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The Eastern Mediterranean
By this time,The lands of Rome had been overtaken by the Goths and Vandals and the East Roman Empire (Byzantine) was spreading its influence into northern territories.
The Sasanid Empire (224-600 C.E.), which was led by warrior elites, main purpose was to serve as military strongpoints protecting long distance trade. The Silk Road brought many new crops to Mesopotamia and the Sasanid’s again reestablished Zoroastrianism as the faith of the empire. 2nd Persian Empire
The proclamations of both Zoroastrianism and Christianity as official faiths marked the emergence of religion as an instrument of politics both within and between empires.
This politicization of religion greatly affected the culture of the
Silk Road and would shape governments to follow.
The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine EmpireDuring the Reign of During the Reign of
JustinianJustinian
The Byzantine EmpireThe Byzantine EmpireDuring the Reign of During the Reign of
JustinianJustinian
Islam
Bedouin Arab named Mohammed born ca. 570 A.D. Merchant family, Hasimites Qurayshis tribe, who dominate Mecca
– controlling much of the religious pilgrim trade
raised by relatives-father and mother died by age six-raised by an impoverished uncle
Mohammed formal education ?? We don’t know
– Normally only the Poets of the Tribes could read and write
commercial agent for a wealthy widow– Khadijah– supervising caravans from Mecca, north to
Jerusalem– contact with both Jews and Christians
Mohammed, con’t
He seems to have made an impression on his boss, because of his reputed honesty– married her and retired from commerce– to devote himself to religion– and to making society more fair and
equitable
Mohammed, con’t
monogamous until his wife died eventually married nine wives and had
assorted concubines last marriage at 53 to Aishah, daughter
of a friend wives: widows of friends or political
marriages• Women alone in such a world were considered
very vulnerable
Origins of Mohammed’s Teachings periods of unconsciousness are indicated:
explanations– revelations from Allah by holy trances, spoken to by
Gabriel
– epilepsy or a similar neurological disorder?– mental illness or hallucinations ?
Mohammed’s explanation:– revelations from God– Very unpleasant and painful for him
The Quran
Record of revelations received during visions
Committed to writing c. 650 CE, compiled (Muhammad dies 632)– Under the third Caliph, Uthman ibn
Affan Tradition of Muhammad’s life:
hadith
Historical Origins of His Ideas Arab polytheism Hanifism: a belief in one God traced to
Abraham, by tradition Judaism Christianity: Orthodox, Nestorian, Arianism Manichaeism: a mixture of Zoroastrianism,
Christianity, Judaism, and so forth
Beginning of His Ministry
at about age 40, after a number of revelations began to preach publicly continued to receive revelations until death
– usually related to current problems or concerns
– Religious, political, social, economic
Early religious career not particularly successful threatened the social, political, and religious
structure, with his doctrine of social equity threatened the economic basis of Mecca as a
center of religious pilgrimage particularly the Black Rock
– sacred to the chief deity of the Arabs run out of town, or at least encouraged to
leave– Went to the desert with his family and lived for about
a year
The Hijra
flight from Mecca, to Yathrib (Medina)-tradition: invited by the Jews of Medina
622 A.D. beginning of the Islamic calendar forms the umma (community) welcomed, then resisted Mohammed becomes an absolute theocrat
Muhammad’s Return to Mecca Attack on Mecca, 630 -- jihad Conversion of Mecca to Islam Destruction of pagan sites, replaced with
mosques– Ka’aba preserved in honor of importance of
Mecca– Approved as pilgrimage site
The Deal
Mecca preserved as a holy city and place of pilgrimage– to preserve the economic prosperity
the Ka’aba preserved as the central shrine– idols and icons destroyed– story of its origins emphasized the role of
Abraham in its placement– pilgrimage as an act of faith, at least once
in your life
The Religion: the Koran (Qu’ran) the Koran (Qu’ran): contains much of Mohammed
recounting of Allah’s teachings written down by his followers after his death
– from notes and memories, on “stones and parchments”
Short: 114 chapters– arranged from longest to the shortest– not by subject or chronologically– length is the criterion of order for the text
The Koran, con’t
some “Old” and “New” Testaments stories– but sometimes the story seems a bit
different to Jews and Christians parables and fables political polemic and prophecy “non-religious” subjects
– not dissimilar to Jewish and Christian scriptures in some ways
Five Pillars of Islam
uniqueness of God– ‘There is no god, but God….’
prayer five times a day observe the month of Ramadan give alms to the poor pilgrimage to Mecca
– If possible, once in your life
Additional teachings
dietary laws no gambling or drinking no sexual irregularities, as defined by tradition
and custom no faulty weights or usury no infanticide elaborate rules concerning inheritance and
property improvement in the status of women and
children
Changing Status of Women Qu’ran improves status of women
– Outlawed female infanticide– Brides, not husbands, claim dowries
Yet male dominance preserved– Patrilineal descent– Polygamy permitted, Polyandry forbidden– Veil adopted from ancient Mesopotamian
practice
Similarities to Judaism and Christianity monotheism (defined a bit differently) insistence on the responsibility of human
beings final judgment and rewards angels and spirits practice of virtues: truthfulness, compassion,
etc.
Differences
an emphasis on compassion and mercy alms giving moderate heaven conceived a bit differently no priests or sacramental system easy conversion: the Shahadah
– ‘There is no God by Allah, and Mohammed is his prophet.’
Islamic Law: The Sharia
Codification of Islamic law Based on Quran, hadith, logical
schools of analysis Extends beyond ritual law to all
areas of human activity– This is the basis the idea of an
“Islamic republic” for instance
Expansion of Islam
early victories backsliders (tribes) punished
– Apostasy = treason = death assaults on:
– the Byzantine (East Roman) empire– the Sassanid (Persian) Empire also
known as Eranshahr or “Empire of the Aryans (Persians)”
Early Problems
Succession ?– Mohammed had no surviving male children– Daughter: Fatima– Son-in-law: Ali, child of his uncle
generated a permanent split in the Islamic community– Sunnis– Shi’as
Sunnis or “Sunnah”
considered themselves the “orthodox” followers of Mohammed
consider the Shi’as to be “dissenters” issue: who leads after Mohammed ?? the Caliph (or “leader”) went successively to followers
-Abu Bakr, then Oman-then Uthman and
The Islamic Empire
The Rashidun Caliphate ( الراشدية or (الخالفةRashidun Empire, was the first of the four Arab caliphates.
It was controlled by the first four successors of Muhammad, known as the "Rightly Guided" caliphs.
Founded after Muhammad's death in 632, the empire lasted until 'Ali's death in 661.
At its height, the power of the Rashidun Caliphs extended throughout North Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, and the Iranian highlands.
Dome of the rock Begun
Muslim Arab Victories
Syria: 635 A.D. Palestine: 636 A.D. Persia: captured in one battle
– expansion into India– expansion to the borders of China
Egypt: help by local Christians North Africa: the Berbers
Expansion and Defeat
Spain 711-720 A.D. (Franks) Battle of Tours: October 732 A.D.
– Charles Martel (Carolingian Family) Siege of Constantinople: 717-718 A.D.
– Leo III of Byzantine Empire– Greek fire
beginnings of Christian reconquest of former Roman/Christian territory (Holy Lands)
Reasons for success
exhaustion of Rome and Persia– End of a 400 year war
nationalist sentiments in Egypt and Syria arguments among Christian factions speed and size of Muslim armies simplicity and uncomplicated nature of Islam acceptance of the Old and New Testament
– People of the Book
Consequences of Expansion loss of the oldest and most central lands of
Christendom aided the ascendancy of the bishop of Rome virtual collapse of Zoroastrianism as a major
religion radically altered the balance of power between
the Roman Empire and the East disruption of the Mediterranean economic
community
Abu Bakr 632-634 [1st]
not particularly popular with the Muslim community
allowed raid, then invasions of Byzantine and Persian territory
subjugated any dissident elements or tribes
disposed of any “new prophets”
Success = strain
success introduced luxury and change– From original caliphs to the Umayyad caliphs
new ideas and new ethnic groups– with their own customs and heritage, to try
to assimilate rise of a sort of “revivalist element”
– Islam had strayed from its original path and purity
– Muslims were being led back to paganism– caliphs were becoming idle, corrupt, tyrants
Uthman 644-656 [3rd]
murdered: warfare broke out Ali: cousin and son-in-law of Mohammed originally passed over as too young contested the succession Uthman supported by the Umayyad clan
– early enemies of Mohammed– refused to accept Ali’s claims
Ali 656-661 [4th]
Disagreements over selection of caliphs Ali passed over for Abu Bakr [1st] Ali would eventually serve as caliph from 656-
661 CE, then he is assassinated along with most of his followers
Schism Remaining followers organize separate party
called “Shia”– Traditionalists: Sunni
Islamic Caliphates
Umayyad 7-8th Century Abbasid 8-13th Century Fatimid 11-13th Century Ottoman 15-20th Century
Umayyads
successful in the war of succession Ali assassinated in 661 A.D.
– by the Kharijites beginning of the Umayyad Dynasty Non-Muslim replaced by believers and
the Introduction of Arabic as the language of government
Sunni Damascus then later Cordoba
Great Mosque at Cordoba (Spain), eighth to tenth centuriesCenter of learningCordoba from Damascus/ Spanish Umayyads/ later Abbasids controlled
Great Mosque of Damascus (Syria), 706-715Umayyads/2nd Caliphate/ preexisting Roman square towers/ minarets
Left: Main entrance to the prayer hall of the Great Mosque of DamascusBelow: Spandrel mosaic from the Great Mosque of Damascus
Policy toward Conquered Peoples Favoritism of Arab military rulers
causes discontent Limited social mobility for non-
Arab Muslims Head tax (jizya) on non-Muslims Umayyad luxurious living causes
further decline in moral authority
Factions
Sunni and Shi’as dominant originally political
– Eventually the differences became dogmatic in emphasis
Shi’as become a party of religious dissent
Perceptions
Sunni: conservative, in favor of the “status quo”– consensus is the guiding principle
Shi’as: defenders of the oppressed, critics of privilege and power– obedience is required only as long as
it can be forced, and no longer
Umayyad Empire
Atlantic Ocean (Iberian ) to India Syria: center of the Islamic World Secular, monarchy? Civil war between various Islamic
groups Eventually displaced by the Abbasids
and Fatimids [Saladin]– an Arab family claiming decent from
Mohammed
Fatimid Empire
Arab Shia Empire eventually replacing the Umayyad Empire in the Magreb, Egypt, and the Levant
Founded the city of Cairo and consolidated the Caliph. Islam was briefly united under one caliph.
Promoted religious tolerance to Sunnis, Jews, and Coptic Christians
Established a massive trade network in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean, and East Asia during the Song Dynasty of China.
Fatimid Decline
Like elsewhere, the Fatimids gave select groups governorship positions. These groups mainly the Zirids in North Africa would eventually declare themselves independent of the Fatimids.
Turkish invaders especially in the Levant and the Crusaders would capture even more land.
For their political system, they had moved toward military rule and eventually a nephew of one of the generals, a man named Saladin would take control
The Sunni Ayyubid Dynasty (Kurdish) under Saladin would rule the lands of modern -day Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and western Saudi Arabia.
Crusades had little effect on Fatimids and Ayyubid Dynasties
The Abbasid Dynasty
Abu al-Abbas Sunni Arab, allied with Shia, non-Arab Muslims
Seizes control of the Levant, Persia and Mesopotamia
Baghdad Defeats Umayyad army in 750
– Invited Umayyads to banquet, then massacred them
– Only Spain remains Umayyad– North Africa is disputed territory, ultimately
Fatamid and later Ayyubid under Saladin.
Nature of the Abbasid Dynasty Diverse nature of administration (i.e. not
exclusively Arab) Militarily competent, but not bent on
imperial expansion Dar al-Islam- House of Submission which
was all the lands ruled by Islamic rule Growth through military activity of
autonomous Islamic forces Golden Age of Islam-Cauldron of Cultures
Abbasid Decline
Civil war between sons of Harun al-Rashid Provincial governors assert regional
independence Dissenting sects, heretical movements Abbasid caliphs become puppets of Persian
nobility Later, Seljuk Turks influence, Sultan real power
behind the throne Almost all of their buildings are now lost to
time
Turkish Migrations
Consolidation of Tang Dynasty (7th-8th C) pushes nomadic peoples of inner Asia westward just like the Han did to the Huns and others
Nomadic peoples begin to convert to Islam as a result of contact with Muslim scholars and mystics
The Turkish-speaking people gained control of Bukkara and Samarqand and began to sponsor the development of the Turkish language and a Turkish-Islamic civilization
Turkish Migrations
One of the Turkish-speaking groups was the Seljuks who entered Central Asia and conquered Afghanistan and Iran.
The Seljuks defeated the Abbasid Caliph but left them on the throne and ruled in their name.
They titled themselves sultans, claiming authority over the secular side of government while leaving the administration of religious affairs in the hands of the caliph.
Assault from within and without The role played by Turkish Mamluks in the
decline of Abbasid power established an enduring stereotype of the Turk as a ferocious, unsophisticated warrior.
The Sunni Seljuks would go onto conquer the lands of Syria and Anatolia.
By the early 12th Century, unrepaired damage from floods, fires, and civil disorder had reduced much of the Empire into ruins.
Baghdad would lose a substantial number of its population during this time and would never regain its geographical importance.
Islam spreads to India
While conquerors brought Islam to the Sind (Indus River), Muslim merchants took their faith to coastal regions in both northern and southern India.
These long lasting business ties and the intermarriage of many Muslim men made the introduction of Islam more gradual.
Islam also spread a third way to India with the migrations and invasions of Turkish-speaking peoples from Central Asia.
Turkish invasions
Some of the Muslim Turks entered into the Abbasid realm as mercenaries or migrated into Byzantine Anatolia, while others moved into Afghanistan where they established an Islamic state.
The Turks soon turned to rich lands of the south and between 1001 and 1027 mounted seventeen raids into India.
The Mahmud Turks demolished Hindu and Buddhist sites and hastened the decline of Buddhism in India. They frequently built mosques on the sites of destroyed temples.
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire, also called Osmanian Empire or Uthmaniyah Empire (1299–1922) was a multi-ethnic and multi-religious Turkish-ruled state.
The state was known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey by its contemporaries and was succeeded by the Republic of Turkey, which was officially proclaimed in 1923
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries.
The Ottoman Empire was, in many respects, an Islamic successor to earlier Mediterranean empires — namely the Roman and Byzantine empires.
Osman I (r. 1299-1326)
Declared independence from Seljuk Turks in 1299
“Bone-breaker” Mongol invasions pushed
many groups westward into Byzantine Empire
Continuous war with Byzantine Empire
Warriors for the faith or Ghazis
Ottoman Conquest and the Balkans
In the century after the death of Osman I, Ottoman rule began to extend over the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans. After defeat at the Battle of Plocnik, the Turkish victory at the Battle of Kosovo paved the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.
With the extension of Turkish dominion into the Balkans, the strategic conquest of Constantinople became a crucial objective.
Mehmet I (r. 1413-1421)
After the defeat of the Ottomans by the Turko-Mongol/Tatar Tamerlane, the Ottoman Empire went into a period of chaos and civil war.
The disorder ended with Mehmet I emerged and restored Ottoman power.
Mehmet II, The Conqueror
Mehmet I’s grandson reorganized the structure of both the state and military and captured Constantinople in 1453.
The city became the new capital of the Ottomans and Mehmet II assumed the title of Kayser-I-Rum or Roman Emperor
Attempt after his death to take Rome failed
The Ottoman Bureaucracy
SULTANSULTAN
DivansDivans
Social / MilitaryDivans
Social / MilitaryDivans
Heads of Individual
Religious Millets
Heads of Individual
Religious Millets
Local Administrators& Military
Local Administrators& Military
Landowners / Tax CollectorsLandowners / Tax Collectors
MuslimsMuslims JewsJews
ChristiansChristians
Ottoman Society
Few conflicts with Christians
Rival Muslim groups had claims to dynastic rule
Multiethnic army Recruited Christian
children for army (devsirme)
Bureaucracy Arabic and Ottoman
languages Created a separate
class with allegiance to sultan
Education Palace schools and
governors or janissaries
The Sultanate of Delhi
During the late 12th Century, Mahmud’s successors mounted a more systematic campaign to conqueror India and place it under Islamic rule.
By the early 13th Century, they had conquered most of the Hindu kingdoms and established an Islamic state known as the Sultanate of Delhi.
The sultans established their capital at Delhi and ruled India at least in name for more than three centuries, from 1206 to 1526.
Delhi Sultanate
During the 14th Century the sultans of Delhi commanded an army of 300,000 and their state ranked among the most powerful in the Islamic world.
They had no permanent bureaucracy or administrative apparatus and their authority was limited to the lands around Delhi.
Even though they imposed a presence of Islamic political and military authority, their ability was dependant upon the goodwill of Hindu kings to carryout their policies.
Many of the sultans in fact had been assassinated but nevertheless,the sultans prominently sponsored Islam and helped to establish a secure place for their faith in India.
Delhi Sultanate
Islamic influence in India would continue for several hundred years under various Muslim kingdoms.
India did not generate the large-scale, centralized, imperial state that guided the fortunes of postclassical societies in the Eastern Mediterranean, SW Asia, or China
On the basis of trade, common social structures, and inherited cultural traditions, a distinctive society would emerge in India.
Swahili coast
1800 miles long Diffusion from
Indian, Arab, Chinese, and others
Islam perhaps most enduring
Swahili Coast
While the Swahili Coast had kingdoms, it was not controlled by just one kingdom.
The region was a center hub of trade and commerce in east Africa.
The introduction of various traditions such as Islam helped to shape the character of the Swahili Coast.
Swahili Coast
While trans-Saharan caravan traffic linked west Africa to the larger trading world, merchant mariners sailing in the sea lanes of the Indian Ocean formed a similar service for coastal east Africa or the Swahili Coast.
Swahili is an Arabic term meaning “coasters.” The Swahili dominated the east African coast from
Mogadishu in ht north to Kilwa, the Comoro Islands, and Sofala in the south.
Swahili Coast
By the tenth century, Swahili society attracted increasing attention from Islamic merchants.
From the interior regions of east Africa, the Swahili obtained gold, slaves, ivory, and exotic local products.
In exchange, the Swahili city-states received pottery, glass, and textiles that the Muslim merchants brought from Persia, India, and China.
Swahili City-States
By the 11th and 12th Century, trade had brought tremendous wealth to coastal east Africa.
Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Kilwa, Mozambique, and Sofala were some of the trade centers that eventually developed into powerful city-states governed by a king who supervised trade and organized public life in the region.
Wood structures to Coral and stone based structures
Enemies from beyond…
The Seljuk Turks (Abbasid) were best by internal quarrels when the first crusading armies reached the Holy Land.
The Crusades had little long lasting impact of Islamic lands
Muslims would eventually rise up and face the European enemy in the mid-twelfth century
The Mongol invasions especially their destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad in 1258, shook the world of Islam
Crusades
First Crusade 1095-1099 Second Crusade 1147-1149 Third Crusade 1189-1192* Fourth Crusade 1202-1204 Children’s Crusade 1212 5th-8th Crusades 1218-1291 Crusaders driven from SW Asia
Islam on European legacy
Inquisitions -Spanish and Portuguese Renaissance Keepers of the Ancients- Greece, Persia,
and Rome Writing, Scholars, Mathematics, etc. Dark Ages were over and Europe would
benefit from fall of Muslim Empires
Formation of an Islamic Cultural Tradition
Islamic values– Uniformity of Islamic law in Dar al-Islam– Establishment of madrasas (Schools)– Importance of the Hajj
Sufi missionaries– Asceticism, mysticism– Some tension with orthodox Islamic
theologians– Wide popularity
Cultural influences on Islam Persia (Iran)
– Administration and governance– Literature– Artwork (Justinian and Hagya Sophia)
India– Mathematics, science, medicine
• “Hindi” numbers brought back to Europe
Greece– Philosophy, esp. Aristotle– Greek medicine
Cultural Importance of Islam Law, Dogma, Medicine, Mathematics Distribution throughout the Muslim world
(Dar al-Islam) Converts and Cities Role of Women Atlantic Ocean to Oceania Trade, trade, trade…. Introduction and reintroduction of these
ideas to medieval Europe– Through Spain & Spanish Jews
IslamAn Abrahamic Religion
IslamAn Abrahamic Religion Muslims are strict monotheists.
They believe in the Judeo- Christian God, which they call Allah.
Muslims believe that the Torah and the Bible, like the Qur’an, is the word of God.
Peoples of the BookPeoples of the Book
Abraham’s GenealogyAbraham’s Genealogy
ABRAHAMABRAHAM SARAHSARAHHAGARHAGAR
IsaacIsaac
EsauEsauJacobJacob
12 Tribes of Israel
12 Tribes of Israel
Ishmael
Ishmael
12 Arabian Tribes
12 Arabian Tribes
ArchitectureArchitecture The call to prayer by the muezzin in the minaret.
Pray in the mosque on Friday.
The Great Mosque of Mecca
The Great Mosque of Mecca
The pilgrimage to Mecca.
Must be done at least once in a Muslim’s lifetime.
2-3 million Muslims make the pilgrimage every year.
The Dar al-Islam
The Dar al-Islam
11 22 33 44 55
The WorldThe Worldof Islamof Islam
The WorldThe Worldof Islamof Islam
The Dome of the Rock Mosque in
Jerusalem
The Dome of the Rock Mosque in
Jerusalem
Mount Moriah Rockwhere Muhammad ascended into heaven.
Islamic influence today
Southwest Asia Balkan Peninsula and
Transcaucasia North Africa and Swahili Coast South Asia and Southeast Asia East Asia and Oceania