The Rise and Nature of Alternative Work … Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements in the United States, ... nonstandard) work relationships ... alternative work arrangements

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The Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements in the United States, 1995-2015

Lawrence F. Katz

Harvard University and NBER

and

Alan B. Krueger1

Princeton University and NBER

First Draft: March 29, 2016 This Draft: June 18, 2017

Abstract: To monitor trends in alternative work arrangements, we conducted a version of the Contingent Worker Survey as part of the RAND American Life Panel in late 2015. The findings point to a significant rise in the incidence of alternative work arrangements in the U.S. economy from 2005 to 2015. The percentage of workers engaged in alternative work arrangements – defined as temporary help agency workers, on-call workers, contract workers, and independent contractors or freelancers – rose from 10.7 percent in February 2005 to 15.8 percent in late 2015. The percentage of workers hired out through contract companies showed the largest rise, increasing from 1.4 percent in 2005 to 3.1 percent in 2015. Workers who provide services through online intermediaries, such as Uber or Task Rabbit, accounted for 0.5 percent of all workers in 2015. About twice as many workers selling goods or services directly to customers reported finding customers through offline intermediaries than through online intermediaries. 1 We thank David Cho, Lance Liu, and Jonathan Roth for excellent research assistance; Ed Freeland for help designing our questionnaire; Adam Looney for advice on tax data; and Mathew Baird, Karen Edwards, and Diana Malouf of RAND for help with the survey. The Princeton University Industrial Relations Section provided funding to conduct the RAND Survey. Katharine Abraham, Henry Farber, Anne Polivka, Harry Katz, two anonymous referees, and seminar participants at LERA, MIT, NBER, Princeton, the Russell Sage Foundation, the New York Federal Reserve Bank, and the U.S. Department of Labor provided helpful comments. We are responsible for any errors.

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I. Introduction

Monitoring changes in the pace and nature of work relationships is crucial to

understanding the forces affecting the U.S. economy and the quality of life of American workers.

Yet the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) has been unable to conduct the Contingent Work

Survey (henceforth, the CWS), its main survey instrument for tracking alternative (or

nonstandard) work relationships in the United States since 2005. To fill this void, we conducted

the RAND-Princeton Contingent Worker Survey (RPCWS), a version of the CWS, as part of the

RAND American Life Panel (ALP) in October and November of 2015.2 This paper provides an

analysis of the data from the RPCWS. Our findings point to a substantial rise in the incidence of

alternative work arrangements for U.S. workers from 2005 to 2015, with a particularly sharp

increase in the share of workers being hired through contract firms.

In the absence of more recent data from the CWS, prior evidence has shown mixed signs

of a major change in the nature of U.S. employment relationships over the last decade.

Bernhardt (2014), for example, concludes “it has been hard to find evidence of a strong,

unambiguous shift toward nonstandard or contingent forms of work—especially in contrast to

the dramatic increase in wage inequality.” The General Accounting Office (2015) analyzes data

from the General Social Survey (GSS) and CWS and finds that an expansive definition of

alternative work arrangements, which includes part-time employees, increased from 35.3 to 40.4

percent of employment from 2006 to 2010. Using a definition of alternative work more closely

aligned to CWS and more years of GSS data, Abraham, et al. (2017) find that alternative work

2 Following our RPCWS survey in late 2015, the BLS obtained funding in 2016 to conduct a one-time update of the CWS as part of the May 2017 Current Population Survey.

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rose from 19.2 percent of the workforce in 2002 to 20.4 percent in 2014, with hardly any change

in the share of independent contractors.

A comparison of our survey results from the 2015 RPCWS to the 2005 BLS CWS

indicates that the percentage of workers engaged in alternative work arrangements – defined as

temporary help agency workers, on-call workers, contract company workers, and independent

contractors or freelancers – rose from 10.7 percent in February 2005 to 15.8 percent in late 2015.

The increase over the last decade is particularly noteworthy given that the BLS CWS showed

hardly any change in the percent of workers engaged in alternative work arrangements from

1995 to 2005. Our survey results further show that about 0.5 percent of workers indicated in late

2015 that they were working through an online intermediary, such as Uber or Task Rabbit,

consistent with estimates derived by Harris and Krueger (2015) from Google search data and

Farrell and Greig (2016a) from bank deposits. Thus, the online gig workforce is relatively small

compared to other forms of alternative work arrangements, although it is growing very rapidly.3

In the remainder of this paper we describe the survey we conducted through the RAND ALP in

greater detail and document the changing nature of work relationships by demographic group

and other characteristics of workers and jobs. We also analyze the wages, weekly earnings, and

work hours of those who are employed in alternative work arrangements in comparison to those

in traditional employment relationships, as well as the reported preferences for type of work

(e.g., regularly scheduled hours, permanent job) of those engaged in alternative work

arrangements. We conclude with a discussion of the possible forces behind the recent rise in

alternative work arrangements.

3 Farrell and Greig (2016b) report that the annual growth rate in the number of workers participating in the online platform economy slowed from over 400 percent in late 2013 and most of 2014 to a 102 percent rate in July 2016, which is still explosive growth.

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II. The RAND-Princeton Contingent Work Survey

In the summer of 2015 we contracted with the RAND Institute to implement a standalone

survey of alternative work arrangements to individuals in its American Life Panel on our behalf.

The core of the questionnaire was based on the BLS’s CWS. The BLS’s CWS only collects

information about alternative work arrangements for each individual’s main job, and we sought

to follow this practice. The CWS also imposes a hierarchical skip logic (e.g., if a worker is on a

temporary help or on-call job, she is not asked whether she is a freelancer) that we did not follow

(i.e., we asked workers on temporary help and on-call jobs if they were independent contractors

or freelancers) to gather more complete information on work arrangements. Nevertheless, we

impose the BLS’s classification hierarchy in our analysis below to make the results are as

comparable as possible.4 We augmented the survey to include questions on whether workers

sold services or goods directly to customers, and, if so, whether they worked through an

intermediary, such as Avon or Uber. A copy of the questionnaire is posted online and can be

downloaded from https://alpdata.rand.org/index.php?page=data&p=showsurvey&syid=441.

The survey was conducted online between October 19, 2015 and November 4, 2015. A

total of 6,028 subjects were invited to fill out the questionnaire, and a total of 3,850 completed

the questionnaire, for a response rate of 63.9 percent. The ALP sample was recruited using a

compilation of methods, including a group recruited for the University of Michigan Internet

4 One area where we deviated from the BLS CWS is that our question about day labor did not preface the question by saying, “Some people get work by waiting at a place where employers pick up people to work for a day.” Instead, we simply asked the second part of the question, “Were you a DAY LABORER last week?" Consequently, our question was probably overly inclusive relative to the BLS CWS. To maintain comparability, we exclude day laborers from the group of on-call workers in both the RPCWS and BLS CWS. Fortunately, day laborers are a very small group in the BLS data, so the results are not meaningfully affected.

https://alpdata.rand.org/index.php?page=data&p=showsurvey&syid=441

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panel, a random digit dial sample, and a snowball sample.5 RAND developed and provided a set

of survey weights to align the sample to the Current Population Survey (CPS) according to age,

gender, race/ethnicity, education and household income groups.6 We further adjusted the

weights to account for the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALP.

One possible concern is that the BLS CWS was conducted in February of each year,

while our RPCWS was conducted in October and November. However, we have examined

historical CPS data and found no evidence of systematic seasonality between February and

October or November in the share of workers who are self-employed or multiple jobholders.

Historical BLS establishment survey data indicate modestly greater seasonality in temporary

help services employment than in total payroll employment.7 The overall patterns suggest that

seasonality is unlikely to noticeably distort the observed pattern in alternative work arrangements

when we compare the CPS and RAND surveys. Another difference between the surveys we

address below is that half of the respondents in past CPS CWS surveys were proxy respondents,

whereas everyone in the RPCWS responded for themselves.

Column 1 of Table 1 reports descriptive statistics of workers based on the October 2015

CPS as a benchmark against which to assess the RAND ALP sample of workers.8

Corresponding estimates from the RPCWS are presented in the next three columns. The second

column provides unweighted estimates, the third column provides estimates using the weights

RAND provided, and the fourth column (labeled “Alt. Weight”) provides estimates where we 5 The RAND ALP sample is described here: https://alpdata.rand.org/index.php?page=panelcomposition.

6 The RAND ALP weighting procedures are described at: https://alpdata.rand.org/index.php?page=weights.

7 The temporary help agency share of employment may be exaggerated by up to about 7 percent in October and November versus February because of seasonal factors.

8 Both the CPS and RPCWS samples in Table 1 are limited to those who worked in the survey reference week.

https://alpdata.rand.org/index.php?page=panelcomposition

https://alpdata.rand.org/index.php?page=weights

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adjusted the RAND sample weights to down weight the self-employed. Throughout the

remainder of the paper we emphasize results using the adjusted weights. In some cases, we also

report results weighted by the original RAND sample weights for comparison.

Although the weighted RPCWS sample is a bit younger, on average, it is broadly similar

to the U.S. workforce as represented by the October CPS.9 The RPCWS sample is about equally

likely to work part-time as the CPS sample, but about 8 percentage points more likely to hold

more than one job (5.2 percent versus 13.1 percent). The weighted industry and occupation

distributions of the two samples are similar, however, even though these variables were not used

in the construction of sample weights. Nevertheless, the RPCWS sample members reported

considerably higher weekly earnings than the CPS respondents.

The comparisons of the sample summary statistics for the RWCPS and October CPS

raise potential concerns about the representativeness of the RWCPS respondents relative to the

CPS. To probe the robustness of our conclusions, we take steps to ensure that the particular

nature of the RAND ALP sample is not driving our main conclusions, such as checking the

sensitivity of our findings to dropping multiple jobholders.

III. Basic Findings on the Incidence of Alternative Work Arrangements

Table 2 reports the percentage of individuals who were employed in an alternative work

arrangement based on the 1995 and 2005 CPS CWS and our 2015 RAND survey.10 (The sum of

the alternative work categories does not necessarily equal the figure in the first row because of

9 The RPCWS sample consists of individuals who are age 18 and older, whereas the CPS sample consists of those age 16 and older.

10 The CPS CWS tabulations are weighted by the CWS supplement weight.

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rounding and because a small number of individuals are both on-call and contract workers in the

BLS CWS.) “Independent Contractors” are individuals who report they obtain customers on

their own to provide a product or service as an independent contractor, independent consultant,

or freelance worker. “On-Call Workers” report having certain days or hours in which they are

not at work but are on standby until called to work. “Temporary Help Agency Workers” are paid

by a temporary help agency. “Workers Provided by Contract Firms” are individuals who worked

for a company that contracted out their services during the reference week.11

The CPS CWS figures in Table 2 (and throughout the rest of the paper) were computed to

be as comparable as possible to the RPCWS sample. Most importantly, in both samples, we

excluded the small number of day laborers from the alternative work category and we imposed

the sample restriction that individuals must have worked in the survey reference week.

Nevertheless, our CPS CWS tabulations are close to the BLS published numbers for 1995 and

2005, and they match exactly if we do not impose these restrictions.12

The RPCWS data indicate a significant rise in the incidence of alternative work

arrangements from the 10.7 percent share in the CPS CWS in 2005. Using the weights that

RAND provided, 17.2 percent of all workers were employed in alternative work arrangements in

2015, although that figure is probably overstated because of the over representation of self-

employed workers in the ALP sample. If we instead use the Alternative Weights, which down

weight the self-employed to match the October 2015 CPS, the figure is 15.8 percent, still

indicating a substantial rise (and, as expected, the share of independent contractors is most

11 In the published CPS CWS tabulations, contract workers are further restricted to those “who are usually assigned to only one customer and usually work at the customer’s worksite.” We do not impose this restriction in our tabulations of the BLS CWS or RPCWS.

12 The BLS published figures are from http://www.bls.gov/schedule/archives/all_nr.htm#CONEMP.

http://www.bls.gov/schedule/archives/all_nr.htm#CONEMP

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notably affected by the alternative weights). Thus, using the alternative weights, we conclude

that the share of workers in alternative work arrangements in their main job increased by 5.1

percentage points (or by nearly 50 percent) from 2005 to 2015.

A striking implication of these estimates is that 95 percent of the net employment growth

in the U.S. economy from 2005 to 2015 appears to have occurred in alternative work

arrangements. Total employment according to the CPS increased by 9.0 million (6.4 percent)

over the decade, from 140.4 million in February 2005 to 149.4 in November 2015.13 The

increase in the share of workers in alternative work arrangements from 10.7 percent in 2005 to

15.8 percent in 2015 implies that the number of workers employed in alternative arrangement

increased by 8.6 million (57.2 percent), from 15.0 million in February 2005 to 23.6 million in

November 2015. Thus, these figures imply that employment in traditional jobs (standard

employment arrangements) rose by only 0.4 million (0.4 percent) from 125.4 million in February

2005 to 125.8 million in November 2015. We cannot determine the extent to which the

replacement of traditional jobs with alternative work arrangements occurred before, during or

after the Great Recession, although it is most likely that there were tremendous losses of

traditional jobs during the recession.

All four categories of nonstandard work increased from 2005 to 2015. Independent

contractors continue to be the largest group (8.4 percent in 2015), but the share of workers in the

three other categories nearly doubled, from 4.0 percent in 2005 to 7.3 percent in 2015. The

fastest growing category of nonstandard work involves contracted workers. The percentage of

workers who report that they worked for a company that contracted out their services in the

13 BLS CPS employment levels (seasonally adjusted) are from http://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab1.htm. According to the BLS establishment survey, (seasonally adjusted) nonfarm payroll employment increased by a similar amount (9.8 million jobs, or 7.4 percent) over this period.

http://www.bls.gov/webapps/legacy/cpsatab1.htm

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preceding week rose from 1.4 percent in 2005 to 3.1 percent in 2015.14 Because of the concern

previously noted that the RAND sample over represents multiple jobholders, who possibly could

be more likely to report contract work, in the bottom of Table 2 we exclude multiple jobholders.

Even in this restricted sample there was still a notable rise in the percentage of workers who

were contracted out from 1.3 percent in 2005 to 2.0 percent in 2015, suggesting the sharp rise in

contracted out workers is a robust finding.

About half of the respondents in the CPS CWS were proxy respondents (51.1 percent in

1995 and 50.1 percent in 2005), whereas all participants in the RPCWS self-responded on their

own behalf. The difference in survey procedures could influence the comparison between CPS

CWS and RPCWS. Proxy respondents were about 2 percentage points less likely to report being

in an alternative work arrangement than were self-respondents in both the 1995 and 2005 CPS

CWS surveys. It is not clear if the survey mode has a causal effect on responses, or if the

differences between proxy respondents and self-responders in the CPS reflect selection with self-

responders being more likely to be engaged in an alternative work arrangement (perhaps because

they are more likely to work from home, and therefore to self-respond as self-employed when an

interviewer visits their home or calls). The 2 percentage point differential persists when we

control for respondents’ educational attainment, experience, race and sex in a linear probability

model. If the 2 percentage point differential is interpreted as a mode effect, then the fact that half

of CPS respondents are proxy respondents could account for 1 percentage point of the 5

percentage point rise in the share of workers in alternative work between the 2005 CPS CWS and

14 Goldschmidt and Schmieder (2017) document a large rise in domestic outsourcing (“contracting out”) in Germany as well since the 1990s, with a large growth of contracted out workers being employed by business service firms and temporary help agencies. Song et al. (2016) find related evidence for the United States of an increase in worker sorting across firms by (permanent) wage levels, a pattern that is consistent with a rising reliance on contracting out of low-wage work by many firms.

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2015 RPCWS, or 20 percent of the increase in alternative work over the last decade. This

calculation is likely to provide an upper-bound estimate of the impact of survey mode since self-

respondents may truly be more likely than proxy respondents to be engaged in alternative work.

A lower-bound estimate of the share of workers employed in alternative work

arrangements in 2015 can be derived by combining the proposed upper-bound adjustment for

survey mode of 1 percentage point with an adjustment for the greater seasonality of temporary

help agency employment of 0.1 percentage point (7 percent of the 1.6 percentage point share in

the 2015 RWCPS). The 1.1 percentage point downward adjustment of the RWCPS share to

increase comparability with the CWS implies a lower-bound estimate of the growth in the

alternative work arrangements share from 10.7 percent of all workers in 2005 to 14.7 percent in

2015, accounting for 77 percent of net employment growth from 2005 to 2015.

IV. Corroborating Evidence from the Internal Revenue Service

The rise in alternative work arrangements evident in Table 2, especially the increase in

the share of workers who indicated that they were “working or self-employed as an independent

contractor, an independent consultant, or a freelance worker” from 6.9 percent in 2005 to 8.4

percent in 2015, is a stark contrast to the declining trend in the share of employees who indicate

that they are self-employed based on published CPS data. If self-employment were truly waning,

one would not expect to find a rise in independent contractors, and that trend was even evident

(although milder) in the 1995 and 2005 CWS as well.

Figure 1 provides some further evidence on this issue by utilizing Internal Revenue Service

(IRS) data on the number of tax returns that were filed containing Schedule C (Form 1040),

which is used to report income (or losses) that individuals earn from operating a business or

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practicing a profession as a sole proprietor. In other words, individuals file Schedule C with the

IRS to report income related to self-employment activities. Figure 1 reports the number of

Schedule C filers relative to total employment from the CPS each year from 1979 through 2014

as well as the number of unincorporated self-employed individuals according to the CPS relative

to total CPS employment, and the total number of self-employed individuals according to the

CPS relative to total CPS employment since 2000.15 (Incorporated self-employed individuals

should file a corporate income tax form, not Schedule C.) It is clear that the IRS and CPS data

show divergent trends in the number of self-employed individuals. Although the proportion of

employees who were self-employed was similar in the CPS and IRS data in 1979, the CPS data

show a declining trend while the IRS data show a rising trend.

There also is an upward trend in the number of tax returns that contain 1099-MISC

income relative to total CPS employment, from 11.3 percent in 2000 to 12.5 percent in 2012,

based on our tabulations of data from the U.S. Department of Treasury (2015) and BLS.

Abraham, et al. (2017) report a rising trend since 2000 in several administrative measures of self-

employment from tax and Census data, including a steady secular increase in self-employed non-

employers (individuals with over $1,000 in business income but no employees) as a percent of

employment. And Jackson, Looney and Ramnath’s (2017) study of IRS data finds that

“essentially all of the increase in self-employment is due to increases in sole proprietors who

have little or no business-related deductions, and who therefore appear to almost exclusively

provide labor services (i.e. the contractors or misclassified workers).”

15 The number of Schedule C filers is from Statistics of Income publication 1304 Table 1.3 available at https://www.irs.gov/uac/soi-tax-stats-individual-statistical-tables-by-filing-status#_grp1.

https://www.irs.gov/uac/soi-tax-stats-individual-statistical-tables-by-filing-status#_grp1

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We interpret the IRS data as consistent with the upward trend from 1995 to 2015 in the

share of workers who reported themselves as either working or being self-employed as an

independent contractor, independent consultant, or freelancer in the BLS CWS and RPCWS.

Understanding the reasons underlying the divergent trends between the IRS and CPS data on

self-employment should be a priority for future research.16

V. Characteristics of those in Alternative Work Arrangements

Table 3 reports the characteristics of workers in alternative work arrangements in 1995,

2005, and 2015. Thus, the sample characteristics displayed in Table 3 are limited to employed

respondents classified as a temporary help worker, on-call worker, contract company worker, or

an independent contractor or freelancer in their main job.

The share of workers in alternative work arrangements who also report themselves as

self-employed has declined from roughly 55 percent in 1995 and 2005 to under half (48 percent)

in 2015, reflecting the growth in the share of alternative workers employed by contract firms or

temporary help firms. There also has been a notable rise in the share of workers in alternative

work arrangements for women. Furthermore, the share of alternative workers who are college

graduates, multiple jobholders, or Hispanics have increased.

16 A possible reconciliation is that the CPS self-employment measure only covers main jobs. If a growing share of individuals have self-employment income from secondary jobs or activities but not from main jobs, then one could see a rise in the share of tax filers reporting Schedule C income and receiving 1099s even if self-employment in their main jobs is not increasing. But the increase in the share of individuals reporting to be independent contractors in their main jobs in the BLS CWS and RPCWS does not appear consistent with a decline in self-employment in main jobs in the standard monthly CPS. Some independent contract work and freelancing in main jobs does not appear to be reported as self-employment in the standard class of worker questions in the CPS. Abraham et al. (2017) make initial progress on these issues using linked household survey and administrative tax data for the same individuals and find a notable increase in self-employment activity reported to the IRS but not in the CPS.

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Construction and professional and business services were the two most prevalent industry

groups among those in alternative work in 1995 and 2005, but the education and health services

industry has surpassed them over the last decade. More than one in five workers in an alternative

work arrangement was working in education or health services in 2015. Together, professional

and business services, education and health, and other services represented half of all of those

engaged in an alternative work arrangement. Although the manufacturing sector has received

much attention related to alternative work arrangements, it accounts for only 6.2 percent of all

those engaged in alternative work, and just 2.6 percent of workers who are contracted out.

Workers in alternative work arrangements are spread throughout the occupational

distribution, with sales being the largest group in 2015. The occupational mix of alternative

workers has become more diffuse since 2005. And a comparison of the fourth columns of

Tables 1 and 3 indicates that alternative workers work fewer hours, are more likely to be part

time, and have lower weekly earnings than workers in traditional employment relationships.

VI. Incidence of Alternative Work Arrangements

Table 4 reports the percentage of workers in various categories that are employed in

alternative work arrangements in their main job.17 For example, 6.4 percent of those aged 16 to

24 were employed in an alternative work arrangement in 2015, while 14.3 percent of those aged

25-54 and 23.9 percent of those aged 55-75 were employed in an alternative work arrangement.

The 1995 and 2005 CWS also show a positive age gradient in the incidence of alternative work.

Interestingly, the rise in the incidence of alternative work has been sharpest for older workers

17 The estimates in Table 4 for subgroups should be interpreted with some caution because of the small sample sizes in the RPCWS for many subgroups.

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(those 55 to 75 years old) and strong for prime age workers (those 25 to 54 years old) as well.

But there was no change in the percentage of workers aged 16-24 who were employed in an

alternative work arrangement in their main job from 2005 to 2015, despite the large growth for

all workers. Thus, the positive age gradient in alternative work has become steeper.

Table 4 shows a notable rise in the likelihood of working in an alternative work

arrangement for women. From 2005 to 2015, the percentage of women who were employed in

an alternative work arrangement almost doubled, rising from 8.9 percent to 17.0 percent. The

percentage increased by a more modest amount for men, from 12.3 percent to 14.7 percent.

Women are now more likely than men to be employed in an alternative work arrangement. The

contrasting trends were particularly stark for the independent contractor category.

Workers in all educational categories experienced a rise in the likelihood of working in an

alternative work arrangement. Alternative work arrangements were most prevalent in the

construction and professional business services industries in 2005, but the growth of alternative

work arrangements has been greater in previously lagging sectors including transportation and

warehousing, information and communications, education and health care, agriculture, and

public administration. Figure 2 illustrates trends from 1995 to 2015 in the share of workers in

alternative work arrangements by key industries. Occupations experiencing large increases in

nonstandard work from 2005 to 2015 include computer and mathematical, community and social

service, education, healthcare, legal, protective service, personal care, and transportation jobs.

Is Alternative Work Growing in High- or Low-Wage Sectors?

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To assess whether alternative work is growing in higher or lower wage sectors of the

labor market, we used a regression approach. We first used the 2005 CPS Merged Outgoing

Rotation Groups (MORG) file to estimate a “kitchen sink Mincer regression” of the form:

Yi = Xib + ei ,

where Yi is individual “i’s” log hourly wage rate, Xi is a vector of predictor variables including

years of education, years of potential experience, potential experience squared, and dummy

variables indicating race, Hispanic ethnicity, sex, industry, and occupation. This regression is

meant for descriptive purposes only, and the 2005 CPS MORG sample was used to estimate the

regression because it is in the middle of the three surveys. We determined quintile cutoffs for

predicted wages based on the distribution of using the full 2005 MORG file.

We then predicted for each individual in the 1995 and 2005 CPS CWS and the 2015

RPCWS using the individual’s characteristics Xi and the vector of regression coefficients b

estimated from the 2005 MORG file. We used to assign individuals to a quintile of the

predicted wage distribution based on the 2005 quintile wage cutoffs, and computed the weighted

probability that an individual in the quintile was employed in an alternative work arrangement.

To carry out this exercise, we made one further adjustment to the 2015 RAND sample

weights. We adjusted the sample weights so that the fractions of workers and self-employed

workers in each predicted quintile matched the fractions in each predicted quintile from the

October 2015 CPS. This reweighting was necessary because the RPCWS data under-represented

the proportion of workers and over-represented the proportion of self-employed workers

predicted to be in the lower quintiles, even though the initial RAND weights did a reasonable job

of approximating the distribution of average worker characteristics as shown in Table 1.

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Figure 3 reports the results of this exercise. To make the patterns easier to detect, in

addition to showing the percentage of workers in each predicted wage quintile who are employed

in an alternative work arrangement, the figure also shows the OLS regression line through the

five percentages each year. Figure 3 shows that the incidence of alternative work is greater

among workers who are predicted to have higher wages. The rise in the incidence of alternative

work arrangements from 1995 to 2015 is similar across the predicted wage distribution as

indicated by the almost parallel upward shifts in the regression lines from 1995 to 2005 to 2015.

Figures 3(a) through 3(d) present the corresponding graphs for each category of

alternative work arrangements, showing the percent of independent contractors, on-call workers,

temporary help agency workers, and contracted-out workers by predicted wage quintile,

respectively. Three patterns are notable. First, the upward sloping relationships found in Figure

3 are primarily due to independent contractors. Second, and not surprisingly, the likelihood that

workers are employed in temporary help agency jobs and on-call jobs is higher in the lower

predicted-wage quintiles. Third, there was a rise in the likelihood of workers being contracted

out to other firms for those in the highest predicted-wage quintiles, rendering a sharply upward

sloping pattern by 2015. In 2015, workers with attributes and jobs associated with higher wages

are the most likely to have their services contracted out. Indeed, the lowest predicted quintile-

wage group did not experience a rise in contract work.

VII. Online and Offline Intermediated Work

A major goal of our questionnaire was to provide the first nationally-representative

survey-based estimates of the percent of workers working in what has been variously called “the

gig economy,” the “sharing economy,” the “online platform economy,” or the “on-demand

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economy.” Our approach was to first ask workers: “On either your main job or a secondary job,

do you do direct selling to customers?” We then followed up by asking about the nature of their

direct selling activities. A total of 19.4 percent of U.S. employees responded that they were

engaged in direct selling to customers on their job. The direct selling of goods or services to

customers is widespread among U.S. workers, and it goes far beyond retail sales clerks.

Of those who engaged in direct selling, however, only 7 percent answered that they

worked with an intermediary, such as Avon or Uber, in their direct selling activity. Among those

workers who said they worked with an intermediary, about one-third said that the intermediary is

online, such as Uber or TaskRabbit, and two-thirds reported that the intermediary is offline.

Thus, only about 0.5 percent of all workers identify customers through an online intermediary.

This figure, which requires many caveats (such as the ambiguity of the term “direct selling” and

the small sample size) is nonetheless remarkably close to Harris and Krueger’s (2015) estimate

of 0.4 percent of the workforce based on the frequency of Google searches for terms related to

online intermediaries and to Farrell and Greig’s (2016a) estimate of 0.6 percent of the working-

age population (or approximately 0.4 percent of the workforce) based on the frequency of bank

deposits from online work platforms. In addition, Jackson, Looney and Ramnath (2017) estimate

from tax data that 0.7 percent of workers earned income during 2014 through an online platform.

VIII. Wages and Hours

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We can compare earnings and work hours of workers in alternative work arrangements

and those in traditional employment.18 The 2005 CWS collected earnings information from

workers in contingent and alternative work arrangements in CPS rotation groups 1-3 and 5-7,

and earnings of all employees in rotation groups 4 and 8.19 Although we cannot distinguish

between workers in alternative and traditional employment arrangements in rotation groups 4

and 8, because workers in alternative employment arrangements comprised only 10 percent of all

workers in 2005, the vast majority of employees were in a traditional employment relationship.

Thus, by assigning all employees in rotation groups 4 and 8 to the category of traditional

employment and comparing them to workers identified in an alternative work arrangement in the

other rotation groups, we only attenuate differences in earnings or hours by a small amount

(approximately 10 percent).20

Another limitation of the CPS is that earnings are only available for the main job. For the

RPCWS data, however, we collected separate information on earnings in the main job and all

other jobs combined.

Table 5 presents wage regressions where the dependent variable is the natural logarithm

of hourly earnings on the main job.21 The first column reports results for a regression with the

18 See Goldschmidt and Schmieder (2017) and Dube and Kaplan (2010) for longitudinal evidence on the (approximately 10 percent) wage decline that security guards and janitors incur when they transition from direct employees to employees of business services firms in Germany and the United States, respectively.

19 Earnings information was not collected for workers in a traditional employment relationship in rotation groups 1-3 and 5-7; and information on alternative work arrangements was not collected for workers in rotation groups 4 and 8. We exclude contingent workers who are not in alternative work arrangements in rotation groups 1-3 and 5-7.

20 If θ is the proportion of workers in an alternative employment arrangement, the difference in mean earnings between workers in an alternative work arrangement and all workers will be (1-θ) times the difference in mean earnings between workers in an alternative work arrangement and workers in a traditional employment arrangement.

21 Hourly earnings were derived as weekly earnings (censored below $50 per week) divided by actual hours worked on the main job, and are censored below $1 per hour and above $1,000 per hour.

19

2005 CWS data that only includes four dummy variables indicating each of the four categories of

alternative work arrangements; the base group is all employees. The second column contains a

standard Mincer wage regression (with controls for education, experience, race/ethnicity, and

sex) augmented to include the alternative work arrangement dummies. The third column

contains an augmented Mincer regression with the addition of 22 occupation dummy variables.

Columns 4-6 present the corresponding regressions with the 2015 RPCWS data (although the

base group consists exclusively of those in a traditional employment relationship).

Before conditioning on covariates, the 2005 and 2015 results are similar: freelancers and

contract workers are paid more per hour than traditional employees, while temporary help and

on-call workers are paid less. (We discount the positive but quite imprecise estimate for on-call

workers in the RPCWS.) When we control for personal characteristics and occupation in the

2005 CWS, the penalty associated with working for a temporary help agency shrinks but remains

significant and the other differentials become small and statistically insignificant. In the

RPCWS, the estimates are less precise, but independent contractors continue to earn a positive

hourly wage premium even after conditioning on personal characteristics and occupation. A

positive hourly wage premium for independent contractors could reflect a compensating

differential for lower benefits and the need to pay self-employment taxes. Given the imprecision

of the estimates, we recommend caution in interpreting the estimates from the RPCWS.

Table 6 contains analogous regression results for the log of weekly earnings, and the

pattern of results is clearer after conditioning on covariates. In the CWS, all of the categories of

alternative work exhibit a large negative weekly wage differential relative to all employees

except contract workers, and in the RPCWS, all of the alternative work categories, including

contract workers, are paid less per week than workers in a traditional employment relationship

20

conditional on the listed personal characteristics and occupation dummies. Independent

contractors, for example, earn 33 log points less per week than employees with similar

characteristics, even though they earn 16 log points more per hour. Appendix Table A presents

regressions for the log of hourly and weekly wages combining earnings and hours on the main

job and any secondary jobs for the RPCWS sample, with similar results to those for the main job

shown in Tables 5 and 6. Obviously, the contrast between the hourly and weekly wage

differentials in the main job for alternative vs. traditional workers (mechanically) reflects lower

weekly hours in the main job for those in alternative work arrangements.

Table 7 reports regressions where the dependent variable is the log of hours worked on

all jobs. The results show a consistent pattern with workers in alternative work arrangements

working considerably fewer hours per week than traditional employees.22 The gap in average

work hours is largest for on-call workers and smallest for contract workers, although it appears to

be a ubiquitous feature of working in an alternative employment arrangement.

An important question to address is whether work hours are typically lower for workers

in alternative work arrangements by choice, or because these workers often face “hours

constraints” that limit their work hours. We can compare the frequency with which workers in

alternative work arrangements and traditional jobs report that they are working involuntarily

part-time. We did not ask about part-time for economic reasons in the RPCWS, but the

information is available from the 2005 CWS. Workers are classified as part-time for an

economic reason if they worked less than 35 hours in the survey week in all jobs combined and

cited a reason such as slack work or unfavorable business conditions, inability to find full-time

22 The lower weekly hours for alternative workers shown in Table 7 is quite similar when limiting the analysis to the main job, as can be seen by taking the differences between the coefficients on alternative work category indicators for log weekly wages in Table 6 and the corresponding coefficients for log hourly wages in Table 5.

21

work, or seasonal declines in demand as the reason for their part-time hours. Workers in

alternative work arrangements are more than twice as likely as other workers to be classified as

part-time for economic reasons (7.6 percent versus 3.3 percent). On-call and temporary help

agency workers were the most likely to be classified as part-time for economic reasons (13.2

percent and 12.6 percent, respectively), while independent contractors and contracted-out

workers were less likely to be so classified (6.0 percent and 6.5 percent, respectively), but all

four alternative groups were more likely to be classified as part-time for economic reasons than

were traditional employees.

IX. Worker Satisfaction with Work Arrangements

The CWS asked workers who identified themselves as paid by a temporary help agency,

on a temporary job, on-call workers, and independent contractors whether they would prefer a

traditional employment arrangement over their current arrangement. The specific questions were

tailored to the particular work arrangement. Temporary help agency employees were asked,

“Would you prefer a job with a different type of employer?” All workers who reported that they

were on a temporary job – including those employed by a temporary help agency – were asked,

“Would you prefer to have a job that is permanent rather than temporary?”23 On-call workers

were asked, “Would you prefer a job where you worked regularly scheduled hours?” And

workers who were self-employed as an independent contractor or freelancer were asked, “Would

you prefer to work for someone else rather than being an independent contractor?” (Workers

who were contracted out to provide services to another company were not asked whether they

23 A temporary job was defined as a job that “lasts only for a limited time or until the completion of a project.” Not surprisingly, a large majority of temporary help agency employees reported that they were on a temporary job.

22

would prefer to work directly for that other company.) The response set in each case was “no,”

“yes,” “don’t know,” “refused,” and “depends”.

We asked a similar, though not identical, set of questions in the RPCWS. Temporary

help agency workers on temporary jobs and on-call workers were asked the identical questions as

in the CWS. Workers who were self-employed as an independent contractor or a freelancer were

asked, “Would you prefer to work for someone else rather than being self-employed, an

independent contractor or a freelance worker?” The response set was either “yes” or “no.”

Table 8 provides a comparison of the 1995 and 2005 CWS and 2015 RPCWS data of

workers’ preferences concerning their work arrangement. We restricted both samples to workers

who worked in the survey reference week. (We were able to exactly replicate the published

CWS results without this restriction.) Because the questions and response set were close but not

identical, and the sample sizes for the RPCWS were small, the results should be taken as

suggestive.24 The general pattern found in the earlier 1995 and 2005 CWS seems to hold. A

large majority of temporary help agency employees on temporary jobs would prefer a permanent

job and almost half of on-call workers would prefer a job with regularly scheduled hours.

The 1995 and 2005 CWS found that more than 80 percent of independent contractors and

freelancers preferred their work arrangement to working for someone else, and a similar

proportion responded likewise in the 2015 RPCWS.25 It is possible that the CWS question

prompts independent contractors and freelancers to reflect on the advantages of being their own

24 The sample sizes for the 2015 RPCWS are 18 temporary help employees on temporary jobs, 57 on-call workers, and 209 independent contractors and freelancers.

25 Recall that allowable responses were broader in the CWS (including refused and “it depends”). If we look at the percent of independent contractors who said they would prefer to work for someone else, the figures were 9.8 percent in 1995, 8.8 percent in 2005 and 16.3 percent in 2015.

23

boss, which elicits a favorable response, rather than the disadvantages of working fewer hours

than workers in traditional employment relationships, which would elicit a less positive response.

The results in Table 8 suggest substantial stability over time in workers’ stated preferences

regarding their work arrangements, despite the significant growth in the share of workers in

alternative work arrangements over the last decade. More than 80 percent of independent

contractors and freelancers continue to indicate they prefer such an arrangement to being an

employee.26 In contrast, the vast majority of those employed by temporary help agencies on

temporary jobs would prefer a permanent job, and almost half of on-call workers would rather

have regularly scheduled hours. Thus, it appears that many workers who become independent

contractors and freelancers are sorting into those work relationships based, in part, on their

preference for being their own boss, while many (and possibly most) workers in on-call and

temporary help jobs have a preference for more steady employment with regular hours.

X. Conclusion

Many possible factors could have contributed to the large increase in the incidence of

alternative work arrangements for American workers from 2005 to 2015 that we have

documented in this paper. Worker, or supply-side, factors include shifts in workforce

composition to groups with a greater preference for alternative work arrangements or increased

desire for workplace flexibility. Firm, or demand-side, factors include potential growing

efficiency gains to contracting out and increased rent shifting incentives. Although a fuller

evaluation must await further research, we provide an initial evaluation of leading explanations. 26 A higher share of independent contractors and freelancers whose characteristics place them in the highest predicted wage quintiles preferred their arrangements over traditional employment, but upwards of 70 percent of those predicted to be in the bottom two quintiles still expressed a preference for their arrangement over employment.

24

The first explanation is that alternative work is more common among older workers and more

highly educated workers, and the workforce has become older and more educated over time. A

shift-share analysis, however, indicates that shifts in the age and education distribution of the

workforce account for only about 10 percent of the increase in the percentage of workers

employed in alternative work arrangements from 2005 to 2015.27 Other supply-side factors,

such as a possible increase in demand for flexible work hours (perhaps supported by the

increased availability of health insurance as a result of the Affordable Care Act) and increased

concerns about work-life balance may also have contributed (Mas and Pallais 2016). It is

unlikely that supply-side factors account for the lion’s share of the rise in alternative work

arrangements since the rise in employees who are hired out to other firms through contract firms

or temporary help agencies accounts for roughly half of the overall rise in the share of

employment in alternative work arrangements in the last decade.

Second, technological changes that lead to enhanced monitoring, standardize job tasks,

and make information on worker reputation more widely available may be leading to greater

disintermediation of job tasks. Coase’s (1937) classic explanation for the boundary of firms

rested on the minimization of transaction costs within firm-employee relationships.

Technological changes may be reducing the transaction costs associated with contracting out job

tasks, however, and thus supporting the disintermediation of work. Furthermore, improvements

in information technology and thicker markets for contractors increasingly mean large

27 We divided the sample into 30 age-by-education cells. If we assign the fraction of workers in each cell that was employed in an alternative work arrangement in 2005 based on the BLS CWS and allow the share of workers in each cell to change according to the observed changes between the 2005 CPS and 2015 CPS, we predict that the overall share in workers employed in alternative work arrangements would have risen by 0.5 percentage point, compared with the 5.1 percentage point increase that was actually observed. We reach a similar conclusion using the 2015 age-by-education distribution from the RPCWS.

25

organizations may reap efficiency gains and cost savings from hiring specialized contractors for

non-core activities (such as janitorial services, food services, information technology,

accounting, and legal services) rather than managing such activities in-house.

Third, fairness norms and morale considerations often motivate firms to share rents with

their employees and create wage compression pressures within firm boundaries. And fairness

considerations seem to apply much more to traditional incumbent employees than to new hires or

contractors (Kahneman, Knetsch, and Thaler 1986). Market and other forces leading to rising

educational wage differentials and rising wage inequality increase the costs to firms of wage

compression and of sharing rents with low-wage workers. Thus, rising wage inequality itself

may have increased incentives to contract out low-wage workers and to concentrate high- and

low-wage workers into different organizations. Abraham and Taylor (1996) argue that

contracting out is often sought because firms seek to restrict the pool of workers with whom

rents are shared, as well as to reduce the volatility of core employment. A rise in inter-firm

variability in profitability is thus consistent with a greater desire for contracting out to reduce

rent sharing (although increased contracting out could also have contributed to the rise in inter-

firm variability in profits). Growing product market volatility can increase contracting out since

layoffs of incumbent traditional employees who typically have an implicit promise of a long-

term relationship appear to be costlier to a firm’s reputation as an employer than are changes in

the use of contractors (Halonen-Akatwijuka and Hart 2016).

Relatedly, Weil (2014) argues that competitive pressures have increased firm demands

for “flexibility” and are causing a “fissuring” of the workplace, with workers increasingly being

misclassified as contract employees and work being redefined to make greater use of contract

workers and independent contractors. Furthermore, Song et al. (2016) find a rising correlation of

26

firm wage premiums with worker skills and worker wage fixed effects (the permanent wage

component that persists across employers). These patterns suggest that high-rent firms are

increasingly contracting out standardized and lower-wage work and restricting rent sharing to a

smaller core of highly compensated workers.

Finally, it is plausible that the dislocation caused by the Great Recession in 2007-2009

may have caused many workers to seek alternative work arrangements when traditional

employment was not available. To the extent this is the case then one might expect a return to a

lower percentage of workers employed in alternative work arrangements over time, as the effects

of the recession continue to fade. Katz and Krueger (2017) find that workers who suffer a spell

of unemployment have a greatly elevated likelihood of transitioning to an alternative work

arrangement but also find that cyclical labor market conditions are unlikely to explain much of

the recent shift from traditional to alternative work arrangements.

Regardless of the explanation for the growth in alternative work, our findings indicate

that workers in alternative work arrangements earn considerably less per week than do regular

employees with similar characteristics and in similar occupations. The earnings gap derives

more from workers in alternative work arrangements working fewer hours per week than from a

gap in hourly earnings. A larger share of alternative workers are involuntary part-time workers

compared with employees in traditional jobs, suggesting that many in alternative work

arrangements may be “hours constrained.” Most temporary help agency workers and a near

majority of on-call workers would prefer permanent employment with regularly scheduled hours

to their current situation. A majority of workers who are independent contractors or freelancers,

however, apparently value the flexibility and independence that comes with being their own boss

and report that they would prefer to work for themselves rather than for someone else.

27

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29

CPS CPS(Percent of Employed Who Worked in Survey Week) Oct-2015 Unweighted Weighted Alt. Weight (Percent of Employed Who Worked in Survey Week) Oct-2015 Unweighted Weighted Alt. WeightSelf-Employment 9.6 13.3 11.6 9.6 Occupation:Median Age (Years) 46.0 50.0 41.0 41.0 Management 11.4 13.3 12.6 12.6Mean Age (Years) 46.1 48.3 42.6 42.5 Business and Financial Operations 4.8 7.9 7.9 7.9Female 46.8 55.5 47.1 47.1 Computer and Mathematical 2.8 3.4 3.1 3.1Race/Ethnicity: Architecture and Engineering 2.1 2.1 2.0 2.1

White 79.1 80.6 76.1 75.9 Life, Physical, and Social Science 1.0 1.5 1.4 1.4African-American 11.8 8.7 10.1 10.3 Community and Social Service 1.7 4.3 2.9 2.9Hispanic 16.6 15.5 19.7 19.8 Legal 1.2 1.8 1.4 1.4

Educational Attainment: Education, Training, and Library 6.0 8.8 6.6 6.7Bachelor's Degree or Higher 36.3 48.5 35.4 35.5 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media 2.0 3.3 2.7 2.6Some College or Associate's Degree 28.9 37.2 30.1 30.1 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 6.1 6.0 5.9 6.0High School Graduate 26.6 12.0 28.3 28.3 Healthcare Support 2.3 3.9 3.9 3.9Less Than High School Diploma 8.3 2.3 6.2 6.1 Protective Service 2.1 1.9 2.8 2.8

Multiple Jobholder 5.2 14.3 13.2 13.1 Food Preparation and Serving Related 5.5 3.0 4.5 4.5In Labor Force (Percent of Population) 62.7 62.8 67.5 67.5 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance 3.9 1.9 2.7 2.7Part-Time Employment (< 35 Actual Hours) 25.2 26.2 24.2 23.5 Personal Care and Service 3.5 3.2 2.8 2.6Part-Time Employment: First Job (< 35 Actual Hours) 26.4 29.0 27.0 26.2 Sales and Related 10.2 8.5 8.4 8.3Industry: Office and Administrative Support 12.0 13.2 11.7 11.8

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting 1.5 1.0 1.6 1.5 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.5Mining 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.5 Construction and Extraction 5.2 1.5 2.8 2.6Utilities 0.9 0.5 0.9 0.9 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair 3.5 1.8 2.8 2.8Construction 6.6 3.1 4.1 3.9 Production 5.7 4.1 5.0 5.1Manufacturing 10.6 7.3 8.6 8.8 Transportation and Material Moving 6.3 3.9 5.4 5.5Wholesale Trade 2.4 2.6 2.2 2.2 Median Actual Hours Worked: Total 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0Retail Trade 11.0 8.7 9.6 9.6 First Job 40.0 40.0 40.0 40.0Transportation and Warehousing 4.4 3.8 5.4 5.4 Second Job 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0Information 2.0 3.3 3.6 3.7 Mean Actual Hours Worked: Total 38.8 38.5 39.4 39.6Financial Activities 6.7 9.2 9.2 9.2 First Job 38.1 36.7 37.5 37.8Professional and Business Services 11.9 14.5 13.4 13.2 Second Job 13.3 12.9 14.0 14.1Education and Health Services 22.7 26.0 22.4 22.5 Median Weekly Earnings: First Job ($) 700.0 875.0 875.0 875.0Leisure and Hospitality 9.1 5.4 6.0 6.0 Mean Weekly Earnings: First Job ($) 895.4 1014.8 1016.7 1019.6Other Services (Excluding Public Administration) 5.0 5.2 4.8 4.7Public Administration 4.7 8.7 7.7 7.8 Number of Observations 58,629 2,194 2,194 2,194

Note:

RAND Oct/Nov-2015

Table 1Characteristics of Employed Workers

RAND Oct/Nov-2015

Source: October 2015 Current Population Survey; 2015 RPCWS.

October 2015 Current Population Survey data are weighted using final weights except for weekly earnings, which are weighted using outgoing rotation group weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using (1) weights developedby RAND and (2) an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALP sample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

30

CPS CPS (Percent of Employed Who Also Worked During Survey Week) Feb-1995 Feb-2005 Weighted Alt. WeightAlternative Work Arrangements 10.0 10.7 17.2 15.8

Independent Contractors 6.3 6.9 9.6 8.4On-Call Workers 1.6 1.7 2.8 2.6Temporary Help Agency Workers 1.0 0.9 1.6 1.6Workers Provided by Contract Firms 1.3 1.4 3.3 3.1

Workers Provided by Contract Firms (Single Jobholders) 1.2 1.3 2.1 2.0Number of Observations 55,453 42,802 2,194 2,194Note:

RAND Oct/Nov-2015

Table 2Alternative Work Arrangements

Source: 1995 and 2005 Current Population Survey CWS; 2015 RPCWS.

Workers provided by contract firms can be assigned to more than one customer and do not have to work at the customer'sworksite. 1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using (1)weights developed by RAND and (2) an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employedworkers in the ALP sample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

31

CPS CPS CPS CPS(Percent) Feb-1995 Feb-2005 Weighted Alt. Weight (Percent) Feb-1995 Feb-2005 Weighted Alt. WeightSelf-Employment 53.9 55.8 53.0 47.5 Occupation:Median Age (Years) 40.0 44.0 47.0 45.0 Management 12.0 11.1 8.8 8.6Mean Age (Years) 41.4 44.0 46.8 46.5 Business and Financial Operations 3.5 5.2 7.4 7.3Female 37.0 38.6 50.3 50.8 Computer and Mathematical 2.2 2.7 4.1 4.2Race/Ethnicity: Architecture and Engineering 1.6 2.0 1.3 1.3

White 88.3 86.0 80.0 79.2 Life, Physical, and Social Science 1.6 1.1 0.8 0.9African-American 8.0 8.1 8.8 9.3 Community and Social Service 0.4 0.7 3.9 4.3Hispanic 7.3 11.9 19.3 19.6 Legal 1.4 1.2 1.7 1.7

Educational Attainment: Education, Training, and Library 4.2 4.4 7.8 8.1Bachelor's Degree or Higher 29.9 32.3 37.7 38.4 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media 4.8 5.6 6.4 6.2Some College or Associate's Degree 29.0 29.7 30.6 30.1 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 3.7 3.8 4.7 4.8High School Graduate 29.5 27.1 25.6 25.4 Healthcare Support 1.6 2.2 4.3 4.4Less Than High School Diploma 11.6 10.8 6.1 6.0 Protective Service 1.6 1.5 2.5 2.8

Multiple Jobholder 8.0 7.4 32.0 33.0 Food Preparation and Serving Related 1.3 1.4 3.1 3.3Part-Time Employment (< 35 Actual Hours) 38.0 35.2 47.7 46.2 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance 4.9 5.2 2.6 2.6Part-Time Employment: First Job (< 35 Actual Hours) 40.0 36.9 53.9 52.4 Personal Care and Service 4.8 6.1 7.5 7.0Industry: Sales and Related 13.8 12.4 9.6 9.4

Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting 2.2 1.5 4.4 4.1 Office and Administrative Support 7.2 5.9 5.2 5.4Mining 0.5 0.3 0.5 0.5 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry 1.1 0.6 2.1 1.9Utilities 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.4 Construction and Extraction 13.0 13.7 4.4 4.1Construction 16.9 18.0 7.0 6.7 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair 3.3 3.8 2.3 2.2Manufacturing 5.1 4.7 5.9 6.2 Production 5.1 3.4 3.3 3.3Wholesale Trade 2.7 2.3 0.6 0.7 Transportation and Material Moving 6.8 5.9 6.1 6.3Retail Trade 7.1 7.1 6.3 6.4 Median Actual Hours Worked: Total 40.0 40.0 35.0 36.0Transportation and Warehousing 4.3 4.3 5.4 5.4 First Job 40.0 40.0 32.0 32.0Information 3.1 2.1 3.6 3.8 Second Job 10.0 12.0 8.0 8.0Financial Activities 7.4 7.8 6.4 6.2 Mean Actual Hours Worked: Total 37.3 37.5 33.3 33.9Professional and Business Services 25.1 23.4 20.7 20.6 First Job 36.0 36.3 29.3 29.6Education and Health Services 12.2 13.9 21.9 22.3 Second Job 13.6 13.9 12.6 13.0Leisure and Hospitality 2.9 5.1 4.7 4.6 Median Weekly Earnings: First Job ($) 361.0 500.0 625.0 625.0Other Services (Excluding Public Administration) 9.4 7.7 7.4 7.1 Mean Weekly Earnings: First Job ($) 508.0 729.8 869.3 874.4Public Administration 0.9 1.2 4.7 5.0 Number of Observations 5,584 4,675 450 450

Note:


RAND Oct/Nov-2015 RAND Oct/Nov-2015

Table 3Characteristics of Workers in Alternative Work Arrangements

1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using (1) weights developed by RAND and (2) an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employedworkers in the ALP sample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

32

CPS CPS CPS CPS(Percent of Each Characteristic) Feb-1995 Feb-2005 Weighted Alt. Weight (Percent of Each Characteristic) Feb-1995 Feb-2005 Weighted Alt. WeightAge: Occupation:

16-24 Years Old 6.7 7.1 6.8 6.4 Management 10.7 11.9 12.1 10.725-54 Years Old 10.0 10.4 15.4 14.3 Business and Financial Operations 9.2 13.2 16.1 14.555-75 Years Old 14.1 15.1 26.4 23.9 Computer and Mathematical 14.9 11.7 22.8 21.6

Gender: Architecture and Engineering 7.2 11.0 10.8 9.9Male 11.7 12.3 16.2 14.7 Life, Physical, and Social Science 11.6 11.7 10.8 9.8Female 8.1 8.9 18.4 17.0 Community and Social Service 3.2 4.7 23.5 23.0

Race/Ethnicity: Legal 15.0 11.2 20.8 19.2White 10.4 11.2 18.1 16.5 Education, Training, and Library 7.2 7.6 20.4 19.3African-American 7.5 8.2 14.9 14.2 Arts, Design, Entertainment, Sports, and Media 28.8 31.2 40.2 37.1Hispanic 8.5 9.8 16.9 15.7 Healthcare Practitioners and Technical 8.7 8.5 13.7 12.6

Educational Attainment: Healthcare Support 8.6 10.9 19.0 17.9Bachelor's Degree or Higher 11.4 11.5 18.3 17.1 Protective Service 9.1 7.5 15.5 15.5Some College or Associate's Degree 9.8 10.9 17.5 15.8 Food Preparation and Serving Related 2.8 3.0 12.1 11.3High School Graduate 9.3 9.9 15.6 14.2 Building and Grounds Cleaning and Maintenance 15.0 17.2 16.7 15.2Less Than High School Diploma 9.5 10.5 16.8 15.5 Personal Care and Service 22.6 22.5 46.1 42.1

Industry: Sales and Related 11.6 11.3 19.7 17.9Agriculture, Forestry, Fishing, and Hunting 12.4 14.4 47.5 42.9 Office and Administrative Support 5.1 4.5 7.6 7.2Mining 8.1 8.1 15.9 15.1 Farming, Fishing, and Forestry 14.7 11.1 64.2 59.0Utilities 2.3 5.7 6.5 6.5 Construction and Extraction 26.9 24.8 27.2 24.4Construction 30.5 26.7 29.8 27.2 Installation, Maintenance, and Repair 9.1 10.7 13.9 12.4Manufacturing 3.4 4.3 11.8 11.1 Production 5.4 5.4 11.3 10.1Wholesale Trade 7.1 7.8 5.1 4.7 Transportation and Material Moving 9.4 10.0 19.2 18.2Retail Trade 6.1 6.3 11.3 10.6Transportation and Warehousing 10.8 10.8 17.5 15.8Information 8.5 9.6 16.9 16.2Financial Activities 10.9 11.2 12.0 10.7Professional and Business Services 28.0 25.1 26.6 24.7Education and Health Services 6.2 7.0 16.9 15.7Leisure and Hospitality 4.1 6.8 13.5 12.1Other Services (Excluding Public Administration) 18.7 17.4 26.8 23.8Public Administration 1.9 2.5 10.5 10.1

Note:

RAND Oct/Nov-2015

Table 4Probability of Employed Workers Who Worked During Survey Week Also Being in Alternative Work Arrangements

RAND Oct/Nov-2015


1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using (1) weights developed by RAND and (2) an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employedworkers in the ALP sample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

33

Independent Contractors 0.160 0.016 -0.008 0.187 0.144 0.162 (0.021) *** (0.020) (0.020) (0.083) ** (0.082) * (0.081) **

On-Call Workers (Excluding Day Laborers) -0.111 -0.045 -0.030 0.174 0.226 0.282 (0.035) *** (0.036) (0.034) (0.237) (0.247) (0.253)

Temporary Help Agency Workers -0.235 -0.097 -0.087 -0.226 -0.154 -0.158 (0.045) *** (0.041) ** (0.039) ** (0.112) ** (0.123) (0.116)

Workers Provided by Contract Firms 0.092 0.060 0.016 0.124 0.016 -0.024 (0.034) *** (0.030) * (0.030) (0.093) (0.078) (0.075)

Years of Education 0.093 0.069 0.103 0.086 (0.002) *** (0.002) *** (0.010) *** (0.010) ***

Years of Experience 0.034 0.030 0.020 0.018 (0.001) *** (0.001) *** (0.007) *** (0.007) ***

Years of Experience Squared -0.001 -0.000 -0.000 -0.000 (0.000) *** (0.000) *** (0.000) ** (0.000) *

Race:African-American -0.170 -0.129 0.018 0.075

(0.016) *** (0.015) *** (0.061) (0.060) Asian/Pacific Islander -0.044 -0.042 0.002 0.073

(0.024) * (0.022) * (0.091) (0.080) Other -0.033 -0.048 -0.048 -0.059

(0.030) (0.028) * (0.086) (0.083) Hispanic Ethnicity -0.084 -0.065 0.017 0.055

(0.015) *** (0.015) *** (0.063) (0.062) Female -0.217 -0.179 -0.193 -0.180

(0.010) *** (0.011) *** (0.038) *** (0.041) ***

Controls for 22 Occupations No No Yes No No YesAdjusted R-Squared 0.005 0.259 0.320 0.007 0.137 0.206Number of Observations 18,651 18,651 18,651 2,171 2,171 2,171

Note:

Source: 2005 Current Population Survey CWS; 2015 RPCWS.

Table 5Regressions of Log Hourly Wages From Main Job

2005 CWS regressions are weighted using either supplement weights or outgoing rotation group weights as applicable. 2015 RPCWS regressions are

relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

(1) (2)2005 CWS

weighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALP sample of respondents

(3)2015 RPCWS

(4) (5) (6)

Levels of Significance: *** = 0.01, ** = 0.05, * = 0.10

34

Independent Contractors 0.075 -0.113 -0.136 -0.331 -0.348 -0.330 (0.021) *** (0.020) *** (0.020) *** (0.103) *** (0.100) *** (0.095) ***

On-Call Workers (Excluding Day Laborers) -0.497 -0.404 -0.368 -0.579 -0.494 -0.396 (0.038) *** (0.037) *** (0.034) *** (0.241) ** (0.230) ** (0.246)

Temporary Help Agency Workers -0.309 -0.147 -0.145 -0.676 -0.523 -0.501 (0.048) *** (0.043) *** (0.040) *** (0.193) *** (0.216) ** (0.190) ***

Workers Provided by Contract Firms 0.116 0.057 0.012 -0.122 -0.241 -0.302 (0.039) *** (0.034) * (0.033) (0.117) (0.101) ** (0.090) ***



Years of Experience Squared -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 (0.000) *** (0.000) *** (0.000) *** (0.000) ***

Race:African-American -0.137 -0.088 -0.170 -0.092

(0.018) *** (0.017) *** (0.094) * (0.092) Asian/Pacific Islander -0.002 0.006 -0.055 0.051

(0.028) (0.026) (0.129) (0.114) Other -0.049 -0.069 -0.120 -0.137

(0.034) (0.032) ** (0.098) (0.094) Hispanic Ethnicity -0.057 -0.022 0.038 0.097

(0.018) *** (0.017) (0.073) (0.069) Female -0.396 -0.330 -0.343 -0.296

(0.011) *** (0.012) *** (0.047) *** (0.048) ***


Note: 2005 CWS regressions are weighted using either supplement weights or outgoing rotation group weights as applicable. 2015 RPCWS regressions areweighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALP sample of respondentsrelative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.


Table 6Regressions of Log Weekly Wages From Main Job

2005 CWS 2015 RPCWS(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)


35

Independent Contractors -0.093 -0.137 -0.128 -0.413 -0.386 -0.386 (0.015) *** (0.014) *** (0.014) *** (0.089) *** (0.090) *** (0.091) ***

On-Call Workers (Excluding Day Laborers) -0.408 -0.370 -0.353 -0.706 -0.675 -0.639 (0.034) *** (0.032) *** (0.032) *** (0.217) *** (0.200) *** (0.204) ***

Temporary Help Agency Workers -0.072 -0.042 -0.052 -0.433 -0.354 -0.330 (0.031) ** (0.032) (0.031) * (0.167) *** (0.177) ** (0.171) *

Workers Provided by Contract Firms 0.022 -0.004 -0.001 -0.172 -0.182 -0.198 (0.024) (0.024) (0.023) (0.086) ** (0.086) ** (0.086) **

Years of Education 0.019 0.015 0.018 0.015 (0.001) *** (0.001) *** (0.006) *** (0.007) **


Years of Experience Squared -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 -0.001 (0.000) *** (0.000) *** (0.000) *** (0.000) ***

Race:African-American 0.034 0.041 -0.163 -0.146

(0.007) *** (0.007) *** (0.077) ** (0.077) * Asian/Pacific Islander 0.041 0.045 -0.050 -0.023

(0.010) *** (0.010) *** (0.079) (0.075) Other 0.002 0.002 -0.078 -0.083

(0.013) (0.013) (0.057) (0.057) Hispanic Ethnicity 0.054 0.065 0.015 0.029

(0.007) *** (0.007) *** (0.042) (0.046) Female -0.169 -0.144 -0.157 -0.135

(0.004) *** (0.005) *** (0.031) *** (0.035) ***


Note:


Table 7Regressions of Log Actual Hours Worked on All Jobs

2005 CWS regressions are weighted using final weights. 2015 RPCWS regressions are weighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for

(1) (2)2005 CWS


the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALP sample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

(3)2015 RPCWS

(4) (5) (6)

36

CPS CPS RAND(Percent) Feb-1995 Feb-2005 Oct/Nov-2015Temporary Help Agency Workers:

Prefer a Job With a Different Type of Employer 63.9 57.2 N/A

Temporary Help Agency Workers With Temporary Jobs:Prefer a Job That is Permanent 82.9 83.5 76.9

On-Call Workers:Prefer a Job With Regularly Scheduled Hours 57.7 45.1 44.7

Independent Contractors:Prefer to Work for Themselves 82.7 82.5 83.7

Note:


Table 8Employment Preferences of Workers in Alternative Work Arrangements

1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using analternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALPsample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

37

Independent Contractors 0.209 0.166 0.182 -0.208 -0.223 -0.208 (0.080) *** (0.079) ** (0.078) ** (0.103) ** (0.100) ** (0.095) **

On-Call Workers (Excluding Day Laborers) 0.158 0.210 0.262 -0.460 -0.375 -0.284 (0.237) (0.248) (0.253) (0.224) ** (0.212) * (0.232)

Temporary Help Agency Workers -0.230 -0.157 -0.158 -0.662 -0.510 -0.487 (0.112) ** (0.122) (0.116) (0.195) *** (0.216) ** (0.191) **

Workers Provided by Contract Firms 0.147 0.037 -0.006 -0.025 -0.144 -0.208 (0.094) (0.080) (0.077) (0.132) (0.117) (0.108) *



Years of Experience Squared -0.000 -0.000 -0.001 -0.001 (0.000) * (0.000) * (0.000) *** (0.000) ***

Race:African-American 0.020 0.079 -0.149 -0.072

(0.060) (0.059) (0.095) (0.093) Asian/Pacific Islander -0.025 0.044 -0.074 0.025

(0.089) (0.080) (0.130) (0.114) Other -0.043 -0.054 -0.129 -0.146

(0.086) (0.083) (0.099) (0.095) Hispanic Ethnicity 0.007 0.045 0.027 0.082

(0.063) (0.062) (0.074) (0.070) Female -0.193 -0.178 -0.350 -0.309

(0.037) *** (0.041) *** (0.047) *** (0.047) ***


Note: 2015 RPCWS regressions are weighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employed workers in theALP sample of respondents relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.

Source: 2015 RPCWS.

Appendix Table ARegressions of Log Total Wages in 2015 RPCWS

Total Hourly Wages Total Weekly Wages(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)


38

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

1979 1983 1987 1991 1995 1999 2003 2007 2011 2015

Percent of CPS Total EmployedFigure 1: Trends in Self-Employment

2015

Schedule C Filings

2014

2015CPS Unincorporated Self-Employed

CPS TotalSelf-Employed

Note: Shading denotes recession.Source: Current Population Survey; IRS Statistics of Income Publication 1304 (Table 1.3).

39

05

101520253035

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1995 2005 2015

Figure 2: Probability of Alternative Work by IndustryPercent of Total Employed Who Worked During Survey Week

Note: 1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for the over-representation of self-employed workers in the ALP sample relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.Source: 1995 and 2005 Current Population Survey CWS; 2015 RPCWS.

40

68

10121416182022

1 2 3 4 5

1995 2005 2015

Figure 3: Probability of Being in Alternative Work Arrangements

Percent

Note: Mincer regression of log hourly wages on years of education, years of experience, years of experience squared, industry, occupation, race, Hispanic ethnicity, and gender using 2005 CPS MORG. 1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for both (1) the under-representation of the proportion of workers and (2) the over-representation of the proportion of self-employed workers in the lower quintiles of predicted log hourly wages relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.Source: 1995 and 2005 Current Population Survey CWS; 2015 RPCWS.

2005 CPS MORG Quintile of Predicted Log Hourly Wages

41

2468

101214

1 2 3 4 5

1995 2005 2015

Figure 3(a): Probability of Being an IndependentContractor

Percent

2005 CPS MORG Quintile of Predicted Log Hourly WagesNote: Mincer regression of log hourly wages on years of education, years of experience, years of experience squared, industry, occupation, race, Hispanic ethnicity, and gender using 2005 CPS MORG. 1995 and 2005 CWS data are weighted using supplement weights. 2015 RPCWS data are weighted using an alternative set of weights that accounts for both (1) the under-representation of the proportion of workers and (2) the over-representation of the proportion of self-employed workers in the lower quintiles of predicted log hourly wages relative to the October 2015 Current Population Survey.Source: 1995 and 2005 Current Population Survey CWS; 2015 RPCWS.

42

0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.5

1 2 3 4 5

1995 2005 2015

Figure 3(b): Probability of Being an On-Call WorkerPercent


43

0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.5

1 2 3 4 5

1995 2005 2015

Figure 3(c): Probability of Being a Temporary Help Agency Worker

Percent


44

0.00.51.01.52.02.53.03.54.04.55.05.5

1 2 3 4 5

1995 2005 2015

Figure 3(d): Probability of Being a Worker Provided by Contract Firms

Percent


Documents

The Rise and Nature of Alternative Work … Rise and Nature of Alternative Work Arrangements in the United States, ... nonstandard) work relationships ... alternative work arrangements