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THE ROLE OF NON GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-PROFIT
MULTINATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE ALLEVIATION
OF RURAL POVERTY: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
BY
EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA
PG/M.Sc/08/53040
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
ENUGU CAMPUS
MARCH, 2010
2
THE ROLE OF NON GOVERNMENTAL AND NON-PROFIT
MULTINATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS IN THE ALLEVIATION
OF RURAL POVERTY: THE NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
BY
EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA
PG/M.Sc/08/53040
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE
AWARD OF MASTERS DEGREE OF SCIENCE (M.SC)
INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
ENUGU CAMPUS
SUPERVISOR: PROF. U. J. F. EWURUM
MARCH, 2010
3
CERTIFICATION
I certify that EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA, a
postgraduate student in the Institute for Development
Studies, School of Postgraduate Studies, University of
Nigeria, Enugu Campus, with registration number
PG/M.Sc/08/53040 has completed this research work for
the award of Masters Degree of Science in Institute for
Development Studies, under my guidance and complete
supervision.
To the best of my knowledge, this work is confirmed
original and has not been submitted in part or full to any
other degree of the university.
------------------------------- --------------------------------
Ezuma Magnus Nnanna Date
Student
4
APPROVAL
This dissertation has been approved on behalf of the
Institute for Development Studies, University of Nigeria,
Enugu Campus.
--------------------------------- --------------------------------
Prof. U. J. F Ewurum Date
Supervisor
--------------------------------- --------------------------------
Prof. Osita Ogbu Date
Head of Department
--------------------------------- --------------------------------
External Examiner Date
5
DEDICATION
This research project is dedicated to Maria Mater
Miserecordia-Mary Mother of Mercy, Blessed Mother Theresa
of Calcutta & in Evergreen Memory of my beloved mother
Late Mrs. Helen Mgbafor Ezuma and all who have
contributed in alleviating poverty. You are my heroes.
6
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I most gloriously thank God Almighty for the power,
strength and knowledge he supplied me to carry out this
research work and successfully complete this programme.
To Him be all the Glory. My special thanks to my project
supervisor Prof. U. J. F. Ewurum for his unalloyed and
constructive supervision and directions at various stages of
this work which ultimately manifested in the achievement of
a good research work. I commend him very highly for his
simplicity, diligence and thoroughness. He is a man of
honour and most respected.
In a likewise manner, with unreserved appreciations, I
thank all the lecturers and staff in the Institute for
Development Studies UNEC. They are indeed great.
Notwithstanding, in a special way, I appreciate the former
Director of the Institute and current Director of the Institute
-Prof. Ike Nwosu and Prof. Okey Ibeanu and Mr. U. B. Umoh
acting director respectively for their total commitments to
carry the burden.
My profound gratitude goes to my wife Uju and my
little angles Helen Ifunanyachukwu, Dannis, Emmanuella
Chimdalu, who continuously commits me in their prayers to
God for my goodness. And my dearest brothers and sisters
who gave me great supports in various ways.
In addition I wish to acknowledge my classmates,
Abiakam Emeka C. who has been a true friend and brother,
7
also our course Rep Mr. Ilechukwu, VinMartin Iloh, Ada,
Richard, Queeneth and entire Computer Typists and Staff of
Chidera Business Centre located at Students’ Centre-UNEC,
especially Miss Okafor Blessing and Wariso Chinyere - who
worked tirelessly to get this work typed, edited correctly and
type-set perfectly well. Thanking you all immensely and
may our good Lord meet you all at your various points of
need. In Jesus Name Amen. God bless us all.
EZUMA MAGNUS NNANNA
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Approval Page - - - - - i
Certification - - - - - ii
Dedication - - - - - iii
Acknowledgment - - - - - iv
List of Abbreviation - - - - - ix
Abstract - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background of the Study - - - - - 1
1.2 Statement of Problem - - - - - 4
1.3 Objectives of the Study - - - - - 6
1.4 Research Questions - - - - - 7
1.5 Research Hypotheses - - - - - 8
1.6 Significance of Study - - - - - 10
1.7 Scope of the Study - - - - - 10
1.8 Limitations of the Study - - - - - 11
1.9 Profile of some selected organizations - - 12
1.10 Definition of Terms - - - - - 15
References
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Theoretical Framework - - - - - 23
2.2 Empirical Review - - - - - 44
2.3 The Human Development Index- Going beyond Income 47
2.4 Government Efforts towards Poverty Alleviation - 57
9
2.5 Ford Foundation - - - - - 65
2.6 Friedrich Ebert Foundation - - - - 66
2.7 Community Development Foundation Fate Foundation 69
2.8 Centres for Development CMC Education (CECODEC) 71
2.9 Obstacles Confronting Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria 78
References
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 Brief Introduction - - - - - 94
3.2 Research Design - - - - - 95
3.3 Sources of Data. - - - - - 95
3.3.1 The Primary Sources of Data - - - - 96
3.3.2 The Secondary Sources of Data - - - 96
3.4 Population of the Study - - - - 97
3.5 Sample Size and Sampling Method - - - 98
3.6 Data Collection Instrument - - - - 99
3.7 Test of Validity and Reliability of Instrument - 99
3.8 Method of Data Analysis - - - - 100
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 Presentation of Data - - - - - 102
4.2 Analysis of Data - - - - - 103
4.3 Test of Hypotheses - - - - - 122
10
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY.
5.1 Summary - - - - 128
5.2 Conclusions - - - - 131
5.3 Recommendations - - - - 133
5.4 Suggestions for Further Study - - - 141
Bibliography
Appendix
Questionnaire
11
ABSTRACT
This research project is a comprehensive study of the Role of Non Governmental and Non-Profit Multinational Organization in the Alleviation of Rural Poverty: the Nigerian Experience, the appraisal of the implementation of the various poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria and its implications for Development. Five categories of variables that relate to the poverty alleviation programmes were studied. These are why non-governmental and non profit multinational organizations, the meaning and measurement of poverty, approaches for sustainable livelihoods for the rural poor, overcoming human poverty, human development, government and non-governmental efforts towards poverty alleviation into five chapters. Chapter one deals with the introduction of the study, pointing out the statement of the problem, the purpose of the study, statement of hypothesis, objective of the study and the significance of the study with the definition of some common and uncommon terms for our easy understand. Chapter two extensively dwell on the literature reviews and works, frame the conceptual, theoretical and empirical frameworks, the phases adopted, it constraints and problems and list of enterprises sold. Chapter three has to do with the methodology used to ascertain true and relevant information. Here, we make our research design, sources of data, sampling design and procedures, the sample size and our data collection instruments. I also made test of validity and reliability of the study. In chapter four, I presented and analyzed the collected data and the test of hypotheses. Finally, in chapter five, I summarized my findings to the research work, drew some useful conclusions based on my findings and made good recommendations and suggestions that when applied or employed in subsequent policy formulation will enhance the actualization of set targets to the alleviation of rural poverty programme in Nigeria, which will positively, effectively, efficiently and ultimately alleviate rural poverty in Nigeria.
12
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
This research project was conceived as a contribution
to battle against poverty, a scourge that has assumed a
disgraceful dimension in the world’s most populous and
potentially, most powerful black nation. The 2009 Human
Development Index (HDI) recently released by the United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) paints a gloomy
picture of Nigeria. The HDI ranks nations of the world
according to the human conditions that exists in each
nation.
According to UNDP’s report, adult literacy in Nigeria
stands at 28% and only 47.7% of the country’s children
have access to immunization against preventable disease.
The report goes on to add that just 30% of Nigerians has
access to safe drinking water while a mere 33% percent of
the country’s population has access to electricity. Drawing
its conclusion from the above quoted figures, the UNDP
ranks Nigeria 146th out of the 174 countries mentioned in
the report. This means that only 28 countries of the world
are poorer than Nigeria, the world’s sixth largest oil
producer. In other words, Nigeria is one of the 30 poorest
countries in the world. Although the UNDP report is not
flawless, it fairly captures the reality. Any person who lives
13
in this country need not be a seer to know that the country
is in dire straits.
Why Rural Area?
This project intends to concentrate on rural poverty
because certain factors we shall later identify make rural
areas particularly disadvantaged compared to urban areas.
This does not mean that poverty is not a serious problem in
the urban areas; in fact, there is an inseparable correlation
between rural power and urban poverty. By attempting to
proffer solutions to rural poverty, we are equally trying to
proffer solutions to urban poverty as well, because rural
development would help stem rural-urban migration which
would in turn reduce the pressure on facilities in urban
areas.
Why Non-Governmental and Non-profit Multinational
Organizations?
For some decades now, these two organizations have
played commendable roles in the economic, political and
social development of Nigeria. Some of the organization
whose economic, political and social development of Nigeria.
Some of the organizations whose efforts have been most
visible include the Ford Foundation, Fredrich Eberth
Foundation, British Council, United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and United States Agency for
14
international Development (USAID). Given the important
contributions these organizations have made, one would
understand why this project concentrates on their role in
the battle against poverty, especially rural poverty, in
Nigeria.
The last two decades of the twentieth century were
economically traumatic for Nigeria. That period naturally
witnessed an upsurge in interest in poverty alleviation. This
interest goes beyond Nigeria for the problem of poverty
transcends national boundaries. Since the literature of an,
era reflects the signs of the time it should not be surprising
that the period between 1980 and 1999 saw the emergence
of numerous academic works devoted to the problem of
poverty in Nigeria and other parts of the world.
Coincidentally, the period in question witnessed an increase
in interest in women affairs and consequently, a deluge of
literature on the contribution of women to rural poverty
alleviation and nation building. This review shall focus on
the available literature relevant to our research.
Maxwell Simon in ―The Meaning and Measurement of
Poverty‖ an article published by the Overseas Development
Institute (ODI) argues that the concept, poverty has no
Universal accepted definition. Simon argues that despite the
difficulty in conceptualizing poverty, efforts have been made
to use income as one of the measure of poverty. The cities
the World Bank attempt at choosing an income level of $1
15
(One American Dollar) per day as the benchmark for
absolute poverty. According to the World Bank, ―any person
that earns not more than considering the assertion earlier
made in this chapter to the effect that income may not be an
adequate measure of poverty. For example there are
differences and ten Naira) at the current (July 2000)
exchange rate may not buy in the United States what it can
buy in Nigeria.
To buttress the point that income is not an adequate
measure of poverty, Maxwell avails the reader of a more
versatile definition of poverty given by the European Union
which goes thus.
―The poor shall be taken to mean person, families and
groups of person whose resources (materials, cultural social)
are so limited as to exclude them from the minimum
acceptable way of life in the member state in which they
live‖.
In the penultimate segment of his article, Maxwell gives
the following measures of poverty as called from the UNDP
Human Development Report (HDR) of 2009.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
Most social research efforts are motivated by the desire
to combat one negative the phenomenon or another. Within
the contact of this proposed research, the negative social
phenomenon in question is poverty, a problem that has
16
assumed alarming dimension in Nigeria. The problem with
Nigeria is not lack of human and material resources; indeed,
the country is one of the most naturally endowed countries
in the world. The ambassador of Denmark, a highly
developed Western European country with one of the highest
living standards in the world was recently quoted as saying
that Nigeria is far richer than this country. He was similarly
reported to have said that the financial resources available
in this country are enough to ensure a decent living
standard for every Nigerian. The envoy’s statements reflect
global opinion on Nigeria. What then is our problem?
The problem of poverty in the midst of plenty is
primarily caused by the skewed nature of inadequate and
poor income distribution in Nigeria. The system in this
country enables the rich to get richer while the poor get
poorer. How can we ensure that the disposable income in
the hands of the poor, particularly the rural poor, is
enhanced?
Another problem that exacerbates poverty is
misplacement of priorities on the part of successive
governments of the country. Neglect of rural infrastructure
only helps to compound the problem of poverty in Nigeria.
Rural-Urban migration which has seen to the loss of vibrant
rural youths to cities would not have been as acute if
priority had been given to rural infrastructure.
17
Apart from the aforementioned, other problems such as
limited access to credit facilities, high cost of farm inputs
and inclement geography all combine to compound the
problem for rural poverty in Nigeria. These problems shall be
identified and solutions to them proffered in the
documentation of research findings.
1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
As the title implies, this research effort is primarily
aimed at assessing the contributions of Non-Governmental
and Non-profit multi-national organizations in the
alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria. The objectives of the
study are:
1. To assess the contributions of Non-Governmental
and Non-Profit multi-national organisaitons in the
alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria.
2. To ascertain the possible benefits that the rural
populace may achieve through the assistance of the
Non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organistion’s.
3. To determine the impacts of the NGO’s and its
sustainability with governmental support.
4. To highlight the necessary areas where the voluntary
services of the NGO’s are most needed in the
alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria.
18
5. To bring out the possible ways of alleviating rural
poverty
6. To point out the key areas where the voluntary
services of the NGO’s are preferentially needed and
areas of utmost priority, (health, education, water
and sanitation etc).
Suggestions based on our research findings shall be
made on how these organizations can improve on their
poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria; problems confronting
them in this regard shall be identified and possible solutions
identified.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
1. What have been the contributions of the Non-
governmental and non-profit multinational
organizations to alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria?
2. Have the Rural people benefited from the non-
governmental and non- profit multinational
organizations especially in terms of poverty
alleviation?
3. Can the non-governmental organizations support
be used to assess the sustainability of
governments support?
19
4. How would government identify the most needed
areas of attention in the rural poverty alleviation
programme?
5. To what extent has the government identified the
possible ways of alleviating the rural poverty?
6. What are the key areas where the voluntary
services of the NGO’s are preferentially needed,
(health, education, water and sanitation etc)?
1.5 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES
The research effort shall attempt to justify the following
propositions:
1. Ho: The contributions of non-governmental of non-
profit multinational organizations are not very
decisive factors in the success or otherwise of
rural poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
H1: The contributions of non-governmental and non-
profit multinational organizations are very
decisive factors in the success or otherwise of
rural poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
2. Ho: The rural populace have not achieved some
benefits through the assistance of non-
government and non-profit organizations
H1: The rural populace have achieved some benefits
through the assistance of non-government and
non-profit organizations
20
3. Ho: The NGO’S have not played some roles in the
developments and sustainability with government
support.
H1: The NGO’S have played some roles in the
developments and sustainability with government
support.
4. Ho: The voluntary works and services of NGO’s are
not very significant to the financial burden of the
government in the alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria.
H1: The voluntary works and services of NGO’s are
very significant to the financial burden of the
government in the alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria.
5. Ho: There are no ways we can identify the alleviation
of rural poverty.
H1: There are ways we can identify the alleviation
of rural poverty
6. Ho: The key areas (health, water, sanitation and
education) where the non-governmental
organizations can assist in poverty alleviation
cannot be identified.
H1: The key areas (health, water, sanitation and
education) where the non-governmental
organizations can assist in poverty alleviation can
be identified.
21
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
This research is certainly not the first to be conducted
on poverty alleviation in Nigeria. However, it is significant in
it emphasis on rural poverty. Similarly, the proposed use of
research assistants to reach out to rural areas is a
remarkable departure from the practice of ―arm-chair
research‖ which entails conducting researches only on the
pages of books. Similarly, this research effort, being one of
the way first conducted in the new century shall serve as a
reference point for future researches on the thorny issues of
rural poverty in particularly and poverty in general.
1.7 SCOPE OF THE STUDY
This proposed research shall cover six non
governmental and non-profit multinational national
organizations. These include the Fredrich Eberth
Foundation, United Nations Development Programme
(UNDP) Ford Foundation, British Council, United States
Agency for International Development (USAID) and Global
2000. The Nigerian offices of these organizations shall be
visited for information. Research assistants shall also be
sent to some selected rural areas. The number of these rural
areas would depend on the financial resources available to
the researcher.
22
1.8 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Research is a human endeavour and since human
beings are not perfect, it would not be surprising if some
failings are identified in the research publication. These
failings could be attributing to some limitations explained
below:
First, the current upsurge in interest in poverty
alleviation is a relatively new phenomenon. Previously,
scholars in various fields of academic endeavour paid little
attention to poverty alleviation, the result being a relatively
short supply of books on that subject. This shortage
naturally limits the access of researcher to relevant
literature on poverty alleviation.
Another obstacle closely related to the aforementioned
is the poor condition and shortage of public libraries in
Nigeria. The pubic libraries in this country are too few
considering our population. Even the existing ones are short
of up to data books. This development imposes enormous
limitations on research efforts and this proposed research is
no exception.
Similarly, the data collection and storage system in this
country is far from being satisfactory. For example, it
difficult knowing the exact number of officially designated
rural communities in the country; there is a death of
equipment necessary for the gathering and storage of such
information. Given the aforementioned limitations, case may
23
arise in the course of this research where exact figures of
variables may not be available.
Whatever adequacies detected in the outcome of this
research effort should therefore be seen within the context of
the above mentioned limitations.
1.9 PROFILE OF SOME SELECTED ORGANIZATIONS
A non-governmental organization (NGO) is a legally
constituted organization created by natural or legal persons
that operates independently from any government. The term
originated from the United Nations (UN), and is normally
used to refer to organizations that do not form part of the
government and are not conventional for-profit business.
The following are the profiles of some selected NGO’s:
i. Ford Foundation-Nigeria
Activities: Activist, Educational, Networking
Philanthropy
Type: Foundation
Scope: Regional
Website: www.fordfound.org/regions/west
Main Email: ford-lagos(at)fordfound.org
Contact Name: Adhiambo P. Odaga, Representative
Phone: 234-1-3200-983
Fax: 234-1-262-3973
Regional Office: P. O. Box. 2368
Lagos. Nigeria.
24
Primary Objectives
The foundations work in Nigeria address some of the
countries most pressing problems by focusing on some key
issues. Their grounds strategies seek to:
Strengthen the enforcement of human rights
Empower women and young people by improving the
quality of their health and social status.
Enhance the livelihood of the poor, particularly urban
and rural areas.
Promote transparent and accountable governance.
They also make grants for works in human rights,
sexuality and reproductive health, and economic
development.
ii. Women Aid Collective (WACOL)
Activities: Educational, social, economic and
political development of women and young people
through a wide range of services, training research,
advocacy, shelter, legal and financial aid, intra-familial
conflict resolution, information and library services.
Address: No 9 Umuezebi street, Upper Chime Avenue,
New Haven, Enugu. P. O. Box 2718 Enugu State.
Phone: +234 42 256678; Fax +234 42 256837.
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.wacolnigeria.org
25
iii. Pro-Natura International (Nigeria)
Activities: Institutional development, capacity
building, training, consultancy and research on
sustainable community development.
Address: No 37, Onne Road, GRA Phase 2 Port
Harcourt, Rivers State.
Phone: +234 8446 2510, 08033298380, Fax + 234
84 463759
E-mail: bolanle [email protected]
Website: www.pronatura-nigeria.org.
iv. ACTION AID INTERNATIONAL NIGERIA
Activities: Reproductive and Sexual Health and Rights
(HIV/AIDs); Education, Human security in conflict and
Emergencies and the integrated partnerships against
poverty etc.
Address: NAIC House, Plot 590 Cadastral Zone, Central
Business District, PMB 1890, Garki, Abuja.
Phone: +234 9627 0480/2, 4618655; Fax: +2349
4618656
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.actionaid-nigeria.org.
26
v. World Scholarship and Career Helpers
Activities: Free training for young people in computer
studies for poverty eradication.
Address: 18 Karimu Street, Surulere Lagos
Phone: +234(0) 80 62685918
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.wscareerhelp.org.
vi. Nigeria Health Care
Activities: Welsey Guild Charity Supporting Health
Care and Primary Care Facilities in Rural Areas
Website: www.nhcp.org.uk.
vii People to People International – Nigeria
Activities: PTPI is about people meeting people to
enhance international understanding and friendship
website: www.peopletopeople.org.ng.
1.10 DEFINITION OF TERMS
It is important that we define some concepts that shall
be used in the course of this research since their
clarification is vital to the understanding of the ideas we
wish to put across. It must however be admitted that
concepts in the Social Sciences do not lend themselves to
easy definition; this handicap nevertheless, should not deter
us from attempting working definitions of some of those
27
concepts to be most commonly used in the course of this
research since an understanding of them is essential for the
understanding of the research findings. Such concepts as
Poverty, Poverty Alleviation, Rural Areas and Small Scale
Enterprises shall be frequently used in the course of this
research.
(i) Poverty
What in real terms does poverty mean? We must
confess that a precise definition of the term is highly elusive,
the 1999 United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
report confesses as much. The criteria for identifying poverty
vary from society to society. For example, a person who
earns $14.40 per day In the United States of America is
categorized as poor while a person who earns as much in
Sub-Saharan Africa is deemed well-paid, since an
overwhelming majority of people in that part of world earn
not more than $1 per day; so, a family described as poor in
the United States of America may be better off than many
middle class families in sub-Saharan African. From the
foregoing, we can conclude that income may not be the sole
criterion for identifying and defining poverty.
What then is poverty? Poverty simply put, is that
condition which denies any person easy access to most of
the things that make life comfortable. This definition is of
course not perfect. For example, an American family many
have access to decent accommodation (by African
28
standards), telephone services, television set and other
electronic gadgets and still be described as poor, while in
Nigeria ere mention of the world ―poor‖ evokes imagery of
hunger, want and decrepitude.
Despite our inadequacy in defining poverty, it must be
stressed that we can at least identify one denominator
common with poverty anywhere in the world. This common
denominator is the world ―deprivation‖ For a person a family
to be described as poor whether in Africa, Nigeria or any
other part of the world, such a person or family must have
been deprived of some things that better off members of the
society posses. This assertion is in line with Professor
Adedeji’s attempt to define poverty. Professor Adedeji former
Executive Secretary, Economic Commission for African
defines poverty as, ―A generic word that covers various
deprivations. It could manifest either as physiological
deprivation, social deprivation and human freedom
deprivation‖.
(ii) Poverty Alleviation
To alleviate means to minimize or reduce the impact of
a negative condition. Poverty alleviation refers to any
conscious effort aimed at minimizing the impact and
incidence of poverty in the society. Poverty alleviation is
distinct from poverty eradication, for while the former
implies minimizing the incidence and gravity of poverty, the
latter implies total elimination of the condition. In this
29
project, the term ―poverty alleviation‖ shall be preferred to
―poverty eradication‖ because the former is a more realistic
concept than the latter since no nation in the world, (not
even the most developed one), has eradicate poverty. Poverty
can only be alleviated; it can never be eradicated.
Nigeria, as part of the international community, is
committed to achieving the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) including the commitment of halve poverty by 2005:
It is a known fact that in Nigeria, large numbers of the poor
are trapped in chronic, long term poverty that is transmitted
from generation to generation and if efforts are not
intensified to reduce the number of people in the poverty
level Nigeria will not be on track to achieving the MDGs.
(iii) Rural Area
In the Nigerian context the term ―Rural Area‖ is used to
categorize those areas usually located in the hinterland and
lacking most of the social amenities that are taken or
granted in the cities and towns. However, an area can have
electricity and pipe borne water and still be categorized as
―rural‖. This goes on to show that the presence of amenities
is not the sole criterion for distinguishing urban from rural
areas. One incontestable feature of a rural area however, is
that it is often agrarian and the population, homogeneous.
Similarly the literacy level in rural areas is far below what
obtains in the urban areas. It can safely be asserted
30
therefore that the concept rural area connotes limited
availability of social infrastructure, agrarian economy, low
level of literacy and a considerable degree of homogeneity.
(iv) Small Scale Enterprises
This refers to those types of business that do not
require large capital outlay. In the course of this research,
emphasis shall be placed on how to enhance the role of
small scale enterprises especially such areas as food
processing, weaving, farming, pottery and fishers among
others in the alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria.
31
REFERENCES
Aworaro, D. (2004), ―The Impact of Rural Economy of the
Niger Delta in Oshintokun‖ A, (eds.); Environmental
Problems of the Niger Delta, Frederick Eberth
Foundations, Pp. 150
Carney, D. (1999), ―Approaches to sustainable Livelihood for
the Rural Poor‖ London, Overseas Development
Institute (ODI), Pp. 10 -11
Cox, A. (1998), ―Promises to the Poor: The Record of
European Development Agencies‖. London, Overseas
Development Institute (ODI) Pp.43- 46
Donaldson, F. (1987), ―The British Council: The First 50
Years‖ 1934 – 1984, London. Janthan Cape
Publishers, Vol.12, No 2. Pp. 11-16
Ekuerhare, B. U. (1992), ―Technology and Economic
Development in Nigeria in Uya‖ O. (Ed) Contemporary
Nigeria, Buenos Aires Edipubil S. A. Pp. 78.
Flasket, M. M. (1994), ―Women In Binary Economy 1800-
1900 In Ogunremi‖ (eds.) Badagry: A study In History,
Culture And Traditions of An Ancient City, Ibadan, Rex
Charles publications, Pp. 154-161
32
Gavin and Oyemakinde, (1980), ―Economic Developments In
Nigeria Since 1800‖, in Yakima Obaro (eds.)
Groundwork of Nigeria History, Ibadan, Heinemann
Educational Books, Pp. 482
Healey, J. (2000), ―Toward National Expenditure Strategy for
Poverty Reduction‖, London, Overseas Development
Institute (ODI) Pp. 19-23
Ifaturoti, T. O. (1997), ―The role of Nigeria Women in the
Management of Land Agriculture and Water
Resources in Rural Area A legal Perspective in
Oshintokun‖. A (eds.) Current Issues In Nigeria
Environment, Ibadan, Davidson Press. Pp. 127
Ikpe, E. B. (1997), ―The Role of Nigeria Women in National
Development‖ in Oshintokun & Olukoju (eds.);
Nigerian Peoples and Cultures, Ibadan, Davidson
Press, Pp. 246
Killick, T. (1991), ―Making Adjustment Work for the Poor‖,
London Overseas Development Institute (ODI) Pp. 12-
17
Kwanashie, G. A. (1980), ―The Peasantry‖, in Usman Y. B
(eds.): Nigeria Since Independence The First 25 Years
Vol: 1, No 4, The Society, Ibadan, Heinemann
Educational Books, pp 482
33
Maxwell, S. (1999), ―The Meaning and Measurement of
Poverty‖, London, Overseas Development Institute
(CDI), Pp. 23- 41
UNDP, (1998), Overcoming Human Poverty, New York,
United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) Project
Report, Pp. 16
White, L. C. (1968), International Non-government
Organizations, New York, Greenwood Press
Publishers, Pp. ix .
34
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Poverty Situation in Nigeria: Poverty is the worst malaise
to the society. It was initially defined in terms of lack of
income either in money or kind necessary to ensure access
to set of basic needs, but with the passage of time, the
concept of poverty was redefined to mean not only the lack
of income but also the lack of access to health, education
and other services.
This research effort is premised on the following
theories
1. Decision making Theory
2. System Theory
1. Decision Making Theory
Pioneered by Richard Snyder and his colleagues at
Princeton University after the Second World War, the
Decision Making Theory is based on the following
assumptions.
i. All political actions are undertaken by concrete
human beings
ii. To understand any policy decision, one should
view the decision not solely from one’s point of
35
view but also from the perspective of those taking
the decision
iii. That to understand any political action, one
should try and understand the background and
character of individuals behind the action. In
other words, the psychological, economic and
social background of any decision maker, affects
the decisions made.
Snyder used his System Theory to analyze
international relations, arguing that to understand the
dynamics of relations among sovereign states, the
psychological and social make-up of the prominent actors
have to be understood. Arguing that internal and external
factors influence decision makers, Snyder and his colleagues
recommend that these factors have to be understood before
one can satisfactory analyze decisions taken in domestic and
international politics.
In summary, Decision making theory holds that state
action is dependent upon decision making process within
the prevailing environment and the perceptions and
personalities of decision makers. This implies that the focus
of the analysis is on the same propel, the elite group
engaged in decision making and that it is through this we
can understand the entire decision making process.
Based on the decision making theory, it may be argued
that the seeming failure of rural poverty alleviation efforts in
36
Nigeria is partly due to the detachment or de-linking of
decision makers from rural areas. Most public decision
makers in Nigeria are based in urban areas and have access
to modern amenities these factors weaken their resolve to
rural poverty. Similarly, the insensitivity and outright
corruption on the part of decision makers impact negatively
on poverty alleviation efforts. For example, some
administrators embezzle and misappropriate donations
made by multinational agencies towards poverty alleviation.
2. System Theory
This theory views every society as being made up of
various systems of which politics is one. The political system
however, is influenced by other systems in the society; based
on this, Systems Theorists argue that many factors
influence the political system since all systems are
interrelated. In other others economic, sociological and
moral factors affect the workings of any political system.
System theorist views the political system as the most
important of al system in the society because it performs the
all important role of authoritative allocation of scarce values
in the society.
The two most important proponents of the Systems
Theory include David Eastern and Gabriel Almond. Easton
in A Framework for Political Analysis (1965) argues that the
System Theory is based on the idea of political life as a
37
boundary maintaining a set of interactions embedded in and
surrounded by other social system which constantly
influences it. Political interactions, according to Easton, can
be distinguished form other kinds of interaction by the fact
that they (political interactions) are oriented principally
towards the authoritative allocation of values in the society.
Almond on the other hand, sees political system as a system
as a system of interactions to be found in all impendent
societies which perform the function of integration and
adaptation. Similarly System Theorist argue that the extent
to which the political system performs the traditional roles of
value allocation by addressing demands placed on it
determines the extent it can attract the much needed
support.
Based on the arguments of the system theorists, it
maybe argued that the stability of the Nigeria polity is linked
to the economy. In other words, the success of the current
political dispensation would largely depend on the success
of poverty alleviation efforts of government and non-
governmental organizations within the Nigerian society as
alleviating poverty, especially rural poverty would attract
much needed support for the political system. Similarly, in
view of the interrelationship between the political system
and other systems, it may be argued that political stability
in Nigeria would encourage economic development which
would in turn boost poverty-alleviation efforts; political
38
stability could also encourage the continued involvement of
non-profit multinational organizations in the Nigeria Poverty
alleviation efforts.
Table 2.1: Nigerian Human Development Report 2009
Measurement of Poverty
Measure Components
1. Human Development Index Life expectancy at birth, adult
literacy, educational
enrollment, GDP per-capital
2.Gender-related development
Index
As above adjusted to gender
differences
3.Gender employment female
measures
Seats in parliament need by
women, Professional and
technical works, women’s
share of earned income.
4. Human poverty index
(development countries) (HP-1)
People not expected to survive
to 40, illiteracy, access to safe
water, aces to safe water,
access to health services,
underweight children.
5. Human poverty index
(developed countries) (HP 12)
People not expected to survive
to 60, function illiteracy,
population below mean
income, long term
unemployment.
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009).
39
Mr. Maxwell’s article is very useful to our research if
one considers that the table above has shown that measures
of poverty vary from region to region to region. For example
the table reveals that the developed countries of the world
have a higher standard for measuring poverty than the
developing ones. Similarly, his article ahs confirmed our
assertion that many factors and not just income, serve as
measures of poverty.
Diana Carney in ―Approaches to Sustainable
Livelihoods for the Rural Poor‖ addresses as the impacts and
prospects of the ―Livelihoods Approach‖ to rural poverty. The
livelihood approach, in the words of Carney ―work with
people, supporting them to build upon their own strength
and realize their potential, while at the same time
acknowledging the effects of polices and institutions,
external shocks and trends. In other words, the livelihood
approach places emphasis on self-reliance, which is helping
the poor to help themselves. Carney goes on to argue that
though desirable, the approach faces some obstacles such
as.
The need for the approach to prove its
practicability without which it would not be
compelling
Problem of food security which leaves over 850
million people undernourished across the world.
Resource degradation in the rural areas
40
Inability to address the problem of distribution of
resources
For the purpose of this research, Carney’s work would
help us appreciate the need to encourage self-reliance in
poverty alleviation efforts rather than throw handouts at the
poor. Similarly, by identifying the problems confronting this
―Livelihood Approach‖, she offers poverty alleviation agencies
the opportunity to tackle such problems before adopting
that approach.
Cox and Healey (1998) examine the role of European
Development Agencies in the alleviation of poverty in
developing countries. In Promises to the Poor: The Record of
European Development Agencies, the authors argue that
developing countries have not provided enough support for
the efforts of these agencies geared at helping to alleviate
poverty. In their countries in the words of the authors:
―Few developing country governments have developed a
poor strategy of their own which donors can buy into‖. This
disturbing observation brings to the fore, the need for
developing country governments to increase their level of
cooperation with foreign-owned poverty alleviation agencies.
Cox and Healey identify the following as additional
challenges confronting European Development agencies in
their poverty alleviation efforts.
The need to involve the poor in the design and
execution of poverty alleviation projects
The need for more funding
41
The need to monitors the actual result of poverty
alleviation efforts.
The utility of this article to our project would be
discerned if one realizes that the job of poverty alleviation as
stated in the proposal should far from being a one sided
affair, be a trilateral coalition between poverty alleviation
agencies, the government and the poor themselves.
Killick (1999) argues that the structural Adjustment
Programme (SAP) adopted by many developing countries in
the 1980s as panacea to economic recession and consequent
poverty has not borne the derived fruits. In Making
Adjustment work for the Poor identifies the various ways
SAP has failed to tackle the problem of poverty in the
developing countries of the world. First, he points out that
implementation problems undermine the ability of SAP to
achieve the expected results. Again, Killick points out that
adjustment polices have done little to address the problem of
economic inequalities in the developing world12. The author
further notes that safety nets created to cushion the effects
of poverty on the poor have not yielded the desired results.
Finally, Killick points out the political realties in
developing countries do not favour the poor while many
governments are reluctant to give priority to poverty
alleviation. He alleges that those at the top echelon of power
who benefit from the status quo use their influence to block
reform.
42
Killick’s article would help as appreciate how by
exhibiting greater political commitment, governments of
developing countries can help alleviate the poverty of their
peoples. Similarly, his work lays bare the failure of SAP to
deliver developing countries out of the economy doldrums in
which they have found themselves.
To “Towards National Public Expenditure Strategies
for Poverty reduction” Healey et al argue that Highly
Indebted Poor Countries (HIPCS) should imbibe the culture
of budgetary discipline for their poverty reduction efforts to
stand any chance of success. The authors recommend that
public spending should be more effectively monitored to
ensure that public services actually get to the intended
beneficiaries. Healey and his colleagues made the following
recommendation on how public spending can help alleviate
poverty.
Promotion of accountability in public spending
Discovery of mechanisms for directly empowering
the poor.
Those creditors should make debt forgiveness of
highly indebted poor countries (HIPCS) conditional
on institutional and policy changes.
Provision of more predictable, medium term
financial support for domestic budgets.
43
Reduction in infant mortality and provision of
improved health and education services for the
poverty groups.
This article raises some issues germane to our projects.
For example the authors tie the success of poverty
alleviation efforts in developing countries to budgetary
discipline and accountability. There is no gain saying the
fact that corruption and budgetary indiscipline constitute
obstacles to for poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
Similarly, the authors go beyond income in recommending
poverty alleviation measures. For example they advise that
improvement in health and education services would help
reduce poverty among the poorest groups. This tally with
our earlier submission that poverty alleviation efforts should
not be limited to income.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)
poverty report titled. Overcoming Human Poverty (1998)
avails the readers of explications of various types of poverty.
These include.
1. Human Poverty: The lack of essential human
capabilities such as being literature or adequately
nourished.
2. Income Poverty: The lack of minimally adequate
income or expenditures
44
3. Overall Poverty: A less severe level of poverty,
usually defined as the inability to satisfy essential
nonfood as well as food needs.
4. Relative Poverty: Poverty defined by standards that
change across countries over times.
5. Extreme Poverty: Indigence or destitution usually
specified as the inability to satisfy even minimum
food needs.
6. Absolute Poverty: This is similar to extreme poverty
except that it is measured by fixed standards.
These distinctions among levels of poverty as provided
by the UNDP would help policy formulators, Non-
governmental organizations and researchers in their poverty
alleviation efforts by enabling them know what aspect of
poverty to tackle at a time or whether to address all aspect
at the same time.
Aworawo (2000) holds environmental pollution largely
responsible for the economic backwardness and poverty of
the rural Niger Delta area of Nigeria. In The Impact of
Environment Degradation on the Rural Economy of the
Nigeria Delta, he remakes that the establishment of
industries and commencement of oil exploration in the
1950s signaled the commencement of extensive
environmental pollution which has proved to be of
disastrous consequences for that regions’ economy. He
points out that oil exploration actives such as shooting of
45
seismic lines, coupled with oil spillage has rendered many
large tracts of Delta Farmland useless in addition to
contaminating its waters. This situation has naturally led to
the perpetuation of poverty in this part of Nigeria where
fishing and farming provide Livelihood for 65% of the
population.
Aworawo’s article would help us appreciate the
important role non-governmental, governmental and non-
profit multinational organisations would have to play in
arresting the trend of environmental pollution in the Niger
Delta. By linking the poverty and underdevelopment of rural
Nigeria Delta to environmental degradation his theses would
assist NGOs and non-profit multinational organizations in
packaging poverty alleviation programmes for the Niger
Delta and other parts of Nigeria.
Dr. Eno Blackson Ikpe takes a historical look at the
contributions of Nigerian women to national development.
Her thesis, the Role of Women in National Development
assesses the contributions of Nigeria women to the
advancement of the pre-colonial, colonial and independent
societies. She remarks that in Hausa land of the pre-colonial
era, many women emerged who played vital roles in the
development of their various societies. According to her,
Bakwa Turunku, the first Saraunyia of Zaria was famous for
her contributions to the political and agricultural
development of ancient Zaria. She adds that Bakwa
46
Turnku’s daughter and successors, Queen Amina made even
greater contributions. Ikpe further remakes that in the
western part of present day Nigeria. During the pre-colonial
period, female Obas in Kingdoms like Oyo, Sabe and Ijesha
contributed greatly to the economic and political
advancement of their respective communities. She adds that
in Ibo speaking areas of present-day Delta State, the Omus
or female leaders played similar roles. One of the most
prominent of these was Omu Nwagboka of Onitsha who
fought to promote the interest of market women in her area.
Ikpe further argues that although colonial master
treated women as if they were invisible, the colonial era still
witnessed the emergence of prominent women who
contributed to the development of the country. Some of
these women include Mrs. Funmilayo Ransom Kuti of
Abeokuta and Margaret Ekpo of Calabar.
The author concludes her thesis by enumerating the
challenges facing the Nigeria women of the post-colonial
period. Some of these challenges she identifies as the social
dislocation caused by the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970),
the devastating Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) of
the Babangida administration which led to many women
being laid off their jobs, divorce laws that tilt against women
and the practice of early exposing them to the disease
known as Vesito Vaginal Fistula (VVF) among other
obstacles.
47
Ikpe’s work would enable us situate within a historical
context the role in Nigerian women in national development
especially in the area of poverty alleviation efforts is a sine-
qua non for success.
M. M. Fasake in Women in Badagry Economy 1800-
1999 argues that since the pre-colonial era, women have
always played a vital role in the economy of Badagry area of
Lagos State. He further asserts that the influence of women
in agriculture has always been substantial, with farming
being joint enterprises between spouses. While the men
cleared the land, turned the soil and planted the seed, the
women did more of harvesting, processing and marketing.
Fasake remarks that in the manufacturing sector, Badagry
women have also been highly visible especially in such areas
as mat making indigo making and raffia cutting. Badagry
women, he further points out, have always dominated the
commercial life of that community.
Fasake’s thesis further underlines the importance of
women in poverty alleviation efforts. Specifically, his
emphasis on agriculture is very relevant to our research if
one considers the fact that one can not divorce agriculture
from any serious poverty alleviation efforts. Similarly,
Fasake’s account of women’s role in such activities as raffia-
making is very important if one recalls that in the definition
of concepts, it was pointed out that small scale industries
would play a major role in poverty alleviation. Ndigo making,
48
mat-making and raffia-cutting all fall within small scale
enterprises. Fasake’s thesis on how women through small
scale enterprise played important roles in Badagry’s
economy would how help us appreciate the role of small
scale industries in the alleviation of rural poverty.
Mrs. T. 0. Ifaturoti examines the position of Nigeria
women when it comes to land ownership. In her thesis, The
Role of Nigerian Women In The Management Of Land
Agricultural And Water Resources In Rural Areas: A Legal
Perspective. She reviews the positions of Statutory, Islamic
and Customary laws on Women’s access to land and
concludes that most of these laws discriminate against
women, pointing out that in most communities, women are
seen as property of men. She further identifies some of the
obstacles that limit rural women’s control and management
of land and related resources. Some of these obstacles
include lack of adequate legal access to land, poverty, lack of
power and leadership, lack of educational opportunities,
unavailability of economic opportunities and poor condition
of health and social infrastructure. To rectify the
aforementioned problems, Mrs. Ifaturoti recommends a
review of those sections of the Land use Act the discriminate
against women. She equally advises policy makers to take
rural women into consideration in formulating policies,
stating also that the problem of poverty has to he addressed.
Ifaturoh’s work would be very useful to our research in
49
many regards. For example, she has succeeded is drawing
our attention to how the lot of rural women can be improved
through legal intervention. If the Land Use Act which the
author alleges in unfair to women is amended the result
could be easier access to land for women who would in the
long run enhance their capacity to contribute to poverty
alleviation efforts especially in agrarian rural areas where
land ownership plays a very clinical role in economic
activities. Similarly, Mrs. Ifaturoti’s entreaty that the
problem of poverty has to be addressed if the lot of rural
women is to improve is a very good justification for this
project’s emphasis on poverty alleviation.
George A. Kwanashie holds colonialism partly
accountable for the backwardness of the Nigerian rural
economy. In The Peasantry he recounts that the colonialists
encouraged the production of cash crops in the rural areas
to the detriment of food crops. He argues further that
political and administrative structures were put in place by
the colonial masters to ensure the subordination and control
of the rural population of Nigeria31. The rural areas were
according to Kwanashie, exploited through marketing
boards set up by the colonialists. The industrialization of the
rural areas was therefore seriously undermined as these
areas became exporters of raw materials and consumers of
manufactured products. The author further identifies high
50
cost of labour and lack of easy access to farm imputes as
other problems inhibiting rural economic development.
Kwanashie’s work would help us understand the origin
of the backwardness of the Nigerian rural economy. There is
no gainsaying the fact that this backwardness is largely
responsible for the scourge of rural poverty. Negative
colonial economic policies which placed emphasis on
cash crops to the determinant of food crops have become of
long lasting disadvantage for Nigeria’s economy.
Kwanashie’s submissions would be very useful to this
project especially the last chapter in which the researcher
will seek to proffer suggestions on how to reverse the trend
of rural poverty. For example, based on the work’ in review,
one would advise NGOs and non-profit multinational
organizations to encourage the production of food crops in
rural areas as part of their poverty alleviation efforts for any
genuine poverty alleviation effort should start with the
stomach
Gavin and Oyemakinde examine the economic progress
of Nigeria from the pre-colonial period to the closing decades
of the twentieth century. In ―Economic Development in
Nigeria Since 1800‖ They identify cattle epidemics, draughts
and locust invasions as some of the problems that the
Nigerian agricultural sector has always had to grapple with
since the period under study. The authors similarly remark
51
that economic attractions of the cities drew many able
bodied men out of the rural areas.33
Gavin and Oyamakinde’s work touches on two issues
relevant to the subject of poverty alleviation. First, the
writers have identified the problems conforming rural
agriculture. Secondly, they have correctly identified rural
urban migration as a negative phenomenon which has
deleted the agrarian rural areas of much needed able bodied
youths. By raising these two important issues, the author’s
work would help the researcher proffer advice on how non-
governmental and non-profit multinational organizations
can combat the effect of natural disasters in rural areas with
a view to stemming the rural urban drift.
Professor Bright Ekuerhare argues that technological
advancement is prerequisite for economic development. In
his publication, ―Technology and Economic Development In
Nigeria‖. He posits that the widening economic gap between
the developed and developing countries of the world is
mainly due to the technological superiority of the former
over the latter. He further assesses efforts made by the
Federal Government of Nigeria in promoting technological
development with a view to achieving economic development
and poverty alleviation. The Federal Government according
to Ekuerahare, set up the Directorate of Food, Road and
Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI) and National Economic
Recovery Fund (NERF) with a view to opening up the rural
52
areas towards achieving economic recovery for the country.
Research institutes, according to the author, have also been
set up. He further identifies inadequate financial subvention
as a major obstacle militating against these research
institutes, arguing that financial institutions should do more
to assist them with loans.
Ekuehare’s article is in many ways relevant to our
research efforts. For example, his argument that
technological advancement is essential for economic
development would help us appreciate the important role
technology could play in rural poverty alleviation. For
example, poverty alleviation organizations by funding the
mass-production of such items as cassava-grinding
machines, yam pounding machines and melon husking
machines would boost rural small-scale industries which
would ultimately help in the alleviation of rural poverty.
Similarly, the author’s recommendation that research
institutes should be assisted with soft loans is an advice any
non-governmental and non-profit multinational organization
interested in poverty alleviation would find useful since the
role of research institutes in boasting agriculture can not be
over-emphasized.
International Non-Governmental Organizations a well
researched book authored by Lyman Cromwell White with
the assistance of Marie Argonaut Zocca offers illuminating
insights into the workings of multinational nongovernmental
53
and intergovernmental organizations. A review of this book
would reveal how germane his work is to our research effort.
White (1968), in attempt to conceptualize the term
international non-governmental organizations (NGOs) avails
the reader of a definition given by Economic and Social
Council of the United Nations:
―International non-governmental organization is any
international organization which is not established by an
agreement among governments. The author subsequently
divides the work into three parts. Part one examines the role
of Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) in world affairs.
According to White, NGOs serve as agents of international
understanding since most of them strengthen bonds of
friendship and encourage better international co-operation.
The author further asserts that NGOs promote research into
many areas of human knowledge with a view to promoting
global understanding. Similarly, Mr. White states that NGOs
serve as moulders of public opinion by holding congresses
through which members articulate common opinions on
issues of public interest across national boundaries. In the
concluding part of part I white submits that NGOs also serve
as pressure groups by bringing moral pressure to bear on
governments over certain issues. He cites the crucial role
played by an NGOs, institute de droit International in the
success of The Hague Peace conferences.
54
From the above it could be stated that Mr. White’s
work apart from providing us a conceptualization of the term
―NGOs‖ also recalls the clout wielded by these organizations.
Drawing from his effort one can say that NGOs can bring
their influence as moulders of public opinion and pressure
groups to bear on governments especially those of third
world countries in order to ensure that policy formulation
and execution process favours poverty alleviation efforts.
Part II of Mr. White’s work which examines the
contributions of NGOs in certain fields of human endeavour
is also very useful for our research. Although the author
examines such fields as Business and Finance, Labour,
Agriculture, Religion etc, the field of agriculture is most
relevant or our research because on inseparable nexus exists
between agriculture and poverty alleviation. He cites such
NGOs as World Poultry Science Association (WPA),
International Breeding Federation (IBF) International
Federation of European Beet Growers (IFEBG) and
International Federation of Olive Growers (IGOG) as
examples of organizations that have contributed to the
development and growth of their respective fields of
agriculture. White’s effort would help us appreciate how
NGOs can assist in Nigeria’s rural poverty alleviation efforts.
For example, the World Poultry Science Association (WPSA)
can assist the Federal Government to set up small scale
poultries for rural areas.
55
Finally, White’s discussion of the relationship between
NGOs and intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) would
help us appreciate how the two bodies can work hand in
hand with each other on one hand and with.
2.2 EMPIRICAL REVIEW
Non-Governmental and Non-profit multinational
organizations have a relatively long history of operations in
Nigeria. However, the involvement of these organizations in
poverty alleviation in Nigeria has a relatively, short history
for although Nigeria has traditionally been an
underdeveloped country, it is only of recent that poverty as a
phenomenon became topical in our national discourse.
The frequency with which poverty alleviation is
discussed these days is largely borne out of the fact that
Nigeria in the last two decades of the recently concluded
century witnessed a serious economic downturn which
manifested in increasing rate of mass-pauperizations.
Between 1980 and 1996, the percentage of the poor in
Nigeria witnessed a sharp increase from 28.1% to 65.6% as
the following table shows.
Table 2.3.1: Nigeria Trend In Poverty Level: 1980-96 (in %)
Year Poverty Level Estimated total pop Population
in poverty
1980 281% 65m 17.7m
1985 46.3% 75m 34.7m
1992 42.7% 91.5m 39.2m
Source: Federal Office or Statistics.
56
Since 1996 when these statistics were compiled, the
situation rather than improve, has got even worse. For
example the year 2000 World Bank Atlas ranks Nigeria as
the 12th poorest country in the world. The 1998 edition of
the same publication had ranked the country 2lst on scale
of poverty. This implies that within two years Nigeria was
―promoted‖ from the 21st to the 12th poorest country in the
world. This development is alarming considering the fact
that Nigeria is the sixth largest producer of oil in the world.
This raises the question of what makes Nigeria so poor in
the midst of plenty, a question that shall be tackled in
another chapter of the project. Suffice it to sat that growing
poverty in Nigeria has many unsavoury consequences some
of which include hunger, malnutrition, dilapidated
infrastructure, poor health services and high
unemployment. Today poverty is written all over the face of
most Nigerians, a situation that threatens the very fabric of
the nation. It is in realization of the dangers posed by
poverty in Nigeria that some non-governmental and non-
profit organizations emerged to tackle poverty in the
country. In this chapter we shall examine a handful of them.
57
Table 2.3.2: Depth and Severity of Poverty%
Year Depth Severity
1980 .160 .080
1985 .352 .169
1992 .384 .202
1996 .358 .207
Source: FOS Poverty Profile for Nigeria 1980-1996.
Other assessment of poverty also showed a deplorable
situation.
The Human Development Index (HDI) for Nigeria was
44.8% in 2006 rating the country among the 32 poorest
nations in Africa (UNDP 2006).
Additional data from NBS (2004) further indicate that
life expectancy for Nigeria was 43.4% years; literacy rate was
67% (2003), while 70% of the rural population lacks effective
access to safe drinking water and sanitation. Also health
care facilities and other social infrastructure facilities like
good roads and electricity are either lacking or have gone
comatose. Indeed, the picture painted by the above
mentioned NBS figures and HDI of the United Nations
present an ominous situation which requires urgent
attention (Kapolei 2007:10). Kpkakol (Ibid) enumerated some
of the causative factors identified for the ominous situation
to include bad governance, corruption, debt burden, low
productivity, unemployment, conflicts, macro economic
distortions, effects of globalization, high and uncontrolled
58
population growth rate, poor human resource development
and polices of social exclusion, among others.
2.3 THE HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX- GOING BEYOND INCOME
Each year since 1990 the Human Development Report
has published the human development index (HDI) which
looks beyond GDP to a broader definition of well- being.
The HDI provides a composite measure of three
dimensions of human development: living a long and healthy
life (measured by life expectancy), being educated (measured
by adult literacy and gross enrolment in education) and
having a decent standard of living (measured by purchasing
power parity, PPP, income). The index is not in any sense a
comprehensive measure of human development, It does not,
for example, include important indicators
such as gender or income inequality nor more difficult to
measure concepts like respect for human rights and political
freedoms. What it does provide is a broadened prism for
viewing human progress and the complex relationship
between income and well-being.
Of the components of the HDI, only income and gross
enrolment are somewhat responsive to short term policy
changes. For that reason, it is important to examine changes
in the human development index over time. The human
development index trends tell an important story in that
respect. Between 1990 and 2007 Nigeria’s HDI rose by
59
0.91% annually from 0.438 to 0.511 today. HDI scores in all
regions have increased progressively over the years (Figure
1) although all have experienced periods of slower growth or
even reversals.
Figure 2.1: HDI Trends
Source: indicator table G of the Human Development Report
2009.
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
HDI
OECD
CEE and CIS
Latin America and Caribbean
East Asia and Pacific Arab
states
South Asia Sub-Saharan
Africa
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
60
This year’s HDI, which refers to 2007, highlights the
very large gasps in wellbeing and life chances that continue
to divide our increasingly interconnected world. The HDI for
Nigeria is 0.511, which gives the country a rank of 158th out
of 182 countries with data (Table 1).
Table 2.1: Nigeria‟s Human Development Index 2007
HDI value
Life expectancy at birth (years)
Adult literacy rate (% ages 15 and above)
Combined gross Enrolment ratio (%)
GDP per capital (PPP US$)
1. Norway (0.971) 156.
1. Japan (82.7)
1. Georgia (100.0)
1. Australia (114.2)
1. Liechtenstein (85,382)
Lesotho (0.514)
165. Mali (48.1)
110.Lao People’s Democratic Republic (72.7)
148. Bhutan (54.1)
139. Djibouti (2,061)
157. Uganda (0.514)
166. Mozambique
111.Tanzania (United Republic of) (72.3)
149. Togo (53.9) 140.Kyrgyzstan (2,006)
.158. Nigeria (0.511)
167. Nigeria (47.7) 112. Nigeria (72.0)
150.Nigeria (53.0)
141. Nigeria (1,969)
159. Togo (0.499)
168.Congo (Democratic Republic of the) (47.6)
113. Malawi (71.8)
151.Benin (52.4) 142. Mauritania (1,927)
160.Malawi (0.493)
169.Guinea- Bissau (47.5)
114.Madagascar (70.7)
152. Cameroon (52.3)
143. Cambodia (1,802)
182. Niger (0.340)
176.Afghanistan (43.6)
151. Mali (26.2)
177. Djibouti (25.5)
181.Congo (Democratic Republic of the) (298)
Source: Nigeria‟s Human Development Index 2007
61
By looking at some of the most fundamental aspects of
people’s lives and opportunities the HDI provides a much
more complete picture of a country’s development than other
indicators,, such as GDP per capita. Figure 2 illustrates that
countries on the same level of HDI can have very different
levels of income or that countries with similar levels of
income can have very different HDIs.
Figure 2.2: The human development index
Source: Indicator table H of the Human Development Report
2009
Human poverty: focusing on the most deprived in
multiple dimensions of poverty
The HDI measures the average progress of a country in
human development. The Human Poverty Index (HPI-1),
Human Development
Index GDP per capital
PPP Us$
0.60
0.58
0.56
Kenya
0.54
0.52
Nigeria
0.50
0.48
0.46
0.44
2,000
2,900
2,800
1,700
1,600
1,500
1,400
1,300
1,200
1,100
1,000
62
focuses on the proportion of people below certain threshold
levels in each of the dimensions of the human development
index-living a long and healthy life, having access to
education, and a decent standard of living. By looking
beyond income deprivation, the H P1-I represents a multi-
dimensional alternative to the $1.25 a day (PPP US$) poverty
measure.
The HPI-1 value of 36.2% for Nigeria, ranks 114th
among 35 countries for which the index has been
calculated.
The HPI-1 measures severe deprivation in health by the
proportion of people who are not expected to survive to age
40. Education is measured by the adult illiteracy rate. And a
decent standard of living is measured by the unweighted
average of people not using an improved water source and
the proportion of children under age 5 who are underweight
for heir age. Table 2 shows the values for these variables for
Nigeria and compares them to other countries.
63
Table 2.2: Selected Indicators of human poverty for
Nigeria
Human Poverty
Index
(HPI-l)
Probability of
not surviving
to age 40 (%)
Adult literacy
rate
(%ages 15 and
above)
People not
using an
improved water
source (%)
Children
underweight for age
(% aged under5
1.Czech Republic (1.5)
1.Hong Kong, China
(SAR) (1.4)
1.GeorgIa (0.0) 1.Barbados (0) 1.Croatia (1)
112.
Bangladesh
(36.1)
144.Congo
(Democratic
Republic of)
(37.3)
110. Lao
People’s
Democratic
Republic of
(37.3)
140.Chad (52) 109.lndonesia
(28)
113.Madagascar (36.1)
145.Guinea Bissau
(37.4)
111 .Tanzania (United Republic
of) (27.7)
141. Fiji (53) 110.Central African
Republic (29)
114.Nigeria
(36.2)
146. Nigeria
(37.4)
113. Nigeria
(28.0)
142.
Madagascar
(53)
112.Djibouti
(29)
115. Mauritania
(36.2)
147.Angola
(38.5)
113. Malawi
(28.2)
143.Madagascar
(53)
112.Djibouti
(29)
116.Burundi
(36.4)
148.Central African
Republic
39.6)
114.Madagascar
(29.3)
144.Congo (Democratic
Republic of the)
(54)
I 13.Sri Lanka
(29)
135
Afghanistan
(59.8)
153Lesotho
(47.4) 151.Mali (73.8)
150.Afghanistan
(78)
138.Bangladesh
(48)
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
Building the capabilities of women
The HDI measures average achievements in a country,
but it does not incorporate the degree of gender imbalance
in these achievements. The gender related development
index (CDI), introduced in Hurnan Development Report
1995, measures achievements in the same dimensions using
the same indicators as the HDI but captures inequalities in
achievement between women and men. It is simply the HDI
adjusted downward for gender inequality. The greater the
64
gender disparity in basic human development, the lower is a
country’s CDI relative to its HDI.
Nigeria’s CDt value. 0.499 should be compared to its
HDI value of 0.511. Its CDI value is 97.7% of its HDI value.
Out of the 155 countries with both HDI and CDI values, 129
countries have a better ratio than Nigeria’s.
Table 3 shows how Nigeria’s ratio of CDI to HDI compares to
other countries, and also shows its values for selected
underlying indicators in the calculation of the CDI.
Table 2.3: The GDI compared to the HDI-a measure of
gender disparity
CDI as % of
HDI
Life
expectancy at birth (years) 2004 female
as % male
Adult literacy rate (% ages 15 and
older) 2004 Female as % male
Combined primary
secondary and tertiary gross enrolment ratio
2004
1.Mongolia (100.0%)
1.Russian Federation
(121.7%)
1.Lesotho (1 22.5%) 1.Cuba (121.0%)
128.Lebanon (97.7%)
181.Zambia (102.3%)
107.Ghana (81.3%)
153.Lao People’s
Democratic Republic (83.8%)
129.Oman (97.7%)
182.Cameroon 108.Uganda (80.1%)
154.Tajikistan (83.7%)
130. Nigeria (97.7%)
183.Nigeria (102.1%)
109.Nigeria (80.0%) 155.Nigeria (83.0%)
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
65
Table 2.4: Emigrants
131.Kuwait
(97.4%)
184 Uganda
(102.0%)
110.Tunisia
(79.9%)
156.Equatorial
Guinea (81.8%)
132.Austria
(97.4%)
185.Nepa
(101.9%)
111Congo
(79.2%)
157Ethiopia
(81.6%)
155.
Afghanistan
(88.0%)
1.90.
Swaziland
(98.0%)
I.45.
Afghanistan
(29.2%)
I75.Afghanistan
(55.6%)
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
Migration
Every year, millions of people cross national or
international boarders seeking better living standards. Most
migrants, internal and international reap gains in the form
of higher incomes, better access to education and health,
and improved prospects for their children. Most of the
world’s 195 million international migrants have moved from
one developing country to another or between development
countries.
Nigeria has an emigration rate of 0.8%. The major
continent of destination for migrants from Nigeria is Africa
with 62.3% emigrants living there.
66
Table 2.5: Emigrants
Origin of migrants Emigration
rate (%)
Major continent
of destination for
migrants
(%)
1. Antigua and Barbuda 45.3 Asia 46.6
10.Cape Verde 30.5 Europe 49.1
166. Madagascar 0.9 Europe 65.8
170 Tanzania (United
Republic of
0.8
Africa 67.5
171. Nigeria 0.8 Africa 62.3
176. Uganda 0.7 Europe 43.9
179. Ethiopia 0.4 Asia 37.5
181. Mongolia 0.3 Europe 40.7
Global
aggregates .
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report
Medium human development 1.9 Asia 43.3
Sub-Saharan African 2.5 Africa 72.7
World 3.0 Europe 33.4
The United States is host to nearly 40 million
international migrants - more than any other country
though as a share of total population it is Qatar which has
the most migrants - more than 4 in every 5 people are
migrants. In Nigeria, there are 972.1 thousand migrants
which represent 0.7% of the total population.
67
Table 2.6: Immigrants
Destination of
migrants
Immigrant
stock
(thousands)
Destination of
migrants
Immigrants
as share of
population
(%) 2005
1.United States 39,266.5 1. Qatar 80.5
18.Cota d’ voire 2,371.3 22. Gabon
149.Congo 17.9
25. Ghana 1,667.3 (Democratic
Republic of the)
0.8
33. South African 1,248.7 150.Ethiopia 0.7
41. Nigeria 972.1 152. Nigeria 0.3
46. Tanzania
(United
Republic of)
797.7
169. Angola 43.9
47. Kenya 790.1 170. Eritrea 0.3
177. Sao Tome and
Principe 5.4
175.
Madagascar 0.2
182. Vanuatu Global
aggregates 1.0 182. China 0.0
Sub- Saharan Africa 15, 567.1 Sub- Saharan
Africa 2.2
Medium human
development 40,948.6
Medium human
development 0.8
World 195,245.4 World 3.0
Source: UNDP Nigeria (2009) HDI Report.
Remittances
Remittances, which are usually sent to immediate
family members who have stayed behind, are among the
most direct benefit from migration; their benefits spread
68
broadly into local economies. They also serve as foreign
exchange earnings for the origin countries of migrants.
However, remittances are unequally distributed. Of the total
US$370 billion remitted in 2007, more than half went to
countries in the medium human development category
against less than one per cent to low human development
countries. In 2007, US$9,221 million in remittances were
sent to Nigeria. Average remittances per person were US$62,
compared with the average for Sub- Saharan African of
US$26. (See Table 6 for more details.)
2.4 GOVERNMENT EFFORTS TOWARDS POVERTY
ALLEVIATION
Programmes such as National Directorate of
Employment (NDE) Primary Health Care (PHC), Directorate
for Road and Rural Infrastructure (DFFRI), Agricultural
Development Programme (ADP), Micro! Macro credit
deliveries etc. were established after 1986 in various sectors
of the economy (Nnebe, 2006:191).
Despite the plethora of poverty alleviation programmes
which past government had initiated and implemented, by
1999 when the Obasanjo administration came to power, a
World Bank’s report indicated that Nigeria’s Human
Development Index (HDI) was only 0.416 and that about 70
percent of the population was vegetating below the bread
line (nigeriafirst.org.2003:14- 25). This alarming indicator
69
prompted the government to review the existing poverty
alleviation schemes with a view to harmonizing them and
improving of them.
In this regard, three presidential panels were set up.
They were the presidential panel on the Rationalization and
Harmonization of Poverty Alleviation and Agencies headed
by. Alhaji Ahmed Joda, Presidential Technical Committee
on, the Review of all Poverty Alleviation Programes headed
by professor Ango Abdullahi and Committee on Youth
Policy, Concept of the Youth’ Empowerment Scheme and the
Blueprint for Poverty Eradication Programme headed by
professor A.B. Aborishade.
The findings and recommendations of these
presidential Panels coalesced in the formation of the
National Poverty Alleviation Programme (NAPEP) in January
2001. (Nigeria First Org 2003) this new scheme was
structured to integrate the following sectoral schemes.
The Youth Employment Scheme (YES) which is
concerned with providing unemployed youth opportunities
in skill acquisition, employment and wealth generation. To
achieve this, the scheme has been further subdivided into
Capital Acquisition Programme (CAP), Mandatory
Attachment Programme (MAP) and Credit Delivery
Programme (CDP).
The Rural Infrastructure Development Scheme (RIDS).
The objective of this scheme is to ensure the provision and
70
development of infrastructure needs in the areas of
transport, energy water and communication especially in
Rural Transport Programme Social Welfare Scheme
(SOWESS) which aims of ensuring the provision of basic
social services including quality primary and special
education, strengthening the economic power of farmers,
providing primary health care, and so on. This third scheme
consists of four broad subcategories which are, the
Qualitative Education Programme, Primary Health Care
Programmes, Farmers Empowerment Programme and Social
Services Programme.
The Resources Development and Conservation
Scheme (RDCS)
The vision of this scheme is to bring about a
participatory and sustainable development of agriculture,
mineral and water recourse through the following
subdivision; Agricultural Resources Programme, Water
Resources Programme, Solid Minerals Resource Programme,
and Environment Protection Programme. (Nigeria First.Org
2006).
With the ambition to wipe to poverty in Nigeria by
2010. National Eradication Programme adopted three main
stages to help achieve their desired tart.
The first stage is the restoration of hope in the mass of
poor people particularly in the rural areas.
71
The second stage is the restoration of economic
independence and confidence.
The final stage is wealth creation (nigeriafirst.org 2003)
In 2004, the Federal Government introduced the
National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy
(NEEDS) which identifies five priority actions areas among
which are:
(i) Wealth creation
(ii) Employment generation
(iii) Poverty alleviation
(iv) Corruption elimination
(v) General value re-orientation.
To actualize this, the programme is extended is
extended to the states and communities and villages levels
under the following captions. Seeds-State Economic
Empowerment which is a community driven development
strategy designed by economic Growth and Development
Centre, adopted by NAPEP to guide economic development.
(NAPEP Facts sheet)
It is a bottom-up approach to community development
where village organize themselves for community
development, with Government providing technical expertise
and analyzing environment.
Among the stake holders are the village’s community,
private investors, I NGOs, Federal, State and Local
72
Government. The VEDS-as a scheme is geared towards
reducing the intergenerational poverty. (NAPEP facts sheet)
The Quick National Employment Generation Survey
(QNEGS) carried out in June, 2006 demonstrated the
present administration’s commitment towards ensuring that
the well articulated economic reform programme, as outline
in the NEEDS document, yields the desired results. It also
reflected the government recognition of the roles of
monitoring and evaluation in successful implementation of
planned programmes and project (Akinyosoye 2006).
To achieve NAPEP objectives, the following schemes were
designed.
1. Multi Partner Micro- Finance Scheme, Which is
Innovative Approach towards Poverty Eradication in
Nigeria.
It is a catalytic instrument of the Federal Government
for generating resources for grassroots activity and mass
participations in economic development process such as
capital formation (savings) and provision of credit facilities to
poor.
The MPMF helps to generate commitment to the
National Economic Empowerment and Development Strategy
(NEEDS) and also help to spur activities leading to poverty
eradication, employment generation, wealth creation and
value reorientation across the country.
73
The objectives among others include the following:
To enlarge the pool of funds available for on leading to
the poor
To co-ordinate the facilitation of access to credit for the
poor
To develop a savings culture among the poor
To strengthen the partnership between the federal
government and other tiers of government in the fight
against poverty.
The scheme involves a Joint Implementation
Committee (JIC) which has membership as follows:
- Federal government (NAPEP)
- State
- CBN
- MEL
- Participating
- Bank
- SMEDAN
- AFAN/Cooperative/other organized groups
- LGA/ALGON Representatives
2. Youth Empowerment Scheme (YES)
Yes is targeted as helping to address the problem of
unemployment among youths of Nigeria through (CAP and
MAP) Capacity Acquisition Programme (CAP) Designed in
such a way to enable youths acquire skills with which they
74
can establish business of their own; with funding being
provided by NAPEP while Mandatory Attachment Programme
(MAP) In this programme, youths are attached to business
and organization to enable them acquire skill and job
experience. Funding is between partner employers and
NAPEP.
3. Capacity Enhancement Scheme (CES).
A scheme designed for the people who have basic
skills, but needed additional resources to avoid poverty and
ensure health e.g. KEKE NAPEP; a three wheel passenger
vehicle. Micro-Credit Programme-Here, assistance is given to
small businesses through the provision of funding for
market and business development; though selected micro
finance institutions and community banks.
Resource centers- These centers will organize will
organize generally information business activities through
the provision of teaches needed to improve productivity such
facilities include technical and financial support.
Demonstration Farms Network - Here, technical and
material support is provided to selected farms across the
country. Owners of big farms make them available as
training facilities for other smaller farmer wishing to
upgrade their skill.
Social Welfare Service - (SOWESS) This Scheme is
designed to provide projects that improves the social and
personal well- being of Nigeria under the Scheme, NAPEP, in
75
collaboration with the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP) and the United Nations Education,
Social and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), has established
several Community Skills Development Centres (CSDC) for
conflict prevention management and skill acquisition.
4. Community Enlightenment and Sensitization Scheme
(COMMESS)
The scheme is a collection of programmes that employ
various media to take the message of modest public support
for self help and active participation in poverty reduction
and wealth creation.
Other activities include Programme for the
Capitalization of Assets of Poor (P-CAP). This is a programme
designed to enhance the ability for poorer Nigerian to access
commercial funds, by legalizing and standardizing their
assets.
The Warm Heart Campaign
A campaign designed to held reach those in extreme
poverty, the so-called poorest of the poor. These segments of
the poor typically have no access to basic necessities like
food, shelter and clothing. The Warm Heart Project would
involve wide ranging collaboration with interested
organizations and individuals to bring immediate relief to
those in extreme poverty and provide a sustainable solution
to their plight.
76
Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs)
These are poverty eradication or welfare programmes in
which cash transfers and made to qualified individuals or
households on the condition that they change their
behaviour in favour of a common good society.
2.5 FORD FOUNDATION
This is one of the most prominent non-profit
organizations engaged in poverty alleviation in Nigeria. The
foundation is a private, non-profit, philanthropic
organization dedicated to world peace and the advancement
of human welfare. The organization was founded in 1936 as
a local philanthropy in Michigan, U.S.A and was expanded
to become an international foundation in 1950. Broadly,
Ford Foundations goals are to:
Strengthen democratic values
Reduce poverty and injustice
Promote international cooperation
Advance human achievement
To execute its programme, the foundation draws from
earnings on an investment portfolio that began with gifts
and bequests of Ford Motor Company by Henry and Edsel
Ford.
Ford Foundation began operations in Nigeria in 1958
when it made grants for training of public service
professionals in the country. The foundation, in the last two
decades, has focused greater attention to community
77
development and poverty alleviation. To actualize its aims,
the Ford Foundation gives financial grants to communities
to enable them embark on projects aimed at improving their
living conditions. The Foundation also supports innovative
community — based projects to preserve and manage
natural resources. Similarly the foundation funds micro-
finance projects for women groups and poor communities
with a view to economically empowering women and the
poor in Nigeria and other poor countries of the world.
Between 1958 and now, the Ford Foundation has funded
over one thousand development projects in Nigeria and other
West African Countries3. In releasing grants for these
projects, the foundation lays emphasis on helping the poor
to help themselves rather than giving them handouts. The
Foundation also assists other non-governmental
organizations dedicated to poverty alleviation.
2.6 FRIEDRICH EBERT FOUNDATION
Another non-governmental organization that plays
important roles in poverty alleviation efforts Nigeria is the
Friedrich Ebert Foundation. The Foundation has a long
history. Its origin dates back to 1925 when Friedrich Ebert,
first President of the first German Republic decided on his
deathbed that donations forwarded towards his funeral
should not be spent on lavish celebration but rather, should
be used as a financial base for a foundation4. The
foundation which now stands in memory of Friedrich Ebert
78
is a private non-profit multinational organization with
branches in one hundred countries of the world including
Nigeria.
The Nigerian office of Friedrich Ebert foundation was
established in 1976. The foundation supports projects aimed
at among other things, encouraging popular participation at
grassroots level towards community development. The
foundation specifically funds projects designed to boost
economic and social development particularly in the rural
areas. Naturally, poverty alleviation in the rural areas is the
cornerstone of the foundation’s community development
efforts.
To execute its poverty alleviation programme in Nigeria,
the foundation promotes small scale enterprises. The
foundation does not give direct financial grants to benefiting
rural communities but works through other NGOs to achieve
its goals. NGOs are assisted to organize workshops,
symposia and conferences on poverty alleviation in
Nigeria/particularly, the rural areas. This year, 2000, one of
such poverty alleviation conferences, sponsored by Friedrich
Ebert Foundation was organized by an NGO in Abuja.
Another method adopted by Friedrich Ebert
Foundation in its poverty alleviation efforts is the
sponsorship of research on rural communities. The aim of
these researches is to assess the living conditions of the
rural folk with a view to proffering solutions on how to
79
improve their long conditions. For example in 1997,
Friedrich Ebert Foundation sponsored research projects on
the living conditions of women in selected rural communities
in Nigeria. These communities include:
Ungwa Na Mae gero, Kaduna State
Birmari Village, Borno State
Omase Village, Anambra State
Uzebu Village, Edo State
Ajaara Village, Oyo State.
In the course of these researches, the role of the family
institution in the alleviation of rural poverty was examined.
The specific roles played by the husband and wife in a
typical rural family were also examined. Obstacles inhibiting
poverty alleviation efforts in rural areas were also identified.
At the end of the research efforts, Friedrich Ebert
Foundation, in conjunction with Goethe institute, Lagos
organized a four-day conference during which each
researcher presented a paper reporting his findings5.
Solutions to problems identified in the course of the
researchers were also proffered.
Before the last decade of the twentieth century, there
were practically no indigenous NGOs devoted too poverty
alleviation in Nigeria. However, the period between 1990 and
2000 witnessed an unprecedented proliferation of non-
governmental organizations devoted to poverty alleviation in
80
Nigeria. These NGOs too many to mention. It should suffice
to examine the historical background of a handful of them.
In this regard, our attention shall be focused on the
following NGOs:
2.7 COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FOUNDATION FATE
FOUNDATION
This non-governmental organization is relatively new
having been founded this year, 2000. This foundation, a
brainchild of Mr. Fola Adeola, Managing Director, Guaranty
Trust Bank GTB aims to tackle poverty by encouraging
entrepreneurship among Nigerians. THISDAY quotes Mr.
Adeola as saying that he is pained when he comes across
qualified people but could not employ them because he
could not just employ every qualified person6. It was the
need to tackle unemployment and mass poverty that made
him to establish the Fate Foundation.
In pursuit of its poverty alleviation efforts, Fate
Foundation has within the short period of its existence
executed some projects. For example in October, 2000 the
foundation organized a human development workshop
entitled: Make Your First Million: Identifying Good Business
Opportunities in Nigeria. In the course of the workshop,
participants were tutored on how to identify and utilize
business opportunities in Nigeria. Dr. Christopher Kola dean
accomplished Manager was drafted to advice participant’s
how to succeed in business ventures. As another
81
contribution to poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria, Fate
Foundation has established the Fate School of
Entrepreneurship where students are equipped with
entrepreneurial skills through a five month programme. At
the end of the programme, participants are given loans
through the Fate loan support scheme to enable them set up
businesses of their own. Fate Foundation also has in place
a service called ―Referral service for Angel Investors and
Venture Capitalists‖ for its outstanding participants while
on internship. Another programme has also been created to
provide short-term positions in successful companies for its
participants who are unemployed. The Foundation also
provides for members of the public a business library,
consultancy services, seminars and publications aimed at
promoting entrepreneurial spirit among Nigerians as an
antidote to poverty. Fate Foundation is surely an ambitious
organization given what is has achieved within its short
lifespan. The organization is poised to achieve more judging
from the words of Miss Ndidi Okonkwo, its coordinator..
“Our vision is to foster the establishment of over
10,000 new businesses by 2005 and 50,000 new
businesses by 2O15”.
If the targets set by the fact foundation are achieved,
the organization would have contributed its fair quota to the
alleviation of poverty in Nigeria through job and wealth
creation.
82
2.8 CENTRES FOR DEVELOPMENT CMC EDUCATION
(CECODEC)
This non-governmental organization was founded in
1997. The organization has its administrative office in Lagos
and operations office in Ogbaru, Anambra State. Its mission
is to challenge poverty, ignorance and social injustice in
Nigeria.
Since its inception three years ago CECODEC has
executed a number of programmes aimed at uplifting the
living conditions of the poor. For example, the organization
has a credit scheme for co-operative societies. At present
120 co-operative societies have been registered with the
NGO. Mr. Michael Opia, Executive Director of the foundation
reveals that of these co-operative societies, 72 have benefited
from the Microcredit project through which loans are given
to farmers, traders and fishermen8. This credit scheme
which started with Ogbaru Local Government Area of
Anambra State has spread to other rural areas of Nigeria.
Broadly speaking, CECODEC’s poverty alleviation
efforts revolve around five programme namely:
i. Micro-credit Generation and Management Projects
ii. Extension Services Projects
iii. Civic And Adult Education For Transformation
Projects
iv. Gender Development Projects
v. Research and Publications.
83
The Micro-credit Generation and Management Project
is designed to empower the rural poor through provision of
credit for their farms as well as co-operative unions and
traders in order to improve their standards of living.
Through its Extension Services Projects, CECODEC
provides presents innovative and environmental friendly
methods of agriculture to farmers. The organization also
provides new improved seeds to local farmers in addition to
carrying out research through which it hopes to improve
local farming practices and encourage use of non-toxic
fertilizers. Similarly, CECODEC through the Extension
Services Projects teaches farmers how to process their
products. The centre also provides outreach programmes for
those who could not complete their formal education.
Through its Civic and Adult Education For
Transformation Projects, CECODEC helps to empower the
poor and uneducated segments of the society. Beneficiaries
of the programme are assisted to actively perform in projects
aimed at uplifting their living standards.
Gender Development Project is another programme
designed to alleviate poverty among women, children and
the disadvantaged of the society. Beneficiaries are
encouraged to actively participate in decisions affecting
them.
Finally, through Research and Publications the centre
executes research projects aimed at boosting poverty
84
alleviation efforts in Nigeria. The centre has so far executed
two research projects culminating in the following
publications:
i. Micro-Credit And Development: Poverty
Alleviation in Nigeria
ii. Federal Government, PAP and Poverty in Nigeria.
Through these publications, the centre aims to identify
problems confronting poverty alleviation in Nigeria with a
view to proffering solutions to such problems.
To fund its programme, Centre For development And
Civic education (CECODEC) gets assistance from Trocaire,
an Irish organization, Catholic Agency for World
Development, also based in Ireland, Westminster
Foundation for Democracy, London and the American
Embassy.
Community Development Foundation (CDF)
This non-governmental, non-profit organization was
founded in June 1993. The foundation aims to alleviate
poverty in Nigeria by encouraging community - based
development efforts. The CDF seeks partnership with
grassroots development organization which engages in self-
help ventures. The foundation helps these communities -
based organizations to obtain funds by linking them with
financial institutions for loan. The foundation also directly
makes grants to grassroots development organizations. As at
September, 2000, the foundation had approved 141 loans
85
valued at N73 million to 82 Micro credit and Micro
enterprise groups in twenty two states of the country.
Similarly, over 154 people from about 64 organizations have
benefited from the foundation’s training programme. These
training programmes are largely aimed at imparting in
beneficiaries self reliance and spirit of entrepreneurship.
These efforts are no doubt aimed at alleviating poverty
among Nigeria through community-based approaches.
Research and Publications also constitute part of the
foundation’s poverty alleviation efforts. As at today CDF has
produced the following research works.
i. An Update on the Credit Activities of Rural Financial
Intermediaries in Nigeria.
ii. The Mobile Bankers as Sources of External
Financing
iii. Survey of Commercial Banks on Loan Guarantee
Schemes.
In the long run the foundation hopes to enhance her
poverty alleviation efforts by focusing on individual families.
Over the next five years the foundation hopes to, in
conjunction with relevant public and private institutions
assist 100,000 families with projects aimed at poverty
alleviation and economic empowerment.
This Chapter would be incomplete if there is no
mention of the United Nations Development Programme,
(UNDP). The UNDP is not an NGO. It is classified as non-
profit multinational organization. Since 1960 when Nigeria
86
attained political independence from Great Britain, UNDP
has been actively involved in the country’s development
efforts. The contributions of UNDP to poverty alleviation
effort in Nigeria are so many it would be impossible to
recount all of them. An account of a few of them would
suffice.
UNDP’s programme are aimed at achieving sustainable
development, that is, a development that not only generates
economic growth but one which gives priority to the poor,
enlarging their choices and opportunities as well as
providing for their participation in decisions that affect
them. To achieve its aims, UNDP engages in capacity
building. For example, between 1980 and 1995 the
organization contributed to capacity building in 39 sectors
and sub-sectors of the Nigerian economy. The UNDP also
aims to alleviate poverty in Nigeria through its country
programme cycle lasts live years. The current cycle spanning
between 1997 and 2001 aims to reduce poverty by 20% of
the population. Broadly, UNDP’s programmes revolve
around the following.
i. National Management of Socio-economic
Development Programme
ii. Job Creation and Sustainable Livelihoods
Programme
iii. Social Development Programme
87
iv. Sustainable Agriculture Environment and Rural
Development.
As at today some 300 rural communities spread across
the country at a minimum of eight communities per state
have benefited from UNDP’s Integrated Community
Development Projects (ICDPs). Through these projects the
UNDP provides safe drinking water, and sanitation, and
supports income generating activities with loans and
capacity building for local entrepreneurs. The UNDP also
provides skill development centres and micro credit for the
poor in each state of the federation.
From 1990 to date the UNDP has annually published
the Human Development Report which has become
indispensable to any effort to understand the extent of
poverty in Nigeria. This Publication has helped to shift
public focus to the need to alleviate poverty.
Similarly the UNDP has executed many other projects
all over the country. For example, in 1999 the organization
intervened in the poverty-ravaged Nangawu Village, Bosso
Local Government Area of Niger State. Before UNDP’s
intervention this community had no school, no electricity,
no pipe borne water and no clinic. The UNDP sunk
boreholes and with the involvement of local governments,
supplied drugs to the community. A mini clinic was also
built for the village.
88
In further pursuit of its poverty alleviation efforts, the
UNDP donated cassava processing machines to selected
rural communities in Nigeria. In October 2000, the UNDP
also spent the sum of N25m (Twenty five million Naira) to
assist some poverty- stricken rural communities in Lagos
State.
The criteria for selecting these communities for
assistance include lack of potable water, inadequate health
facilities, absence of toilet facilities, lack of economic
activities and high illiteracy level. In all eight rural
communities were selected and they include: Ebute, Afuye,
Agbowa and Ikosi in Epe Local Government Area. Others
include Orimedu and Lekki in Ibeju Lekki Local Government
Area as well as Topo and iiagon in Badagry Local
Government Area and Idoluwo-ile in Ojo Local Government
Area. Each of these eight communities were given the sum of
N3 million for four programmes namely sustainable
agriculture, rural development and job creation. Inhabitants
of Ebute Afuye were given free agricultural education and
today the community owns sixty fish ponds. Similarly,
UNDP has provided a bore-hole, ventilated and improved pit
toilets, Cassava processing facilities and micro-credit
facilities for Abule Osho, a rural community in Ikorodu Local
Government Area of Lagos State. These projects were
commissioned between October 17 and 24, 2000 during the
celebration of UNDP’s Poverty Alleviation Week.
89
Finally, one would state that UNDP’s Poverty alleviation
efforts in Nigeria are so numerous that would take a whole
book to document all of them. Suffice it to say that the
UNDP and other non-profit organizations discussed in this
Chapter have contributed in no small ways to poverty
alleviation in Nigeria. In the course of this research
recommendations shall be made on how to encourage
greater participation of these organizations in poverty
alleviation efforts in Nigeria
2.9 OBSTACLES CONFRONTING POVERTY ALLEVIATION IN
NIGERIA
Nigeria as may be deduced from the preceding chapter
has never fallen short of attempts at alleviating poverty.
Regrettably, despite several attempts made by the
government and non-government organization, to alleviate
poverty, the scourge has been on the increase over the
years.
The disturbing irony is that Nigeria is by all standards,
a well endowed country,’ of all the natural resources in the
world, very few if any are absence in Nigeria. The country
produces about 2.5 million barrels of petroleum per day.
This makes her the sixth largest oil producer in the world.
Infact Nigeria is Africa’s largest producer and exporter of oil.
Saddy, the country, despite her untold oil wealth ranks as
the poorest member country of the Organization of
90
Petroleum Exporting Country. (OPEC) as the following table
shows.
These grim statistics clearly suggest that poverty
alleviation efforts in Nigeria have not borne the desired
fruits. At this stage, it becomes germane to ask: What
obstacles make it difficult for Nigeria’s poverty alleviation
efforts to achieve desired results? We shall attempt to
identify these obstacles in the rest of this chapter.
Nigeria’s huge population ranks as one of the major
obstacles accountable for the failure of past and present
poverty alleviation efforts. At present our population is put
at 120 million of this over 70% are classified as living in
subject poverty. This means that over 84 million Nigerians
can possibly be categorized as poor. Now, how do the
government and existing NGOs adequately cater for such a
huge number of people? Simply put, it is a virtually
impossible task. Given our huge population and the high
percentage of the poor among us, whatever has been done
so far to alleviate poverty amounts to a drop in the ocean.
Some analysis have put Nigeria’s unemployment figure at
50%3. Given that more than half of the country’s population
are within the active age bracket, this implies that millions
of Nigeria’s are unemployed.
As at the time of writing this project, I don’t have the
exact number of unemployed Nigerians (such figures are
difficult to obtain anyway). However, it would not be an
91
exaggeration to State that there are more than 20 million
unemployed Nigerians. Even this estimate is conservative.
Now, how does one provide employment generation for all
these people knowing that employment forms the bedrock of
any serious poverty alleviation effort? This dilemma would
help to explain why the government at all levels in Nigeria
appears overwhelmed by the sheer size of the unemployed
population. For example, Mr. Fidelis Osamor Public
Relations Officer, federal Civil Service Commission States
that recently, about 90,000 employment forms were given
out to some unemployed Nigerian graduates at the Abuja
headquarters and state branches of the commission. He
adds that the commission had to adopt stringent criteria for
collection of forms to peg the number at 90,000 considering
the scale of the unemployment problem 90,000 is just a tip
of the iceberg. Even at that the Federal Government only
recently declared just 2013 vacancies in the civil service.
As happens in most human endeavours inadequate
financial resources constitute a formidable obstacle to
poverty alleviation programmes in Nigeria. For example the
Federal Government voted the sum of N10 billion for the
now defunct Poverty Alleviation Programme (PAP). That
might sound like a hefty sum but it pales into insignificance
when measured against the size of the problem. Shared
among Nigeria’s 774 local government and 120 million
people, the amount would r1ot make a dent. Under the PAP
92
employment scheme, each beneficiary was paid a monthly
stipend of N3, 500 an amount TIwcmct5 rightly describes as
laughable in the face of today’s reality where minimum wage
hovers between N5, 500 and N7, 500.
Similarly, the sheer size of Nigeria’s land mass (about 1
million square kilometers) combines with the country’s huge
population raises the cost of poverty alleviation. For
example, Mr. Hashi Ashami, Food and Agricultural
Organisation (FOA) Resident Representative in Nigeria says
the country requires the sum of $5.4 billion for the primary
agricultural sector. Mr. Ashami adds that another $5.4
billion would be needed for other supporting investment
between 1998 and 2010 while the sums of $1.5 billion
would be needed for the livestock and crop sectors. This
brings the total amount to about $13 billion (Thirteen billion
American Dollars). Considering Nigeria’s current economic
predicament, this amount is mind numbing. These figures
illustrate just how difficult, the task facing our agricultural
sectors is. These difficulties undoubtedly affect:, poverty
alleviation efforts for there is an inseparable nexus between
agriculture and poverty alleviation in Nigeria.
Most NGOs that operate in Nigeria are also hampered
by lack of finance. In view of1this, these NGOs and other
poverty alleviation organizations have to streamline their
operations the implications being that very few people and
communities actually feel the impact of poverty alleviation
93
programme. Again, small scale entrepreneurs and co-
operative societies find it difficult to obtain loans for their
transactions. This is so because banks and other financial
institutions charge exorbitant interest rates for their loans.
The situation is even worse in the rural areas where there
are relatively fewer banks and financial institutions. In the
face of this handicap, the rural folk have to depend on the
miserly amount they could raise on their own to start their
businesses. Naturally, the profits made from such ventures
are nothing to write home about. For example, Aderinto
(1998) states that some women in Ajaara village, Lagelu
Local Government Area of Oyo State each make as little as
N50 per day from their business transaction.
The problem o poverty in Nigeria is also compounded
by the shortage and bad state of infrastructure in Nigeria, a
problem that is much more acute in the rural area. Due to
the poor state of roads in the rural areas, the rural folk find
it difficult to evacuate their farm produce from the farms to
their homes and markets. Moreover, the few available
vehicles in the rural areas charge exorbitant faces for the
evacuation of farm produce forcing many farmers to opt for
human potter age, a very tiresome option. Similarly,
electricity is scarce in the rural areas and when they exist
are epileptic. This hampers commercial and industrial
activities in the rural areas in particular and Nigeria in
general.
94
Other vital facilities such as pipe borne water and food
processing and preservation facilities are in short supply in
the rural areas. This makes it extremely difficult for the
rural folk to process and preserve their farm produce. Most
of them opt for manual processing of their produce. This
option apart from limiting output is very tedious and makes
rural farming even less attractive.
Closely related to the above is the problem of rural-
urban migration. The shortage of vital infrastructure in the
rural areas coupled with low level of industrialization force
the Youth who constitute the energetic segment of the
population to flee rural areas. This development sees to it
that agricultural activities in the rural areas are left at the
hands of old and tired people. This factor no doubt
constitutes a serious impediment to poverty alleviation effort
in the rural areas and by extension, the entire country.
Corruption and Politics constitute another serious
obstacle to poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria. For
example, It has been alleged that the defunct Poverty
Alleviation Programmed (PAP) was used by the ruling
People’s Democratic Party (PDP) to settle political allies.
Today, the N10 billion initially budgeted for PAP cannot be
fully accounted for. There have been allegations that PAP
jobs were used to settle political thugs. Similarly, some
critics allege that some people were given PAP stipends for
doing nothing. These people can be described as ghost PAP
95
beneficiaries. New swatch reports that in Osun State, some
praise singers of the Ooni of lfe were paid the monthly PAP
stipend of N3, 500 just for praising the monarch To
compound the problem of the genuinely poor, the politicians
who have hijacked the PAP committees in the various states
of the federation are said to be extorting between N100 and
N200 from thousands of prospective job seekers before
issuing them registration forms. Some JA & J have also
emerged to dupe desperate job seekers of their money. For
example in lbadan a phantom poverty alleviation
organization known as ―Operation Farewell to Poverty‖ has
connived with some churches to dupe the poor who are
asked to obtain registration forms for as much as N500 each
for loans that never came7. These actions rather than help
alleviate poverty actually worsen the plight of the poor and
weaken people’s confidence in genuine poverty alleviation
efforts.
Inconsistency in government policies has not helped
poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria. For example, successive
governments in the country have each come up with its
poverty alleviation scheme. Every new government quickly,
Jettisons the poverty alleviation programme of the
governments before it. Between Obasanjo’s first coming and
now we have had countless Poverty alleviation programmes
and institutions some of which include, Operation Feed The
Nation, The Green Revolution, Better Life For Rural Women,
96
DFRRI, People’s Bank, Community Bank, Family Support
Programme, Poverty Alleviation Programme and now, Youth
Employment Scheme. The frequency with which existing
poverty alleviation programmes are discarded for new ones
suggests lack of continuity, which does not argue well for
poverty alleviation efforts.
Environmental degradation and natural disasters
combine to undermine poverty alleviation efforts in the
affected rural areas, for example, Aworawo (2000) argues
that environmental pollution is largely responsible for the
perennial poverty in the rural areas of Nigeria’s Niger Delta8.
The establishment of industries and commencement of oil
exploration in the 1950s signaled the commencement of
extensive environmental pollution which has undermined
the rural economy of that part of the country. The
degradation suffered by the land and water resources of
rural Niger delta badly affects the region’s economy 65% of
which is based on farming and fishing.
Similarly, many parts of the country especially the
Eastern Region suffer serious soil erosion and landslide.
This development renders the affected communities
homeless and eats away much of the land needed for
farming. The jobs of poverty alleviation in these affected
areas are therefore made doubly difficult. For example, land
has to be reclaimed before farming could take place. Most
poverty alleviation organizations simply do not have the
97
financial resources with which to embark or land
reclamation before farming could take commended in the
affected communities. The government on her part seems
overwhelmed by the sheer magnitude of the problem.
In the Northern part of the country, the situation is not
any better. Drought and desert encroachment have robbed
Northern Nigerian villages of thousands of hectares of
farmland. The problem is also compounded by frequent
locust invasions from the country’s Northern neighbours.
These locusts eat up untold quantities of crops to the
frustration of farmers. These disasters no doubt double the
task of the government at all levels as well as poverty
alleviation agencies in the battle against poverty. Illiteracy is
another factor that undermines poverty alleviation efforts in
Nigeria. It is a known fact that fertilizers and other farm
input are hard to come by in the rural areas. Even when
they are available, their prices put them far beyond the
reach of the average rural farmer. The irony is that even
when these inputs are available, the mainly illiterate rural
farmers find it difficult to apply them. The consequence of
this is that most rural farming sticks to the same methods of
farming used by their ancestors many centuries earlier. This
limits farm output and further compounds the problem of
poverty in the rural areas. As stated in the preceding
chapter, use of old and manual farm inputs makes farming
more tedious, time consuming and less attractive. Suffice it
98
to say that poverty alleviation organizations find it difficult
to pass modern farming methods to the relatively
conservative rural communities of Nigeria.
It is obvious that no genuine human development can
take place in the absence of peace and security. This
explains why the recurrent incidence of ethnic and religious
clashes in the country constitute a serious obstacle to
poverty alleviation. For example, Segun Ojo reports that
ethnic clashes in Lagos have scared many Hausas from
bringing in maize from the North9, a development that has
had serious negative effects on poultry output. Due to the
ensuring scarcity, the price of maize rose from N15000 to
N19,000 per ton even in the rural parts of Oyo and Osun
States. Poultry farmers in Lagos and other Western States
are currently groaning under the weight of high cost of
maize, a vital input for their trade.
Finally, there are cultural and religious obstacles to
poverty alleviation. In the Northern part of Nigeria married
women are put under religious seclusion known as Purdah.
Women in Purdah do not go out of their houses without
their husband’s permission. This limits their ability to
actively participate in economic activities that would help
alleviate their poverty. Similarly, many rural folk believe that
Christianity and Islam are against family planning. It is their
opinion that one should have as many children as God gives
one. Similarly, due to the preference for male children, most
99
rural dwellers keep on having children until they get male
issues. These factors no doubt compound the problem of
rural poverty and make the job of poverty alleviation more
difficult for as earlier stated; population explosion magnifies
the problem of poverty.
2.11 SUMMARY OF REVIEW OF THE RELATED
LITERATURE
From the conceptual framework it could be identified
that many scholars have carried out the activities of some
non governmental organizations and their alleviation of
poverties in Nigeria. Non-governmental organizations plays
key roles in the assisting the government in the areas of
poverty alleviation and human capital development.
From the empirical reviews many non-governmental
organizations in Nigeria have played voluntary roles in the
assistance of rural poverty alleviation. It could be recorded
that in the areas of health, sanitation, provision of good
drinking water, economic improvement and agriculture, the
non-governmental organizations have contributed
immensely. Their activities also serve as a great relief to the
financial burden of government most especially in the area
of social welfare and provisions.
In another note there are some disagreements among
the scholars whether the non-governmental organization do
actually perform some significant roles and assistance in the
100
rural poverty alleviation without any government
intervention. Based on what is obtainable in Nigeria there
are many non governmental organizations who are voluntary
assisting the rural poor without any government backup
such as the ford foundation, community development
foundation, Friedrich Ebert foundation, Women Aid
Collective (WACOL), Pro-Natural International (Nigeria) etc.
101
REFERENCES
Abdulkarim, R. (2001), ―Women in Nigeria’s Rural
Environment: The case of women in Ungwa Na
Maegero, Chikun Local Government Area of Kaduna
State in Oluwole, A.‖ (eds.) op. cit, Pp. 78
Abiodun, A.M. (2000), Leaders & Company, Thisday
Newspaper Publications, Lagos, November 10, Vol.32,
No. 18, Pp. 5.
Abiodun, O. (2000), ―Non- Governmental Organizations
Fight against Poverty in the third World‖, Newswatch
Magazine, Lagos, August 17, Newswatch Publications,
Vol. 12, No.18. Pp. 10 -14
Aderinto, A. A. (1998) Women in Nigeria’s Rural
Environment: The Case of Women in Ajara, Village,
Lagelu Local Government Area of Oyo State in Oluwole
etal (eds) Women in The Rural Environment, Lagos,
Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Pp. 132.
Ahmed, U. B. (1999) Brief Information on FEAP, Abuja,
Poverty Alleviation Programme Publications, October,
1999.
102
Atajoko, S. (2000), The Politics of Saving the Poor
Newswatch Magazine: Lagos, August 7, Newswatch
Publications, Vol.13, No. 12, Pp. 14
Aworawo, D. (2000), ―The Impact of Environmental
Degradation on the Rural Economy of The Niger Delta
in Osuntokun Akinjide‖, ed: Environmental Problems of
the Niger Delta, Lagos, Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Pp.
150.
Brochure of Ford Foundation, (2000), Lagos, May, Published
by the Ford Foundation. Vol. 23, No 26, Pp. 1-4
EKO F.M News Lagos November 9, 2000 (5.50 pm).
Fredrich, E. (2000), ―Leaflet on a full text of the research
findings‖, Lagos, Fredrich Ebert Foundations.
http://new.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/country/-
profile/1064557.stm
http:hdr.undp.org/en/reports/more complete pictures their
report. Gttp://www.global.org/issues/2/causes-of-
poverty
Human Development Report: (1998) Nigeria Lagos,
Published by United Nations Development
Programme, Lagos, Nigeria.
103
Kwashile, P. (2000), ―Working towards better living in rural
Areas‖, The Financial Standard, Lagos, October 20, Vol.
6, No 13, Pp. 6
Modupe, K. (2005), Information leaflets issued by Centre for
Development and Civic Education (CECODEC), Lagos,
Pp. 29
Muyiwa, A. (1999), Eradication of Rural Poverty The
Guardian Newspaper, Lagos, October 29, Guardian
Newspapers Publications, Vol. 16, No. 34, Pp. 15
Okenwa, L. (2000), Poverty Programme: New Drama Old
Script, Thisday Newspaper, Lagos, October 27, Vol.41,
No 13. Pp. 16
Olurode, L. (2000), Human Development Report: Nigeria’s
Urban Informal Sector Globalization and Poverty
Alleviation Strategies, (A paper presented at the
millennium conference in Industrialization,
Urbanization and Development; Organized by the
Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Lagos),
Lagos, November 15-16
Oluwole, S. (1998), Women in the Rural Environment,
Lagos, Friedrich Ebert Foundations, Vol.23, No 26, Pp.
26-33
104
Ovuorho, E. (2000), Poverty Alleviation Programme: A myth?
Lagos, October 29, Sunday Concord, Vol. 16, No. 34, Pp.
9.
The Comet Magazine, (1998), Lagos, October 24, Vol.21, No.
9, Pp. 16
The Comet, (2009) Lagos, October 24, The Comet
Newspapers Pp. 16.
UNDP Nigeria, (2000), Information and communications
Unit, UNDP, Lagos, Pp. 3
UNDP Nigeria, (2009) Nigerian Human Development Report
2009, United Nations Development Programme, Lagos,
Nigeria.
105
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the course of this research, the historical and
empirical approaches shall be adopted. The historical aspect
of our research shall entail tracing the role of NGOS and
non-profit multi-national organizations in the alleviation of
rural poverty to the early days of Nigeria’s political
independence. It has been said that to make progress, an
understanding of the past is very important. The challenges
facing these organizations in their efforts to contribute to
rural economic development shall be viewed within a
historical context.
Our second approach is empirical in that it would
entail reaching out to some NGOs and multi-national
organizations in Nigeria to enable us document their
achievements and challenges they encounter in their effort
to help alleviate rural poverty in Nigeria.
In the pursuit of this empirical goal, this researcher
shall make extensive use of data. These data would be
gathered through two sources.
106
3.2 RESEARCH DESIGN
The study has a research design which is mainly used
in order to achieve the objective of the study. A survey
method was used, a descriptive survey research design,
which is designed to have a sample of respondents taken
from the study population in the survey. Primary and
secondary sources of data collections were employed; and in
analyzing the data, a descriptive approach was adopted.
The research instrument was designed in such a way
to avail the majority of people to be interviewed, the Non
government and Non profit Multinational Organizations
officials, and the selected members of the public the
opportunity to provide answers to the questionnaire raised
for the study.
Also, the questionnaire was constructed in the simplest
form and structured among the options to answers given. It
also allowed the respondents to air their own views. The
questionnaire was divided into two sections.
3.3 SOURCES OF DATA.
This study worked with critical examination of existing
sources of data. We have two types of sources of data. The
secondary and primary sources of data.
107
3.3.1 The Primary Sources of Data
The primary sources of data are the type of data we
obtained in the field of study while trying to make a clear
research on the study and ascertain true facts. These
include data collected through the original efforts of the
researcher. Most of these data have not been published
elsewhere and obtained by face to face interaction with
respondents. For example, attempts shall be made to
interview some staff of selected NGOs and multi-national
organizations. Some of which include British Council, Ford
Foundation, Fate Foundation, Friedrich Ebert Foundation
and the United Nation’s Development Programme (UNDP).
3.3.2 The Secondary Sources of Data
The secondary data were obtained from
documentary analysis, comprehensive review of literature
related to the subject, textbooks, magazines, journals,
published and unpublished articles from seminars and
workshops, and some retrieved works from the internet. In
this case the researcher shall draw extensively from the
work of other writers. Most of the data on poverty in Nigeria
were taken from such publication as the UNDP 1996 and
1998 Human Development Report (HDR) and Poverty
Reports as well as brochures and pamphlets also polished
by the organization. Data shall also be borrowed from Odi
Poverty Briefing published by overseas Development
108
Institute (ODI) and other publications by Newswatch.
Thisday, Comet, and the Guardian Newspapers.
3.5 POPULATION OF THE STUDY
The population in this study includes some of the
workers and staff of the non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organizations in Enugu State, which was
calculated to be 2,500 staff in number. The target
population consists of Executive Directors, top management,
senior and junior staff and support staff of the
organisations.
The non-government and non-profit multinational
organisations have staff strength of about forty-five (45, 000)
thousand nationwide and the staff strength of Enugu Zone
stood at two thousand and five hundred (2,500). The 2,500
represent 5.6% of the staff strength nationwide. Enugu
State was chosen because:
i. Enugu stands as the centre of Eastern part of
Nigeria
ii. The large concentration of people in the rural areas.
iii. The researcher resides in Enugu State.
109
3.5 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION
The sample size is calculated using Taro Yamane’s
formula. Based on the population the sample, the researcher
used a normal confidence level of 90% and the error
tolerance of 10% of the population. The sample size was
determined using Yamane’s (1994) formula:
n = N
1+ N (e)2
Where, n = sample
N = Population size
e = error margin or margin of error
I = constant value
Note that the choice of (0.1) 1% proportion of sampling
error is purely an exclusive decision of the researcher.
Substituting the figures in the formula, we get the
following:
n = N
1+ N (e)2
n = 2,500
1 +2,500(0.1)2
= 2,500
1+25
= 2,500
26
= 96
n = 96
The sample size is 96
110
3.6 DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS
The basic instrument used for the collection of data is
the questionnaire and interviews. Questionnaire is a
formalized schedule for collecting data from respondents. In
designing the questionnaire, the structured pattern was
adopted. Conscious efforts were made to eliminate any
ambiguous question. It was made of dichotomized and
multiple choice questions. The questionnaire was given to
the workers and staff of the chosen non-governmental and
non-profit multinational agencies. The interview gives an
on the spot responses from the respondents. It compliments
the data gotten from the questionnaire.
3.7 TEST OF VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF INSTRUMENT
According to Odo (1992), validity is the degree to which
a test measures what it purports to measure. The
instrument used for collecting data was valid since data
were got using the instrument effectively.
Also, Odo (1992) further stresses that reliability of an
instrument is a process of obtaining information on the
degree to which a measure yields similar result for the same
subjects at different yields similar result different conditions
on consistent, dependable, stable, predictable and accurate
way.
Therefore, the research instrument used was very
reliable as consistent information was elicited from the
workers through questionnaire extended to the selected
population in different ways.
111
The reliability of data was established through a
consistency test. This involved a test and retest exercise. The
same questionnaire was administered to the same
respondents on two occasions. The copies of the
questionnaire completed by each respondent were paired
and scored. The responses showed a high degree of
consistency thus showing the reliability of the data collected.
3.8 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS
The data collected were analyzed using tables and
percentages, in which descriptive and quantitative methods
were applied for data analysis. The descriptive analysis was
applied to the information collected from the personal
interviews. Both descriptive and quantitative analyses were
applied to the information collected from the questionnaire.
The Chi-square test statistic was used to test the
hypothesis. The formula for the chi-square is given as
follows:-
X2 (r-1_ (C-1) = (Oi-ei)2
ei
Where: X2 = Chi-square
r = Number of rows
C = number of columns
= Summation
Oi = Observed frequency
ei = Expected frequency
The analysis and workings are shown in chapter four.
112
REFERENCES
Odo, A. (1992): Validity and Reliability of Research
Instrument, Marcom Publishers Limited.
Yarmane, Y. (1998): Determination of Sample Size for finite
population and Dissertation, Writing Impressed
Publishers.
113
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the data collected for the research work
were presented and analyzed, and the study made use of
questionnaire. In testing the hypothesis, chi-square (X2)
technique was used. The summary of the response rate is
presented on the table 4.1 below.
The Chi-Square Test (X2)
The Chi-square (X2) is a measure of the discrepancy
existing between observed and expected frequencies. It
provides a means of comparing a set of observed
frequencies. The calculated X2 will be compared with the
critical value of X2, and the difference will form the basis for
accepting or rejecting the null hypothesis (Ho).
Decision Rule
This indicates the variables to be used in the
hypotheses testing. The rule is to reject the (Ho) null
hypothesis, if the calculated X2 is greater than the critical
value of X2, otherwise do not reject. This means that if the
Ho is rejected the alternative hypothesis (H1) will be
accepted.
114
Table 4.1 The Response Rate
Analysis of Questionnaire distributed and returned,
and not returned.
Level No of
questionnaire
given out
% given
out
No of
questionnaire
returned
%
returned
No of
questionnaire
not returned
% not
returned
Top mgt 22 222.92% 20 20.84 2 29%
Snr staff 34 35.42% 32 33.34 2 2%
Jnr staff 40 41.66% 40 41.66 0 0%
Total 96 100% 92 96% 4 4%
Source: Field survey, 2010.
Table 4.1 shows that out of 96 copies of questionnaire
distributed, 92 copies representing 96% of the sample size
were completed and returned, while 4 copies representing
4% of the sample size were not returned. This gives a high
percentage of response rates and thereby indicted the
willingness of the respondents that co-operated.
4.2 ANALYSIS OF DATA
The analysis and subsequent conclusion were based on
the outcome of the Ninety-two (92) questionnaire that were
administered, returned and accepted, which for the
purposes of this study constitute the researcher 100%. The
data analysis is merely an attempt to obtain results to the
answers of the research questions and to accept or reject the
hypotheses already also formulated earlier for this study.
115
Table 4.2:
The non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organisations in Nigeria were accepted by the
government as agencies to improve the poverty level of
the rural populace.
Options No of
Respondents
Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 50 54%
Agree 42 46%
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.2, 50% respondents representing 54% of the
respondents strongly agree. 42 respondents representing
46% of the respondents also agreed that the non-
governmental agencies in Nigeria were accepted by the
government as agencies to improve the poverty level mostly
of the rural populace. There was no respondent in Neutral
position, that is, indifference. None of the respondents
disagree or strongly disagree to the government acceptance
of the non-governmental multinational organisations. This
implies that everybody wish that the non-governmental and
116
non-profit multinational organisations should be allowed to
play their role in alleviation of rural poverty.
Table 4.3:
Proponents of the multinational organisations see the
agencies as vital in the fight for rural poverty and
economic improvements.
Options No of
Respondents
Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 80 93
Agree 0 0
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 6 7
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.3, 86 respondents representing 93% of the
respondents strongly agree and see the agencies as vital in
the fight for rural poverty and economic improvements,
while 6 respondents representing 7% disagree to that fact.
This shows that many Nigerians want and support non-
governmental agencies and sees the roles as vital roles.
117
Table 4.4:
Non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organisations were adopted in order to harness the
poverty level of the rural areas.
Options No of
Respondents
Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 62 67.40%
Agree 26 28.26%
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 4 4.34%
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.4, 62 respondents representing 67% of the
respondents strongly representing 28% also agree to it. 4
respondents representing 4% of the respondents disagree.
None of the respondents was indifference and none strongly
disagree to the objectives. This shows that the objectives of
the non-governmental multinational organisations are
accepted and should be pursued.
118
Table 4.5:
Evidence to show that non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organisations services delivery is
inherently more effective than the government sector
services delivery.
Options No of
Respondents
Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 40 43%
Agree 20 22%
Don’t know 10 11%
Disagree 16 17%
Strongly Disagree 6 7%
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.5, 40 respondents representing 43% of the
respondents strongly agree. Also 20 respondents
representing 22% of the respondents agree that non-
governmental multinational organisations services delivery
is inherently more effective than the government sector
services delivery. 10 respondents representing 17% and 6
respondents representing 7% disagree and strongly disagree
respectively to the non-governmental organisations sector
services delivery is more effective than the government
sector services delivery. This shows that the non-
governmental multinational organisations can deliver
adequate services more efficiently than the government
sector.
119
Tale 4.6:
Non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organisations efforts alone may not be sufficient in the
alleviation of the rural poverty level and economy unless
accompanied by the government policies like
liberalization, sound regulatory framework, macro
economic stability and good governance.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 82 89%
Agree 10 11%
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.6, 82 respondents representing 89% of the
respondents strongly agree that Non-governmental and non-
profit multinational organisations efforts alone may not be
sufficient in the alleviation of the rural poverty level and
economy unless accompanied by the government policies
like liberalization, sound regulatory framework, macro
economic stability and good governance. Likewise, 10
respondents representing 11% agree to the same
perceptions. None of the respondents disagree or strongly
disagree. This shows that the Nigerian Government should
create an enabling environment to support the efforts of the
non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organisations for effective results.
120
Table 4.7:
The introductions of non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organisations are not new in Nigeria.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 32 35
Agree 28 30
Don’t know 6 7
Disagree 16 17
Strongly Disagree 10 11
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.7, 32 respondents representing 35% of the
respondents strongly agree that the non-governmental
organisations are not new in Nigeria. 28 respondents
representing 30% agree also to this. 6 respondents do not
know what to say, 16 respondents representing 17% of the
respondents disagree, likewise 10 respondents representing
11% strongly disagree that the concept of non-profit
organisations is not new in Nigeria respectively. This shows
that the non-governmental and non-profit multinationals
organisations are not new.
121
Table 4.8:
Non- governmental multinational organisations involves
in redefining the role of the state by disengaging it from
those activities which are best done by them.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 64 70%
Agree 0 0
Neutral 8 8
Disagree 20 22
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.8, 64 respondents representing 70% of the
respondents strongly agree, 8 respondents representing 22%
of the respondents are neutral, 20 respondents representing
22% of the respondents disagree. This shows that majority
of the respondents strongly agree that the non-governmental
organisations involves in redefining the role of the state by
disengaging it from those activities which are best done by
them.
122
Table 4.9:
The objectives of the non-governmental and non-profit
multinationals organisations are geared to transform the
Nigerian rural economy although not enough is yet
known empirically about their impacts; it still lies
between propositions and conclusions.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 55 59
Agree 21 23
Don’t know 6 7
Disagree 9 9
Strongly Disagree 2 2
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.9, 55 respondents representing 59% of the
respondents strongly agree, 21 respondents representing
23% of the respondents agree respectively to the statement
above. 6 respondents do not know what to say about it. 9
respondents representing 9% of the respondents disagree,
while 2 respondents representing 2% of the respondents
strongly disagree respectively. This shows that the impacts
of non-governmental and non-profit multinationals
organisations have not been fully optimized towards the
Nigerian rural poverty alleviation and economy.
123
Table 4.10: The expectations of rural populace in the
implementation of non-governmental and non-profit
multinational programmes are poverty alleviation,
increase in private sector participation and economic
investment.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 57 72%
Agree 35 38
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.10, 57 respondents representing 72% of the
respondents strongly agree, 35 respondents representing
38% of the respondents agree that the implementation of
non-governmental organisations programmes are poverty
alleviation, increase in the private sector participation and
economic investment. None of the respondents disagree or
strongly disagree to the above expectations in the
implementation. This shows that the expectations of
Nigerians in the implementation of the non-governmental
organisations programmes are for better improvement in the
economy.
124
Table 4.11:
The adoption of non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organisations has resulted in the
improvement and alleviation of rural poverty levels in
Nigeria.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 22 24%
Agree 38 41%
Neutral 4 4
Disagree 12 13
Strongly Disagree 16 18
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.11, 22 respondents representing 24% of the
respondents strongly agree, 38 respondents representing
41% of the respondents agree. 4 respondents representing
4% of the respondents are neutral. 12 respondents
representing 13% of the respondents disagree and 16
respondents representing 18% of the respondents strongly
disagree. This shows that the works and roles of the
multinational organisations have resulted in the
improvement and alleviation of rural poverty levels in
Nigeria.
125
Table 4.12:
Policy reformation, more technicalities and experts,
monitoring of the exercise by BPE, transparency and
accountability and good corporate governance are some
of the measures to employ if the set of objectives of
privatization is to be maximized.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 65 71%
Agree 27 29%
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.12, 65 respondents representing 71% of the
respondents strongly agree and 27 respondents representing
29% objectives of privatization is to be actualized. None of
the respondents was indifference, disagree or strongly
disagree. This shows that some measures are necessary in
application for the actualization of the set objectives of
privatization.
126
Table 4.13:
The positive impacts of the non-governmental and non-
profit multinational organisations include reduction in
the financial burden of the government, increases in the
private initiatives in public services delivery, greater
deregulation of market forces, reduction in government
expenditures, developing a competitive industry,
distribution of ownership more widely, attraction of
foreign direct investment, etc.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 39 42%
Agree 53 58%
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 0 0
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.13, 39 respondents representing 42% of the
respondents strongly agree, likewise 53 respondents
representing 58% of the respondents also agree to the
positive impacts of the non-governmental multinational
organisations. None of the respondents is in difference or
disagree or strongly disagree.
This shows that all the respondents agree to the
positive impacts expected from the non-governmental
multinational organisations programmes. In addition, it will
help accelerate the restructuring of the Nigerian economy for
sustainable growth and optimum resources utilization.
127
Table 4.14:
The non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organisations are mostly charity organisations created
for selfless and voluntary services to assist the people in
need and less privileged.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 40 43
Agree 12 13
Indifference 0 0
Disagree 15 17
Strongly Disagree 25 27
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.14, 40 respondents representing 43% of
respondents strongly agree, 12 respondents representing
13% of the respondents representing 13% of the
respondents agree to the above functions performed by the
multinational organisations. 15 respondents representing
17% of the respondents disagree and 25 respondents
representing 27% of the respondents strongly disagree. This
shows that many people are in doubt about the functions of
the multinational organisations.
128
Table 4.15:
The present phases of the non-governmental
multinational organisations programmes were more
structured and designed than the first phase, and
yielded the expected results prior to its initiation.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 35 38%
Agree 15 16
Don’t Know 8 9
Disagree 14 15
Strongly Disagree 20 22
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.15, 35 respondents representing 38% of the
respondents strongly agree that the second phase is more
structured than the first phase. Likewise 15 respondents
representing 16% of the respondents also agree. 8
respondents representing 9% of the respondents do not
know which of the phase performed better. 14 respondents
representing 15% of phase respondents disagree; likewise,
20 respondents representing 22% of the respondents
strongly disagree on the performance of the second phase
than the first phase. This shows that both phases of the
privatization programmes have some parts of achievements
and failures in its implementation.
129
Table 4.16:
There are other non-governmental multinational
organisations that the government may employ or adopt
in order to alleviate and harness the poverty levels of
the rural people.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 55 60
Agree 25 27
Don’t know 10 11
Disagree 2 2
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.16, 55 respondents representing 60% of the
respondents strongly agree that there are other non-
governmental multinational organisations that the
government may employ or adopt in order to alleviate and
harness the poverty levels of the rural people. 25
respondents representing 27% of the respondents also
agree. 10 respondents representing 11% of the respondents
disagree. This shows that the government may adopt other
non-governmental multinationals organisations to alleviate
and harness the poverty levels of the rural people.
130
Table 4.17
The contributions of non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organizations are very decisive factors in
the success or otherwise of rural poverty alleviation
efforts in Nigeria.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 86 93
Agree 0 0
Don’t Know 0 0
Disagree 6 7
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.17, 86 respondents representing 93% of the
respondents, strongly agree to the effectiveness and role that
non-profit and non-governmental organisations have played.
6 respondents representing 7% of the respondents disagree
that the roles they has played in the economic reformation is
not enormous. This shows that the contributions of non-
governmental and non-profit multinational organizations are
very decisive factors in the success or otherwise of rural
poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
131
Table 4.18:
Any battle against rural poverty in particular and
poverty in general in Nigeria is bound to fall if the task
of poverty alleviation is exclusive left to the
government.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 28 30
Agree 22 24
Don’t Know 10 11
Disagree 10 11
Strongly Disagree 22 24
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.18, 28 respondents representing 30% of the
respondents strongly agree, 22 respondents representing
24% of the respondents agree, 10 respondents representing
11% do not know, 11 respondents representing 11% of the
respondents disagree, and 22 respondents representing 24%
of the respondents strongly disagree. This shows that
respondents agree that any battle against rural poverty in
particular and poverty in general in Nigeria is bound to fall if
the task of poverty alleviation is exclusive left to the
government
132
Table 4.19:
The performance of the non-governmental and non-
profit multinational organisations so far has led to
considerable decrease in the level of rural poverty and
improvement in the standard of living of the rural
populace.
Options No of Respondents Percentage (%)
Strongly Agree 84 91
Agree 0 0
Neutral 0 0
Disagree 8 9
Strongly Disagree 0 0
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
From table 4.19, 84 respondents representing 91% of the
respondents strongly agree that performance of the
privatized enterprises has led to considerable decrease in the
level of rural poverty and improvement in the standard of
living of the rural populace, while 8 respondents
representing 9% of the respondents disagree. This shows
that the performance of the non-governmental multinational
organisations so far has contributed to the decrease in the
level of rural poverty and improvement in the standard of
living of the rural populace.
133
4.3 TEST OF HYPOTHESES
In this section, the hypothesis associated with this
study will be tested. And to this, we are going to use table
4.17, question 16; and table 4.18, question 17. The data
presented in this table will be used in testing the
hypotheses.
HYPOTHESIS 1.
H1: The contributions of non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organizations are very decisive factors in
the success or otherwise of rural poverty alleviation
efforts in Nigeria.
Ho: The contributions of non-governmental of non-profit
multinational organizations are not very decisive
factors in the success or otherwise of rural poverty
alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
Having responded positively well to the above questions,
would you conclude that the non-governmental and non-
profit multinational organisations has played some roles in
the alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria which results to
national economic reformation, reconstruction and
development?
134
Using Table 4:17
Options No of Respondents Percentage %
Yes 86 93%
No 6 7%
Total 92 100%
Source: Field Survey, 2010.
Test statistics = X2(r-1) (c-1) = (Oi-ei)2
ei
Where r = number of rows
C = number of columns
= summation
Oi = observed frequency
ei = expected frequency
Degree of freedom = (r-1) (c-1) = (2-1) (2-1) = 1
Level of significance is taken as 0.1, i.e., 10% critical
value with 1 degree of freedom at 0.1 level of significance
from chi-square table.
X2 0.1, 1 = 6.63
Computation of expected frequency
86 + 6 = 92 = 46
2 2
Thus, 46 is the expected frequency for all the responses.
135
Contingency table
Oi ei Oi-ei (Oi-ei)2 (Oi-ei)2
ei
86 46 40 1,600 34.78
6 46 -40 1,600 34.78
(69.56)
Decision Rule:
Rejected Ho if the computed value of X2 is greater than
the critical value. Accept Ho if the computed value.
Since the computed value 69.56 is greater than the
critical value 6.63, we reject the Ho and accept Hi; the
alternative hypothesis which states that the contributions of
non-governmental and non-profit multinational
organizations are very decisive factors in the success or
otherwise of rural poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria.
HYPOTHESIS II
H1: Any battle against rural poverty in particular and
poverty in general in Nigeria is bound to fall if the task
of poverty alleviation is exclusive left to the
government.
Ho: Any battle against rural poverty in particular and
poverty in general in Nigeria is not bound to fall if the
task of poverty alleviation is exclusive left to the
government.
136
The performance of the non-governmental and non-profit
multinational organisations so far has shown that any battle
against rural poverty in particular and poverty in general in
Nigeria is bound to fall if the task of poverty alleviation is
exclusive left to the government.
Using table 4.19
Options No of Respondents Percentage %
Yes 84 91%
No 8 9%
Total 92 100%
Text statistics
X2 (r-1) (c-1) = (Oi-ei)2
ei
Where
r = number of rows
c = number of columns
= summation
Oi = Observed frequency
ei = expected frequency
Degree of freedom = (r-1) (c-1) = (2-1) (2-1) = 1 level of
significances is taken as 0.1, i.e., 10% critical value with 1
degree of freedom at 0.1 level of significance from chi-square
table.
X2 0.1, 1=6.63
Computation of expected frequency 84 – 8 = 92 = 46 2 2
Thus, 46, is the expected frequency for all the responses.
137
Contingency Table
Oi ei Oi-ei (Oi-ei)2 (Oi-ei)2
ei
84 46 38 1,444 31.39
8 46 -38 1,444 31.39
(69.78)
Decision Rule:
Reject Ho, if the computed value of x2 is greater than
the critical value. Accept Ho, if the computed value of X2 is
less than the critical value.
Since the computed value 62.78 is greater than the
critical value 6.63, we reject the Ho and accept Hi, the
alternate hypothesis which states that any battle against
rural poverty in particular and poverty in general in Nigeria
is bound to fall if the task of poverty alleviation is exclusive
left to the government.
4.4 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS
Using the objectives of the study in correlation relation
to the test of hypotheses which include the assessment of
the contribution of NGO’s, to ascertain the benefits that
rural populace has gained from NGO works and to
determine their impact and to point out the key areas that
needed priority, hypothesis (1) which deal with the
contribution of NGO as a decisive factors with the success of
rural poverty alleviation efforts. Test of hypothesis (1) which
138
has Table 4.17, for the number of respondents and
percentages it could be concluded that 69.56 are in support
that NGO’s has contributed immensely to rural poverty
alleviation in the country.
Also in test of hypothesis (2) in the decision rule we
take H1 since (x2) is greater than the critical value. So it
could be accepted that the extent of compatibility through
the test of hypotheses is distinct. This means that NGO’s
contributions to poverty alleviation is significant and any
battle against the alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria is
bound to fall if the task of poverty alleviation is exclusively
left to the government alone.
139
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUGGESTIONS FOR
FURTHER STUDY.
5.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS
In this Chapter, efforts shall be made to identify how
poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria can be more effective.
Our recommendations shall basically focus on the problems
identified in the preceding Chapter.
In the preceding Chapter, population explosion was
identified as one of the problems confronting poverty
alleviation efforts in Nigeria. It goes without saying that
uncontrolled population growth magnifies the problem of
poverty and naturally, renders insignificant, poverty
alleviation efforts. To check this menace, Nigerians,
especially the rural folk should be enlightened on the
imperative of birth control. The assistance of non-
governmental organizations, non-profit multinational
institutions and government at all levels is needed in this
regard. The rural folk need to be told that inasmuch as
children are gifts from God, giving birth to as many children
as God is willing to give one would merely compound the
problem of poverty. What is the essence of giving birth to
children one cannot adequately cater for? Miss Sarwar
Sultana, Resident Representative UNDP Nigeria has
remarked that in Nigeria
140
“thinly populated households of no more than
3 members are 4.9% poor whereas the figure is
95.7% for heavily populated household with 20
or more persons”.
Nigerian masses need to be told that neither
Christianity nor Islam frowns at one giving birth to the
number of children one can conveniently cater for.
Affordable family planning facilities should be provided for
Nigerians especially the rural folk. Only when this is done
can we hope to control the country’s population which
according to the UNDP, is projected to grow to 230 million,
that is double that present figure by 20152 (a mere 15 years
away).
Education is a very useful weapon against poverty.
Ironically, poverty is a major weapon against education. In
other words, poverty limits the ability of individuals to
acquire education. Due to escalating costs of education in
the face of dwindling income, many children are withdrawn
from school by their parents to indulge in street hawking
and unskilled labour. This tendency no doubt helps to
compound the problem of poverty. To quote Miss Sultana
once again:
“Poverty among households with secondary
education is half of those with no more than
primary education”.
141
Poverty alleviation efforts in Nigeria will receive a boost
if educational opportunities are expanded to benefit as many
people as possible. In the past, the free education policies of
Chief Obafemi Awolowo, premier of the Old Western Region
achieved significant results. The Universal Primary
Education (UPE) Programme of former Head of State,
General Olusegun Obasanjo also achieved some results.
Today with Chief Obasanjo s the civilian president Nigeria
has evolved another programme known as Universal Basic
Education (UBE) which s intended to make education free
up to the third year of secondary education. This is a worthy
project that should be supported. However, I suggest that
the programme should be expanded to cover all levels of
secondary education. Again, the government should take
cognizance of the fact that the programme should not be
limited to making primary and secondary education tuition
free because there is more to education than tuition fees.
Efforts should be made to build more educational
institutions in addition to equipping the existing ones.
Attention should also be paid to teacher training. Our
teachers also need greater motivation. It is only when these
recommendations are adopted that education could really be
said to have spread to a wide segment of the society.
Similarly, the Federal and State and Local levels of
government need to incorporate adult, non-formal and
nomadic education into the UBE. All these would help the
142
spread of education and the result would be mass-
empowerment towards self development and poverty
alleviation. Non-governmental and nonprofit multinational
organizations have to increase their assistance towards the
successful operation of the Universal Basic Education
Programmed.
5.2 CONCLUSIONS
The problem of poverty in Nigeria is compounded by
the unacceptably low value of the Naira in the world
currency market. The massive devaluation of the Naira has
rendered the currency almost worthless. The low value of
the Naira leads to high cost of imported industrial input
which leads to capacity underutilization and high cost of
locally manufactured goods which in turn leads to low
demand on the part of the poor masses, which leads to huge
unsold inventories and depression in the industrial sector
which limits their ability to expand and employ more
workers, a situation that leads to unemployment. It is a
vicious cycle. The Federal government should encourage
exports and discourage the importation of all but necessary
items. This would help shore up the value of the Naira and
enhance the purchasing power of the average Nigerian.
One maddening irony about poverty alleviation in
Nigeria is that it is people who do not need poverty
alleviation that are charged with that task. It seems that
poverty alleviation programmes actually end up making the
143
rich richer and poor poorer. In other words, the poor have
been marginalized in the implementation of policies
ostensibly meant for them. In the Babangida years, Better
Life for Rural Women Programme provided first ladies and
other powerful women opportunity to showcase their latest
fashion acquisitions. Much money was wasted sewing
uniforms embroidered with the pictures of first ladies. A lot
of money was also wasted on unnecessary foreign trips. The
recently rested Poverty Alleviation Programmed (PAP) was
also subject to abuse and corruption. For poverty alleviation
efforts to succeed, this profligacy should stop. The poor have
to be involved in projects meant for them. As a publication
puts it:
The people best placed to tackle poverty are
the poor themselves”
The best way to ensure that the poor are directly
involved in poverty alleviation programme is by making the
programme community-based. Apart from making the poor
involved, community based poverty alleviation programme
would help to check corruption because in Nigeria’s rural
communities virtually everybody knows everybody. If a
person embezzles money meant for poverty alleviation the
entire community could apprehend him. Similarly by
invoking the wrath of the village gods against theft of poverty
alleviation funds, rural communities would help to deter
144
corrupt practices and ensure that funds allocated poverty
alleviation are used for the purpose intended.
The Federal, State and Local governments in Nigeria
need to do something about the current upsurge in violent
crime and ethnic and religious militancy. No meaningful
economic developments can take place in atmosphere of
insecurity. We saw in the last chapter how ethnic clashes
prevented Hausas from bringing maize from the North to the
Western part of the country, a situation that had negative
consequences for poultry farmers. By tackling the questions
raised by ethnic and religious militancy, the government
could have helped the cause of poverty alleviation by
creating the peaceful condition necessary for economic
pursuit. Similarly, by reducing violent crime and religious
and ethnic militancy, the Federal Government would have
sent positive signals to foreign investors whose investment
would do Nigeria a lot of good, especially by providing
employment opportunities.
5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
I agree with Lai Olurode’s assertion that poverty
alleviation should not be unduly politicized. To quote him
“In a study of three local governments
undertaken by us, we observed that the
unemployed are being recruited through the
local branches of the PDP in Iwo, Aiyedira and
Ola-Oluwa Local Government where 245,120
145
and 111 (beneficiaries) had been placed in
various offices in the Postal services
department, INEC, NITEL and National
Population Commission Office, hospitals and
agricultural departments. These are offices
where there already exist over staffing
resulting in idleness) the new employees are
paid N3, 500. A number of these people were
employed before and so regard their new work
as a sort of party patronage”.
1. From the above, it could be seen that overpolitisation of
poverty alleviation programmes undermines efficiency.
To this end, one would recommend that government at
all levels should be less partisan in executing poverty
alleviation programmes. There should be a distinction
between the government and the ruling party. Once a
leader is elected, he becomes a servant of not only his
own party but of his entire constituency. In essence,
poverty alleviation programme should be spread to
accommodate all the poor irrespective of party
affiliations.
2. Similarly, poverty alleviation programme should be
decentralized. Olurode (2000) argues that local
governments are sidetracked by the Federal
Government in the execution of poverty alleviation
programme. This practice is not good enough. Granted
146
that poverty is a national problem in Nigeria, the fact is
that poverty alleviation programme should take into
account local peculiarities. For example, poverty
alleviation facilities provided for riverine communities
in Lagos, Delta, Rivers and Cross Rivers may not be
relevant to drought stricken communities in Northern
Nigeria. Delegating some aspects of poverty alleviation
programme to state and local governments would help
to accommodate local peculiarities and ensure greater
results.
3. Sharia or no Shari a, Zamfara State has emerged as a
model to be emulated by other states of the Federation
when it comes to poverty alleviation. The
administration of Alhaji Sanni Ahmed Yerima has
taken many steps aimed at empowering the poor. For
example, the state government ploughs farmlands free
of charge for farmers. Fertilizers, seeds and other
inputs, heavily subsidized, are provided so that poor
farmers can benefit. Similarly, poor women are trained
in dress making after which sewing machines are
bought for them. Bicycles and motorcycles are also
distributed to poor indigenes of the state at heavily
subsidized rates. Soft interest-free loans are also
provided for farmers and artisans. Other states of the
Federation should borrow a leaf from Zamfara State
147
government with adjustments to suit local
peculiarities.
4. Environmental degradation has been identified as a
major cause of poverty. To this end government at all
levels should take tough measures to protect the
environment. Oil companies operating in the Niger
Delta should be compelled through relevant legislation,
to adopt environment friendly methods in their
operation. These companies solid also be compelled to
clean up areas polluted through their operations; it is
only when this is done that more land area can be
reclaimed for agricultural activities. Non-governmental
organizations also need to step up campaigns aimed at
protecting the environment. To this end the efforts of
Friedrich Ebert Foundation must be commended. The
foundation sponsors seminars, symposia, conferences,
workshops and publications on environmental
problems in Nigeria. The foundation works with the
Environment4A society of Nigeria and other NGOs to
execute its programmes. Other non-profit agencies in
Nigeria should emulate the Friedrich Ebert Foundation.
Environmental protection towards poverty
alleviation is not the exclusive responsibility of the
federal government, state governments should also
make good to protect the environment. To use Zamfara
as an example once again that State government has
148
taken steps to combat diversification. Recently,
(November 2000) the State government procured 7
thousand seedlings for a tree planting exercise aimed
at providing shelter belts as a bulwark against
desertification. The State government hc-4_ also made
arrangements to procure another 5 thousand cashew
seedlings from Israel for the same purpose. These
efforts would no doubt aid poverty alleviation by
reducing the damage done to farmlands by
desertification. Other desertification - prone northern
States of the federation should emulate Zamfara State.
Governments of southern states on their own part need
to combat deforestation and soil erosion so that threats
to farmlands could be checked. Kerosene needs to be
subsidized for the rural folk to discourage them for
using firewood, a practice that encourages
desertification and deforestation.
5. The Governments should assist NGOs resident in
Nigeria. This it can do by providing enabling
environment for NGOs and other poverty alleviation
agencies. For example the government should make
her data bank on poverty in Nigeria available to NGOs.
All bureaucratic encumbrances that confront NGOs in
their quest for official records should be removed
provided that exposing such records does not
jeopardize national security. Similarly, whenever an
149
NGOs signs counterpart funding agreement on any
poverty alleviation project with the government at any
level, the government should meet her own part of the
agreement.
6. The State of infrastructure in Nigeria leaves much to be
desired Roads, hospitals, electricity and pipe borne
water are not only inadequate but malfunctioning. To
check this trend, government at all levels should invest
massively in infrastructure. Feeder roads should be
constructed throughout rural areas of Nigeria to
facilitate the evacuation of farm produce. More
electricity and pipe-borne water facilities should be
provided while existing ones should be renovated. This
would not only improve the living standards of the
rural poor but also help to check rural urban migration
which robs rural areas of able bodied young people.
7. Again, facilities for the harvesting, processing and
storage of farm produce should be provided for the
rural areas. The shortage of efficient processing and
storage facilities in the rural areas create a situation
whereby there is a glut in food supply in some periods
of the year leading to fall in prices. This tendency robs
the rural poor of the opportunity of making profits
commensurate with their toil. Besides, much of the
farm produce in the rural areas gets rotten due to lack
150
of storage facilities. Provision of efficient storage
facilities in rural areas would help to check this trend.
The rural poor in Nigeria need to organize themselves
into co-operative societies as so doing would be make it
easier for them to obtain loans for agricultural and
commercial ventures. The UNDP (1996) has rightly pointed
out that
“Availability in adequate volume and access to
capital by mass of the people in the productive
sector, particularly in the rural and
agricultural sectors is a fundamental condition
of economic empowerment”.
Unfortunately, the Nigerian peasants suffer seriously
from severe capital drought. Although several banking
institutions have been established to provide for the capital
needs of the peasantry, they have invariably excluded the
poor farmers because of their inability to meet the stiff and
demanding conditionalities for eligibility for loans.
By organizing into co-operatives, the rural poor would
be able to meet the conditionalities set by financial
institutions for loans. Besides, financial institutions are
more comfortable dealing with co-operative societies than
with individuals. In most Nigerian communities there is a
thrift and loans culture. In Yoruba land, the Esusu culture
is prominent. The Hausas also have what they call Adashi.
These are traditional methods of savings and loans. This
151
culture need to be modernized towards effective poverty
alleviation. The VNDP, Ford Foundation, Community
Development Foundation and other non-profit organizations
should channel their financial assistance to rural areas
through these traditional thrift and loans societies with a
view to empowering the rural poor by providing them access
to microcredit facilities.
Nigeria’s current debt burden is simply unacceptable
and does not give the government enough breathing space to
tackle the problem of mass poverty. Today, Nigeria’s external
debt stands at 33 billion American Dollars. That is about N4
trillion an amount over three times the country’s projected
2001 budget. Simply put, there is no way Nigerian can pay
off this debt. This year alone Nigeria spent $2 billion (about
N240 billion) to service debts. Imagine what would happen if
N240 billion is channeled into poverty alleviation. I therefore
recommend that our creditor nations in London and Paris
Clubs should temper justice with mercy. It would help
Nigeria’s cause if the country’s debtors are at least reduced
by 50%. After this cancellation I recommend that our
creditors grant us moratorium on debt repayment. It is only
when this is done that the burden of the poor would be
reduced. The UNDP has remarked:
“So severe has been the c „„ burden of
debt on the excruciating burden of debt
on the ordinary people in debt distressed
152
countries that their destructive impact is
comparative only to that of war, the only
difference being that it is children and
pregnant women rather than soldiers who
are dying and instead of millions of
wounded, there are millions of
unemployed”.
The recommendations offered above are by no means
exhaustive. However it is the opinion of this writer that if
these recommendations are adopted, poverty alleviation
would receive a major boost in Nigeria. Suffice it to conclude
that poverty alleviation should involve every segment of the
Nigerian society. It is my submission that the task of poverty
alleviation should be a multilateral venture involving foreign
governments, international organizations, local and foreign
nongovernmental and non-profit multinational
organizations, the Nigerian government and of course the
Nigerian people.
5.4 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
Non-governmental organizations play an increasingly
important role in national development. They serve as a
funnel for development funds both from individual donors in
wealthy countries and from bilateral aid agencies. At the
same time, NGO’s are frequently idealized as organizations
committed to ―doing good‖ that is too starry-eyed.
153
Development-organized NGO’s which have existed for
centuries, have played a growing role in development since
the end of world war II.
The contributions include the following amongst
others:
- Promoting peace, cultural and social development for
jobs and income.
- Gender equity and women empowerment
- HIV/AIDs advocacy
- Resource mobilization and Global partnerships for
social development.
- Integrate Approach for poverty alleviation and social
development for less developed areas.
- Capacity building and training for Nigerians especially
the indigent and rural dwellers.
- Enhanced good governance, professional ethics, and
promote enabling environment to strengthen the
impacts of NGO works for rural areas in sustainable
and integrated development for all.
- Research, Monitoring and Evaluation: Innovative
activities need to be carefully documented and shared –
effective participatory monitoring would permit the
sharing of results with the people themselves as well as
with the project staff, this the NGO’s has contributed.
154
5.5 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
From the study done so far in the research work, it is
obvious that there are some other areas that demand further
research work in order to harness the role of the NGO’s in
the alleviation of rural poverty in Nigeria. We suggest that
further study be carrying out in.
1. Introduction of the most priority areas of attention in
the efforts of NGO’s in alleviation of rural poverty in
Nigeria.
2. The most appropriate and adequate approach(es) to
follow in the efforts of the NGO’s in the alleviation of
rural poverty.
3. The machines to put in place for the sustainability of
the rural poverty alleviation programmes over a long
period of time.
It is our opinion that if further studies are carried out
in these areas. It will help to harness and sustain the roles
being played by the NGO’s in the alleviation of rural poverty
in Nigeria.
155
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Ahmed, U. B. (1999) ―Brief Information on FEAP‖, Abuja, Poverty
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Delta, Frederick Eberth Foundations, Pp. 150
Aworawo, D. (2000), ―The Impact of Environmental Degradation on the
Rural Economy of The Niger Delta in Osuntokun Akinjide‖,
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Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Pp. 150
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Brochure of Ford Foundation, (2000), Lagos, May, Published by the
Ford Foundation. Vol. 23, No 26, Pp. 1-4
Carney, D. (1999), ―Approaches to sustainable Livelihood for the Rural
Poor‖, London, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Pp. 10 -
11
Cox, A. (1998), ―Promises to the Poor: The Record of European
Development Agencies‖. London, Overseas Development
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Donaldson, F. (1987), ―The British Council: The First 50 Years (1934 –
1984‖, London. Janthan Cape Publishers, Vol.12, No 2. Pp. 11-
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EKO F.M News Lagos November 9, 2000 (5.50 pm).
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Flasket M. M. (1994), ―Women In Binary Economy 1800-1900 In
Ogunremi‖ (eds.) Badagry: A study In History, Culture And
Traditions of An Ancient City, Ibadan, Rex Charles publications,
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Fredrich, E. (2000), Leaflet on a full text of the research findings,
Lagos, Fredrich Ebert Foundations.
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Gavin And Oyemakinde, (1980), ―Economic Developments In Nigeria
Since 1800, in Yakima Obaro‖ (eds.) Groundwork of Nigeria
History, Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books, Pp. 482
Healey, J. (2000), ―Toward National Expenditure Strategy for Poverty
Reduction‖, London, Overseas Development Institute (ODI) Pp.
19-23
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of Land Agriculture and Water Resources in Rural Area‖: A
legal Perspective in Oshintokun. A (eds.) Current Issues In
Nigeria Environment, Ibadan, Davidson Press. Pp. 127
Ikpe, E. B. (1997), ―The Role of Nigeria Women in National
Development in Oshintokun & Olukoju‖ (eds.); Nigerian
Peoples and Cultures, Ibadan, Davidson Press, Pp. 246
Killick, T. (1991), ―Making Adjustment Work for the Poor‖, London:
Overseas Development Institute (ODI) Pp. 12-17
Kwanashie, G. A.(1980), ―The Peasantry, in Usman Y. B (eds.): Nigeria
Since Independence The First 25 Years‖ Vol: 1, No 4, The
Society, Ibadan, Heinemann Educational Books, pp 482
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Kwashile, P. (2000), ―Working towards better living in rural Areas‖, The
Financial Standard, Lagos, October 20, Vol. 6, No 13, Pp. 6
Maxwell, S. (1999), ―The Meaning and Measurement of Poverty‖,
London, Overseas Development Institute (ODI), Pp. 23- 41
Modupe, K. (2005), Information leaflets issued by Centre for
Development and Civic Education (CECODEC), Lagos, Pp. 29
Muyiwa, A. (1999), ―Eradication of Rural Poverty‖ The Guardian
Newspaper, Lagos, October 29, Guardian Newspapers
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Okenwa, L. (2000), ―Poverty Programme: New Drama Old Script‖,
Thisday Newspaper, Lagos, October 27, Vol.41, No 13. Pp. 16
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Informal Sector Globalization and Poverty Alleviation
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in Industrialization, Urbanization and Development‖
Organized by the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Lagos), Lagos, November 15-16
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Friedrich Ebert Foundations, Vol.23, No 26, Pp. 26-33
Ovuorho, E. (2000), Poverty Alleviation Programme: A myth?
Lagos, October 29, Sunday Concord, Vol. 16, No. 34, Pp. 9.
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Lagos, Pp. 3
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UNDP Nigeria, (2009) Nigerian Human Development Report 2009,
United Nations Development Programme, Lagos, Nigeria
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C. NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES.
The Comet Magazine, (1998), Lagos, October 24, Vol.21, No. 9, Pp. 16
The Comet, (2009) Lagos, October 24, The Comet Newspapers Pp. 16.
Abiodun, A.M. (2000), Leaders & Company, Thisday Newspaper
Publications, Lagos, November 10, Vol.32, No. 18, Pp. 5.
Abiodun, O. (2000), ―Non- Governmental Organisations Fight against
Poverty in the third World‖, Newswatch Magazine, Lagos, August
17, Newswatch Publications, Vol. 12, No.18. Pp. 10 -14
Atajoko, S. (2000), ―The Politics of Saving the Poor‖ Newswatch
Magazine: Lagos, August 7, Newswatch Publications, Vol.13, No.
12, Pp. 14
Kwashile, P. (2000), ―Working towards better living in rural Areas‖, The
Financial Standard, Lagos, October 20, Vol. 6, No 13, Pp. 6
Muyiwa, A. (1999), ―Eradication of Rural Poverty‖ The Guardian
Newspaper, Lagos, October 29, Guardian Newspapers
Publications, Vol. 16, No. 34, Pp. 15
160
Okenwa, L. (2000), ―Poverty Programme: New Drama Old Script‖,
Thisday Newspaper, Lagos, October 27, Vol.41, No 13. Pp. 16
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Lagos, October 29, Sunday Concord, Vol. 16, No. 34, Pp. 9.
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16
The Comet Newspaper, (2009) Lagos, October 18, Vol.11, No. 6, Pp.
23.
The Comet Newspaper, (2009) Lagos, October 24, Vol 16, Pp. 11.
D. ELECTRONIC MEDIA/ INTERNET PUBLICATIONS
EKO F.M News Lagos November 9, 2000 (5.50 pm).
Fredrich, E. (2000), ―Leaflet on a full text of the research findings‖,
Lagos, Fredrich Ebert Foundations.
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E. SEMINARS AND WORKSHOPS
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Strategies‖, (A paper presented at the millennium conference
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Organized by the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of
Lagos), Lagos, November 15-16.
161
INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
Institute of Development Studies,
University of Nigeria, Enugu Campus.
Dear Respondents,
I am a postgraduate student of the institute for Development
Studies, carrying out a study on The Role of Non-Governmental and
Non-Profit Multinational Organizations in the Alleviation of Rural
Poverty: The Nigerian Experience.
I would require your help in this study as you give me your
answers to the following questions.
Please tick () or (X) where applicable. Please be free in your
answers as we guarantee that your responses will be treated with
strict confidentiality.
The interview is schedule for four (4) phases, 1st phase will be for
executive directors, 2nd Phase will be for top management cadre while
3rd phase will be for senior staff and 4th phase for junior staff and
other field officers and will span for a period of six (6) weeks and the
revalidation exercise for one (1) month.
162
QUESTIONNAIRE
Instruction: Please tick ( ) on the box against your choice of answer.
Do not be bias, or tick the two boxes at the same time.
Your answers and responses will be treated with highest confidence.
The questionnaire is divided into two sections, A & B. section A
is for your personal data; while section B is to obtain relevant
information that will help the researcher to carry out his work with
good test of validity and reliability.
Note: You are not liable to any answer you have chosen. The
questionnaire is meant to elicit and derive basic information and
sample the people’s mind about the Role of Non governmental and
Non-Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation of Rural
Poverty: The Nigerian Experience.
SECTION A
1. Sex
A. Male
B. Female
2. Marital Status
A. Single
B. Married
3. Age
A. 21 – 30 years
B. 31-45 years
C. 46-65 years
4. What is your educational qualification?
A. WASC/GCE
B. OND/NCE
C. HND/B.Sc
D. MBA/M.Sc
163
5. How long have you been in the organization or institution?
A. 0-10 years
B. 11-21 years
C. 22-31 years
D. 32 years and above
6. What category do you belong in the organization?
A. Executive Directors
B. Top Management
C. Senior staff
D. Junior staff/Field Officer
Instructions: Please tick () in the box of your choice.
Do not tick or shade the two boxes at the same time.
SECTION B
7. Do you know anything about the Role of Non governmental
and Non-Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation
of Rural Poverty: The Nigerian Experience initiated by the
government as an economic policy to improve the economy?
A. Yes
B. No
8. Do many Nigerian prefer the Non governmental and Non-
Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation of Rural
Poverty sector initiatives in controlling rural poverty to that of
the government.
A. Yes
B. No
9. Is the poverty allegation programme the best economic policy
to maintain and harness the allegation of rural poverty.
A. Yes
B. No
164
10. Comparing the effectiveness of the Role of Non governmental
and Non-Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation
of Rural Poverty services delivery, is there any clear evidence
to show that non governmental and non-profit multinational
organisation services delivery is inherently more effective or
less effective than the governmental policies?
A. Accepted
B. Not Accepted
11. What are the expectations of Nigerians in the implementation
of poverty alleviation programme?
A. Fairness and Equity
B. Mass publications
C. Increase in private sector participation
D. Economic improvements
12. Has the poverty alleviation exercise achieved the set of
objectives.
A. Yes
B. No
13. What do you think needs to be done to make the poverty
alleviation exercise work if the set objectives were not
achieved.
A. Policy reformation
B. Cancellation of the programme
C. Move technicalities and experts
D. Monitoring of the exercise by NAPEP
14. What are the positive impact of poverty alleviation
programme by Non governmental and Non-Profit
Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation of Rural Poverty
on the Nigerian economy?
A. It reduces the burden on the Nigerian economy?
B. It increases private initiatives in the economy.
C. It brings reduction in government expenditures.
165
15. Would you say that the Role of Non governmental and Non-
Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation of Rural
Poverty result to strong capital base?
A. Yes
B. No
16. Do you agree that the Role of Non governmental and Non-
Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation of Rural
Poverty: The Nigerian Experience of results to separation of
economics from politics?
A. Agree
B. Strongly Agree
C. Disagree
D. Strongly Disagree
17. Will you agree or disagree that the Role of Non governmental
and Non-Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation
of Rural Poverty: The Nigerian Experience helps to re-allocate
public funds to efficient users?
A. A. Agree
B. Strongly Agree
C. Disagree
D. Strongly Disagree
18. What are the negative impacts or implications of
implementation of poverty alleviation programme on the
Nigerian economy?
A. It results to draining of scarce resources in the
economy to some few rich and privileged members of
the society.
B. It leads to retrenchment of workers and unemployment
C. It leads to breaking up of workers’ union
D. It perpetrates poverty
166
19. Could you say that the implementation of the poverty
alleviation programme was structurally designed to meet up
with the expected result prior to its initiation?
A. Yes
B. No
20. Looking at the two phases of implementation of the poverty
alleviation programme in Nigeria, which among the two past
government administration really worked closer towards
achieving the set targets‖.
A. The 1st phase involved the military
B. The 2nd phase involved the civilian
C. All of the above
D. None of the above.
21. Is there any other economic policy that government may
employ in order to alleviate and better manage the poverty
alleviation programme?
A. Yes
B. No
22. Does poverty alleviation programme by Non governmental
and Non-Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation
of Rural Poverty result to more efficient utilization of
resources?
A. Yes
B. No
23. Would you conclude that the Role of Non governmental and
Non-Profit Multinational Organisation in the Alleviation of
Rural Poverty has played a key role and its implementation
has so far achieved some results in terms of national
economic reformations?
A. Yes
B. No
