who have been ravaged by such a plague.



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Bees

Bee larvae are partic u larly inter est ing because unlike ants, which we harvest wild, and grasshop pers, which are often farmed, bee larvae are the young of the semi domest ic ated honey bee (Apis mellifera), which are often a by product of beekeep ing, as a result of a strategy to regu late the Varroa mite popu la tion in a hive. The larvae are an easy target for the mite, and the drones in partic u lar attract the highest concen tra tion of mites because of their exten ded devel op mental period, staying in the larval stage for a few days longer than worker bees. Once the queen lays the eggs in the comb, the indi vidual hexagonal cells are sealed with wax until the larvae pupate and hatch – but not before the mites find their way into the cells too. Since the drones attract the greatest number of mites, beekeep ers use drone brood as a sort of decoy, drawing the mites into the cells then remov ing the brood to keep overall mite levels low – they remove about one third of a hive frame per week during the season. This tech nique, called the ‘safe strategy’, was devised by the Danish Beekeeping Association (Danmarks Biavlerforening) as a way to contain Varroa mite popu la tions without using chem ical pesti cides.

The mite harms the bee by biting holes in the bee’s tissue which cannot heal, opening their circu lat ory system to the envir on ment. It then serves as a vector for viruses to attack the weakened bee. So why do we eat the drone brood if it is covered with Varroa mite? In fact, the mite itself poses no threat to other organ isms. The drones would almost all die anyway, as only a few of the many thou sands are needed to insem in ate the queen, so we are in some sense helping our apian friends by consum ing the most serious threat to their popu la tion.

The fat and protein compos i tion of the larvae is high, which lends itself to tech niques that high light its savoury taste such as a bee larvae granola. In addi tion it has a delic ate flavour and a fragile texture, for which we have developed a bee larvae ceviche. The follow ing recipes contain ing bee larvae have been developed by the Nordic Food Lab:

Bee larvae granola

750g oats/seeds/nuts (rough ration: five parts rolled oats; two parts sesame seeds; two parts

sunflower seeds; one part pumpkin seeds)

250g bee larvae

100g honey

5g salt

**some times a pinch of fennel seed or tiny amount of crushed juniper berry is nice

Let bee larvae thaw.

Blend until smooth with honey and salt.

Mix through dry ingredi ents on a baking tray.

Spread thin and bake at 160 °C for 16 minutes or until golden.

Toss through some birch syrup for added sweet ness and clump ability.

Stir at minutes 5, 10, 13, 16 or as needed; for more clumps, stir less.

For extra bee effect, mix in some dehyd rated whole larvae for texture after cooked and cooled.


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Market devel op ment

Despite the growing interest in ento mo phagy there are still many chal lenges that influ ence the wide spread adop tion of insects as food. First, the lack of regu la tions govern ing insects as food and feed at national, regional, and inter na tional levels affects the market avail ab il ity of

Figure 18.1 Revisiting the utterly famil iar with beekeep ing by products – bee larvae granola with bee larvae yoghurt. Photo by Josh Evans.

Bee larvae ceviche

15g bee larvae

100ml rhubarb vinegar

3g lemon thyme

5g freeze dried lingon ber ries

3g red oxalis stems

5g søl salt

Pick lemon thyme leaves and chop dried lingon berries and oxalis stems very finely.

Take the bee larvae from the freezer and defrost for three minutes. Add them to the vinegar

and season with salt. Wait another three minutes.

Take the bee larvae out from the vinegar and dress them with the other ingredi ents (stems,

lingon berries and lemon thyme).



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edible insects. In Europe, legis la tion for insects as food is a relat ively grey area as insects are not expli citly mentioned in general food regu la tions. Under Regulation (EC) 258/97, novel food and ingredi ents that were not consumed ‘to a signi fic ant degree’ before 1997 may have to undergo an author iz a tion before enter ing the market. As proposed in the new draft Novel Food Regulation 872 (COM, 2007), a legally recog nized novel food needs evid ence for its signi fic ant consump tion in Europe before 1997, or proof that it has been and contin ues to be part of the normal diet for at least one gener a tion in a large part of the popu la tion of a given country outside Europe. As sugges ted by Gradowski et al. (2013), scientific evid ence should be used where no offi cial regu la tions exist.

Second, supply chains are relat ively undeveloped. With relat ively few produ cers compared to other food sources/ingredi ents, insects as an ingredi ent are diffi cult to come by. Current trade in edible insects in devel op ing coun tries is usually specific to migrant communit ies in Europe or North America, or through the devel op ment of niche markets for exotic foods (FAO, 2013). Despite these chal lenges, edible insects in the food sector is growing quickly and gaining more and more interest in the Western world.

Conclusion and discus sion

Entomophagy has gained a flush of atten tion recently due to the argu ments for their nutritional poten tial and supposed sustain ab il ity bene fits. These are inter est ing ideas but they are not enough to ensure the preser va tion of the crucial bio and cultural diversity on which truly sustain able food systems rely. Insects as delic acies in their cultural, ecolo gical and gastro nomic contexts contrib ute to tradi tional diets around the world. They also provide an example for better under stand ing of agro ecolo gic and sustain able food systems, as well as the bene fits, and limits, of related tradi tional know ledge. Ultimately, they can only be a ‘sustainable’ ingredi ent in the context of the larger ecolo gical– gast ro nomic system. Moreover, they should not be seen as a ‘future food’, out of any gast ro nomic context, for the sake of ‘pushing the bound ar ies’. Instead they should be invest ig ated and shared as a deli cious ingredi ent which celeb rates the diversity of life in our edible land scape.

The adop tion of insects within contem por ary food cultures thus relies on collab or a tion between foragers, produ cers, food scient ists, gast ro nomic leaders, poli cy makers, consumers and media – bring ing together ecology, psycho logy, gast ro nomy, social econom ics and knowledge from diverse tradi tional food cultures to further the contex tual under stand ing and cultur ally appro pri ate use of insects as a sustain able, nutri tious and deli cious ingredi ent.

References

Belluco, S., Losasso, C., Maggioletti, M., Alonzi, C.C., Paoletti, M.G. and Ricci, A. (2013) ‘Edible insects in a food safety and nutri tional perspect ive: a crit ical review’, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 12(3): 296–313.

Cengiz, Z.T., Yilmaz, H., Dülger, A.C. and Çiçek, M. (2010) ‘Human infec tion with Dicrocoelium dend rit icum in Turkey’, Annals of Saudi Medicine, 30(2): 159.

COM (2007) 872 Final. Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on Novel Foods and Amending Regulation (EC) No XXX/XXXX [common proced ure] (presen ted by the Commission).

DeFoliart, G.R. (1999) ‘Insects as food: why the Western atti tude is import ant’, Annual Review of Entomology, 44: 21–55.

FAO (2013) Edible Insects: Future Prospects for Food and Feed, Rome: FAO.Gradowski, N., Klein, G. and Lopez, A.M. (2013) ‘European and German food legis la tion facing

uncom mon food stuffs’, Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 53(8): 787–800.


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Hanboonsong, Y., Jamjanya, T. and Durst, P. (2013) Six- legged Livestock: Edible Insect Farming, Collecting and Marketing in Thailand, Bangkok: FAO, Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific.

Morgan, D.E. (2009) ‘Trail pher omones of ants’, Physiological Entomology, 34(1): 1–17.Rozin, P. (1984) ‘The child’s concep tion of food: the devel op ment of food rejec tions with special refer

ence to disgust and contam in a tion sens it iv ity’, Journal of Child Development, 55(2): 566–575.Rozin, P. (2002) ‘Human food intake and choice: biolo gical, psycho lo gical, and cultural perspect ives’,

in H. Anderson, J. Blundell and M. Chiva (eds.), Food Selection: From Genes to Culture, Paris: Danone Institute, pp. 7–24.

Rozin, P., Haidt, J. and McCauley, C.R. (2008) ‘Disgust’, in M. Lewis, J.M. HavilandJones and L.F. Barrett (eds.), Handbook of Emotions, 3rd edn, New York: Guilford Press, pp. 757–776.

Yen, A.L. (2009) ‘Entomophagy and insect conser va tion: some thoughts for diges tion’, Journal of Insect Conservation, 13: 667–670.


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THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD … · THE ROUTLEDGE HANDBOOK OF SUSTAINABLE FOOD AND ... The Routledge handbook of sustainable food and gastronomy / edited by ... 9 Sustaining