THE ROLE OF WOMEN - Nagaland OF... · highlights the role of women in preservation of plant species, flora and fauna and on their livelihood options. This report widens people’s

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Government of NagalandDepartment of Planning and Coordination

Nagaland - Kohima 797 001

A ThEMATIC REPORT

2009

GOI - UNDP PROJECT Strengthening of State Plans for Human Development

Authored by:Smt. Chozule KikhiDeputy Director, Directorate of HorticultureFormer Gender Coordinator, NEPED-I & II (1995-2005)

Dr. Kedilezo KikhiFaculty of SociologyNagaland University

The Role of Women in Natural Resource ManagementA Thematic Report

Published byDepartment of Planning and Coordination Government of Nagaland

First Published : 2011

Price : ` 350

© Department of Planning and Coordination Government of Nagaland

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While every care has been taken to present accurate data, oversights may have occured.Please convey errors, if any to the Department of Planning and Coordination, Government of Nagaland

Designed, Typset and Printed by artworks NagalaNdtm

Photographs : M Doulo

ForewordFor sustainable development and preservation of natural resources both men and women are equally responsible. Womens’ participation in management of natural resources not only is an equity issue but is a more efficient and time tested way of preserving the eco-biodiversity. Women have played vital roles in ensuring sustainable development by harnessing and managing the rich bio-diversity. Yet women tend to be marginalized in decision making for management and preservation of the resources with which they are more acquainted. This categorized exclusion results in neglect of their needs, denial of their interests and retarding of their potentials. The thematic Report on ‘The Role of Women in Natural Resource Management’ highlights the role of women in preservation of plant species, flora and fauna and on their livelihood options. This report widens people’s awareness on the role of women in retarding the effects of resource depletion. The report helps to understand the vast range of environmental, economic, social and political issues and the linkages for resource management.

Professor Manoj Pant, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi as the lead co-ordinator and the authors Smt. Chozüle Kikhi, Deputy Director, Department of Horticulture and Dr. Kedilezo Kikhi, Lecturer, Department of Sociology, Nagaland University have researched and finalized the report. I thank the Planning Commission, Government of India and the UNDP for providing support for completion of this report.

It is hoped that this report will help in realizing the potentials of women as natural managers and preservers of the rich eco bio-diversity. It is anticipated that policy makers and development workers would draw better understanding of the relative role of women in natural resource management.

Alemtemshi Jamir, IASAdditional Chief Secretary & Development Commissioner Government of Nagaland

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GOI-UNDP PROJECTStrengthening of State Plans for Human Development - NAGALAND

Acknowledgement

Kevileno Angami, IESOfficer on Special Duty & Nodal Officer for SSPHDPlanning and Coordination Government of Nagaland

The thematic report ‘Role of Women in Natural Resource Management’ is an outcome of the inputs, efforts and support of many people. The project team acknowledges and express gratitude to them. The authors Smt. Chozule Kikhi, Deputy Director, Department of horticulture and Dr. Kedilezo Kikhi, Faculty of Sociology, Nagaland University for the research and for documenting the report.

Prof. Manoj Pant, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, the lead author for his patience, technical expertise and guidance.

Shri. Alemtemshi Jamir, IAS, Additional Chief Secretary & Development Commissioner and State Coordinator of the project, for conceptual development of the theme and framework, for creating the enabling environment, and for his unflinching support and guidance till the end.

State Empowered Committee headed by Shri. Lalthara, IAS, Chief Secretary, Government of Nagaland and Peer Committee members for providing direction and for their valuable suggestions.

Ms. Kevilezoü Savino, Freelance Journalist, Shri. Visielie Kezo, Officer on Special Duty, Department of Finance, Government of Nagaland and Shri Tiatemsu Gyi, Freelance Journalist for editing the report.

The officers of Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Shri. I.Chuba Jamir, Deputy Director, Shri. haisuing haikum, Deputy Director, Shri. Charles N. Kikon, Statistical Officer, Smt. Theyieneinuo Belho, Assistant Director and Ms. Vikeyielienuo Chielie, Statistical Officer for conducting the survey and for generating data.

Ms. Kevimhietuoü Sorhie and Shri. Bendangtoshi, United Nations Volunteers, the officers and staff of the Department of Planning and Coordination, Shri. Anungba Pongen, Assistant Development Commissioner, Smt. Amenla Sashi, Smt. Shikali Wotsa, Ms. Khrienguü Thevo, Ms. Vikehieno Zhasa for providing the logistic back up and for ceaselessly co-ordinating and working late hours to materialize the report.

Last but not the least we are thankful to the United Nations Development Programme and the Planning Commission, Government of India for the technical and financial support, without which the publication of this report would not have been possible.

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THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Report

ADB : Asian Development BankCEDAW : Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against WomenFAO : Food and Agriculture Organisation FGD : Focused Group DiscussionPRA : Participatory Rural ApproachIDRC : International Development Research CenterMAPs : Medicinal and Aromatic PlantsMDG : Millennium Development GoalsMEA : Millennium Ecosystem AssessmentNEPED : Nagaland Empowerment of People through Economic DevelopmentNTFPs : Non Timber Forest ProductsTRC : Terrace Rice Cultivation UNDP : United Nations Development ProgrammeUNICEF : United Nations International Children’s Emergency FundWED : Women, Environment and Development WhO : World health Organization WSSCC : Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council WWF : World Wide Fund

Abbreviations

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Reportvii

Foreword iii Acknowledgement v Abbreviations vii Preface xi Executive Summary xii

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Women and Natural Resource 3 1.2. Objectives 5 1.3. Methodology 5

Chapter 2 LAND RESOURCES 2.1. Land Resources in Nagaland 8 2.2. Women and Land 10

Chapter 3 WATER RESOURCES 3.1. Women and Water Resources 19

Chapter 4 FOREST RESOURCES 4.1. Women and Forest Resources 28

Chapter 5 AGICULTURE RESOURCES 5.1. Agriculture in Nagaland 36 5.2. Agriculture and Women’s Livelihood 37

Chapter 6 WOMEN AND SEEDS 6.1. Women and Seeds 44

Chapter 7 WOMEN AND BIODIVERSITY 7.1. Significance of Biodiversity 50

Chapter 8 WOMEN AND MARKETING 8.1. Market 56

Chapter 9 INTERVENTION AND POLICY ISSUES 9.1 Environment Policy in General 62 9.2 Land or Property 64 9.3 Agriculture 66 9.4 Water 67 9.5 Biodiversity 68 9.6 Marketing 68

Contents

Chapter 10 CONCLUSION 10.1. The Way Forward 72

BIBILIOGRAPHY 74 LIST OF TABLESTable No. 4.1. Area Under Different Land Use in Nagaland 28Table No. 4.2. Community Forest Resources Identified by Peducha Villagers 29Table No. 5.1. Active Labour Force by Gender 38Table No. 5.2. Gender Division of Labour in Different Agriculture Land Use 39

LIST OF FIGURESFigure 2.1. Dual Inheritance of Landed Property Among the Zounuo-Keyhonuo Group 12

LIST OF CASE STUDIES Case Study 2.1. Customary Laws and Instances of a Widow Without A Son Excercising Rights Over Landed Asset 15Case Study 3.1. Water the ”Blue Gold” of the 21st Century 20Case Study 3.2. Water and Gender Situation in Yemen 21Case Study 3.3. Efficient Water Management for Paddy Production: Viswema Village 23Case Study 4.1. Traditional Community Forest Management System- Viswema Village 30Case Study 4.2. Women and NEPED : Tree Plantation Project 31Case Study 4.3. Peducha Village – Sharing of Forest Resources in Community Owned and Privately Owned Forest 32Case Study 6.1. Enchancing Local Seed Systems Through Community Seed Banks in Brazil and India 46Case Study 8.1. Women Vegetable Vendors in Kohima. 58

LIST OF BOxES Box 7.1. Biomes with the Highest Rates of Biodiversity Loss 50

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It is now well recognized that gender discrimination can undermine economic development of any society. So much so that the UNDP now builds a Gender Development Index to reflect such discrimination. While the traditional methods of discrimination are well known (for example, discrimination against women in jobs), it is often not realized that the process of development itself may create disadvantages for women.

One of the concerns in the process of development is the issue of sustainable development. This is normally looked at from the point of view of excessive degradation of resources leading to reduced income generation for future generations. however, in this paper the authors argue that excessive exploitation of resources may also lead to greater discrimination against women. In Nagaland, it is often not realized that the ownership of natural resources like forests vests with communities or individuals rather than the State. The authors argue that the traditional division of labour has led to the more onerous tasks being performed by women. Natural resource degradation increases the drudgery of work performed by women and hence gives them less time to devote to other activities like raising children and personal development. The paper also suggests policy interventions to mitigate this problem of gender discrimination.

It is to the credit of the authors that they have attempted to look at this issue even though very little quantitative data exists in this context. The authors have therefore combined the limited data with case studies and the results from the limited survey conducted by the Department of Economics and Statistics in 2009 to put together this very useful study. It should go a long way to understanding of the role of natural resource management in gender discrimination.

Preface

Prof. Manoj PantJawaharlal Nehru UniversityLead Author and Coordinator, Thematic Studies

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Reportxi

Natural resources have been crucial for existence of life on this planet. however, with each millennium, we have witnessed new advances in the sophistication of use and accumulation of material resources due to the ever increasing population, development resulting in destruction of ecosystem and natural habitat, and the intensification of agriculture for demand driven commodity production. All these have led to degraded landscapes, resources and loss of potentially renewable resources to the great detriment of the wildlife and rural communities. Thus, sustainable practices for management of natural resources to meet the need of life for both the present and future generations is of crucial concern to all societies.

The rural poor, and in particular women, in developing countries are those most directly dependent on natural resources for their immediate livelihood and food security. however, in natural resource management, there are differences between the roles and responsibilities of men and women due to the socially constructed division of labour. Given the increasing demand on natural resources leading to resources degradation and exploitation, this paper has investigated the role of women in management of resources like land, water, forests and related activities like marketing, collection of seeds and exploitation of forest biodiversity.

The paper looks at questions like ‘how the resource degradation is impacting womens’ work load and drudgery?’, ‘whether womens’ work drudgery and livelihood are getting more challenged and difficult with increasing resources degradation?’. The paper also suggests ways and measures for environment friendly policy interventions at the institutional and individual levels for creating greater awareness self-discipline, behaviour and effecting attitudinal change towards natural resources in order to conserve, preserve and minimize pressure on natural resources.

It is seen that discriminatory customary practices tend to curtail women’s rights to land and further marginalize womens’ access to credit, thereby, reducing incentives to improve natural resource management practices and conservation. however, womens’ access to land rights have increased womens’ control over productive forest resources and participation in decision making. Women are the primary gatherers of resources to meet the immediate household needs. hence, resource depletion will directly impact women with increasing workload and drudgery apart from affecting the overall livelihood and income of the people.

Executive Summary

xii



Women have additional roles as mothers along with other productive community work. This takes up much of their time. They can devote that much less time for investment in their human capital and capacity building. hence, involvement of women in additional conservation work without labour availability and means of production will only increase work load, burden and drudgery for women.

Thus, in the Nagaland context sustainable development would depend primarily on a balanced approach that include wise management of resources such as biodiversity conservation, sustainable management of existing land and forests, reduced exploitation of new forest resources and adapting better agricultural practices over time. Proper natural resource management can release more time for women to use on income generation activities, child care and personal development.

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Reportxiii

Introduction

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1.1. WOMEN AND NATURAL RESOURCE

Natural resource is any material from the natural environment that can be used by people for support and sustenance of life with its ecological value and manifold resources. The problems of environmental degradation and exploitation of natural resources began in the late 1960s. The consequences of degradation of the resources is no longer localized as it affects everyone. For example, the ever increasing population need more resources, development resulting in destruction of natural resources and ecosystem, and intensification of agriculture for increasing production to meet market demand all contribute to today’s fast exploitation of natural resources. In addition, clearing of forests for firewood, for new farmlands or to realize expensive furniture lead to degraded landscapes and loss of potential renewable resources to the great detriment of the wildlife and rural communities concerned. Its impact and contribution to global warming is however, far wider with greater ramifications.This paper is intended to create better understanding of the vast range of environmental, economic, social and political issues that surround the provision of resources. Previously, it was held that ‘institutional’ control of resources was the key to the successful supply of resources. In the 21st century, the power of an increasingly sophisticated and ‘greener’ population is putting pressure on the opinions of the decision makers as to how resources must be allocated. Sustainable development is now a key catch phrase of development workers, journalists, politicians and academics. Unfortunately, translation of the concept of sustainability into reality has been one of the greatest challenges.

This has led to indepth study of roles and responsibilities assigned to men and women in the use and management of the natural resources. Natural resource management means the management of resources such as water, land, forest, food/vegetable,plants and animals, with a particular focus on how management affects thequality of lifefor both present and future generations. The discipline has given rise to the notion of sustainable development, a principle which forms the basis for land management and environmental governance throughout the world. Natural resource management is a vital area where both the rural and urban communities depend directly on the surrounding natural resources for its ecological benefits and resources such as access to land, forests, sources of water, pastures and fields etc. and is crucial both for lives and livelihoods in the community.

THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Report3

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Rural poor in developing countries are the most directly dependent on natural resources for their livelihood and food security. According to World Bank (2002) more than 1.6 billion people depend to varying degrees on forests for their livelihood. Out of this, 60 million people are almost wholly dependent on forests and 350 million people live within or adjacent to dense forests for subsistence and income. In developing countries, about 1.2 billion people rely on agro forestry farming to sustain agricultural productivity to generate income. Worldwide, forest industries provide employment to 60 million people and 1 billion people depend on pharmaceuticals derived from forest plants for their medicinal needs. Mounting evidence suggests that poverty in rural areas in particular can be reduced only by sustainable management of natural resources that generate both income and provide environmental services.

Rights to natural resources are central to the entire socio-economic structure of rural people where communities are organized around these resources and build the social network. The social relationships in which women are admitted, their status and the economic activities they are permitted to undertake are strongly influenced by the rights to land. Both men and women are entitled to family land, yet women may be given less to cultivate than men. Thus, the analysis framework for land resource in the social context is looked from the aspects of establishing and maintaining right, use, management, disposal, regulation, sanctions ritual and socio-political roles (Benda-Beckmann, 1997:4).

In the context mentioned above, attempt is made to understand the role of women in natural resource management and how the resource degradation could impact on women, positively or negatively. For effective and sustainable management of the resources meeting the need of both the present as well as the future, gender friendly intervention policy and plans could be formulated.

1.2. OBjECTIVES

i. To study and assess the extent of womens’ role in managing natural resources.

ii. To widen people’s awareness and appreciation of natural resources, environmental issues and their effects on resources degradation.

iii. To understand gender issues and perspectives in natural resource management, the complementary roles or responsibilities of women and men, the changing roles over time and to understanding power relationships.

iv. To incorporate gender perspective in natural resource management policy and planning.

1.3. METHODOLOGY

We used a variety of tools for data collection including primary and secondary sources. The primary source was through survey questionnaire conducted by the Department of Economics and Statistics, Government of Nagaland, 2009, supplemented by case studies of previous work done in few villages on this issue. Information on social and historical perspective, depletion of natural resources, methods of conservation, water management, prediction and beliefs was collected.

Secondary sources included reviews of relevant literature, books, journals, magazines, newspapers, research and survey conducted by various organizations viz: Census Reports, the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, the Directorate of Information & Public Relations, Nagaland Empowerment of People through Economic Development (NEPED) and Annual Administrative Reports.

The role of women in natural resource management has been investigated under the following broad sub-heads, such as: land resources, water resources, forest resources, agriculture resources, women and seeds, women and biodiversity, and women and marketing.


Land Resources

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2.1. LAND RESOURCES IN NAGALAND

healthy and fertile soils are integral part of sustainable agricultural livelihoods that will lead to food security and agriculture development. Growth in food production will depend primarily on soil health, fertility and productivity. Not only can less food be grown on unproductive soil, but the production of cash crops is endangered. It is essential that agricultural production and soil be managed in sustainable ways, so that the present generation is fed and soil conditions improve to support future generations.

Today, land resources are getting scarce with increasing population, resulting in decline of soil quality and productivity. The Millennium Development Goal of halving hunger by 2015 argues that improving soil health is the first step for correcting soil nutrient imbalances, improving agricultural productivity, and thus, reducing hunger. Soil fertility is an important component of soil health, along with organic matter content and microorganism populations. however, when population pressure increases, traditional fallow and crop rotation systems are less effective in maintaining and restoring soil fertility. When soils become less productive, crop yields get either stagnant or decline, the farmers then become more dependent on external inputs to maintain crop productivity.

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Jhum Fallow Management with Alnus nepalensis, Angami, Khonoma - Photo C. Kikhi


Other factors such as soil erosion and effects of climate change further deplete the soil and heighten the need for more holistic soil management approaches. Land degradation, loss of soil fertility and declining crop productivity are threats to sustainable livelihoods. Thus, improving soil productivity through the sustainable indigenous crop management practices such as alder-based jhum among the Angamis, well developed in Khonoma and green manure in Terrace Rice Cultivation (TRC) would reduce hunger.

Green Manure with polygonum runcinatum, Angami Kigwema - Photo: C. Kikhi

2.2. WOMEN AND LAND

Land is one of the most important productive natural resources for people. One can invest in this natural capital for productive activity to generate wealth. It is a store house for minerals and forest resources of various kinds. In the present age of globalization, this natural capital is moveable and can be converted into economic goods e.g., used as mortgage to secure loan. This natural capital can also be privatized and ownership changed. While men can inherit the most important and productive wealth, land for ‘free’, it does not apply to women the same way. There are certainly gender biases when it comes to land ownership with numerous existing inequalities.

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Men control the best land with the best soil to produce commercial crops. Women control marginal farmlands that are generally smaller. Women have limited or no access to external inputs such as fertilizer and credit. Women have been further marginalized because inheritance laws, customary laws and cultural norms favour men. Women are particularly affected by declining soil fertility with fewer yields. This results in feminization of poverty leading to vulnerable health hazards and a low status of women in the society.

Womens’ right to land and other natural resources are crucial for their livelihood. This will increase womens’ bargaining power within the household and in the society enabling them to partake in decision making. The rights to land for women vary from country to country, and even village to village at micro level. They are context specific based on socio-cultural practices.

Thus, issues of rights, access to and control over resources and services and potential to take decisions on critical issues related to livelihood are integral to sustainable development and poverty reduction strategies.

(A) WOMENS’ LAND RIGHTS

Access of women to land, both arable and communal forest resources is critically important in India. It is a way to empower women. ‘Effective land rights’ is not land right only in law but in ‘practice’. Agarwal defined land rights as, “Rights and claims that are legally and socially recognized and enforceable by an external legitimized authority, be it a village level institution, judiciary or executive body of the State. Rights to land can be in the form of ownership or of usufruct, associated with the freedom to lease out, mortgage or even sell” (Agarwal, 1994: 19).

‘Land rights’ according to FAO,(2002) is “the allocation of rights in land; the delimitation of boundaries of parcels for which the rights are allocated; the transfer from one party to another through sale, lease, loan, gift or inheritance; and the adjudication of doubts and disputes regarding rights and parcel boundaries.”


1ST GENERATION

2ND GENERATION

3RD GENERATION

Eldest Daughter Inherit (Pozephü Land)



Figure 2.1. Dual Inheritance Of Landed Property Among The Zounuo - Keyhonuo Group

MATRILINEALLY

MALE FEMALE MARRIAGE SIBLINGS

PATRILINEALLY INHERITED LANDInherit Land (Agnatic) (Pozephü Land)

In most of India’s rural context, women have only indirect rights to use the land via their husbands or a dominant male member of the household, and have no rights to inherit it however small in size it may be (Kelkar, 1992:15). In Nagaland, the land holding tenure system is customarily defined and owned privately by individuals, a group of lineage or clan except the forest which is community owned. Within a community, individual families have exclusive rights to residential parcels, agricultural parcels and certain trees. Open grazing is restricted to within one’s own specific location in the village. In certain rare cases, there are places where matrilineal kinship exists such as among the Khasis of Meghalaya in North East India. Among the Zounuo-Keyhonuo group of Viswema village in Angami Naga area, women can inherit land called ‘pozephü’.

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Matrilineally inherited PozePhü land

As explained in figure 2.1, the Zounuo-Keyhonuo group of Viswema village has a system of unilineal descent comprising a segmentary lineage system, patri-virilocal residence, where the general devolution of productive and immovable property is agnatic. However, Das, 1993, and Kikhi, 2009 in their study reveals a unique feature of the group, i.e. the existence of matrilineal inheritance by eldest daughter upon marriage, mostly terraced paddy fields called ‘pozephü’, which is transferred in the female line from a mother to daughter.

At marriage, a woman brings her pozephü land along with other articles such as livestock, ornaments, clothes and paddy called ‘tenomi-shiephü’. Pozephü land is again inherited by the eldest daughter upon marriage in the second generation. The other daughters are also given a part of the father’s own agnatically inherited land. Such land is called as ‘tepumi-kicho’. If a couple dies without any male heir and no male child is adopted by them, the father’s agnatically inherited land by the woman goes back to the patrilineage core group and without daughter or son, matrilineally inherited land pozephü land goes back to the affinal kins (‘omuni’) (Das, 1993). Thus, we find that traditionally, as well as in modern times, the Zounuo-Keyhonuo group of Viswema village, have a complex system of dual inheritance whereby women are placed relatively in a highly advantageous position particularly in terms of their economic rights.


(B) IMPORTANCE OF LAND RIGHTS

“Land rights are a vital element for rural households to balance their capabilities and assets, and determine their strategies to cope with their daily production and food security. They are not just a source of economic production, but are also a basis of social relationships and cultural values, a source of prestige and often power” (FAO, 2002).

It has been argued that land is not only for food and market crops but also for the non-commoditized resources it offers such as housing, firewood, grazing, building and craft material and so on (Walker 1994). Womens’ lack of land rights can not only reduce the well being of family but also deprive her socially and culturally. hence, the effective exclusion of women from possession and control of land is largely the basis of their subordination and dependence on men in rural India (Kelkar, 1992: 3).

According to A. Sen (1990), there is an existence of cooperative and conflicting elements in family relationship. While there are many ‘cooperative outcomes’ beneficial for all the household members, the different members have ‘strictly conflicting interests in the set of cooperative arrangements’. hence, the bargaining power of men and women within the cooperative conflict will depend much on their resources and power outside the family or household. Women are socially powerless and resourceless and are likely to remain in that situation even when the outcome of cooperative conflict is unsatisfactory. It would be unfavourable for women to leave the household. But in case of breakdown of cooperative arrangements, the fall back position of women is worse, which is reflected in their lack of entitlement to resources, consumption and decision making outside the family and within it. hence, gaining ownership of land would strengthen women’s breakdown position and their position within marriage (Sen, 1990: 129).

Thus womens’ access to land rights can secure sustainable livelihoods with increased productivity, reduced level of feminization of poverty, gain better social relationships and cultural values. These are source of prestige and power and will increase bargaining power of women with a fall back position in case of breakdown of cooperative arrangements.

however, Naga womens’ access to land resources and user’s rights are mediated by a sound male gender relation. And control rights are often subjected to Naga customary laws, which is one-sided and biased. The recognition of Naga customary laws in Article 371 A of the Constitution of India further marginalizes women if they do not have customary land rights as presented in the case study 2.1.

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A Naga widow, a trained nurse with two daughters was able to acquire landed property during her long career in Government service. After her retirement, she made an affidavit dividing her assets and savings between her two daughters and transferred the title to them immediately because she was afraid that if she did not do this during her lifetime, her husband’s male siblings and sons would manifest its tentacles with the blessing of customary laws and contest the will. Exactly, what she dreaded most would happen after her death, instantly happened as soon as news of the affidavit reached the husband’s clan men. The men went to court, citing customary laws, which prohibited inheritance of any landed property by women and girls. After a serious debate in the court, the widow could prove that she did not inherit those assets from her late husband but rather ‘earned’ them through sheer hard labour over which the clan had no right and she won the case.

This widow’s case was a rare one where women registered protest to fight for their rights. however, in most cases, women would resign to their fate. With most Naga rural women lacking land rights in a larger context, women are still considered as ‘dependant’. Thus, the enforcement of customary laws has reinforced perception of female subordination and work against womens’ full human right (ADB 2002: 4).

Case Study 2.1.

Source: Newspaper Report, Nagaland Page, Dimapur, September 23rd, 2005


Customary Laws And Instance Of A Widow Without A Son Exercising Rights Over Landed Asset

WaterResources

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Dzücharü, Phesama, Kohima. Photo: C. Kikhi

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3.1. WOMEN AND WATER RESOURCES

Water resource is a critical element for sustainable livelihoods and poverty reduction. Freshwater is a scarce resource for improving quality of life. It is said that 4 billion people, that is half the world’s population will live in countries with high water stress by year 2025 (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000). Most of the affected countries are located in the developing countries with the poor people as the main victims. The present situation with regard to water supply is alarming. It is estimated that 1.1 billion people do not have access to safe water in adequate supply for household use (WhO/UNICEF/WSSCC, 2000). This resulted in nearly 3 million children, 5 years of age or younger, dying of diarrhea annually (Esrey and Andersson, 1999). More than 800 million people, that is, 15 percent of the world population, and predominantly women and children get less than 2000 calories a day due to poor water availability leading to poor productivity.

The decline in quantity and quality of water leads to over exploitation of surface and groundwater resources and magnifies problems related to desertification. Water crises raise political tensions in many parts of the world, particularly where people share rivers and lakes across borders. Africans have the least access to clean water and the largest numbers of people with no access to basic sanitation live in Asia (UNDP 2005). Water shortages, water quality degradation, and aquatic ecosystem destruction seriously affect economic and social development, political stability and ecosystem integrity (UNDP 2005). The Millennium Development Goal 7 (MDG 2000) aimed to reduce by half, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015.


Water is the ‘Blue Gold’ of the 21st century. An impending ‘water war’ is not far away among countries around the world. There is an urgent need to alert everyone and use water resources judiciously. Rich countries like poorer countries face water crisis. Rich countries have to make drastic changes to policies if they are to avoid the water crisis that is facing poorer nations, according to WWF1 environmental organization (2006). Many industrialized cities are already losing the battle to maintain water supplies in spite of their Governments’ talk about conservation, because of their failure to implement their pledges.

From Seville in Spain to Sacramento in California and Sydney in Australia, the report said water had become a key political issue at local, regional and national levels as climate change and loss of wetlands dramatically reduce supplies. In Europe, the report said, countries around the Atlantic are suffering from recurring droughts, while in the Mediterranean region water resources were being depleted by the boom in tourism and irrigated agriculture. In Australia, already being the world’s driest continent, salinity has become a major threat to a large proportion of key farming areas, while in the United States wide areas were using substantially more water than could be naturally replenished. Even in Japan with its high rainfall, contamination of water supplies has become a serious issue. The overall picture, the WWF said, would only get worse in coming years as global warming brought lower rainfall and increased evaporation of water and changed the pattern of snow melting from mountain areas.

The report proposed seven ways to tackle the problem: Conserving catchments and wetlands, balancing conservation and consumption, changing attitudes to water; repairing ageing infrastructure, increase charges to farmers for water use, reduce water contamination and more study of water systems.

Case Study 3.1. Water The ‘Blue Gold’ Of The 21St Century

Source: Reuters, Geneva, Wednesday August 16, 2006

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The perception of water as a ‘free good’ has led to unjust allocations, wastage and environmental problems. Water resource management must be based on looking at water as both a finite and vulnerable resource. The failure to understand the improvements to water supply as a process of social change requires a strong focus on the users, both women and men, as actors and change agents in the process. 1 World Wide Fund


Yemen’s water crisis has affected women adversely in different ways. Groundwater irrigation for cash cropping has resulted in aquifer depletion in different agro-ecological regions. Traditional sources of water harvesting structures are no longer maintained.Women and young girls travel longer distances for water in rural areas, affecting their health, safety and literacy levels. As more men migrate to cities and other Gulf countries, womens’ role in irrigated agriculture has increased, although it is not always formally acknowledged because commercial cultivation was traditionally a man’s preserve. In the case of urban water supply, richer households purchase water from tanks, whereas poorer women have to line up to buy water from richer neighbours, to obtain lower-quality water from wells or periodically to get water from municipality water projects.

The problems of water resource management or challenges are rarely connected to absolute resource constraints, but are closely linked to socio-cultural, economic, political and institutional factors which govern the ways water resources are utilized and managed, to the extent to which groups in society are able to gain access to water resources for their specific needs.

The availability of water resource, its management and distribution to the individuals, households and communities and among different user groups is critically important. Management of water resources is associated with household water supplies, irrigation, flood control, wetland preservation and fisheries. One cannot ignore gender perspectives in development of strategies such as the perceptions, knowledge, contributions, needs and priorities of women and girls that constitute 50 percent of the population.

Women collect water and manage it for household use, ensuring adequate supply, storing and keeping it clean while stored in the house. They also play key community management roles in domestic water supply at community level including maintenance of traditional sources. In general, if water resources are scarce, it affects both men and women negatively with less productivity. At the same time, it affects women and children more with more work load and drudgery and poorer nutrition as compared to men and boys.

Case Study 3.2. Water And Gender Situation In Yemen

Source: “A Brief Overview of the Water and Gender Situation in Yemen,” www.idrc.ca/en/

Water, which had been considered as a ‘free commodity’ at one time, is getting scarce and its shortage is being felt everywhere with an ever increasing population and industrialization with more pressure on the natural resources. Because of the existence of traditional water users’ rights as presented in the case study 3.3, serious thought is given while sharing water resources. For example, if water is tapped to nearby village, through certain interventions, the primary water users may be affected with poor paddy productivity affecting the biodiversity of aquatic creatures in the paddy field, streams and rivulets. It may also affect primary upstream and down stream water users with less drinking water availability. hence, careful diplomatic negotiation is always preferred with primary users as many primary users do not want to part with their resources if they do not get any returns or a part in the benefit sharing arrangement.

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For irrigation purpose in terrace rice cultivation for paddy productivity, water is tapped from the rivulets and streams and led through long channels to flood the terraces because the rice must be kept under water. However this reason is less significant than the fact that the water so required is procured in accordance with customary procedure and right. This irrigation channel can be of various types; serving water to a single family, many farm families located in the same vicinity or to different farmers located in different fields with water users’ rights. The community members comprising of all ages i.e., men, women, boys and girls repair irrigation channels collectively if water is used by the community. A person not present in such community work is not debarred from using water, but is charged a daily wage fine.

As per the traditional water users’ rights, no one can construct a new irrigation channel or tap water from irrigation channel at one’s own will unless one has the users’ right. These man made irrigation channels are called “Dzüle” which are prepared in advanced before the onset of monsoon. Water tapped from rivulets and streams, the point of its origin called “Dzübo”, is led through long channels to flood the terraces. The distribution point from where water from irrigation channel enters the field is called “Dzüki”. It is from this “Dzüki” that the flow of water into the individual field is controlled and regulated by putting barriers like stones or bamboo so that the down stream water users are not deprived of their rightful share. In places, where irrigation is not possible, aqueducts made with locally found materials, like bamboos are used to pass through the difficult areas like rocks or slopes.

Sharing of Water Resources: During intensive paddy puddling, tradition allows sharing of water resources. For example, water can be borrowed for a few hours from the neighbour’s field by the term “Dzüthu” with owner’s permission. But care is taken not to deprive neighbour’s field of all water resources because there are already many aquatic animals such as snails, small fishes, insects and common carps that are used for food as well as to bring marginal income when sold. Collection of these small items for food and marginal income is the sole responsibility of women who will otherwise be negatively affected nutritionally if diversity of the aquatic creatures are depleted.

Rain Water Harvesting: Rain water is harvested and stored in ponds for fields devoid of water source. harvested rain water from these reservoirs is then slowly led to the paddy field during puddling as well as for soaking the field to increase paddy production.

Case Study 3.3. Efficient Water Management For Paddy Production : Viswema Village

Source: Gender, Environment & Sustainable Livelihoods 1996 (NEPED/IDRC/ICIMOD Small Grant Project)


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Efficient water management for paddy productivity may not be directly related to womens’ role in natural resource management. however, when poor productivity results due to poor water availability, it may directly impact on womens’ nutritional status and health, reducing work efficiency and work output as culturally, most women in the households are the last ones to eat their meals.

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Providing and securing water for household use is often the responsibilities of the mothers and daughters as per the gender division of labour. If water resources are scarce, women have to spend more time for less resources coinciding with multifarious livelihood activities and reproductive works. Thus, scarcity of water resources increases womens’ work load and drudgery. In addition, though women may not be directly related to water resources control, the fact is that if there is poverty at home, it affects more women negatively with less share of food rendering her with a low status and at the same time affecting her health condition and efficiency of work output.


Forest Resources

4

4.1. WOMEN AND FOREST RESOURCES

According to FAO (2005), 30 percent of the earth’s land surface, which is a little below 4 billion hectares, is under forest cover. The world’s forests are home to at least 80 percent of the terrestrial biodiversity that provide a major carbon sink to mitigate climate change (World Bank 2002). In developing countries, about 1.2 billion people rely on agro-forestry farming that help to sustain agricultural productivity and generate income. At global level, 60 million people are employed by forest industries. The forest plants provide pharmaceuticals and medicinal needs to about 1 billion people. It is evident that poverty in rural areas can be reduced only by sustainable management of our natural resources that generates both income as well as environmental services. The forests fulfill major economic functions, help maintain the fertility of agricultural land, protect water resources and reduce the risk of natural disasters such as landslides and flooding. Forests are therefore, the most important natural resources that provide immediate support to nearly half of the 2.8 billion people who live on less than a dollar per day (World Bank 2002). Thus, forests can play a prominent role in meeting the United Nations’ 2000 Millennium Development Goal of halving extreme poverty by 2015.

A Geographical Area Reported 1,657,900

B

Total Reporting Area 1,521,590

i. Forest Area 862,930

ii. Area not Available for Cultivation 65,890

- Barren & Uncultivable Land 00

- Land put to Non-Agri-Use 65,890

C

Other Uncultivable Land excluding Fallow Land 196,674

- Land under Misc. Tree Crops and Groves 124,140

- Cultivable Wasteland 72,534

D

Fallow Lands 155,870

- Current Fallow 91,340

- Fallow Land Other than Current Fallow 64,530

E Total Cropped Area (Gross) 268,226

F Net Area Shown 240,226

G Area shown More Than Once 28,000

Source: Department of Agriculture, Government of Nagaland

Table No. 4.1. Area Under Different Land Use In Nagaland (In Hectares) (Provisional)

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In Nagaland, out of the total geographical area of 16, 579 sq km as in Table No.4.1, 89 percent area is privately owned and only 9.1 percent is owned by the State Government. The Department of Forest and Ecology has observed that roughly 33 percent or 2,843 sq. km of the total 8,629 km of classified forests were degraded in 1996-1997. As a result, an effective plan to protect or improve the largest component of classified forest needs to be worked out closely with communities and individual participation.

There are different types of forests such as community natural forest (primary forest), private forest or plantation forest. The natural forests are community owned meant for providing ecological services, life support system and extraction of resources for livelihoods. This forest is located farthest from the village habitat with distinct boundary landmarks with neighbouring villages such as streams, mountain ridge or rocks. The community natural forests are collectively owned by the village community. On the other hand, private or plantation forests are nearer to village and owned by some segments of the people such as lineage groups and individual households. Thus, forest ownership pattern determines the use of forests resources in both the community as well as the private forests. In community forest, resource utilization and control rights rest with the forest management committee comprising of elderly men from all clans. however, resources utilization rights are centralized to all members of the community, especially resources required for livelihood such as dead wood, Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) wild fruits, vegetables and animals as seen in Table No. 4.2.

On the other hand, when the forest ownership is privatized, productive resources utilization rights are decentralized, limiting access to and control rights only to the rightful owners. A forest, being an integral part of human existence with its ,resources for ecological services and life support system and to harvest resources such as fresh air, fuel, water and biodiversity of plants and animals as seen in Table No. 4.2, many rural communities preserve and manage forest resources for the present as well as the future generations.


Name of Resources Trees Bamboo &

Cane Animals Birds Wild Vegetables

Wild Mushrooms

Wild Flowers

Boulder/Stones

Numbers 141 17 72 108 52 10 12 Not quantifiable

Source: Participatory Rural Approach (PRA) with Focused Group Discussion (FGD), March 2004

Table No. 4.2. Community Forest Resources Identified By Peducha Villagers

In extraction of timbers from community natural forest for house construction by an individual, one must first seek permission of the elder (village, khel or clan) based on the ownership by giving him ‘salt’ (practiced among the K. Khel of Viswema Village). he would be allowed to extract the required quantity of timber for the house construction but on completion, the elder would administer an ‘oath’ saying that no timber has been sold out for monetary benefit (Kikhi 1996: 17).

In Viswema village, community natural forests are owned by the community and private or individual parties own the fire wood reserve forest called “Seikha”. But for communal co-existence, the resources are managed and shared. For example, one can extract NTFPs, MAPs, wild vegetables and fruits, fodder, dead wood and also remove a branch from live trees as a process of pruning for fuel purpose from anywhere, be it community or private forests. But the same does not apply to extraction of live trees or grazing of cattle. For example, one cannot fell a tree that is directly erupting from the soil without the owner’s consent. Such cases if caught or confirmed, is treated as ‘theft’ and a fine imposed; which can be seven times the value of the tree. however, if an individual is constructing a residential house and need some post or logs, one is allowed to extract posts/logs from private owners to a certain extent with prior permission depending on one’s negotiation skills.

Forest Resource Firewood, Peducha, Kohima Photo: C. Kikhi

Case Study 4.1. Traditional Community Forest Management System - Viswema Village

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Thus, community forest resources that provide environmental and ecological services are neutral to all living things including human beings. however, traditionally, community forest resource management, utilization, access to and control over the resources are gender specific and is predetermined by culture and tradition. For example, extraction, utilization and control of resources such as birds, animals, bamboo, cane, boulder and stones, trees for timber that can fetch monetary income fall strictly within the domain of males and hence, men are the primary users of productive forest resources. In Nagaland, mineral resources are yet to be explored. On the other hand, women can have immediate access to and control over dead fire wood, NTFPs, MAPs, such as fodder, fuel wood, water, wild vegetables and fruits. These resources are extracted for immediate household use to support livelihood. Thus, the less productive forest resources fall within the domain of women.

While women have no direct role or much say in the community forest management,effective forest resource management and its wise utilization will provide both men and women with ecological benefits, life support systems and resources. This will positively benefit women with a comparative advantage when forest resources are abundant and are used for sustainable livelihoods as it will greatly reduce work load and drudgery on women and enhance womens’ nutritional status due to the biodiversity of resources.

The NEPED Project from 1995-2000 has propagated tree planting in jhum fields in order to replenish the forest and other resources that have been subjected to jhum cultivation. NEPED worked closely with 1794 Naga jhum farmers spread across 854 villages in Nagaland. The village coverage was 84.55 percent and the tree plantation covered 5500 hectares of land. As per the survey conducted by an external evaluator from Canada in 1999, the replication of NEPED’s intervention recorded was at a ratio of 1:6 (about 33,000 ha.). It was estimated that 7 million trees were planted during NEPED phase 1 that is between 1995-2000 (Journey to Sustainable Future, 2002).

however, womens’ participation in NEPED tree plantation in jhum was marginal. Though women were actively involved in tree plantation they could not get the full benefit of their labour in terms of trees due to lack of land rights for women.(Kikhi 2001: 3, 5)

Case Study 4.2. Women And Neped: Tree Plantation Project


For sustainable resource use, management and an equitable sharing of the forest resources, villagers practiced traditional democratic forest management system and sharing resources. For example, in Peducha, both the rich and the poor have equal rights to use the trees for timber extraction. however, the rich cannot extract timber beyond his needs. And a poor fellow villager is never deprived of extracting timber from the community forest. Extraction of forest resources and utilization is monitored and controlled by the Village Forest Committee under Kiruphema General Council. However, in private forest plantations undertaken as seen in the first women tree plot in Nagaland under NEPED at Peducha, women have full access to and control over productive forest resources, trees and to participate in decision making and to decide on what trees or cash crops to plant (Kikhi 2003-04: 5, 16).

Case Study 4.3. Peducha Village-Sharing of Forest Resources in Community Owned and Privately Owned Forest

Granting women land rights as seen in the case study 4.3 of Peducha women in NEPED further improved womens’ position and condition with increased work output, efficiency and better care of the resources created. This was evident by the fact that when the women were asked to thin the trees as part of cultural operations for tree management, the women folk replied, “How can the same hands that had planted and nurtured the trees be used to cut and destroy the trees again?” (NEPED Field Reports: C.Kikhi).

The case study 4.2 showed how women though, working on the land and nurturing its resources had very little participation in afforestation project of Nagaland Empowerment of People through and Economic Development (NEPED) with the full control rights over the trees. In reality, use and control of forest resources is determined not by lack of or constraint of natural resources but by whether the user has the rights to use productive resources, especially land.

Natural resource degradation will adversely affect women more with an increasing work load and drudgery as they have to travel longer distances to fetch resources such as NTFPs, MAPs, fodder etc for household use.

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THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - Thematic Report17

Agriculture Resources

5

5.1. AGRICULTURE IN NAGALANDAgriculture depends heavily on the availability of natural resources. Today, agriculture occupies 40 percent of the land surface and consumes 70 percent of global water resources and helps manage biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels (FAO 2007). The intensive expansion of agriculture for commodity production results in environmental problems such as soil erosion, pollution by agrochemicals, climate change that accounts for about one third of greenhouse gas emissions contributed by agriculture (World Bank 2007). Land and water degradation, loss in crop biodiversity and climate change has threatened the viability of farming in various ways.

In Nagaland, agriculture is the mainstay of the Naga people. According to the village profile of the Department of Agriculture (2001), there are 1,84,127 farming households consisting of 13,60,925 persons comprising 68.44 percent of the total population. Of the total Naga farmers, 70 percent have been practicing jhum cultivation on the steep slope with only the Angamis and Chakhesang tribes practicing Terrace Rice Cultivation (TRC) on steep slopes. Some of the major crops being cultivated in Nagaland are paddy, maize, millet, kholar, Naga dal, soybean and different kinds of vegetables. The food security of a farmer depends entirely on the land cultivated and the level of soil fertility. however, population pressure with decadal growth rate of 64 percent (Census of India 2001, Nagaland) is alarming and may lead to scarcity of land impacting food security.

The topography of the hilly terrains poses barrier in utilizing land for large scale farming. The hilly terrain also makes working on the land labour intensive and expensive. These factors have resulted in high production cost with less productivity, with most women engaged in agriculture leading to feminization of agriculture in the State, a trend that is happening globally among the developing countries.

While women play a vital role as agricultural producers and as agents of food and nutritional security, they have less access to productive assets such as land and services such as finance and extension services. A variety of constraints impinge upon Jhum their ability to participate in collective action as members of agricultural cooperative or water user associations. In both centralized and decentralized governance systems, women tend to lack political voice. Gender inequalities result in less food being grown, less income being earned leading to a higher level of poverty and food insecurity. Agriculture in low income developing countries is a sector with exceptionally high impact in terms of its potential to reduce poverty.

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Jhum Cultivation Scene, Tuensang. Photo: NEPED

5.2. AGRICULTURE AND WOMENS’ LIVELIHOOD

A livelihood comprises the assets (natural, physical, human, financial and social capital), activities and the access to these assets (mediated by institutions and social relations) that together determine the living gained by the individual or household (Ellis, 2000:30). As stated by Ellis, for rural households to have sustainable livelihoods, the key is having access to secured land and its resources like water and trees and other means of production. Food security is assured with an increasing access to land, markets as well as other economic opportunities.

According to Mies and Shiva (1993), women and nature work in partnership with each other with a special relationship. If the land is degraded and eroded, both the land and women suffer a decline in productivity. The decline in productivity affects women more because she loses her subsistence, resource and her social status. ‘Social status’ is the honour and prestige attached to one’s position in the society, which can be earned through hard effort or inherited. Land is important not only for producing food for consumption and marketable crops, but also for non-commoditized resources as it offers housing, firewood, grazing, building and craft material, as argued by Walker (1994).

The land based activities are mediated through marriage and gender relations where women are part and parcel with equal participation. Women make flexible changes and livelihood is managed within the limited land resource for food security and other needs. Thus, the family farm is basically womens’ territory and domain. Women do the nurturing and cultural operation jobs as per the gender division of labour set by the society.


In a rural farming community where livelihoods revolve around the farms, women play an important role in managing the land and a majority of its labour force is contributed by women. According to statistics of Nagaland, women farmers constitute 50 percent population as seen in Table No. 5.1.

Category Grand Total Total Male % (M) Total Female % (F)

Cultivators 544432 271608 50 272825 50

Agri. Labour 38852 18141 47 15711 40

Other Workers 253625 191489 76 62136 24

Total Workers 849982 487767 57 362215 43

Marginal Workers 141527 63531 49 77996 55

Non-Workers 1138654 533919 47 584736 51

Total Population 19888636 1041686 52 946590 50

Source: Census of India, 2001

Table No. 5.1. Active Labour Force By Gender

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First, women participation in agriculture is increasing due to land shortage. Secondly, males migrate for work outside the farm due to womens’ lower opportunity in labour markets (Deere: 55). This has led to feminization of agriculture in today’s context. hence, women not being able to access the land can not only reduce the well being of the family but also deprive her socially and culturally. With more women farmers tied down to the land as compared to men, doing tedious and continuous agricultural job producing food for the family, women are kept fully occupied, with no extra time left to invest in their human capital or building their capacities for social network. hence, women farmers remain illiterate with less social network. Moreover, if the family can not produce enough food, the women are often labeled as being lazy and not diligent, and have a low status in the society even though they play a crucial role in contributing to family food security. hence, investment in additional work without availability of additional labour and means of production will only increase womens’ work load, burden and drudgery.

The gender division of labour in Table No. 5.2 depicts power relation and inequalities in sharing of works. Men partake in activities that need physical strength and stamina but are seasonal. Men also do activities that have economic value such as collecting timber and marketing cash crops. Women are attached to activities mainly for sustaining livelihood that are invisible and unaccounted. There is a gender gap in sharing the workload attached to resources and value. Thus, the gender differentiated roles and responsibilities in natural resource management and interventions must address the specific needs and opportunities of rural women and men, particularly the poorest, to reduce inequalities, stimulate growth and reverse environmental loss and degradation. With feminization of agriculture in today’s scenario due to land shortage, less productivity, high labour and high production cost and womens’ low wage in labour

Activity Mens’ Specific Work Womens’ Specific Work Joint Work

Paddy & Potato(TRC)

Irrigation, land preparation (small power tiller)

Land preparation (manual), composting, sowing, earthing, weeding

Land preparation harvesting, marketing

Khuso TRC Irrigation Land preparation, raising seedling,

transplanting, weeding and tending, Puddling, harvesting, observes rituals,

Jhum Slashing, cutting trees, laying barriers for soil conservation

Gathering fire wood, tilling, sowing, tending and weeding, seasonal harvesting, collection of fire wood to village

Clearing debris and burn, harvesting of the main crop

home Garden Land preparation, composting, sowing, weeding and tending, harvesting Erection of fencing

Forest Products

hunt animals, timbers for hh use/commercial Collection of NTFPs for livelihoods

Fire wood Cut and chop Carry firewood home haul by vehicle

Table No. 5.2. Gender Division Of Labour In Different Agriculture Land Use

Source: Focused Group Discussion 1996 (Viswema Village)


market, more female labour input is used in agriculture as compared to male input. This deprives women rights to equal education resulting in increasing school drop out rate and may result in increasing number of women farmers if not checked.

There are other gender based inequalities in sharing reproductive works and resources. For example, womens’ labour contribution in food production is less acknowledged and invisible since no income is attributed to this contribution. It is considered something normal or natural for women to do such work due to the social construction of gender roles. Moreover, women have no share or fewer shares in productive assets like land or landed assets when her labour has generated income and enabled the acquisition of productive assets e.g., land. Thus, majority of rural women today are considered poor farmers with a low social status not because they have been lazy or ignorant, but because land based activities do not generate visible income. Capacity to earn income is thus status enhancing. Yet women farmers remain so important and are key to family food and nutrition security.

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Women and Seeds

6

6.1. WOMEN AND SEEDS

Seeds are crucially important for the farming community, since their food security depends entirely on the availability of quality and secured seeds. It is the women who need to ensure good supplies of preferred varieties of seed because women are often the main growers of food to feed the family. Although both men and women farmers regard seeds as a key resource for food and livelihood security, it is crucial to remember that important gender differences in seed diversity, seed security and food security must be understood with effective seed intervention.

Farmers use multiple systems such as informal or traditional or local seed system that helps them to produce and obtain the seed they need. Subsistence farmers tend to rely more on local seed systems that provide the largest share of seed for non commercial crops. An estimated 80 to 90 percent of all seed used to produce staple food crops in subsistence systems comes from local seed systems (FAO 2008).

In local seed systems, farmers themselves produce, disseminate and obtain seed directly through their own harvested crops or through exchange with others in the local area. For resource poor farmers, especially women, the local seed system is the main and most reliable source of seed. An important reason for relying on local seed systems is that marginal women farmers often grow a diversity of crops to minimize the risk of total crop failure and food insecurity. Secondly, women in many societies are in charge of selecting and storing seeds of many traditional food crops with specific attributes such as being cheaper, available in small quantities, better adapted to local conditions, easier to obtain, and possess qualities for food preparation, ceremonies or even rituals.

hence, women are the key keepers and conservers in selection of different kinds of seeds depending on their uses and utility. Negligence in selecting the right seeds would not only adversely affect the food diversity but may also compromise the food security of the family, rendering women to a low status and poverty. This is the reason why the high yielding or the hybrid varieties are not easily accepted by the local people unless it is proven or tested on field.

One of the strategies to improve food security and to maintain local crop diversity is by establishing community seed banks. This helps in traditional seed varieties that cannot be obtained in the market and empowers local people to select and multiply seed of traditional crops and varieties of their choice. In addition, rural people have a system of exchanging seed within their village or with people from neighbouring villages. This

4444



kind of practice is an important instrument for seed supply and diffusion which is based on kinship, traditional relationship and cultural practices. By facilitating access to seed, especially by women, sustained cultivation of traditional varieties and household seed security are ensured. The traditional seed exchange system and community seed banks also help farmers in sharing their traditional knowledge about seed storage and management practices.

Maize seeds - Agro biodiversity research. Photo: C. Kikhi

45 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Report

46

1. PARAIBA, BRAzIL - frequent droughts and farmers’ small landholdings lead to families not being able to produce enough grain to use as food and to save as seed for the next year’s crop. Genetic diversity has also been eroded by the preference for seed of commercial rather than local varieties. Commercial varieties are grown to meet market driven demands and are also used for distribution in Government seed programs. however, creation of community seed banks help to reverse this trend through participatory, collective efforts to grow and supply seed. In addition to conserving biodiversity, the banks enable farmers to be self reliant by supporting the timely provision of seeds.

Case Study 6.1. Enhancing Local Seed Systems Through Community Seed Banks In Brazil And India

2. JAIPUR, INDIA - interested households contribute a specific quantity of seed to the community seed bank. The village seed bank management committee is formed with men and women who share the responsibility of managing the bank. The bank records the names and quantities of seed required by needy farm families and it distributes the seed. The involvement of women has strengthened the seed bank and the seed exchange system. The women perform vital tasks like periodically monitoring seed quality. About 200 farmers (men and women) are actively involved in the program. The seed bank primarily stores seed of 15 traditional paddy cultivars, along with some millet, oilseed and vegetable varieties. In 2000 about 700 kilograms of seed were handled. Apart from their impact on food security, seed banks can improve socioeconomic conditions in rural communities, especially the status of women. By establishing self help groups to operate seed banks, women can become more active in decision making and more self confident, and can communicate more easily with Government officials or outsiders. Men can become more supportive to women, and conflict between men and women can be reduced.

Sources: FAO 2002 (India)

Sources: FAO 2008 (Brazil)

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47 THE ROLE OF WOMEN IN NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT - A Thematic Report

Women and Biodiversity

7

7.1. SIGNIFICANCE OF BIODIVERSITY

‘Biodiversity’, according to Convention on Biological diversity, is the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes they are part of; which includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.

The sustainable use and management of biological diversity is a way of using resources that does not lead to the long term decline of biological diversity, but maintain its potential to meet both the needs of the present and future generations. This will result in food security, environmental conservation and viable livelihoods for the rural poor. For resource poor rural households, biodiversity is a key to livelihood assets as these households are the most dependant on local ecosystems and resources. The main factors contributing to biodiversity loss include unsustainable technologies, destructive land-use practices, invasive species, over exploitation and pollution (FAO 2005).

· Loss of temperate, tropical, flooded grasslands and tropical dry forests between 1950 and 1990 is more than 14 percent

· The Amazon Basin and Southeast Asia deforestation and expansion of croplands - rapid change over the last two decades

· Asia land degradation in dry lands; Bangladesh and parts of the Middle East and Central Asia and the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa more rapid

· Extinction of known species over the past 100 years – extinction rates are approximately 100 times greater than those characteristic of the fossil record

· Genetic diversity has declined globally

Box 7.1. Biomes with the Highest Rates of Biodiversity Loss

Source: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005.

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Over the past decades, agricultural intensification and expansion through technological advancements and the replacement of local plant or livestock varieties with improved or high yielding varieties, large scale conversion of forests and other natural habitats to monocultural farming systems is affecting biodiversity (FAO 2005). In Nagaland, biodiversity loss may be more apparent with large scale jhum farming practiced by 70 percent of the population and monoculture plantation. It is said that about 1000 sq km of land is subjected to jhum cultivation annually (NEPED report). The jhum may be unharmed if shifting is done within a demarcated area without encroaching into the natural reserve forest. however, an increasing population has led to area expansion under jhum encroaching into natural reserve forest. This may pose a threat to the environment and lead to biodiversity loss.

Biodiversity serves as one of the most important natural assets for poor rural women and men, as they rely on a diverse range of natural resources such as crops, trees, livestock, fish for subsistence production and sale. Yet, because of environmental stresses, introduction of new improved seed varieties and marginalization of local knowledge, biodiversity is being lost at a rapid rate. The different tasks and responsibilities of rural women and men result in acquisition of different types of local knowledge and skills. This local knowledge shapes and influences plant and animal diversity at both the gene and species levels. It also provides an important cropping strategy for poor rural women and men vulnerable to the risk of environmental degradation and natural disasters. For instance, poor rural women and men farmers often minimize risk by growing a wide variety of locally adapted crops, some of which will be resistant to drought or pests. Thus, local knowledge, gender and agro biodiversity are closely interlinked.

Rural women and men play important roles in biodiversity management, use, and conservation through their different tasks and responsibilities in food production and provision. Consequently they have different needs, priorities and knowledge about diverse crops, plants and animals. As natural resource managers, they influence the total amount of genetic diversity conserved and used. Women are typically involved in the selection, improvement, and adaptation of local plant varieties, as well as seed exchange, management and saving. They often maintain home gardens where they grow traditional varieties of vegetables, herbs and spices selected for their nutritious, medicinal and culinary value.


Women are the primary collectors of wild plants for food. Such foods provide important micronutrients in the diet and are vital for survival of the households during food shortages. Women possess extensive and unrecognized knowledge, for example knowledge of wild plants for achieving household food security and nutritional well being. however, womens’ roles and knowledge are often overlooked or underestimated in natural resource management and related policies and programs (howard 2003).

Degradation in biological resources would also lead to erosion in local knowledge which serves as a critical livelihood asset for poor rural women and men for securing food, shelter and medicines (FAO 2005). The different tasks and responsibilities of rural women and men have enabled them to accumulate different types of local knowledge and skills. The type of knowledge farmers possess vary by age, gender, roles and responsibilities, socioeconomic status and environment. Access to or control over resources as well as education, training, information and control over the benefits of production also influence the type of knowledge rural women and men have. Changes in dietary habits also lead to the erosion of womens’ knowledge of processing, preparation and storage affecting family food security and nutritional well being. Local knowledge, skills and innovations of the rural women and men raise the issue of recognition and protection of farmers’ rights.

The fundamental cause and effect relationship between biodiversity degradation and poverty has been established. The degradation in biological resources would adversely affect the rural resource-poor, especially women, more with threatened livelihoods thereby, causing feminization of poverty. At the same time, degradation in biological resources will lead to increasing womens’ work load and drudgery and decreasing womens’ diverse knowledge relating to food security and nutritional well being.

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Women and Marketing

8

8.1. MARKET

Women play a major role as farmers and producers. however, their access to resources and opportunities to enable them to move from subsistence agriculture to higher value chains has been constrained and is much lower than men. Women market excess agricultural produce. however, they face a number of barriers such as poor infrastructure, poor road condition and connectivity, lower mobility due to gender division of labour, socially constructed roles assigning women in reproductive sector and care economy, lack of access to training and marketing information due to low literacy rate and denial of access to productive resources due to cultural factors. It is evident that women tend to lose income and control as a product moves from the farm to the market.

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Unorganized Part-time Vendors, Kohima Photo - C.Kikhi


Providing women producers and entrepreneurs with marketing support, information and education could increase their output and incomes. Apart from efficiency gains, food security and welfare gains are also strongly linked to the provision of greater economic opportunities to women. Studies show that resources and incomes controlled by women are more likely to be used to improve family food consumption and welfare reducing child malnutrition and an increased overall well being of the family. In addition, enabling poor women access to market opportunities and resources would lead to womens’ economic empowerment. This will result in overcoming overall subordination of women due to cultural and other factors. however, women lack good access even to local markets. Often, transportation and infrastructure are critical to link producers with these markets. Thus, building capacity to manage marketing businesses with related support is a priority for both producers and policy makers.

Organized Market : Leafy Vegetables Bangkok, 2007 Photo - C.Kikhi

The part time vendors face many challenges and constraints in order to get a marginal profit with their best farm produce (SA/GA-IDRC 2002:230). When the part time vendors see that the regular vendors are able to buy their vegetables at a competitive price and sell them for a good profit, they often decide to retail their produce themselves, sitting at vantage points. The regular vendors see the squatters as a threat because they compete for customers and have asked the Kohima Municipal Council to evict them (SA/GA-IDRC 2002: 76). Thus, a kind of love-hate relationship exists between regular and part time vendors.

The reason is, the former depend largely on the latter to supply them with products for sale. Moreover, the Kohima Municipal Council has certain designated locations for women vendors coming from different areas. But women vendors do not occupy such places owing to lack of access to customers. As a result, the Municipal Councils carry out eviction drives from time to time.

It has been observed from the study of the Kohima local market conducted by NEPED/IDRC 2002, that about 90-95 percent of the vendors are women (SA/GA-IDRC, 2002: 75). Women look after the management, cultivation, harvesting and processing of the crops, including marketing of forest and agriculture produce for marginal income. Women vendors in Kohima come from different destinations such as Wokha, Tsemenyu, Phek, Jalukie, Mao (Manipur) and nearby villages traveling distances from 11 to 107 Kms. There are two categories of women vendors such as regular and part time vendors. Regular vendors have a permanent space under a roof constructed by the Municipal Councils in the main town of Kohima with a nominal rent, although the space is limited. Selling vegetables is a profession for regular vendors for making a living. They buy produce at wholesale rate from temporary and part time vendors early in the morning. The part time vendors on the other hand are occasional sellers. They bring their own produce to Kohima market when there is surplus from the field or home gardens or when they cultivate a special crop to sell. They sell their produce in Kohima and buy back other essential commodities such as children’s clothes, meat and milk and return to their villages in the evenings.

Case Study 8.1. Women Vegetable Vendors In Kohima

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In order to overcome some of the constraints being faced by part time vendors, innovative interventions were adopted by certain local communities, for example, initiation of Mao Market started in 1998 by some elderly people from the Mao Community (SA/GA-IDRC 2002:77).

In recent times, a replication of Mao Market has come up for the Lotha community at Keziekie. Allotting market sites to serve the interests of certain communities is an advantage for women vendors from those communities.

however, in the broader context, there is a need for a common central market for women vendors from all communities with modern facilities such as cold room, overnight halt, storage facility and canteen so that the organically grown vegetables and the harvested MAPs and NTFPs that have short shelf life can be preserved. With such facilities, the products vendored can be optimally utilized for food and nutritional security, poverty elevation and economic development.


Intervention and Policy Issues

Intervention and Policy Issues

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9.1. ENVIRONMENT POLICY IN GENERAL

Today, there is a global consciousness on the degradation of natural resources resulting in gradual depletion of ecological services and life support systems. Climate change with rise in temperatures result in melting of polar ice, scarcity of water and degradation of natural resources for livelihoods are hot topics of discussion today. The reasons for this are degraded forest resources, increasing population, expansion of agriculture, development resulting in destruction of ecosystems, species diversity within species and between species. We also talk about sustainable development, ways of using the diverse resources that meet both the needs of the present as well as the future generations. however, the debates about the environment and development have been dominated by the interests and values of the rich rather than the poor, men rather than women, and the urban rather than the rural.

The suggested relationship between women and the environment whereby women are the main ‘users’ and ‘managers’ of natural resources at the local level is now accepted. Lack of alternative opportunities for women and not so much conservation and natural resources has resulted in this gender role. Womens’ immediate ‘practical gender needs’ regularly centers on accessing environmental resources and thus environmental degradation was seen to affect women most. Accepted gender roles also structure how women tend to take greater responsibility for maintaining communal services. The Women, Environment and Development (WED) project intervention was that conservation became the ‘fourth burden’ on women to add to their gendered responsibilities in production, reproduction and in community management, through the assumption that women had the spare time to undertake these projects.

Women may not necessarily be the source of solutions to environmental problems. Groups of women as well as men may act in environmentally damaging ways and womens’ apparent closeness to nature may stem from their lack of opportunities outside the household and the social relations in society than their biological makeup. Sustainable development, therefore, depends on removing womens’ subordination and oppression as well as their poverty, not simply grafting on women as a group or lumping womens’ varied interests together.

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First, gender approach to the environment policy therefore, should attempt to understand the differences that exist between women and men in households and between sub-groups within communities (differences in workloads and use of resources, knowledge and skills, social status, etc.). Secondly, an attempt to understand power structures and relations, thus recognizing the rights and responsibilities of women and men that exist in communities. These may be partly hidden and may not be obvious without careful investigation. For example, traditional rights of access to land and the products it yields may often be problematic for women as women may not have control over farm products and earnings. These rights might not be written or codified.

According to the Forest Survey of India Report 2005, the State of Nagaland has adequate forest cover of about 52 percent and we may feel that we are safe. But climate change has no boundaries. Our natural resources are depleting at an alarming rate.

The practices, attitudes and behaviour of people must be more disciplined and eco-friendly and environmentally conscious e.g., the shifting cultivation practiced by 70 percent Naga farmers, burning of forest during the dry months destroying various undergrowth resources such as MAPs and NTFPs need to be seriously looked into in order to restore better ecological services. What about replacing part of the jhum system with horticultural crop plantations for environment protection and economic development? Or, enforcing a strict policy with a heavy fine on willful burning of forests resources such as trees, NFTPs and MAPs so that forest resources that provide ecological services and life supporting systems and the resources used for meeting immediate livelihoods are preserved. In such case, it would be a win-win situation for both the natural resources and end-users, especially women. In addition, sustenance of natural resources would reduce womens’ work load and drudgery and enable them to invest their time effectively in other income generation activities.


Burning Jhum: Contributing to Climate Change Photo - NEPED

9.2. LAND OR PROPERTY

Women face a variety of gender baised constraints as farmers and managers of natural resources. In many societies, discriminatory customary and social practices curtail womens’ rights to land. For example, although womens’ labour and reproductive works have led to accumulation and acquisition of productive resources in the form of landed property and assets resulting in ‘husband’s property coming from wife’s labour’, women have no share or the least share in rare cases. Women generally receive the most marginal lands. Insecure land tenures reduce rural womens’ incentive to improve natural resource management practices and conservation. Without secured land rights, women farmers have little or no access to credit, which is essential for investing in improved natural resource management and conservation practices. This shows how a society allocates and shares productive resources within existing power structures because land signifies status as well as power.

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Replacing Jhum with Horticultural Crops Jhum View - Tsemenyu – Photo - C.Kikhi

The technological gains in agriculture productivity have often bypassed women farmers and reduced their productivity. Thus, the policy issue in relation to womens’ access to and control over productive land must be legally enforced in order to do away with the discriminatory practices against women due to culture, tradition and the customary laws. Some of the steps taken by the State institutions for equal land property rights are as follows:

i. India has ratified the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) on 15 September 2000, where Article 2 (f), 4 (1), 15 (2) and 16 (h) talk about equal land or property rights among men and women (Passport to Equality-2001).

ii. In 1988, Ministry of Agriculture, New Delhi proposed that at least 40 percent of patta2, land title deeds be exclusively for women in future allotments of Government and Ceiling Surplus lands. The remaining patta should be issued jointly in the names of husbands and wives.


2 New Policy Trust, 1988

however as rightly pointed out (Kelkar, 1992: 5), Government does make policies and programmes but most of them are lying dormant only on papers. One has to take advantage of the legal framework and push for legal reform or structural or cultural changes. It is when the ‘rights’ or ‘lack of rights’ have been realized, movement activist carry them and translate these plans into action.

9.3. AGRICULTURE

With feminization of agriculture today, women are actively involved in food crop production and concerned about food security. Women would be directly affected positively by increased access to soil nutrients and potential for increasing food production, through small vegetable gardens and fruit trees close to the homes. hence, womens’ access to agriculture extension training, support services for human capital investment or building social network should be realistically addressed. This would increase capacity of women leading to increased food productivity, food security and enhanced nutritional status of the households.

3 No.DRD/PLN/NEPED-1/95-96, dated 11th July 2001

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iii. In 2001, a notification by the Department of Rural Development, Government of Nagaland 3 has permitted women from 105 NEPED adopted villages to utilize 25 percent womens’ share under Grant-In-Aid for purchase of land to be owned exclusively by women for growing cash crops. Accordingly, 30 women groups could purchase land with this intervention.

iv. The Nagaland State Women Empowerment Policy 2007, under Judicial Legal System has incorporated changes in laws relating to ownership of property and inheritance in order to make them gender just (Nagaland State Women Empowerment Policy 2007).

9.4. WATER

The 7 Millennium Development Goal aims to reduce by half the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by 2015. What is our strategy to address this problem? Availability of water resources for drinking as well as for crop productivity is getting constrained due to various reasons, such as forest degradation and exploitation. In addition, water resource that has been perceived at one time as a ‘free commodity’ is no longer so, as water is getting scarce around the globe. Water may no longer be considered as a free commodity even in the Nagland context during the dry months. It is estimated that half the world’s population will live with high water stress by year 2025 (Cosgrove and Rijsberman, 2000).

Sharing water resources does not happen easily as it is pre-determined by traditional factors. Traditional water user rights is a basis for determining the rights to water source and its usage. As such, while sharing water resources, the water owners carefully assess the ground realities such as upstream and downstream water users with traditional users’ rights being taken care of, quantity of water available, the benefit sharing arrangement in terms of revenue generated or remuneration in terms of employment opportunities as parting with water resource would affect crop productivity in TRC, biodiversity of aquatic animals in the paddy fields, streams, rivulets, etc. That is why careful diplomatic negotiation is always preferred with primary users coupled with effective water use, management and distribution, so that no water is wasted but its use is maximized to meet the needs of everyone, even of those people without the traditional user rights.

Nagaland, in spite of having an average yearly rainfall of 2,500 mm from the later part of May till September, faces water shortage during the dry months. Rain water harvested after continuous rain is used for drinking purposes.Thus, conserving rain water during monsoon season by each household could be one of the best options for solving the water crisis. Traditionally, harvested rain water conserved in ponds is used for cultivation of paddy by the Angami and Chakhesang communities. This practice can be emulated by the other communities.

Today, water shortage is being felt everywhere around the globe. Thus, our strategy to address water issue could be to effectively use water resources, use of rain water for multiple purposes, public education and sensitization on the importance of water and its conservation and adverse effects of its depletion.


9.5. BIODIVERSITY

Rural women and men use biodiversity and sustainable practices for managing natural resources to secure livelihood in times of floods and droughts. Vulnerability to biodiversity loss must be therefore understood by planners. This implies an understanding of rural womens’ and mens’ knowledge of indigenous plants, fish and livestock biodiversity uses and practices, including their cultural values and belief systems. For example, gender sensitive participatory plant breeding contributes to the conservation and sustainable use of plant and animal genetic resources. Since women and men use and manage agro biodiversity in different ways, their full and equal participation in the decision making process is critical for safeguarding local biodiversity. Often the most appropriate solutions to local problems and needs combined traditional and scientific methods. This fusion enhances the adaption and acceptance of the new methods by the local community and provides methods that reflect the actual needs of women and men.

Seeds of traditional varieties not obtainable in the local markets are exchanged among rural people within the village or with neighbouring villages. This kind of seed exchange is an important instrument for seed supply and diffusion. The exchange is usually based on kinship, traditional relationships and cultural practices. Creation of community seed banks can help in improving local food security and contribute to local crop diversity and halt genetic erosion. Seed banks can empower local people, especially women to select and multiply seed of traditional crops and varieties of their choice. This can facilitate womens’ access to seed and sustain cultivation of traditional varieties for household seed security. In addition, seed banks can help farmers to communicate and transfer knowledge about seed storage, cultivation and management practices.

9.6. MARKETING

Due to the socially constructed gender division of labour, men and women have specific assigned roles. While the men do the construction, cane and bamboo, stone or carpentry works to supplement family income, marketing of agriculture and forest produce is a specialized job for women (SA/GA-IDRC 2002: 95), unless marketing of these produces are in bulk i.e. cash crops and timbers. For example, women do most marketing activities of marginal agricultural produce for sale in the towns and buy back other household items with the sale proceeds. This has been the trend with most

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farm women in marketing their produce. however, women lack access to good local market or the niche markets linkages. They often face hierarchical harassment from the regular vendors and from the Municipal Councils due to unauthorized occupation of pedestrian pavements and shop verandahs in Kohima. In rural areas, transportation and communication infrastructure that link products to marketing places pose greater challenges. Most vendors from Khonoma said that bulk production of vegetables could lead to marketing problems unless better marketing linkages are established (SA/GA-IDRC 2002: 94).

A thorough market linkage research study would help in identifying most of the marketing problems, taking into consideration the issues of identifying potential marketable crops, infrastructural gaps, traditional or technical knowledge, expertise of the farmers, setting up issue of collecting centres for grading and sorting, and adaption of good practices through exposure tours, field visits or study tours for both farmers and policy makers. The capacity to manage marketing businesses with proper planning and related support is a priority for both producers and policy makers.

Thus, policy interventions should include measures to address the need for a well organized marketing set up with modern facilities such as cold room, overnight halt facilities, storage facility and canteen or even a super market where perishable products could be preserved for days together so that the products do not go waste. This will lead to production of food crops for commercial purposes and not just for subsistence. It would lead to nutritional security, poverty elevation and economic development.


Conclusion

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10.1. THE WAY FORWARD

The discriminatory customary practices tend to curtail womens’ rights to land. As stated earlier, the phrases ‘husband’s property coming from wife’s labour’, clearly indicates the status of the wife. Insecure land tenure systems reduces rural women’s incentive to improve natural resource management and conservation practices as women have limited access to credit.

According to gender division of labour, women are the primary gatherers of natural resources such as wild vegetables, NTFPs, MAPs, fuel wood, water and fodder to meet immediate household needs. hence, depletion in natural resources will directly impact on women with increasing workload and drudgery. In addition, natural resource degradation will also impact on the overall livelihood of people who depend on natural resources as a crucial source of family income.

The socially constructed gender division of labour with women in reproductive, productive and community organizing works give women less time to invest in their human capital or for capacity building for social networking. The agricultural extension training programmes hardly have women participants. This further marginalizes women. Sustainable development in Nagaland depends primarily on a balanced approach that includes biodiversity conservation, sustainable management of existing land and forests, reduced exploitation of new forest resources, adapting efficient agricultural systems and building proper marketing linkages. Expansion of agricultural area into accessible primary forest should also be checked through adaption of better farming practices.

In general, environmental and resource degradation increases womens’ workload and drudgery. It increases the distances for the women to walk to collect firewood and water. Recognizing womens’ need for environmental resources, not only for crop production but also for fuel and water, and incorporating these concerns into plans and policies for environmental management would release more time for women for income generation, child care and personal development.

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i. Women must not be expected to participate or contribute to resource conservation programmes if such initiatives are not going to benefit them.

ii. There is need to widen womens’ livelihood options and this may require initiatives beyond resource conservation issues.

iii. There is need to identify, support and reinforce womens’ institutional arrangements and networks that are often invisible and informal.

iv. Recognition of womens’ contribution in the face of food insecurity and ecological stress.

v. Womens’ entitlements and resource control and access rights should be indicated and demarcated. Throughout the project cycle, these rights should be actively monitored since they may be contested.

vi. Project designers should carefully examine womens’ interests and how they have evolved over time.This is to ensure that programmes are not designed on faulty assumptions of womens’ relationship with the environment.

From the gender perspective, the broad framework for policy intervention for women and environment, the following may be taken into account:


Adams, W.M; 1990; Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in the Third World; London; Routledge.

Agarwal. B; 1994; A field of one’s own: “Gender and Land Rights in South Asia”.Cambridge; University of Cambridge; p.19, p.51.

Asian Development Bank, “Sociolegal Status of Women in Indonesia, Malayasia, Philippines, and Thailand, ADB, January 2002.

Cosgrove, W.J. and Rijsberman, F.R; 2000; World Water Vision. Making water everybody’s business; London; Earthscan Publications.

Das, N.K; 1993; Kinship Politics and Law in Naga Society; Calcutta, Anthropological Survey of India.

Deere, C. D. “What Difference Does Gender Make? Rethinking Peasant Studies”, Department of Economics, University of Massachusetts at Amherst p.55

Esrey, S; 1999; Poverty and the Environment. Background Note on Policies in Water and Sanitation; New York; (Unpublished mimeo).

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); 2002; Land Tenure Studies 3, “Land Tenure and Rural Development”, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); 2005; Building on Gender, Agrobiodiversity and Local Knowledge; Rome: FAO, Rome.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); 2007; “Environment and Agriculture.” Committee on Agriculture, 20th Session, FAO, Rome, April.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); 2008; “Improving Seed Management Interventions: Lessons Learned from the Field: A Review of Selected Links Studies.” FAO, Rome.

Government of Nagaland, Village Profile; 2001; Department of Agriculture _______________, Department of Forest and Ecology, 1996-1997

Howard, Patricia; 2003; Women and Plants, Gender Relations in Biodiversity Management and Conservation. London; zED Books.

Bibliography

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Jones, Gareth & Graham Hollier; 1997; Resources, Society and Environmental Management; London; Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd.

Kelkar, G; 1992; “Women, Peasant Organizations and Land Rights”: A case study from Bihar, India. p.3, 5, 11, 15

Kikhi. C; 2003-04; “From Community to Private Forest Management: The Impact on Women’s Access and Control”, Small grant project of NEPED/IDRC/PRGA, A case study of Peducha Village, Nagaland, India. pp. 5-6.

Kikhi. C; 2001; ”Assessing the Benefit of Rural Women Participation in Natural Resource Management”, NEPED’s experience presented at IDRC/PRGA Workshop, in November at Cali, Columbia, South America. pp. 3, 5.

Kikhi. C; 1996; ”Gender, Environment and Sustainable Livelihoods”, Small grant project of NEPED/IDRC/ICIMOD, A case study of Viswema Village, Nagaland, India. pp. 16-17.

Kikhi, Kedilezo; 2009; ‘Angami Women and Matrilineal Inheritance: A Case Study of zounuo-Keyhonuo Group of Angami Naga’ in R.P. Athparia, Birinchi K. Medhi & K. Jose SVD (eds.), Tribes and Castes of North-East India; pp. 48 – 57; New Delhi; Omsons Publishers.

Mies, M., and Shiva, V; 1993 “Ecofeminism”; London: zed Books.

Millennium Development Goals; 2000; “UN Millennium Project Document 2005”; p. 13

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA), 2005.

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Nagaland Page; 2005; Newspaper report, Dimapur, September 23rd

Passport to Equality; 2001; United Nation Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Office; New Delhi.

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Inequalities: Women and World Development, New York: Oxford University Press. p.129.

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Vernooy, R.; 2006; International Development Research Centre (IDRC). “Social and Gender Analysis in Natural Resource Management” Learning Studies and Lessons from Asia, Ottawa, IDRC. p. 75, 76, 77, 94, 95, 230

Von, Benda- Beckmann, Keebet; 1997; Rights of Women to the Natural Resources and Water, (Ministry of Foreign Affairs, NIDA (The Netherlands Development Assistance); in collaboration with Keebet Von Benda-Beckmann et. al.), The Hague: NEDA.p.3, 6 and

Walker, C; 1994; ‘Women, “Tradition” and Reconstruction’, Review of African Political Economy; 61: 347-358.

WHO/UNICEF/WSSCC - Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council; 2000; Global Water Supply and Sanitation Assessment, 2000 report, Geneva and NewYork.

World Bank; 2007; World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development.Washington, DC: World Bank.

“Global Environment Outlook 4,” www.unep.org

Mishra, A.S; Traditional Knowledge and Management of Natural Resources; http// www.google.com

Pelat. F; “A Brief Overview of the Water and Gender Situation in Yemen,”www.idrc.ca/en/

Sathish, A, K.S. Prabhakar & .S. Badrinath; Remote sensing and GIS for Land Evaluation Studies in Pavagada taluk of Tumkur district, Southern Karnataka; http// www.google.com

“Sustainable Land Management and Soil Productivity, Improvement in Support of Food Security in Sub-Saharan Africa,” www.fao.org 1A

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