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THE ROLE OF NON GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-PROFIT
MULTINATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE ALLEVIATION
OF RURAL POVERTY: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
BY
EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA
PG/M.Sc/08/53040
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
ENUGU CAMPUS
MARCH, 2010
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THE ROLE OF NON GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-PROFIT
MULTINATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE ALLEVIATION
OF RURAL POVERTY: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
BY
EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA
PG/M.Sc/08/53040
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE OF SCIENCE (M.SC)
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
ENUGU CAMPUS
SUPERVISOR: PROF. U. J. F. EWURUM
MARCH, 2010
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CERTIFICATION
I certify that EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA, a
postgraduate student in the Institute for Development
Studies, School of Postgraduate Studies, University of
Nigeria, Enugu Campus, with registration number
PG/M.Sc/08/53040 has completed this research work for
the award of Masters Degree of Science in Institute for
Development Studies, under my guidance and complete
supervision.
To the best of my knowledge, this work is confirmed
original and has not been submitted in part or full to any
other degree of the university.
-------------------------------
--------------------------------
Ezuma Magnus Nnanna Date
Student
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APPROVAL
This dissertation has been approved on behalf of the
Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria,
Enugu Campus.
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Prof. U. J. F Ewurum Date
Supervisor
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Prof. Osita Ogbu Date
Head of Department
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External Examiner Date
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DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to Maria Mater
Miserecordia-Mary Mother of Mercy, Blessed Mother Theresa
of Calcutta & in Evergreen Memory of my beloved mother
Late Mrs. Helen Mgbafor Ezuma and all who have
contributed in alleviating poverty. You are my heroes.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I most gloriously thank God Almighty for the power,
strength and knowledge he supplied me to carry out this
research work and successfully complete this programme.
To Him be all the Glory. My special thanks to my project
supervisor Prof. U. J. F. Ewurum for his unalloyed and
constructive supervision and directions at various stages of
this work which ultimately manifested in the achievement of
a good research work. I commend him very highly for his
simplicity, diligence and thoroughness. He is a man of
honour and most respected.
In a likewise manner, with unreserved appreciations, I
thank all the lecturers and staff in the Institute for
Development Studies UNEC. They are indeed great.
Notwithstanding, in a special way, I appreciate the former
Director of the Institute and current Director of the
Institute
-Prof. Ike Nwosu and Prof. Okey Ibeanu and Mr. U. B. Umoh
acting director respectively for their total commitments to
carry the burden.
My profound gratitude goes to my wife Uju and my
little angles Helen Ifunanyachukwu, Dannis, Emmanuella
Chimdalu, who continuously commits me in their prayers to
God for my goodness. And my dearest brothers and sisters
who gave me great supports in various ways.
In addition I wish to acknowledge my classmates,
Abiakam Emeka C. who has been a true friend and brother,
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also our course Rep Mr. Ilechukwu, VinMartin Iloh, Ada,
Richard, Queeneth and entire Computer Typists and Staff of
Chidera Business Centre located at Students’ Centre-UNEC,
especially Miss Okafor Blessing and Wariso Chinyere - who
worked tirelessly to get this work typed, edited correctly
and
type-set perfectly well. Thanking you all immensely and
may our good Lord meet you all at your various points of
need. In Jesus Name Amen. God bless us all.
EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Approval Page - - - - - i
Certification - - - - - ii
Dedication - - - - - iii
Acknowledgment - - - - - iv
List of Abbreviation - - - - - ix
Abstract - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of Problem - - - - - 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - 6
1.4 Research Questions - - - - - 7
1.5 Research Hypotheses - - - - - 8
1.6 Significance of Study - - - - - 10
1.7 Scope of the Study - - - - - 10
1.8 Limitations of the Study - - - - - 11
1.9 Profile of some selected organizations - - 12
1.10 Definition of Terms - - - - - 15
References
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical Framework - - - - - 23
2.2 Empirical Review - - - - - 44
2.3 The Human Development Index- Going beyond Income 47
2.4 Government Efforts towards Poverty Alleviation - 57
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2.5 Ford Foundation - - - - - 65
2.6 Friedrich Ebert Foundation - - - - 66
2.7 Community Development Foundation Fate Foundation 69
2.8 Centres for Development CMC Education (CECODEC) 71
2.9 Obstacles Confronting Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria 78
References
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Brief Introduction - - - - - 94
3.2 Research Design - - - - - 95
3.3 Sources of Data. - - - - - 95
3.3.1 The Primary Sources of Data - - - - 96
3.3.2 The Secondary Sources of Data - - - 96
3.4 Population of the Study - - - - 97
3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Method - - - 98
3.6 Data Collection Instrument - - - - 99
3.7 Test of Validity and Reliability of Instrument - 99
3.8 Method of Data Analysis - - - - 100
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Presentation of Data - - - - - 102
4.2 Analysis of Data - - - - - 103
4.3 Test of Hypotheses - - - - - 122
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY.
5.1 Summary - - - - 128
5.2 Conclusions - - - - 131
5.3 Recommendations - - - - 133
5.4 Suggestions for Further Study - - - 141
Bibliography
Appendix
Questionnaire
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ABSTRACT
This research project is a comprehensive study of the Role of
Non Governmental and Non-Profit Multinational Organization in the
Alleviation of Rural Poverty: the Nigerian Experience, the
appraisal of the implementation of the various poverty alleviation
programmes in Nigeria and its implications for Development. Five
categories of variables that relate to the poverty alleviation
programmes were studied. These are why non-governmental and non
profit multinational organizations, the meaning and measurement of
poverty, approaches for sustainable livelihoods for the rural poor,
overcoming human poverty, human development, government and
non-governmental efforts towards poverty alleviation into five
chapters. Chapter one deals with the introduction of the study,
pointing out the statement of the problem, the purpose of the
study, statement of hypothesis, objective of the study and the
significance of the study with the definition of some common and
uncommon terms for our easy understand. Chapter two extensively
dwell on the literature reviews and works, frame the conceptual,
theoretical and empirical frameworks, the phases adopted, it
constraints and problems and list of enterprises sold. Chapter
three has to do with the methodology used to ascertain true and
relevant information. Here, we make our research design, sources of
data, sampling design and procedures, the sample size and our data
collection instruments. I also made test of validity and
reliability of the study. In chapter four, I presented and analyzed
the collected data and the test of hypotheses. Finally, in chapter
five, I summarized my findings to the research work, drew some
useful conclusions based on my findings and made good
recommendations and suggestions that when applied or employed in
subsequent policy formulation will enhance the actualization of set
targets to the alleviation of rural poverty programme in Nigeria,
which will positively, effectively, efficiently and ultimately
alleviate rural poverty in Nigeria.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
This research project was conceived as a contribution
to battle against poverty, a scourge that has assumed a
disgraceful dimension in the world’s most populous and
potentially, most powerful black nation. The 2009 Human
Development Index (HDI) recently released by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) paints a gloomy
picture of Nigeria. The HDI ranks nations of the world
according to the human conditions that exists in each
nation.
According to UNDP’s report, adult literacy in Nigeria
stands at 28% and only 47.7% of the country’s children
have access to immunization against preventable disease.
The report goes on to add that just 30% of Nigerians has
access to safe drinking water while a mere 33% percent of
the country’s population has access to electricity. Drawing
its conclusion from the above quoted figures, the UNDP
ranks Nigeria 146th out of the 174 countries mentioned in
the report. This means that only 28 countries of the world
are poorer than Nigeria, the world’s sixth largest oil
producer. In other words, Nigeria is one of the 30 poorest
countries in the world. Although the UNDP report is not
flawless, it fairly captures the reality. Any person who
lives
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in this country need not be a seer to know that the country
is in dire straits.
Why Rural Area?
This project intends to concentrate on rural poverty
because certain factors we shall later identify make rural
areas particularly disadvantaged compared to urban areas.
This does not mean that poverty is not a serious problem in
the urban areas; in fact, there is an inseparable
correlation
between rural power and urban poverty. By attempting to
proffer solutions to rural poverty, we are equally trying to
proffer solutions to urban poverty as well, because rural
development would help stem rural-urban migration which
would in turn reduce the pressure on facilities in urban
areas.
Why Non-Governmental and Non-profit Multinational
Organizations?
For some decades now, these two organizations have
played commendable roles in the economic, political and
social development of Nigeria. Some of the organization
whose economic, political and social development of Nigeria.
Some of the organizations whose efforts have been most
visible include the Ford Foundation, Fredrich Eberth
Foundation, British Council, United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and United States Agency for
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international Development (USAID). Given the important
contributions these organizations have made, one would
understand why this project concentrates on their role in
the battle against poverty, especially rural poverty, in
Nigeria.
The last two decades of the twentieth century were
economically traumatic for Nigeria. That period naturally
witnessed an upsurge in interest in poverty alleviation.
This
interest goes beyond Nigeria for the problem of poverty
transcends national boundaries. Since the literature of an,
era reflects the signs of the time it should not be
surprising
that the period between 1980 and 1999 saw the emergence
of numerous academic works devoted to the problem of
poverty in Nigeria and other parts of the world.
Coincidentally, the period in question witnessed an increase
in interest in women affairs and consequently, a deluge of
literature on the contribution of women to rural poverty
alleviation and nation building. This review shall focus on
the available literature relevant to our research.
Maxwell Simon in ―The Meaning and Measurement of
Poverty‖ an article published by the Overseas Development
Institute (ODI) argues that the concept, poverty has no
Universal accepted definition. Simon argues that despite the
difficulty in conceptualizing poverty, efforts have been
made
to use income as one of the measure of poverty. The cities
the World Bank attempt at choosing an income level of $1
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(One American Dollar) per day as the benchmark for
absolute poverty. According to the World Bank, ―any person
that earns not more than considering the assertion earlier
made in this chapter to the effect that income may not be an
adequate measure of poverty. For example there are
differences and ten Naira) at the current (July 2000)
exchange rate may not buy in the United States what it can
buy in Nigeria.
To buttress the point that income is not an adequate
measure of poverty, Maxwell avails the reader of a more
versatile definition of poverty given by the European Union
which goes thus.
―The poor shall be taken to mean person, families and
groups of person whose resources (materials, cultural
social)
are so limited as to exclude them from the minimum
acceptable way of life in the member state in which they
live‖.
In the penultimate segment of his article, Maxwell gives
the following measures of poverty as called from the UNDP
Human Development Report (HDR) of 2009.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Most social research efforts are motivated by the desire
to combat one negative the phenomenon or another. Within
the contact of this proposed research, the negative social
phenomenon in question is poverty, a problem that has
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assumed alarming dimension in Nigeria. The problem with
Nigeria is not lack of human and material resources; indeed,
the country is one of the most naturally endowed countries
in the world. The ambassador of Denmark, a highly
developed Western European country with one of the highest
living standards in the world was recently quoted as saying
that Nigeria is far richer than this country. He was
similarly
reported to have said that the financial resources available
in this country are enough to ensure a decent living
standard for every Nigerian. The envoy’s statements reflect
global opinion on Nigeria. What then is our problem?
The problem of poverty in the midst of plenty is
primarily caused by the skewed nature of inadequate and
poor income distribution in Nigeria. The system in this
country enables the rich to get richer while the poor get
poorer. How can we ensure that the disposable income in
the hands of the poor, particularly the rural poor, is
enhanced?
Another problem that exacerbates poverty is
misplacement of priorities on the part of successive
governments of the country. Neglect of rural infrastructure
only helps to compound the problem of poverty in Nigeria.
Rural-Urban migration which has seen to the loss of vibrant
rural youths to cities would not have been as acute if
priority had been given to rural infrastructure.
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Apart from the aforementioned, other problems such as
limited access to credit facilities, high cost of farm
inputs
and inclement geography all combine to compound the
problem for rural poverty in Nigeria. These problems shall
be
identified and solutions to them proffered in the
documentation of research findings.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
As the title implies, this research effort is primarily
aimed at assessing the contributions of Non-Governmental
and Non-profit multi-national organizations in the
alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria. The objectives of
the
study are:
1. To assess the contributions of Non-Governmental
and Non-Profit multi-national organisaitons in the
alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria.
2. To ascertain the possible benefits that the rural
populace may achieve through the assistance of the
Non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organistion’s.
3. To determine the impacts of the NGO’s and its
sustainability with governmental support.
4. To highlight the necessary areas where the voluntary
services of the NGO’s are most needed in the
alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria.
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5. To bring out the possible ways of alleviating rural
poverty
6. To point out the key areas where the voluntary
services of the NGO’s are preferentially needed and
areas of utmost priority, (health, education, water
and sanitation etc).
Suggestions based on our research findings shall be
made on how these organizations can improve on their
poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria; problems confronting
them in this regard shall be identified and possible
solutions
identified.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What have been the contributions of the Non-
governmental and non-profit multinational
organizations to alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria?
2. Have the Rural people benefited from the non-
governmental and non- profit multinational
organizations especially in terms of poverty
alleviation?
3. Can the non-governmental organizations support
be used to assess the sustainability of
governments support?
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4. How would government identify the most needed
areas of attention in the rural poverty alleviation
programme?
5. To what extent has the government identified the
possible ways of alleviating the rural poverty?
6. What are the key areas where the voluntary
services of the NGO’s are preferentially needed,
(health, education, water and sanitation etc)?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The research effort shall attempt to justify the following
propositions:
1. Ho: The contributions of non-governmental of non-
profit multinational organizations are not very
decisive factors in the success or otherwise of
rural poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
H1: The contributions of non-governmental and non-
profit multinational organizations are very
decisive factors in the success or otherwise of
rural poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
2. Ho: The rural populace have not achieved some
benefits through the assistance of non-
government and non-profit organizations
H1: The rural populace have achieved some benefits
through the assistance of non-government and
non-profit organizations
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3. Ho: The NGO’S have not played some roles in the
developments and sustainability with government
support.
H1: The NGO’S have played some roles in the
developments and sustainability with government
support.
4. Ho: The voluntary works and services of NGO’s are
not very significant to the financial burden of the
government in the alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria.
H1: The voluntary works and services of NGO’s are
very significant to the financial burden of the
government in the alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria.
5. Ho: There are no ways we can identify the alleviation
of rural poverty.
H1: There are ways we can identify the alleviation
of rural poverty
6. Ho: The key areas (health, water, sanitation and
education) where the non-governmental
organizations can assist in poverty alleviation
cannot be identified.
H1: The key areas (health, water, sanitation and
education) where the non-governmental
organizations can assist in poverty alleviation can
be identified.
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1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This research is certainly not the first to be conducted
on poverty alleviation in Nigeria. However, it is significant
in
it emphasis on rural poverty. Similarly, the proposed use of
research assistants to reach out to rural areas is a
remarkable departure from the practice of ―arm-chair
research‖ which entails conducting researches only on the
pages of books. Similarly, this research effort, being one
of
the way first conducted in the new century shall serve as a
reference point for future researches on the thorny issues
of
rural poverty in particularly and poverty in general.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This proposed research shall cover six non
governmental and non-profit multinational national
organizations. These include the Fredrich Eberth
Foundation, United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) Ford Foundation, British Council, United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) and Global
2000. The Nigerian offices of these organizations shall be
visited for information. Research assistants shall also be
sent to some selected rural areas. The number of these rural
areas would depend on the financial resources available to
the researcher.
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1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Research is a human endeavour and since human
beings are not perfect, it would not be surprising if some
failings are identified in the research publication. These
failings could be attributing to some limitations explained
below:
First, the current upsurge in interest in poverty
alleviation is a relatively new phenomenon. Previously,
scholars in various fields of academic endeavour paid little
attention to poverty alleviation, the result being a
relatively
short supply of books on that subject. This shortage
naturally limits the access of researcher to relevant
literature on poverty alleviation.
Another obstacle closely related to the aforementioned
is the poor condition and shortage of public libraries in
Nigeria. The pubic libraries in this country are too few
considering our population. Even the existing ones are short
of up to data books. This development imposes enormous
limitations on research efforts and this proposed research
is
no exception.
Similarly, the data collection and storage system in this
country is far from being satisfactory. For example, it
difficult knowing the exact number of officially designated
rural communities in the country; there is a death of
equipment necessary for the gathering and storage of such
information. Given the aforementioned limitations, case may
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arise in the course of this research where exact figures of
variables may not be available.
Whatever adequacies detected in the outcome of this
research effort should therefore be seen within the context
of
the above mentioned limitations.
1.9 PROFILE OF SOME SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally
constituted organization created by natural or legal persons
that operates independently from any government. The term
originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally
used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the
government and are not conventional for-profit business.
The following are the profiles of some selected NGO’s:
i. Ford Foundation-Nigeria
Activities: Activist, Educational, Networking
Philanthropy
Type: Foundation
Scope: Regional
Website: www.fordfound.org/regions/west
Main Email: ford-lagos(at)fordfound.org
Contact Name: Adhiambo P. Odaga, Representative
Phone: 234-1-3200-983
Fax: 234-1-262-3973
Regional Office: P. O. Box. 2368
Lagos. Nigeria.
http://www.fordfound.org/regions/west
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Primary Objectives
The foundations work in Nigeria address some of the
countries most pressing problems by focusing on some key
issues. Their grounds strategies seek to:
Strengthen the enforcement of human rights
Empower women and young people by improving the
quality of their health and social status.
Enhance the livelihood of the poor, particularly urban
and rural areas.
Promote transparent and accountable governance.
They also make grants for works in human rights,
sexuality and reproductive health, and economic
development.
ii. Women Aid Collective (WACOL)
Activities: Educational, social, economic and
political development of women and young people
through a wide range of services, training research,
advocacy, shelter, legal and financial aid, intra-familial
conflict resolution, information and library services.
Address: No 9 Umuezebi street, Upper Chime Avenue,
New Haven, Enugu. P. O. Box 2718 Enugu State.
Phone: +234 42 256678; Fax +234 42 256837.
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.wacolnigeria.org
http://www.wacolnigeria.org/
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iii. Pro-Natura International (Nigeria)
Activities: Institutional development, capacity
building, training, consultancy and research on
sustainable community development.
Address: No 37, Onne Road, GRA Phase 2 Port
Harcourt, Rivers State.
Phone: +234 8446 2510, 08033298380, Fax + 234
84 463759
E-mail: bolanle [email protected]
Website: www.pronatura-nigeria.org.
iv. ACTION AID INTERNATIONAL NIGERIA
Activities: Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights
(HIV/AIDs); Education, Human security in conflict and
Emergencies and the integrated partnerships against
poverty etc.
Address: NAIC House, Plot 590 Cadastral Zone, Central
Business District, PMB 1890, Garki, Abuja.
Phone: +234 9627 0480/2, 4618655; Fax: +2349
4618656
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.actionaid-nigeria.org.
mailto:[email protected]://www.pronatura-nigeria.org/mailto:[email protected]://www.actionaid-nigeria.org/
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v. World Scholarship and Career Helpers
Activities: Free training for young people in computer
studies for poverty eradication.
Address: 18 Karimu Street, Surulere Lagos
Phone: +234(0) 80 62685918
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.wscareerhelp.org.
vi. Nigeria Health Care
Activities: Welsey Guild Charity Supporting Health
Care and Primary Care Facilities in Rural Areas
Website: www.nhcp.org.uk.
vii People to People International – Nigeria
Activities: PTPI is about people meeting people to
enhance international understanding and friendship
website: www.peopletopeople.org.ng.
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS
It is important that we define some concepts that shall
be used in the course of this research since their
clarification is vital to the understanding of the ideas we
wish to put across. It must however be admitted that
concepts in the Social Sciences do not lend themselves to
easy definition; this handicap nevertheless, should not
deter
us from attempting working definitions of some of those
mailto:[email protected]://www.wscareerhelp.org/http://www.nhcp.org.uk/
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concepts to be most commonly used in the course of this
research since an understanding of them is essential for the
understanding of the research findings. Such concepts as
Poverty, Poverty Alleviation, Rural Areas and Small Scale
Enterprises shall be frequently used in the course of this
research.
(i) Poverty
What in real terms does poverty mean? We must
confess that a precise definition of the term is highly
elusive,
the 1999 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
report confesses as much. The criteria for identifying
poverty
vary from society to society. For example, a person who
earns $14.40 per day In the United States of America is
categorized as poor while a person who earns as much in
Sub-Saharan Africa is deemed well-paid, since an
overwhelming majority of people in that part of world earn
not more than $1 per day; so, a family described as poor in
the United States of America may be better off than many
middle class families in sub-Saharan African. From the
foregoing, we can conclude that income may not be the sole
criterion for identifying and defining poverty.
What then is poverty? Poverty simply put, is that
condition which denies any person easy access to most of
the things that make life comfortable. This definition is of
course not perfect. For example, an American family many
have access to decent accommodation (by African
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standards), telephone services, television set and other
electronic gadgets and still be described as poor, while in
Nigeria ere mention of the world ―poor‖ evokes imagery of
hunger, want and decrepitude.
Despite our inadequacy in defining poverty, it must be
stressed that we can at least identify one denominator
common with poverty anywhere in the world. This common
denominator is the world ―deprivation‖ For a person a family
to be described as poor whether in Africa, Nigeria or any
other part of the world, such a person or family must have
been deprived of some things that better off members of the
society posses. This assertion is in line with Professor
Adedeji’s attempt to define poverty. Professor Adedeji
former
Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for African
defines poverty as, ―A generic word that covers various
deprivations. It could manifest either as physiological
deprivation, social deprivation and human freedom
deprivation‖.
(ii) Poverty Alleviation
To alleviate means to minimize or reduce the impact of
a negative condition. Poverty alleviation refers to any
conscious effort aimed at minimizing the impact and
incidence of poverty in the society. Poverty alleviation is
distinct from poverty eradication, for while the former
implies minimizing the incidence and gravity of poverty, the
latter implies total elimination of the condition. In this
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project, the term ―poverty alleviation‖ shall be preferred
to
―poverty eradication‖ because the former is a more realistic
concept than the latter since no nation in the world, (not
even the most developed one), has eradicate poverty. Poverty
can only be alleviated; it can never be eradicated.
Nigeria, as part of the international community, is
committed to achieving the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) including the commitment of halve poverty by 2005:
It is a known fact that in Nigeria, large numbers of the
poor
are trapped in chronic, long term poverty that is
transmitted
from generation to generation and if efforts are not
intensified to reduce the number of people in the poverty
level Nigeria will not be on track to achieving the MDGs.
(iii) Rural Area
In the Nigerian context the term ―Rural Area‖ is used to
categorize those areas usually located in the hinterland and
lacking most of the social amenities that are taken or
granted in the cities and towns. However, an area can have
electricity and pipe borne water and still be categorized as
―rural‖. This goes on to show that the presence of amenities
is not the sole criterion for distinguishing urban from
rural
areas. One incontestable feature of a rural area however, is
that it is often agrarian and the population, homogeneous.
Similarly the literacy level in rural areas is far below
what
obtains in the urban areas. It can safely be asserted
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therefore that the concept rural area connotes limited
availability of social infrastructure, agrarian economy, low
level of literacy and a considerable degree of homogeneity.
(iv) Small Scale Enterprises
This refers to those types of business that do not
require large capital outlay. In the course of this
research,
emphasis shall be placed on how to enhance the role of
small scale enterprises especially such areas as food
processing, weaving, farming, pottery and fishers among
others in the alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria.
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REFERENCES
Aworaro, D. (2004), ―The Impact of Rural Economy of the
Niger Delta in Oshintokun‖ A, (eds.); Environmental
Problems of the Niger Delta, Frederick Eberth
Foundations, Pp. 150
Carney, D. (1999), ―Approaches to sustainable Livelihood for
the Rural Poor‖ London, Overseas Development
Institute (ODI), Pp. 10 -11
Cox, A. (1998), ―Promises to the Poor: The Record of
European Development Agencies‖. London, Overseas
Development Institute (ODI) Pp.43- 46
Donaldson, F. (1987), ―The British Council: The First 50
Years‖ 1934 – 1984, London. Janthan Cape
Publishers, Vol.12, No 2. Pp. 11-16
Ekuerhare, B. U. (1992), ―Technology and Economic
Development in Nigeria in Uya‖ O. (Ed) Contemporary
Nigeria, Buenos Aires Edipubil S. A. Pp. 78.
Flasket, M. M. (1994), ―Women In Binary Economy 1800-
1900 In Ogunremi‖ (eds.) Badagry: A study In History,
Culture And Traditions of An Ancient City, Ibadan, Rex
Charles publications, Pp. 154-161
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32
Gavin and Oyemakinde, (1980), ―Economic Developments In
Nigeria Since 1800‖, in Yakima Obaro (eds.)
Groundwork of Nigeria History, Ibadan, Heinemann
Educational Books, Pp. 482
Healey, J. (2000), ―Toward National Expenditure Strategy for
Poverty Reduction‖, London, Overseas Development
Institute (ODI) Pp. 19-23
Ifaturoti, T. O. (1997), ―The role of Nigeria Women in the
Management of Land Agriculture and Water
Resources in Rural Area A legal Perspective in
Oshintokun‖. A (eds.) Current Issues In Nigeria
Environment, Ibadan, Davidson Press. Pp. 127
Ikpe, E. B. (1997), ―The Role of Nigeria Women in National
Development‖ in Oshintokun & Olukoju (eds.);
Nigerian Peoples and Cultures, Ibadan, Davidson
Press, Pp. 246
Killick, T. (1991), ―Making Adjustment Work for the Poor‖,
London Overseas Development Institute (ODI) Pp. 12-
17
Kwanashie, G. A. (1980), ―The Peasantry‖, in Usman Y. B
(eds.): Nigeria Since Independence The First 25 Years
Vol: 1, No 4, The Society, Ibadan, Heinemann
Educational Books, pp 482
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33
Maxwell, S. (1999), ―The Meaning and Measurement of
Poverty‖, London, Overseas Development Institute
(CDI), Pp. 23- 41
UNDP, (1998), Overcoming Human Poverty, New York,
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Project
Report, Pp. 16
White, L. C. (1968), International Non-government
Organizations, New York, Greenwood Press
Publishers, Pp. ix .
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34
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Poverty Situation in Nigeria: Poverty is the worst malaise
to the society. It was initially defined in terms of lack of
income either in money or kind necessary to ensure access
to set of basic needs, but with the passage of time, the
concept of poverty was redefined to mean not only the lack
of income but also the lack of access to health, education
and other services.
This research effort is premised on the following
theories
1. Decision making Theory
2. System Theory
1. Decision Making Theory
Pioneered by Richard Snyder and his colleagues at
Princeton University after the Second World War, the
Decision Making Theory is based on the following
assumptions.
i. All political actions are undertaken by concrete
human beings
ii. To understand any policy decision, one should
view the decision not solely from one’s point of
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35
view but also from the perspective of those taking
the decision
iii. That to understand any political action, one
should try and understand the background and
character of individuals behind the action. In
other words, the psychological, economic and
social background of any decision maker, affects
the decisions made.
Snyder used his System Theory to analyze
international relations, arguing that to understand the
dynamics of relations among sovereign states, the
psychological and social make-up of the prominent actors
have to be understood. Arguing that internal and external
factors influence decision makers, Snyder and his colleagues
recommend that these factors have to be understood before
one can satisfactory analyze decisions taken in domestic and
international politics.
In summary, Decision making theory holds that state
action is dependent upon decision making process within
the prevailing environment and the perceptions and
personalities of decision makers. This implies that the
focus
of the analysis is on the same propel, the elite group
engaged in decision making and that it is through this we
can understand the entire decision making process.
Based on the decision making theory, it may be argued
that the seeming failure of rural poverty alleviation efforts
in
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36
Nigeria is partly due to the detachment or de-linking of
decision makers from rural areas. Most public decision
makers in Nigeria are based in urban areas and have access
to modern amenities these factors weaken their resolve to
rural poverty. Similarly, the insensitivity and outright
corruption on the part of decision makers impact negatively
on poverty alleviation efforts. For example, some
administrators embezzle and misappropriate donations
made by multinational agencies towards poverty alleviation.
2. System Theory
This theory views every society as being made up of
various systems of which politics is one. The political
system
however, is influenced by other systems in the society;
based
on this, Systems Theorists argue that many factors
influence the political system since all systems are
interrelated. In other others economic, sociological and
moral factors affect the workings of any political system.
System theorist views the political system as the most
important of al system in the society because it performs
the
all important role of authoritative allocation of scarce
values
in the society.
The two most important proponents of the Systems
Theory include David Eastern and Gabriel Almond. Easton
in A Framework for Political Analysis (1965) argues that the
System Theory is based on the idea of political life as a
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37
boundary maintaining a set of interactions embedded in and
surrounded by other social system which constantly
influences it. Political interactions, according to Easton,
can
be distinguished form other kinds of interaction by the fact
that they (political interactions) are oriented principally
towards the authoritative allocation of values in the
society.
Almond on the other hand, sees political system as a system
as a system of interactions to be found in all impendent
societies which perform the function of integration and
adaptation. Similarly System Theorist argue that the extent
to which the political system performs the traditional roles
of
value allocation by addressing demands placed on it
determines the extent it can attract the much needed
support.
Based on the arguments of the system theorists, it
maybe argued that the stability of the Nigeria polity is
linked
to the economy. In other words, the success of the current
political dispensation would largely depend on the success
of poverty alleviation efforts of government and non-
governmental organizations within the Nigerian society as
alleviating poverty, especially rural poverty would attract
much needed support for the political system. Similarly, in
view of the interrelationship between the political system
and other systems, it may be argued that political stability
in Nigeria would encourage economic development which
would in turn boost poverty-alleviation efforts; political
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38
stability could also encourage the continued involvement of
non-profit multinational organizations in the Nigeria
Poverty
alleviation efforts.
Table 2.1: Nigerian Human Development Report 2009
Measurement of Poverty
Measure Components
1. Human Development Index Life expectancy at birth, adult
literacy, educational
enrollment, GDP per-capital
2.Gender-related development
Index
As above adjusted to gender
differences
3.Gender employment female
measures
Seats in parliament need by
women, Professional and
technical works, women’s
share of earned income.
4. Human poverty index
(development countries) (HP-1)
People not expected to survive
to 40, illiteracy, access to safe
water, aces to safe water,
access to health services,
underweight children.
5. Human poverty index
(developed countries) (HP 12)
People not expected to survive
to 60, function illiteracy,
population below mean
income, long term
unemployment.
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009).
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39
Mr. Maxwell’s article is very useful to our research if
one considers that the table above has shown that measures
of poverty vary from region to region to region. For example
the table reveals that the developed countries of the world
have a higher standard for measuring poverty than the
developing ones. Similarly, his article ahs confirmed our
assertion that many factors and not just income, serve as
measures of poverty.
Diana Carney in ―Approaches to Sustainable
Livelihoods for the Rural Poor‖ addresses as the impacts and
prospects of the ―Livelihoods Approach‖ to rural poverty.
The
livelihood approach, in the words of Carney ―work with
people, supporting them to build upon their own strength
and realize their potential, while at the same time
acknowledging the effects of polices and institutions,
external shocks and trends. In other words, the livelihood
approach places emphasis on self-reliance, which is helping
the poor to help themselves. Carney goes on to argue that
though desirable, the approach faces some obstacles such
as.
The need for the approach to prove its
practicability without which it would not be
compelling
Problem of food security which leaves over 850
million people undernourished across the world.
Resource degradation in the rural areas
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40
Inability to address the problem of distribution of
resources
For the purpose of this research, Carney’s work would
help us appreciate the need to encourage self-reliance in
poverty alleviation efforts rather than throw handouts at
the
poor. Similarly, by identifying the problems confronting
this
―Livelihood Approach‖, she offers poverty alleviation
agencies
the opportunity to tackle such problems before adopting
that approach.
Cox and Healey (1998) examine the role of European
Development Agencies in the alleviation of poverty in
developing countries. In Promises to the Poor: The Record of
European Development Agencies, the authors argue that
developing countries have not provided enough support for
the efforts of these agencies geared at helping to alleviate
poverty. In their countries in the words of the authors:
―Few developing country governments have developed a
poor strategy of their own which donors can buy into‖. This
disturbing observation brings to the fore, the need for
developing country governments to increase their level of
cooperation with foreign-owned poverty alleviation agencies.
Cox and Healey identify the following as additional
challenges confronting European Development agencies in
their poverty alleviation efforts.
The need to involve the poor in the design and
execution of poverty alleviation projects
The need for more funding
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41
The need to monitors the actual result of poverty
alleviation efforts.
The utility of this article to our project would be
discerned if one realizes that the job of poverty alleviation
as
stated in the proposal should far from being a one sided
affair, be a trilateral coalition between poverty
alleviation
agencies, the government and the poor themselves.
Killick (1999) argues that the structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) adopted by many developing countries in
the 1980s as panacea to economic recession and consequent
poverty has not borne the derived fruits. In Making
Adjustment work for the Poor identifies the various ways
SAP has failed to tackle the problem of poverty in the
developing countries of the world. First, he points out that
implementation problems undermine the ability of SAP to
achieve the expected results. Again, Killick points out that
adjustment polices have done little to address the problem
of
economic inequalities in the developing world12. The author
further notes that safety nets created to cushion the
effects
of poverty on the poor have not yielded the desired results.
Finally, Killick points out the political realties in
developing countries do not favour the poor while many
governments are reluctant to give priority to poverty
alleviation. He alleges that those at the top echelon of
power
who benefit from the status quo use their influence to block
reform.
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42
Killick’s article would help as appreciate how by
exhibiting greater political commitment, governments of
developing countries can help alleviate the poverty of their
peoples. Similarly, his work lays bare the failure of SAP to
deliver developing countries out of the economy doldrums in
which they have found themselves.
To “Towards National Public Expenditure Strategies
for Poverty reduction” Healey et al argue that Highly
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCS) should imbibe the culture
of budgetary discipline for their poverty reduction efforts
to
stand any chance of success. The authors recommend that
public spending should be more effectively monitored to
ensure that public services actually get to the intended
beneficiaries. Healey and his colleagues made the following
recommendation on how public spending can help alleviate
poverty.
Promotion of accountability in public spending
Discovery of mechanisms for directly empowering
the poor.
Those creditors should make debt forgiveness of
highly indebted poor countries (HIPCS) conditional
on institutional and policy changes.
Provision of more predictable, medium term
financial support for domestic budgets.
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43
Reduction in infant mortality and provision of
improved health and education services for the
poverty groups.
This article raises some issues germane to our projects.
For example the authors tie the success of poverty
alleviation efforts in developing countries to budgetary
discipline and accountability. There is no gain saying the
fact that corruption and budgetary indiscipline constitute
obstacles to for poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
Similarly, the authors go beyond income in recommending
poverty alleviation measures. For example they advise that
improvement in health and education services would help
reduce poverty among the poorest groups. This tally with
our earlier submission that poverty alleviation efforts
should
not be limited to income.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
poverty report titled. Overcoming Human Poverty (1998)
avails the readers of explications of various types of
poverty.
These include.
1. Human Poverty: The lack of essential human
capabilities such as being literature or adequately
nourished.
2. Income Poverty: The lack of minimally adequate
income or expenditures
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44
3. Overall Poverty: A less severe level of poverty,
usually defined as the inability to satisfy essential
nonfood as well as food needs.
4. Relative Poverty: Poverty defined by standards that
change across countries over times.
5. Extreme Poverty: Indigence or destitution usually
specified as the inability to satisfy even minimum
food needs.
6. Absolute Poverty: This is similar to extreme poverty
except that it is measured by fixed standards.
These distinctions among levels of poverty as provided
by the UNDP would help policy formulators, Non-
governmental organizations and researchers in their poverty
alleviation efforts by enabling them know what aspect of
poverty to tackle at a time or whether to address all aspect
at the same time.
Aworawo (2000) holds environmental pollution largely
responsible for the economic backwardness and poverty of
the rural Niger Delta area of Nigeria. In The Impact of
Environment Degradation on the Rural Economy of the
Nigeria Delta, he remakes that the establishment of
industries and commencement of oil exploration in the
1950s signaled the commencement of extensive
environmental pollution which has proved to be of
disastrous consequences for that regions’ economy. He
points out that oil exploration actives such as shooting of
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45
seismic lines, coupled with oil spillage has rendered many
large tracts of Delta Farmland useless in addition to
contaminating its waters. This situation has naturally led
to
the perpetuation of poverty in this part of Nigeria where
fishing and farming provide Livelihood for 65% of the
population.
Aworawo’s article would help us appreciate the
important role non-governmental, governmental and non-
profit multinational organisations would have to play in
arresting the trend of environmental pollution in the Niger
Delta. By linking the poverty and underdevelopment of rural
Nigeria Delta to environmental degradation his theses would
assist NGOs and non-profit multinational organizations in
packaging poverty alleviation programmes for the Niger
Delta and other parts of Nigeria.
Dr. Eno Blackson Ikpe takes a historical look at the
contributions of Nigerian women to national development.
Her thesis, the Role of Women in National Development
assesses the contributions of Nigeria women to the
advancement of the pre-colonial, colonial and independent
societies. She remarks that in Hausa land of the
pre-colonial
era, many women emerged who played vital roles in the
development of their various societies. According to her,
Bakwa Turunku, the first Saraunyia of Zaria was famous for
her contributions to the political and agricultural
development of ancient Zaria. She adds that Bakwa
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46
Turnku’s daughter and successors, Queen Amina made even
greater contributions. Ikpe further remakes that in the
western part of present day Nigeria. During the pre-colonial
period, female Obas in Kingdoms like Oyo, Sabe and Ijesha
contributed greatly to the economic and political
advancement of their respective communities. She adds that
in Ibo speaking areas of present-day Delta State, the Omus
or female leaders played similar roles. One of the most
prominent of these was Omu Nwagboka of Onitsha who
fought to promote the interest of market women in her area.
Ikpe further argues that although colonial master
treated women as if they were invisible, the colonial era
still
witnessed the emergence of prominent women who
contributed to the development of the country. Some of
these women include Mrs. Funmilayo Ransom Kuti of
Abeokuta and Margaret Ekpo of Calabar.
The author concludes her thesis by enumerating the
challenges facing the Nigeria women of the post-colonial
period. Some of these challenges she identifies as the
social
dislocation caused by the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970),
the devastating Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of
the Babangida administration which led to many women
being laid off their jobs, divorce laws that tilt against
women
and the practice of early exposing them to the disease
known as Vesito Vaginal Fistula (VVF) among other
obstacles.
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47
Ikpe’s work would enable us situate within a historical
context the role in Nigerian women in national development
especially in the area of poverty alleviation efforts is a
sine-
qua non for success.
M. M. Fasake in Women in Badagry Economy 1800-
1999 argues that since the pre-colonial era, women have
always played a vital role in the economy of Badagry area of
Lagos State. He further asserts that the influence of women
in agriculture has always been substantial, with farming
being joint enterprises between spouses. While the men
cleared the land, turned the soil and planted the seed, the
women did more of harvesting, processing and marketing.
Fasake remarks that in the manufacturing sector, Badagry
women have also been highly visible especially in such areas
as mat making indigo making and raffia cutting. Badagry
women, he further points out, have always dominated the
commercial life of that community.
Fasake’s thesis further underlines the importance of
women in poverty alleviation efforts. Specifically, his
emphasis on agriculture is very relevant to our research if
one considers the fact that one can not divorce agriculture
from any serious poverty alleviation efforts. Similarly,
Fasake’s account of women’s role in such activities as
raffia-
making is very important if one recalls that in the
definition
of concepts, it was pointed out that small scale industries
would play a major role in poverty alleviation. Ndigo
making,
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48
mat-making and raffia-cutting all fall within small scale
enterprises. Fasake’s thesis on how women through small
scale enterprise played important roles in Badagry’s
economy would how help us appreciate the role of small
scale industries in the alleviation of rural poverty.
Mrs. T. 0. Ifaturoti examines the position of Nigeria
women when it comes to land ownership. In her thesis, The
Role of Nigerian Women In The Management Of Land
Agricultural And Water Resources In Rural Areas: A Legal
Perspective. She reviews the positions of Statutory, Islamic
and Customary laws on Women’s access to land and
concludes that most of these laws discriminate against
women, pointing out that in most communities, women are
seen as property of men. She further identifies some of the
obstacles that limit rural women’s control and management
of land and related resources. Some of these obstacles
include lack of adequate legal access to land, poverty, lack
of
power and leadership, lack of educational opportunities,
unavailability of economic opportunities and poor condition
of health and social infrastructure. To rectify the
aforementioned problems, Mrs. Ifaturoti recommends a
review of those sections of the Land use Act the
discriminate
against women. She equally advises policy makers to take
rural women into consideration in formulating policies,
stating also that the problem of poverty has to he
addressed.
Ifaturoh’s work would be very useful to our research in
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49
many regards. For example, she has succeeded is drawing
our attention to how the lot of rural women can be improved
through legal intervention. If the Land Use Act which the
author alleges in unfair to women is amended the result
could be easier access to land for women who would in the
long run enhance their capacity to contribute to poverty
alleviation efforts especially in agrarian rural areas where
land ownership plays a very clinical role in economic
activities. Similarly, Mrs. Ifaturoti’s entreaty that the
problem of poverty has to be addressed if the lot of rural
women is to improve is a very good justification for this
project’s emphasis on poverty alleviation.
George A. Kwanashie holds colonialism partly
accountable for the backwardness of the Nigerian rural
economy. In The Peasantry he recounts that the colonialists
encouraged the production of cash crops in the rural areas
to the detriment of food crops. He argues further that
political and administrative structures were put in place by
the colonial masters to ensure the subordination and control
of the rural population of Nigeria31. The rural areas were
according to Kwanashie, exploited through marketing
boards set up by the colonialists. The industrialization of
the
rural areas was therefore seriously undermined as these
areas became exporters of raw materials and consumers of
manufactured products. The author further identifies high
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50
cost of labour and lack of easy access to farm imputes as
other problems inhibiting rural economic development.
Kwanashie’s work would help us understand the origin
of the backwardness of the Nigerian rural economy. There is
no gainsaying the fact that this backwardness is largely
responsible for the scourge of rural poverty. Negative
colonial economic policies which placed emphasis on
cash crops to the determinant of food crops have become of
long lasting disadvantage for Nigeria’s economy.
Kwanashie’s submissions would be very useful to this
project especially the last chapter in which the researcher
will seek to proffer suggestions on how to reverse the trend
of rural poverty. For example, based on the work’ in review,
one would advise NGOs and non-profit multinational
organizations to encourage the production of food crops in
rural areas as part of their poverty alleviation efforts for
any
genuine poverty alleviation effort should start with the
stomach
Gavin and Oyemakinde examine the economic progress
of Nigeria from the pre-colonial period to the closing
decades
of the twentieth century. In ―Economic Development in
Nigeria Since 1800‖ They identify cattle epidemics, draughts
and locust invasions as some of the problems that the
Nigerian agricultural sector has always had to grapple with
since the period under study. The authors similarly remark
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51
that economic attractions of the cities drew many able
bodied men out of the rural areas.33
Gavin and Oyamakinde’s work touches on two issues
relevant to the subject of poverty alleviation. First, the
writers have identified the problems conforming rural
agriculture. Secondly, they have correctly identified rural
urban migration as a negative phenomenon which has
deleted the agrarian rural areas of much needed able bodied
youths. By raising these two important issues, the author’s
work would help the researcher proffer advice on how non-
governmental and non-profit multinational organizations
can combat the effect of natural disasters in rural areas
with
a view to stemming the rural urban drift.
Professor Bright Ekuerhare argues that technological
advancement is prerequisite for economic development. In
his publication, ―Technology and Economic Development In
Nigeria‖. He posits that the widening economic gap between
the developed and developing countries of the world is
mainly due to the technological superiority of the former
over the latter. He further assesses efforts made by the
Federal Government of Nigeria in promoting technological
development with a view to achieving economic development
and poverty alleviation. The Federal Government according
to Ekuerahare, set up the Directorate of Food, Road and
Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) and National Economic
Recovery Fund (NERF) with a view to opening up the rural
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52
areas towards achieving economic recovery for the country.
Research institutes, according to the author, have also been
set up. He further identifies inadequate financial
subvention
as a major obstacle militating against these research
institutes, arguing that financial institutions should do
more
to assist them with loans.
Ekuehare’s article is in many ways relevant to our
research efforts. For example, his argument that
technological advancement is essential for economic
development would help us appreciate the important role
technology could play in rural poverty alleviation. For
example, poverty alleviation organizations by funding the
mass-production of such items as cassava-grinding
machines, yam pounding machines and melon husking
machines would boost rural small-scale industries which
would ultimately help in the alleviation of rural poverty.
Similarly, the author’s recommendation that research
institutes should be assisted with soft loans is an advice
any
non-governmental and non-profit multinational organization
interested in poverty alleviation would find useful since
the
role of research institutes in boasting agriculture can not
be
over-emphasized.
International Non-Governmental Organizations a well
researched book authored by Lyman Cromwell White with
the assistance of Marie Argonaut Zocca offers illuminating
insights into the workings of multinational nongovernmental
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53
and intergovernmental organizations. A review of this book
would reveal how germane his work is to our research effort.
White (1968), in attempt to conceptualize the term
international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) avails
the reader of a definition given by Economic and Social
Council of the United Nations:
―International non-governmental organization is any
international organization which is not established by an
agreement among governments. The author subsequently
divides the work into three parts. Part one examines the
role
of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in world affairs.
According to White, NGOs serve as agents of international
understanding since most of them strengthen bonds of
friendship and encourage better international co-operation.
The author further asserts that NGOs promote research into
many areas of human knowledge with a view to promoting
global understanding. Similarly, Mr. White states that NGOs
serve as moulders of public opinion by holding congresses
through which members articulate common opinions on
issues of public interest across national boundaries. In the
concluding part of part I white submits that NGOs also serve
as pressure groups by bringing moral pressure to bear on
governments over certain issues. He cites the crucial role
played by an NGOs, institute de droit International in the
success of The Hague Peace conferences.
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54
From the above it could be stated that Mr. White’s
work apart from providing us a conceptualization of the term
―NGOs‖ also recalls the clout wielded by these
organizations.
Drawing from his effort one can say that NGOs can bring
their influence as moulders of public opinion and pressure
groups to bear on governments especially those of third
world countries in order to ensure that policy formulation
and execution process favours poverty alleviation efforts.
Part II of Mr. White’s work which examines the
contributions of NGOs in certain fields of human endeavour
is also very useful for our research. Although the author
examines such fields as Business and Finance, Labour,
Agriculture, Religion etc, the field of agriculture is most
relevant or our research because on inseparable nexus exists
between agriculture and poverty alleviation. He cites such
NGOs as World Poultry Science Association (WPA),
International Breeding Federation (IBF) International
Federation of European Beet Growers (IFEBG) and
International Federation of Olive Growers (IGOG) as
examples of organizations that have contributed to the
development and growth of their respective fields of
agriculture. White’s effort would help us appreciate how
NGOs can assist in Nigeria’s rural poverty alleviation
efforts.
For example, the World Poultry Science Association (WPSA)
can assist the Federal Government to set up small scale
poultries for rural areas.
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55
Finally, White’s discussion of the relationship between
NGOs and intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) would
help us appreciate how the two bodies can work hand in
hand with each other on one hand and with.
2.2 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Non-Governmental and Non-profit multinational
organizations have a relatively long history of operations
in
Nigeria. However, the involvement of these organizations in
poverty alleviation in Nigeria has a relatively, short
history
for although Nigeria has traditionally been an
underdeveloped country, it is only of recent that poverty as
a
phenomenon became topical in our national discourse.
The frequency with which poverty alleviation is
discussed these days is largely borne out of the fact that
Nigeria in the last two decades of the recently concluded
century witnessed a serious economic downturn which
manifested in increasing rate of mass-pauperizations.
Between 1980 and 1996, the percentage of the poor in
Nigeria witnessed a sharp increase from 28.1% to 65.6% as
the following table shows.
Table 2.3.1: Nigeria Trend In Poverty Level: 1980-96 (in %)
Year Poverty Level Estimated total pop Population
in poverty
1980 281% 65m 17.7m
1985 46.3% 75m 34.7m
1992 42.7% 91.5m 39.2m
Source: Federal Office or Statistics.
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56
Since 1996 when these statistics were compiled, the
situation rather than improve, has got even worse. For
example the year 2000 World Bank Atlas ranks Nigeria as
the 12th poorest country in the world. The 1998 edition of
the same publication had ranked the country 2lst on scale
of poverty. This implies that within two years Nigeria was
―promoted‖ from the 21st to the 12th poorest country in the
world. This development is alarming considering the fact
that Nigeria is the sixth largest producer of oil in the
world.
This raises the question of what makes Nigeria so poor in
the midst of plenty, a question that shall be tackled in
another chapter of the project. Suffice it to sat that
growing
poverty in Nigeria has many unsavoury consequences some
of which include hunger, malnutrition, dilapidated
infrastructure, poor health services and high
unemployment. Today poverty is written all over the face of
most Nigerians, a situation that threatens the very fabric
of
the nation. It is in realization of the dangers posed by
poverty in Nigeria that some non-governmental and non-
profit organizations emerged to tackle poverty in the
country. In this chapter we shall examine a handful of them.
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57
Table 2.3.2: Depth and Severity of Poverty%
Year Depth Severity
1980 .160 .080
1985 .352 .169
1992 .384 .202
1996 .358 .207
Source: FOS Poverty Profile for Nigeria 1980-1996.
Other assessment of poverty also showed a deplorable
situation.
The Human Development Index (HDI) for Nigeria was
44.8% in 2006 rating the country among the 32 poorest
nations in Africa (UNDP 2006).
Additional data from NBS (2004) further indicate that
life expectancy for Nigeria was 43.4% years; literacy rate
was
67% (2003), while 70% of the rural population lacks
effective
access to safe drinking water and sanitation. Also health
care facilities and other social infrastructure facilities
like
good roads and electricity are either lacking or have gone
comatose. Indeed, the picture painted by the above
mentioned NBS figures and HDI of the United Nations
present an ominous situation which requires urgent
attention (Kapolei 2007:10). Kpkakol (Ibid) enumerated some
of the causative factors identified for the ominous
situation
to include bad governance, corruption, debt burden, low
productivity, unemployment, conflicts, macro economic
distortions, effects of globalization, high and uncontrolled
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population growth rate, poor human resource development
and polices of social exclusion, among others.
2.3 THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX- GOING BEYOND INCOME
Each year since 1990 the Human Development Report
has published the human development index (HDI) which
looks beyond GDP to a broader definition of well- being.
The HDI provides a composite measure of three
dimensions of human development: living a long and healthy
life (measured by life expectancy), being educated (measured
by adult literacy and gross enrolment in education) and
having a decent standard of living (measured by purchasing
power parity, PPP, income). The index is not in any sense a
comprehensive measure of human development, It does not,
for example, include important indicators
such as gender or income inequality nor more difficult to
measure concepts like respect for human rights and political
freedoms. What it does provide is a broadened prism for
viewing human progress and the complex relationship
between income and well-being.
Of the components of the HDI, only income and gross
enrolment are somewhat responsive to short term policy
changes. For that reason, it is important to examine changes
in the human development index over time. The human
development index trends tell an important story in that
respect. Between 1990 and 2007 Nigeria’s HDI rose by
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59
0.91% annually from 0.438 to 0.511 today. HDI scores in all
regions have increased progressively over the years (Figure
1) although all have experienced periods of slower growth or
even reversals.
Figure 2.1: HDI Trends
Source: indicator table G of the Human Development Report
2009.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
HDI
OECD
CEE and CIS
Latin America and Caribbean
East Asia and Pacific Arab
states
South Asia Sub-Saharan
Africa
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
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60
This year’s HDI, which refers to 2007, highlights the
very large gasps in wellbeing and life chances that continue
to divide our increasingly interconnected world. The HDI for
Nigeria is 0.511, which gives the country a rank of 158th
out
of 182 countries with data (Table 1).
Table 2.1: Nigeria‟s Human Development Index 2007
HDI value
Life expectancy at birth (years)
Adult literacy rate (% ages 15 and above)
Combined gross Enrolment ratio (%)
GDP per capital (PPP US$)
1. Norway (0.971) 156.
1. Japan (82.7)
1. Georgia (100.0)
1. Australia (114.2)
1. Liechtenstein (85,382)
Lesotho (0.514)
165. Mali (48.1)
110.Lao People’s Democratic Republic (72.7)
148. Bhutan (54.1)
139. Djibouti (2,061)
157. Uganda (0.514)
166. Mozambique
111.Tanzania (United Republic of) (72.3)
149. Togo (53.9) 140.Kyrgyzstan (2,006)
.158. Nigeria (0.511)
167. Nigeria (47.7) 112. Nigeria (72.0)
150.Nigeria (53.0)
141. Nigeria (1,969)
159. Togo (0.499)
168.Congo (Democratic Republic of the) (47.6)
113. Malawi (71.8)
151.Benin (52.4) 142. Mauritania (1,927)
160.Malawi (0.493)
169.Guinea- Bissau (47.5)
114.Madagascar (70.7)
152. Cameroon (52.3)
143. Cambodia (1,802)
182. Niger (0.340)
176.Afghanistan (43.6)
151. Mali (26.2)
177. Djibouti (25.5)
181.Congo (Democratic Republic of the) (298)
Source: Nigeria‟s Human Development Index 2007
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61
By looking at some of the most fundamental aspects of
people’s lives and opportunities the HDI provides a much
more complete picture of a country’s development than other
indicators,, such as GDP per capita. Figure 2 illustrates
that
countries on the same level of HDI can have very different
levels of income or that countries with similar levels of
income can have very different HDIs.
Figure 2.2: The human development index
Source: Indicator table H of the Human Development Report
2009
Human poverty: focusing on the most deprived in
multiple dimensions of poverty
The HDI measures the average progress of a country in
human development. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1),
Human Development
Index GDP per capital
PPP Us$
0.60
0.58
0.56
Kenya
0.54
0.52
Nigeria
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
2,000
2,900
2,800
1,700
1,600
1,500
1,400
1,300
1,200
1,100
1,000
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focuses on the proportion of people below certain threshold
levels in each of the dimensions of the human development
index-living a long and healthy life, having access to
education, and a decent standard of living. By looking
beyond income deprivation, the H P1-I represents a multi-
dimensional alternative to the $1.25 a day (PPP US$) poverty
measure.
The HPI-1 value of 36.2% for Nigeria, ranks 114th
among 35 countries for which the index has been
calculated.
The HPI-1 measures severe deprivation in health by the
proportion of people who are not expected to survive to age
40. Education is measured by the adult illiteracy rate. And
a
decent standard of living is measured by the unweighted
average of people not using an improved water source and
the proportion of children under age 5 who are underweight
for heir age. Table 2 shows the values for these variables
for
Nigeria and compares them to other countries.
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63
Table 2.2: Selected Indicators of human poverty for
Nigeria
Human Poverty
Index
(HPI-l)
Probability of
not surviving
to age 40 (%)
Adult literacy
rate
(%ages 15 and
above)
People not
using an
improved water
source (%)
Children
underweight for age
(% aged under5
1.Czech Republic (1.5)
1.Hong Kong, China
(SAR) (1.4)
1.GeorgIa (0.0) 1.Barbados (0) 1.Croatia (1)
112.
Bangladesh
(36.1)
144.Congo
(Democratic
Republic of)
(37.3)
110. Lao
People’s
Democratic
Republic of
(37.3)
140.Chad (52) 109.lndonesia
(28)
113.Madagascar (36.1)
145.Guinea Bissau
(37.4)
111 .Tanzania (United Republic
of) (27.7)
141. Fiji (53) 110.Central African
Republic (29)
114.Nigeria
(36.2)
146. Nigeria
(37.4)
113. Nigeria
(28.0)
142.
Madagascar
(53)
112.Djibouti
(29)
115. Mauritania
(36.2)
147.Angola
(38.5)
113. Malawi
(28.2)
143.Madagascar
(53)
112.Djibouti
(29)
116.Burundi
(36.4)
148.Central African
Republic
39.6)
114.Madagascar
(29.3)
144.Congo (Democratic
Republic of the)
(54)
I 13.Sri Lanka
(29)
135
Afghanistan
(59.8)
153Lesotho
(47.4) 151.Mali (73.8)
150.Afghanistan
(78)
138.Bangladesh
(48)
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
Building the capabilities of women
The HDI measures average achievements in a country,
but it does not incorporate the degree of gender imbalance
in these achievements. The gender related development
index (CDI), introduced in Hurnan Development Report
1995, measures achievements in the same dimensions using
the same indicators as the HDI but captures inequalities in
achievement between women and men. It is simply the HDI
adjusted downward for gender inequality. The greater the
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64
gender disparity in basic human development, the lower is a
country’s CDI relative to its HDI.
Nigeria’s CDt value. 0.499 should be compared to its
HDI value of 0.511. Its CDI value is 97.7% of its HDI value.
Out of the 155 countries with both HDI and CDI values, 129
countries have a better ratio than Nigeria’s.
Table 3 shows how Nigeria’s ratio of CDI to HDI compares to
other countries, and also shows its values for selected
underlying indicators in the calculation of the CDI.
Table 2.3: The GDI compared to the HDI-a measure of
gender disparity
CDI as % of
HDI
Life
expectancy at birth (years) 2004 female
as % male
Adult literacy rate (% ages 15 and
older) 2004 Female as % male
Combined primary
secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio
2004
1.Mongolia (100.0%)
1.Russian Federation
(121.7%)
1.Lesotho (1 22.5%) 1.Cuba (121.0%)
128.Lebanon (97.7%)
181.Zambia (102.3%)
107.Ghana (81.3%)
153.Lao People’s
Democratic Republic (83.8%)
129.Oman (97.7%)
182.Cameroon 108.Uganda (80.1%)
154.Tajikistan (83.7%)
130. Nigeria (97.7%)
183.Nigeria (102.1%)
109.Nigeria (80.0%) 155.Nigeria (83.0%)
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
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65
Table 2.4: Emigrants
131.Kuwait
(97.4%)
184 Uganda
(102.0%)
110.Tunisia
(79.9%)
156.Equatorial
Guinea (81.8%)
132.Austria
(97.4%)
185.Nepa
(101.9%)
111Congo
(79.2%)
157Ethiopia
(81.6%)
155.
Afghanistan
(88.0%)
1.90.
Swaziland
(98.0%)
I.45.
Afghanistan
(29.2%)
I75.Afghanistan
(55.6%)
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
Migration
Every year, millions of people cross national or
international boarders seeking better living standards. Most
migrants, internal and international reap gains in the form
of higher incomes, better access to education and health,
and improved prospects for their children. Most of the
world’s 195 million international migrants have moved from
one developing country to another or between development
countries.
Nigeria has an emigration rate of 0.8%. The major
continent of destination for migrants from Nigeria is Africa
with 62.3% emigrants living there.
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66
Table 2.5: Emigrants
Origin of migrants Emigration
rate (%)
Major continent
of destination for
migrants
(%)
1. Antigua and Barbuda 45.3 Asia 46.6
10.Cape Verde 30.5 Europe 49.1
166. Madagascar 0.9 Europe 65.8
170 Tanzania (United
Republic of
0.8
Africa 67.5
171. Nigeria 0.8 Africa 62.3
176. Uganda 0.7 Europe 43.9
179. Ethiopia 0.4 Asia 37.5
181. Mongolia 0.3 Europe 40.7
Global
aggregates .
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
Medium human development 1.9 Asia 43.3
Sub-Saharan African 2.5 Africa 72.7
World 3.0 Europe 33.4
The United States is host to nearly 40 million
international migrants - more than any other country
though as a share of total population it is Qatar which has
the most migrants - more than 4 in every 5 people are
migrants. In Nigeria, there are 972.1 thousand migrants
which represent 0.7% of the total population.
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67
Table 2.6: Immigrants
Destination of
migrants
Immigrant
stock
(thousands)
Destination of
migrants
Immigrants
as share of
population
(%) 2005
1.United States 39,266.5 1. Qatar 80.5
18.Cota d’ voire 2,371.3 22. Gabon
149.Congo 17.9
25. Ghana 1,667.3 (Democratic
Republic of the)
0.8
33. South African 1,248.7 150.Ethiopia 0.7
41. Nigeria 972.1 152. Nigeria 0.3
46. Tanzania
(United
Republic of)
797.7
169. Angola 43.9
47. Kenya 790.1 170. Eritrea 0.3
177. Sao Tome and
Principe 5.4
175.
Madagascar 0.2
182. Vanuatu Global
aggregates 1.0 182. China 0.0
Sub- Saharan Africa 15, 567.1 Sub- Saharan
Africa 2.2
Medium human
development 40,948.6
Medium human
development 0.8
World 195,245.4 World 3.0
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report.
Remittances
Remittances, which are usually sent to immediate
family members who have stayed behind, are among the
most direct benefit from migration; their benefits spread
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68
broadly into local economies. They also serve as foreign
exchange earnings for the origin countries of migrants.
However, remittances are unequally distributed. Of the total
US$370 billion remitted in 2007, more than half went to
countries in the medium human development category
against less than one per cent to low human development
countries. In 2007, US$9,221 million in remittances were
sent to Nigeria. Average remittances per person were US$62,
compared with the average for Sub- Saharan African of
US$26. (See Table 6 for more details.)
2.4 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TOWARDS POVERTY
ALLEVIATION
Programmes such as National Directorate of
Employment (NDE) Primary Health Care (PHC), Directorate
for Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI), Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP), Micro! Macro credit
deliveries etc. were established after 1986 in various
sectors
of the economy (Nnebe, 2006:191).
Despite the plethora of poverty alleviation programmes
which past government had initiated and implemented, by
1999 when the Obasanjo administration came to power, a
World Bank’s report indicated that Nigeria’s Human
Development Index (HDI) was only 0.416 and that about 70
percent of the population was vegetating below the bread
line (nigeriafirst.org.2003:14- 25). This alarming indicator
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69
prompted the government to review the existing poverty
