The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism … · 2013. 7. 2. · Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 222 Teacher Professionalism: Views

The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and

Teacher Professionalism

A Papua New Guinea Primary School Case Study

Eliakim Tokacap Apelis, MPS Dip. Sec. Teach.(GTC - UPNG), B.Ed. (UOG), M.Ed. (QUT)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

Queensland University of Technology

September, 2008

Centre for Learning Innovation

Faculty of Education

The Relationship between the Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism: A PNG Primary School Case Study

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KEYWORDS

Inspectorial system, Inspectorial interactive strategies, Quality assurance, Professional

development, Teacher professionalism, Dimensions of teacher professionalism, Professional

ethics, Supervision, Teacher compliance, Teacher knowledge, Teacher leadership.


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ABSTRACT

The inspectorial system is a legacy of the colonial era. The functions, responsibilities and

strategies of the inspectorial system in PNG schools were introduced during the colonial era

and since its inception there have been insignificant changes made.

There are perceived problems being experienced due to the growth of the education system

and the complex management of education services as a result of the centralized and

decentralized organizational functions introduced some thirty years ago. The multiple,

conflicting and confusing roles of the inspectorial system developed over the years and the

organizational cultures of agencies responsible for the inspectorial system have further

complicated the work of inspectors. Thus the question of how effectively the inspectorial

system works and how it serves its functions needs to be addressed, particularly on how it

enhances the teaching profession.

Although the inspectorial system was introduced as a means of quality assurance, which is

still being emphasized in PNG, the analysis reveals that supervision and professional

development strategies are applied by inspectors as interactive strategies to pursue better

education standards and quality education. These strategies supposedly ensure teacher

professionalism is sustained and improved in order to impact on the quality of education

provided by the schools. However a lack of clear understanding of teacher professionalism,

despite changes and developments within the education system, may be also having an

influence on how effective the inspectorial system is. The inspectorial system has developed

into a complicated system. Therefore the need for clear demarcations of its functions,

responsibilities and strategies is investigated in this study so that the inspectorial system is

improved or developed into a more functional system that may produce tangible outcomes.

The study explores the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head teachers and

inspectors about the inspectorial system, teacher professionalism and their relationships. It

does so by answering the main question, how and to what extent does the inspectorial system

enhance and hinder teacher professionalism in primary schools in PNG, as well as

specifically answering the following key questions:

• How does the inspectorial system operate in primary schools in PNG?

• What are the dimensions of teacher professionalism that are perceived by

teachers, head teachers and inspectors?


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• How are these dimensions of teacher professionalism linked to the

interactive strategies applied by inspectors on teachers and head teachers?

• What redeveloped conceptual framework grounded in the realities of

teachers’, head teachers’ and inspectors’ experiences, beliefs and

perceptions about the inspectorial interactive strategies can enhance

teacher professionalism?

In doing so, the interactive strategies of the inspectorial system (including quality assurance,

professional development and professional ethics) and the dimensions of teacher

professionalism (including teacher compliance, teacher knowledge, teacher leadership,

teacher professional development and teacher professional ethics) are disclosed and their

linkages identified. For example, professional development interactive strategies are linked

directly to teacher professional development as experienced and perceived by teachers, head

teachers and inspectors. This is done so that the direct impacts of each inspectorial

interactive strategy on the dimensions of teacher professionalism are identified, and this

leads to the creation of a conceptual framework for an inspectorial system that enhances

teacher professionalism. The conceptual framework can guide supervisors, either school-

based or externally based, to develop and execute an efficient supervisory system that can

have a direct impact on an evolving teaching profession.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE Papua New Guinea: Introducing the Study 19 1.1 Introduction to the Study 19 1.2 The Origin of the Study 20 1.3 Papua New Guinea 20

1.3.1 Papua New Guinea and Its History 20 1.3.2 Education in Papua New Guinea 22

Traditional Education 22 History and Legacies 23 Contemporary Education 24 Current Education Reform 24 Legislation and Policies 27 Centralized and Decentralized Functions 28

1.3.3 Organizational Structure of the NDOE 29 Organizational Structure 30 Specific Functions of the Divisions 30 Provincial Divisions of Education 32

1.3.4 The Inspectorial System 32 The Inspectorial Functions and Responsibilities 33 Specific Responsibilities of Inspectorial System 34 Conflicting and Multiple Roles of Inspectors 36

1.3.5 Quality Education in PNG 37 1.3.6 Quality Assurance: A task of the Inspectorial System 38 1.3.7 Teacher Supervision and Professional Development in PNG schools 39 1.3.8 Teacher Professionalism in PNG Schools 40

1.4 The Significance of the Study 42 1.4.1 The Problem 43 1.4.2 The Research Question 44 1.4.3 Methodology 44

1.5 Summary 45

CHAPTER TWO Reviewing the Literature 46 2.1 Introduction 46 2.2 Organizational Structures and Cultures 46

2.2.1 Organizational Structures 46 2.2.2 Organizational Culture 48 2.2.3 Organizational Structure and Culture in Educational Institutions 51


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2.2.4 Organizational Structure and Culture: PNG Context 52 2.3 Inspectorial Systems 54

2.3.1 Inspection and Inspectorial System 54 2.3.2 History and Development of Inspectorial Systems 54 2.3.3 The Inspectorial System: An External Supervisory System and its

Implications 57 Supervision: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy 60 Professional Development: An Inspectorial Interactive Strategy 61 Quality Assurance: Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 64

2.3.4 Inspectorial System: The PNG Context 66 2.4 Teacher Professionalism 67

2.4.1 Professionalism Defined 67 2.4.2 Teacher Professionalism: The Dimensions 68 2.4.3 Teacher Professionalism: PNG Context 72

2.5 Summary of the Literature Review 73

CHAPTER THREE Research Design 76 3.1 Introduction 76 3.2 Philosophical Background 76

3.2.1 Ontology 77 3.2.2 Epistemology 77 3.2.3 The Philosophical Position of this Study 78

3.3 Research Methodology 79 3.3.1 Qualitative Research 80 3.3.2 Case Study Method 80 3.3.3 Intrinsic Study Method 82 3.3.4 Multi-Case Study Method 82

3.4 Data Sources 83 3.4.1 Selection of Multi-Case Study Cases 83 3.4.2 Pilot Case Study 84 3.4.3 Participants 84

3.5 Data Collection Procedures 85 3.5.1 Interviews 85 3.5.2 Focus Group Interview 87 3.5.3 Documents 88

3.6 Data Analysis 90 3.6.1 Data Analysis 90


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3.6.2 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research 90 3.6.3 Data Analysis in Case Study Methods 91 3.6.4 Content Analysis 92 3.6.5 Cross-case Synthesis 92 3.6.6 Summary of Data Analysis 95

3.7 Validity and Reliability 96 3.8 Ethical Issues 98 3.9 Position of Researcher 101 3.10 Problems and Limitations 102 3.11 The Research Plan and its Implementation 103

3.11.1 Phase 1: Selection of Case Studies and Participants 103 3.11.2 Phase 2: Data Collection and Analysis 103 3.11.3 Phase 3: Conclusion Stage 104

3.12 Summary of the Research Design 104

CHAPTER FOUR The Research Findings 107 4.1 Introduction 107 4.2 Overview of the findings 107

4.2.1 Stages of Data Analysis 107 4.2.2 Outcomes from the stages of data analysis 108 4.2.3 Common features of the Case Studies 108

4.3 Case Study 1: Findings of a Provincial Inspectorate and a Remote Government School 109 4.3.1 Background information 109 4.3.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 110 4.3.3 Perceived Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 113

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers 118 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher 119 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspector 120 Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 122

4.3.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 123 Teacher professionalism: Views of Teachers 128 Teacher professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 130 Teacher professionalism: Views of Inspector 132 Synthesis of the Views: Teacher Professionalism 134

4.3.5 Perceived linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism 135


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Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Teachers 135 Perceptions of the linkages: Views of Head Teacher 139 Perceptions of the Linkages: Views of Inspector 140 Synthesis of the Views of Linkages 142

4.3.6 Summary of Case Study 1 143 4.4 Case Study 2: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Church Agency

School 145 4.4.1 Background information 145 4.4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 146 4.4.3 Perceived inspectorial interactive strategies 150

Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers 156 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Head Teacher 158 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Inspectors 160 Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 163

4.4.4 Perceived Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 165 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers 173 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 176 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors 179 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 182

4.4.5 Perceived linkages between inspectorial interactive strategies and dimensions of teacher professionalism 183

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers 184 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher 190 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors 194 Synthesis of Views of Linkages 199

4.4.6 Summary of Case Study 2 200 4.5 Case Study 3: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Urban Government

School 202 4.5.1 Background information 203 4.5.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 204 4.5.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 3 208 4.5.4 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive

strategies 208 Synthesis of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers, Head

Teacher and Inspectors 214 4.5.5 Perceptions of teachers, head teacher and inspectors on the dimensions of

teacher professionalism 216


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Teacher Professionalism: Views of Teachers 221 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Head Teacher 222 Teacher Professionalism: Views of Inspectors 223 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 225

4.5.6 Perceived Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 226

Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Teachers 227 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Focus Group 229 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Head Teacher 230 Perceptions of Linkages: Views of Inspectors 232 Synthesis of Views of Linkages 235

4.5.7 Summary of Case Study 3 236 4.6 Case Study 4: Findings of Provincial Inspectorate and Rural Government

School 238 4.6.1 Background information 239 4.6.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Participants 239 4.6.3 Preamble to the findings of Case Study 4 242 4.6.4 Perceptions of teachers and inspectors: Inspectorial interactive strategies242

Synthesis of the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies: Views of Teachers and

Inspectors 247 4.6.5 Perceptions of Teachers, Head Teachers and Inspectors: Dimensions of

Teacher Professionalism 249 Synthesis of Views: Teacher Professionalism 253

4.6.6 Perceptions of the participants on the linkages between the inspectorial interactive strategies and the dimensions of teacher professionalism256

Perceived Linkages: Views of Teachers 256 Perceived Linkages: Views of Inspectors 258 Synthesis of the Views of Linkages 260

4.6.7 Summary of Case Study 4 261

CHAPTER FIVE Cross-Case Findings and Synthesis 264 5.1 Introduction 264 5.2 Cross-Case Participants’ Demographic Characteristics 264

5.2.1 Locations of the Schools and Inspectorates 264 5.2.2 Cross-case participant demographical characteristics: Similarities and

differences 266


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5.2.3 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Teachers’ views 274

5.2.4 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Head teachers’ views 275

5.2.5 Similarities and differences of inspectorial interactive strategies: Inspectors’ views 275

5.2.6 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Teachers’ views 276

5.2.7 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Head teachers’ views 277

5.2.8 Similarities and differences of dimensions of teacher professionalism: Inspectors’ views 277

5.3 Linkages between Inspectorial Interactive Strategies and Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism: Views of Cross-case Participants 277 5.3.1 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of teachers 278 5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of head teachers 280 5.3.2 Cross-case participant linkages: Views of inspectors 282 5.3.4 Synthesis of Cross-Case Participant Findings 284

5.4 Cross-case Findings 286 5.4.1 Demographic differences of the case studies and participants 286 5.4.2 Cross-case analysis 287 5.4.3 Common findings 289 5.4.4 Differences in findings 289

5.5 Input, Process and Output Structure of the Findings 291 5.6 Summary of Cross-Case Findings 295

CHAPTER SIX Synthesis of the Findings 296 6.1 Introduction 296 6.2 Functions of Inspectorial System 297 6.3 Inspectors as External Supervisors in Schools 297

6.3.1 Inspectorial Interactive Strategies 298 Supervision for Quality Assurance 307 Supervision for Professional Development 308 Professional Ethics of Inspectors: Emerged Interactive Strategies from

Supervisory Practices 310 6.4 Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 311

6.4.1 Teacher Compliance: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 311


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6.4.2 Teacher Knowledge: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 315 6.4.3 Teacher Leadership: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 317 6.4.4 Teacher Professional Development: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism

321 6.4.5 Teacher Professional Ethics: Dimension of Teacher Professionalism 322

6.5 Influence of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies on Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 328 6.5.1 Quality assurance and teacher professionalism 328 6.5.2 .Professional Development and teacher professionalism 329 6.5.3 Professional ethics of inspectors and teacher professionalism 330

6.6 Organizational Culture: How it can impact on Inspection System and Teacher Professionalism 331

6.7 How Inspectorial System can Enhance Teacher Professionalism 333 6.7.1 An improved Inspectorial System that Enhances Teacher Professionalism

333 6.7.2 A Reviewed Responsibility of the Inspectorial System 334

6.8 Summary of Synthesis and Conceptual Framework 335 6.9 Implications and Conclusions 339

6.9.1 Research questions and answers 339 6.9.2 Implications of the study on current inspectorial system and teacher

professionalism 340 6.9.3 Future of Inspectorial system 341

References 365

Figures

Figure 1.1: New Reform Structure for National Education System (After 1993) 26 Figure 1.2: Old Structure for National Education System (Before 1993) 26 Figure 2.1: Connections between Functions, Strategies/Processes and Outcomes of

Inspectorial Systems 59 Figure 2.2: The Faces of Teacher Professionalism 72 Figure 2.3: The Initial Conceptual Framework 75 Figure 3.1: Proposition 1 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Functions and

Strategies 93 Figure 3.2: Proposition 2 - Teacher Professionalism and its Dimensions 94


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Figure 3.3: Proposition 3 – Linkages between the Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

and the Dimensions of Teacher Professionalism 95 Figure 3.4: Fieldwork procedure for data collection and analysis 104 Figure 3.5: Summary of the Research Design 106 Figure 4.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 136 Figure 4.2: Teacher Focus Group Perceptions of Linkages 137 Figure 4.3: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 139 Figure 4.4: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages 141 Figure 4.5: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 184 Figure 4.6: Focus Group Perceptions Linkages 189 Figure 4.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 190 Figure 4.8: Inspector Perceptions Linkages 195 Figure 4.9: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 227 Figure 4.10: Teacher Focus Group Perception of Linkages 229 Figure 4.11: Head Teacher Perception of Linkages 231 Figure 4.12: Inspector Perception of Linkages 233 Figure 4.13: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 256 Figure 4.14: Inspector Perceptions Linkages 259 Figure 5.1: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 278 Figure 5.2: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 278 Figure 5.3: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 278 Figure 5.4: Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 4 279 Figure 5.5: Conclusion for Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 279 Figure 5.6: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 280 Figure 5.7: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 280 Figure 5.8: Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 281 Figure 5.9: Conclusion for Head Teacher Perceptions of Linkages 281 Figure 5.10: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 1 282 Figure 5.11: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 2 282 Figure 5.12: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 3 283 Figure 5.13: Inspector Perceptions of Linkages – Case Study 4 283 Figure 5.14: Conclusion for Inspector Perceptions of Linkages 283 Figure 5.15: Inspectorial System and Teacher Professionalism - Structure of Findings 293 Figure 6.1: Conceptual Framework - Relationships between the Inspectorial System

and Teacher Professionalism 338


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Tables

Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Participants of Case Study 1 111 Table 4.2: Inspector Responsibility Load 113 Table 4.3 Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Quality Assurance 114 Table 4.4: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Professional Development 115 Table 4.5: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Professional Ethics of Inspectors 116 Table 4.6: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 124 Table 4.7: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 125 Table 4.8: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 125 Table 4.9: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 126 Table 4.10: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 127 Table 4.11: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 1 143 Table 4.12: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 2 147 Table 4.13: Inspector Responsibility Load 150 Table 4.14: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:



Professional Ethics 153 Table 4.17: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Compliance 166 Table 4.18: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Knowledge 168 Table 4.19: Process of Establishing Themes of the Dimensions of Teacher


Professionalism: Teacher Professional Development 170


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Table 4.21: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher

Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 171 Table 4.22: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 2 201 Table 4.23: Demographic Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 3 205 Table 4.24: Inspector Responsibility Load 207 Table 4.25: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:








Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 220 Table 4.33: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 3 237 Table 4.34: Demographical Characteristics of Participants for Case Study 4 241 Table 4.35: Inspector Responsibility Load 242 Table 4.36: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:

Quality Assurance 243 Table 4.37: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies

: Professional Development 244 Table 4.38: Process of Establishing Themes of Inspectorial Interactive Strategies:




Professionalism: Teacher Leadership 251


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Table 4.42: Process of Establishing Themes of Dimensions of Teacher


Professionalism: Teacher Professional Ethics 252 Table 4.44: Analysis of Themes and Linkages for Case Study 4 262 Table 5.1: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Teachers 267 Table 5.2: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Head Teachers 270 Table 5.3: Cross-Case Demographic Characteristics of Inspectors 272 Table 5.4: Cross-Case Participant Findings of Themes and the Linkages 285 Table 5.5: Cross-Case Analysis of Themes and Linkages 288 Table 6.1 Examples of Themes of Quality Assurance Interactive Strategies 300 Table 6.2: Examples of Themes on Professional Development Interactive Strategies 302 Table 6.3: Examples of Themes of Professional Ethics of Inspectors 304 Table 6.4: Examples of Themes of Teacher Compliance 313 Table 6.5: Examples of Themes of Teacher Knowledge 316 Table 6.6: Examples of Themes of Teacher Leadership 320 Table 6.7: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Development 323 Table 6.8: Examples of Themes of Teacher Professional Ethics 326

Appendices

APPENDIX 1 Map of Papua New Guinea: The provinces and towns 342 APPENDIX 2 Structure of NDOE 346 APPENDIX 3 Samples of Protocol Documents 346

APPENDIX 4 Interview Guidelines 352

APPENDIX 5 Samples of the Four Stages of Analysis 355


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STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP

The work in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma at any

other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, this thesis

contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due

reference is made.

Signature: __________________________ Date: ____ / ____ / _____


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study explored and drew upon the experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head

teachers and school inspectors in primary schools in Papua New Guinea (PNG). I would like

to thank the former Secretary for Education, Mr. Peter Baki, OBE, for recognizing my

potential to pursue this study. His recognition was consistent with his vision in ensuring that

the Department of Education revitalizes its human resource capacity to ensure it provides

quality education and services to the people of PNG. I also thank Dr. Joseph Pagelio, the

current Secretary for Education, for the support he has given to me throughout my study. I

am grateful to Mr. Damien Rapese, the Deputy Secretary for Teaching and Quality

Education (formerly Standards and Human Resource Development), for his continuous

support. He has been an inspiration throughout my study.

I am grateful to my principal supervisor, Associate Professor Bob Elliott, who has given me

confidence from the beginning to the end of my PhD journey. I acknowledge his guidance

and professional support, particularly in providing critical analysis of my work that allowed

me to be challenged throughout my journey. I also acknowledge the assistance I received

from Dr Jan Millwatter, my associate supervisor, her guidance has contributed to my work. I

also convey my special thanks to all academics and administrative personnel of the Centre

for Learning Innovation who made me part of the family from the start of my study.

A special thanks to the participants of the study in the National Capital District, West New

Britain Province, Madang Province, Eastern Highlands Province and Central Province who

had contributed immensely to the success of my research. I am also thankful to Iamo Vui,

Jenny Wak, Jude Avorosi and Carolyne Apelis-Avorosi who transcribed and assisted in

translating tape recordings and written texts which validated the data. To the officers of the

Inspections and Guidance Division, a special thanks for their encouragement. I am also

grateful to Zui Neofa who has been a brother to me since he came to join me in his PhD

program. He has been a very helpful colleague in difficult times.

Finally, I am thankful for the love from my wife, Rossa, my children, Carolyne, ToWalaur,

Natalie and Graham-Murray. I thank them for their patience, support and understanding for

being away from them for over three years to pursue this study. To my sister Olga Apelis

who has given me all the moral support throughout my academic life for without her I would

not be where I am today.


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DEDICATIONS

I dedicate this thesis to my late father and mother, ToWalaur Apelis and Tinmalit Lina, who

both could not live to witness this milestone in my life. I had been their precious child out of

the five surviving children that they had. I also dedicate this thesis to my late brother and

sister, Larava Aisak and IaPidik Biana, who had been the driving forces behind my initial

education. To my brother Lois Sakias and sister IaPadaun Tammy and the people of Innolo

Village, Duke of York Islands, East New Britain Province, I dedicate this thesis to them for

the respect they have given me throughout my life. To my mother in-law and father in-law,

Theresa Babato Masa and Dinnas Vavaka Masa respectively, I also dedicate this thesis to

them and thank them for their prayers. To all the above, I owe them all that I have achieved

academically and professionally. Lastly, I thank God for His many Blessings that He has

given me throughout my life, for without Him I would not accomplish this milestone.


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CHAPTER ONE

Papua New Guinea: Introducing the Study

1.1 Introduction to the Study

This thesis reports on how teachers, head teachers and school inspectors perceive the

inspectorial system in primary schools in Papua New Guinea (PNG). In particular it identifies

how the current functions and interactive strategies of the inspectorial system influence

teacher professionalism. It culminates with the synthesis of findings and the literature reviews

about the phenomenal issues that lead to the development of a contextual and conceptual

framework of the inspectorial system that enhances teacher professionalism in the final

chapter.

The history of PNG, the education system and its legacies highlight past and present

developments resulting from colonialism. The inspectorial system is a component of this

development. The current organizational structures and cultures in the National Department

of Education (NDOE) are analyzed as fundamental bases for changes and development in the

education system.

Qualitative research theories, principles and practices, in particular a case study research

methodology, were necessary for this study because it required analysis of beliefs, attitudes,

feelings and behaviors of teachers, head teachers and school inspectors about the functions and

interactive strategies of the inspectorial system and the teaching profession in PNG.

The study reveals significant experiences, beliefs and perceptions held by teachers, head

teachers and school inspectors concerning the inspectorial system, specifically the issues

associated with the interactive strategies of supervision for quality assurance, supervision for

professional development of teachers and head teachers, and supervision for professional

ethics of teachers and head teachers. The study also reveals the dimensions of teacher

professionalism as viewed by teachers, head teachers and school inspectors. These views are

linked in the theoretical conclusions to create ‘relationships between the inspectorial system

and teacher professionalism’.


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1.2 The Origin of the Study

I have had over twenty-eight years of experiences as a teacher, head teacher and school

inspector in several provinces of PNG, and the position I held before I decided to pursue this

study was Assistant Secretary of the Inspections and Guidance Division of NDOE.

While as a teacher and head teacher, I always looked forward to the inspectors’ advisory and

inspection visits to improve my performance, administratively and professionally, I always

had doubts about the influences of these visits on my profession. My reflection posed a

major question whether I benefited from the inspectorial system during my teaching career,

or whether, it was through the efforts I put into my own professional development. As an

inspector I thought that the inspectorial system worked more for the benefit of the

bureaucratic system (addressing the expectations and requirements of NDOE and the

Teaching Service Commission) rather than addressing the professional needs of teachers and

head teachers. These thoughts continued to be of concern to me and further raised the

question of whether the inspectorial system influenced the PNG teaching profession in

anyway. While I was recognized because of my efforts through the inspectorial processes I

also wondered what had happened with many of my former colleagues who experienced the

processes of the inspectorial system. I also noted that the operation of the inspectorial

system had never been explored thoroughly in PNG in order to identify its strengths and

weaknesses in relation to its impact on the teaching profession. Thus the assumption that the

inspectorial system can do more to enhance teacher professionalism than what it is currently

doing influenced me to pursue this study.

1.3 Papua New Guinea

This section reviews the history of PNG and its education development, the organizational

structure and other aspects of the National Education System including the inspectorial

system. It also covers issues of teacher supervision and professional development, quality

assurance and teacher professionalism. These issues are discussed in order to clarify the

PNG context of the problem that this study pursues.

1.3.1 Papua New Guinea and Its History

The major part of PNG occupies the eastern part of the island of New Guinea which is

located north of Australia, while the Indonesian province of West Papua occupies the

western part. PNG is a geographically and demographically diverse society (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984, pp. 31-33). It has four main island masses; New Guinea, New Britain,

New Ireland (and Manus) and Bougainville, all part of PNG.


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The first Papua New Guineans were believed to be immigrants from Southeast Asia and

have lived in PNG for over 50 000 years (Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984; Waiko, 1993).

Thus “the modern and colonial period has been very short in duration” (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984, p. 30). The first known European contact was by the Portuguese and

Spanish explorers and traders, dating back to the 15th century followed by the Dutch,

English and French (Waiko, 1993). The first permanent European settlers arrived in the

1870s when groups of missionaries and traders settled in the islands of PNG (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984; Dorney, 1990). The formal colonization period began in the late 1800s

by the British and Australians in Papua and the Dutch and Germans in New Guinea

(Harrington, 1987; Dorney, 1990; Waiko, 1993). After World War 2, in 1946, PNG then

‘Papua’ and ‘New Guinea’, became a joint territory and was administered by Australia. In

1975 the country gained its independence from Australia.

Before the 19th century, “what is now PNG society was a large number of diverse tribal

groupings with no centralized political system” (Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984, p. 30).

With today’s political development, the PNG constitution, enacted in 1975, vests executive

power in the National Executive Council headed by the Prime Minister. The Prime Minister

is the leader of the majority party in the single-chamber National Parliament. The British

monarch continues to be the Head of State and is represented by a Governor-General who is

a citizen of PNG. Though PNG now has a centralized political system with a Westminster-

styled parliament and democratic institutions (Dorney, 1990) which it inherited from its

colonial background, it maintains its traditional cultures. This is indicated by over 850

languages spoken by many ethnic groups that make up the country’s population of over five

million people. The number of ethnic groups on each island varies depending on how large

the island is. For example, the New Guinea Island has the Motuans, Goilalas, Sepiks,

Simbus, Hulis, Engans and many more while New Britain has the Tolais, Bainings, Bakovis

and Koves ethnic groups. Each ethnic group has its own culture and tradition and, to a

considerable extent, these resulted in the establishment of nineteen provinces (East New

Britain, West New Britain, New Ireland, Manus, Autonomous Region of Bougainville

(formerly known as Bougainville), Sandaun, East Sepik, Madang, Morobe, Oro, Milne Bay,

Central, Gulf, Western, Southern Highlands, Western Highlands, Simbu, Enga and Eastern

Highlands Provinces) and the National Capital District during the early post-independence

era (Dorney, 1990; Waiko, 1993) (Appendix 1: Map of PNG). The social, economic and

political development including the provision of education and other social services vary

considerably between provinces. Because of these differences, PNG is a diverse and multi-

cultural society. For this reason establishing and managing organizations, systems and


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institutions to pursue social, economic and political development at a national level, is

considered a complex task.

1.3.2 Education in Papua New Guinea

A formal western system of education was introduced in PNG by the missionaries in the late

1800s with the curriculum being based on the teaching of Christian Principles through the

Bible. The languages of instruction were the main languages of particular regions (Selleck,

1975; Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984; Swatridge, 1985; Harrington, 1987; Waiko, 1993).

When the country became two colonies (‘Papua’ and ‘New Guinea’ separately) and later a

single colony (Papua and New Guinea together as a colony of Australia) two different

systems of education were in place; that of the missionaries and that of the colonial

governments (Selleck, 1975; Harrington, 1987; Waiko, 1993). The different systems were

later integrated as a result of the establishment of the government and administrative systems

in PNG (Selleck, 1975; Thomas and Postlethwaite, 1984; Waiko, 1993).

The introduction of western system of education, though accepted, has not impacted much

on traditional education in PNG. In remote and rural parts of the country, where 80% of the

population live traditional education and cultural practices still exist informally during

ceremonies, celebrations and feasting to honor special occasions.

Traditional Education

Similar to other Melanesian cultures in the Pacific, traditional education in PNG involves

initiations, rituals and recitations of cultural and traditional beliefs and practices,

observations and manual skilled work (Mead, 1943; Coyne, 1973; Selleck, 1975; Stringer,

1984; Le Cras, 1993). Learning begins at an early age by observing the elders going about

their daily work. Children are involved in traditional and cultural activities as soon as they

are able to walk. Through these experiences, knowledge is gained and:

.....understood as a commodity; a skill or ability within the physical, relation

(political) or meta-physical world of the individual. Knowledge is viewed as

a discrete entity. As a commodity this knowledge can be passed-on or

traded with others for some benefit (Le Cras, 1993, p. 20).

At the same time “knowledge is personal; an aspect of personal reality which can not be

understood apart from or considered apart from the social reality which determines and

sustains it” (Les Cras, 1993, p. 20) in a particular culture or context.


23

Through such means, knowledge is transmitted from one generation to another. There is no

systematic approach in traditional education. Traditional and cultural activities are usually

carried out seasonally through the years of knowledge and the experience of natural

‘calendars’. The Yam Festival in Milne Bay Province and the Tubuan Society and its

activities in East New Britain Province are reminiscent of some of these experiences. The

traditional calendar activities involve initiations and are regarded as the ‘formal’ educational

activities while the “informal (unstructured) learning of the skills (technical or social) which

are required for physical survival and for appropriate participation in society” (Le Cras,

1993, p. 24) is achieved through daily life experiences (Louisson, 1974; Selleck, 1975;

Thomas & Postlethwaite, 1984; McLaughlin, 2002).

History and Legacies

Social, economic and political development over the years has had much impact on the

establishment of the formal education system in PNG. Thomas and Postlethwaite (1984),

supported by Swatridge (1985), Harrington (1987) and Waiko (1993) segmented the

successive education development into five periods; the conversion, gradualism, expansion,

nationalism and decentralization. The conversion period of development from the 1870s to

1940s was concerned with initial literacy programs, focusing on converting people to the

European ways of life and Christian beliefs. This was emphasized by the colonial

administrators and missionaries respectively. The gradualism phase of development, from

1940s to 1950s, involved the amalgamation of government and mission education systems

and their functions, including teacher training and core curriculum, with an emphasis on the

blending of culture and rural based education. Included was the pursuance of social and

economic development to keep up with the pace of development of other colonies in those

days. The expansion state of development, from the late 1950s to early 1960s, concentrated

on rapid expansions in most levels of education and supported the development of tertiary

and technical education. The nationalism period, from the late 1960s to 1974, covered

strategies that facilitated an independent PNG. Papua New Guineans were to be educated to

take control of their own affairs with an education philosophy for human power training for

the modern ‘world’. The decentralization strategy, from 1975 to 1980, addressed universal

education with the decentralization of some educational functions to the provinces allowing

them to have control over some educational responsibilities, including the selection and

appointment of teachers to schools.

In the early 1980s, many Papua New Guineans were taking over responsibilities in the

education system resulting in the development of an education system that would suit PNG.

This involved a period of reviewing the curriculum in terms of relevance, vocational


24

orientation and standards or a transitional period of development from a ‘foreign’ to a PNG

‘owned’ education system (Thomas and Postlethwaite, 1984; Swatridge, 1985). There were

also social problems experienced throughout the country in the mid 1980s with the education

system being regarded as the major social and political concern. This concern led to the

establishment of the Ministerial Review Committee on the Philosophy of Education in 1986

that resulted in a new Philosophy of Education and consequently led to the current education

reform (Matane, 1986; Department of Education, 1996a; Department of Education, 1996b).

Despite the successive education developments including the transitional period of

development between 1980s and 1990s and the current education reform, there are

components of the education system that are being maintained with minimal changes. The

inspectorial system and the context of its existence is one such component of the PNG

education system that has changed little and needs to be reviewed so that its strategies and

practices are consistent with current developments both nationally and internationally.

Contemporary Education

Contemporary education in PNG has to be considered and developed by taking account of

traditional and cultural components of learning, both in adults and children. The current

development in elementary education that incorporates traditional and cultural values and

learning activities with the use of local languages as mediums of instruction is consistent

with the National Philosophy of Education that emphasizes cultural contexts of learning

(Matane, 1986; Department of Education, 1999; Department of Education, 2000a). In the

adult learning situation colonialism and organizational cultures are arguably having an

influence on how adult attitudes and behavior change with developments in the education

system and institutions (Pagelio, 2002). Thus, developing strategies for professional

development and growth that integrates traditional, cultural and contemporary means to

continuous learning may be essential to encourage changes in attitudes and behavior of adult

learners.

Current Education Reform

In 1993 PNG introduced a series of educational reforms as a result of the Matane Report

(Matane, 1986). These reforms were the results of a new Philosophy of Education designed

to address both human and social development of the country and aim to:

• provide for the return of the children to the village community, for

employment and for further education or training, and


25

• provide basic schooling for all children (Department of Education, 1996a;

Department of Education, 1996b).

As a result of the new Philosophy of Education the school system was restructured into three

levels – elementary (preparatory to grade 2), primary (grade 3 to 8) and secondary (grade 9

to 12) from the previous structure of community (grade 1 to 6), high (grade 7 to 10) and

national high (grade 11 to 12) school levels (Figures 1.1 & 1.2). The education reform

attempts to address access, relevance and universal education and its main curricula

objectives are to prepare citizens who:

• have a strong moral value system which places emphasis on personal

integrity, the equality of all members of the society, and the importance

and relevance of traditional values in modern life,

• are committed in their own personal development, and view education as a

continuing life-long process,

• are invested with a productive work ethnic and a realization of the value of

both rural and urban community development activities in the context of

national development,

• are prepared for the realities of life in most communities, and

• are capable of providing a basis for effective further training for

manpower needs of the country (Department of Education, 1999;

Department of Education, 2000a).

While the restructure of the school system is progressing with constraints such as a lack of

basic teaching and learning materials experienced in the early years of the 21st century,

curriculum reform is gradually being addressed at all levels of education (Department of

Education, 2000b; Department of Education, 2001a). The curriculum reform includes a

major shift from the objective based curriculum to outcomes based curriculum. The

outcomes based curriculum, in principle, specifically addresses the learning needs of the

school children. In elementary education, a new curriculum is being developed in different

languages selected by the community under the national curriculum guidelines. In primary

education, the curriculum is being revised to suit the objectives of the reform, incorporating

a bridging curriculum component between the local instructional languages used in

elementary schools and English in lower grades. In secondary education, the curriculum is

being revised with some flexibility allowing schools to develop non-examinable subjects that

are consistent with the new Philosophy of Education. There is also allowance for schools

“that wish to introduce school based curriculum to promote skills development” (Department


26

of Education, 2000b, p. 70) as part of the Government Policy on Skills Development being

implemented by the NDOE (Tapo, 2004).

Figure 1.1: New Reform Structure for National Education System (After 1993)

Source: Department of Education, 2005, p. 6.

Figure 1.2: Old Structure for National Education System (Before 1993)

Source: Department of Education, 2005, p. 6.

hallaThis figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library

hallaThis figure is not available online. Please consult the hardcopy thesis available from the QUT Library


27

The NDOE considers teacher development to be vital to the education reform. Teacher

qualifications are being upgraded from a Certificate to a Diploma in Primary Education and

a Diploma to a Degree in Secondary Education (Department of Education, 1994a). The

introduction of the Certificate in Elementary Teaching in elementary education formalizes

what was an informal school level known as the ‘tokples’ schools to a formal school level in

some provinces, including East New Britain and North Solomon Provinces (University of

Papua New Guinea, 1985; The National Research Institute, 1988). The introduction of

elementary education also resulted in the establishment of the elementary inspectorial section

in 2000 (Department of Education, 2000c).

The intention of the new Philosophy of Education and its objectives was to improve the

quality of education provided by the schools by reforming the curriculum, upgrading teacher

qualifications and restructuring the school system. From the national level, the responsibility

of supervising these reform initiatives is within the function of the inspectorial system.

However, despite this increased mandate, there is insufficient development in upgrading

inspector qualifications and improving inspectorial strategies to suit the developments in

education. Some inspectors have lower qualifications than teachers they supervise. Such

lack of attention to inspector professional development and the perceptions teachers have of

inspectors on the basis of qualifications may result in an inappropriate functioning of the

inspectorial system. Such malfunctioning may have an impact on teacher professionalism

thus affecting standards and the quality of education provided by the schools (Tapo, 2004).

Legislation and Policies

Educational legislation in PNG was initially enforced by the colonies in the late 1800s and

early 1900s and catered for the dual systems of education; that of the missionaries and those

of the colonies, the Germans in New Guinea through the 1922 Education Ordinance for New

Guinea (Selleck, 1975) and the British and Australians in Papua through the adapted

Queensland State education legislation (Waiko, 1993). The legislation at the time ensured

the colonies left most of the functions of education to the missionaries because the colonies

felt that the missionaries were “doing a good work, as the conduct of their schools no doubt

introduces many essential features of the western civilization into ordinary village life”

(Selleck, 1975, pp. 19–20). Most of the schools were in villages and, as a priority, were

“encouraged and assisted, persuaded or controlled as the agency of another civilization”

(Selleck, 1975, p. 17) by the missionaries and colonial governments (Swatridge, 1985).

When Australia strengthened its control of the country as its colony, the education system

came under its administration through the Education Ordinance of 1952 (Selleck, 1975).


28

Australian education policies were introduced, including universal education, the

introduction of English literacy and numeracy, and the financing of the school system

through the Native Taxation Scheme and other preceding financial schemes. In 1970 the

National Education System was established under the 1970 Education Ordinance, resulting

in the existence of the Teaching Service Commission (TSC) and the Territory Education

Board, later to be known as the National Education Board (Selleck, 1975; Waiko, 1993).

During this period PNG began political moves for independence with accelerated

localization programs initiated in government departments, including the NDOE (Thomas &

Postlethwaite, 1984; Harrington, 1987; Waiko, 1993). In 1983 and 1988 the Education Act

and the Teaching Service Act were enacted respectively and were both consolidated in 1995

to cater for changes as a result of the introduction of the Organic Law on Provincial and

Local Level Governments (PLLG). These acts are currently used by stakeholders, including

policy makers, as the bases for policy formulation. In reality the Education and Teaching

Service Acts have been used for over twenty years and, questionably, may no longer suit

current environments, including social, economic and political developments. At the same

time, a set of inspectorial strategies previously introduced are now being improved to ensure

education policies and other requirements continue to be implemented by schools

(Department of Education, 1983; Bray, 1985; Teaching Service Commission, 1988;

Australian Government, 2005). However, the context, structure, functions and strategies of

the current inspectorial system have their roots in the colonial legacy and may no longer suit

current educational developments.

Centralized and Decentralized Functions

As noted previously, after independence some functions of the education system were

decentralized to provinces providing the opportunity for provinces to make decisions and

administratively be responsible for education services. The Organic Law on PLLG of 1995

further acknowledges the responsibility of the PLLG for schools and, consistent with the

Education Act, requires PLLG to plan and provide, amongst other responsibilities; financial

support to provincial institutions, including elementary, primary and secondary schools;

support for infrastructure development; housing for teachers; enrolment of students;

selection and appointment of teachers; and administration and governance of schools

(Department of Education, 1983; Government of Papua New Guinea, 1995; Welch, 2000;

Department of Education, 2002a; Department of Education, 2004b; Department of

Education, 2004c).

The above responsibilities are decentralized functions of education while the centralized

functions or responsibilities of NDOE include curriculum development, teacher education


29

and training, inspection, and technical education (Department of Education, 1983;

Department of Education, 2004c).

Both the centralized and decentralized functions are monitored and supervised through the

inspectorial system by the school inspectors. The inspectors are answerable to the Secretary

for Education and have direct influence over the centralized functions. They advise and

report to provinces on decentralized functions and do not have direct influence on decision

making affecting these functions. However, where standards and the quality of education are

adversely affected by lack of attention to the decentralized functions by the provinces and

schools then NDOE is advised to take necessary actions to remedy situations accordingly.

The inspectorial system was established during the colonial era when a centralized system of

education existed in PNG. However, PNG has introduced centralized and decentralized

functions of education and whether the current inspectorial system suits this development is

a matter of contention. The increasing numbers of schools and teachers, and the 20

provincial divisions of education including the National Capital District, and their different

levels of management and development have also complicated the work of inspectors. These

changes have resulted with increased responsibilities for the inspectorial personnel making it

very difficult for the inspectorial system to function effectively. At the same time, how

Provincial Authorities regard the inspectorial system is vital if the inspectorial system has to

impact on teacher professionalism and, consequently, the quality of education provided by

the schools (The National Research Institute, 1988). The inspectorial system and its

influence on teacher professionalism is regarded as crucial to improving the quality of

education in the current context of the PNG education system. It is therefore appropriate at

this time to investigate and evaluate the inspectorial system and where necessary initiate

changes or improvements to cater for both the centralized and decentralized functions of the

education system.

1.3.3 Organizational Structure of the NDOE

The NDOE is the largest Government Department in PNG with a total staff of 776 public

servants and 32 894 teachers in all levels of institution; Elementary, Primary and Secondary

Schools, College of Distance Education, Vocational Centers, Technical and Teachers’

Colleges, and Special Education Centers (Department of Education, 2000a, Department of

Education, 2003a; Department of Education, 2004c).


30

Organizational Structure

The NDOE is part of the PNG Ministry of Education and has the overall responsibility of

providing basic and general education to the people of PNG. Within the Ministry of

Education, there is also the TSC and the Office of Library and Archives whose functions are

to facilitate and monitor employment conditions and entitlements for teachers, and to provide

library and archive services in the country respectively (Appendix 2: Structure of NDOE).

The NDOE is headed by the Secretary for Education who is appointed by the National

Government, with two Deputies – one Deputy responsible for Policy and Administration,

and the other responsible for Standards and Human Resource Development. Under the two

Deputies are four Wings with a First Assistant Secretary responsible for each Wing:

Education Standards; Human Resources Development; Policy, Planning, Research and

Communication; and Administration and Budget (Department of Education, 2003a).

Specific Functions of the Divisions

There are ten divisions under the four Wings of NDOE performing educational, management

and administrative functions (Department of Education, 2003a; Department of Education,

2004c) as shown in Table 1.1.

How efficient and effective divisional functions are performed depends on the organizational

cultures, the quality of leadership and the management practices within each division.

Critical issues are how leadership at NDOE is influenced by continuing colonialism and

whether leadership and management strategies and practices create a culture for change

consistent with national and global developmental trends in education. A study by Pagelio

(2002) suggests that the neo-colonial leadership practices restrict leaders from becoming

transformational and innovative and that the department’s inherited system of leadership has

retained many of the negative features, including leadership that is “patriarchal, patronizing

and unjust towards subordinates” (p. 185). The findings can also be applied to leadership in

institutions of the education system.


31

Table 1.1: Divisional Functions and Responsibilities

Wing Division Function and Responsibilities Human Resources Development

Teacher Education and Staff Development

• Teacher training • Staff development • Inspection (Teachers’ Colleges & Special

Education) General Education Services

• Provincial liaison • National High School • College of Distance Education • School documents

Technical Vocational Education and Training

• Technical and vocational education • Liaison with industries on training needs • Inspection (Technical Colleges & Vocational

Centers) National Capital District Education services in the National Capital District

Education Standards

Curriculum Development • Curriculum development • Examinations • Curriculum materials distribution

Inspections and Guidance • Inspection (Elementary, Primary & Secondary Schools)

• Guidance and counseling services Policy, Planning, Research and Communication

Policy, Research and Communication

• Policy formulation • Research • Publications and media

Planning, Facilitating and Monitoring

• Planning • Facilitating & monitoring implementation of

policies Finance and Administration

Finance and Budget • Budget planning, implementation and monitoring

• Accounting and Auditing General Administration and Personnel

• Personnel and salary administration • Entitlements and conditions of employment

While it appears that there are clear functions and responsibilities expected from each

division, in practice there are duplications of professional functions carried out by several

divisions. For example, teacher professional development is a ‘shared’ responsibility

between the Inspection and Guidance, and Teacher Development and Staff Development

Divisions. Curriculum development, including monitoring and supervision, is a ‘shared’

task between Inspections and Guidance, and Curriculum Development Divisions. How

divisional responsibilities are linked to each other, how divisions consult and liaise with each

other, what the tangible outcomes are and who are the direct beneficiaries of divisional

functions are questions that may need to be addressed in order to facilitate a culture for

learning, sharing and networking within NDOE. The Inspections and Guidance Division and

its associated divisions are no exceptions (Department of Education, 2004c).


32

Provincial Divisions of Education

Provincial Divisions of Education (PDOE) exist under the Provincial Governments and

Administrations and are directly responsible for decentralized functions. However they

consult, liaise and implement both national and provincial education policies. The

Provincial Education Advisors, the heads of PDOE, are appointed by Provincial

Administrations and are answerable to the Provincial Administrators (The Independent State

of Papua New Guinea, 1975). Such arrangement makes it difficult for appointments of

Provincial Education Advisors to be made on merit as preferred by NDOE. Implementing

education policies by provinces and schools, and the monitoring of policies by NDOE

through the inspectorial system therefore is a major concern for NDOE. How provinces

react to advisory reports produced by inspectors on schools, if they respond at all, and utilize

teachers’ appraisal reports in order to improve and remedy problems in schools has also

become an obstacle to development in the education system (Preston, 1989).

It may be argued that the current organizational structures and cultures and the processes of

selecting the officers on merit to manage PDOE are hindrances to changes and the

development of the education system in PNG (Department of Education, 2004b). As a

result, many aspects of the schools, including the maintenance and development of school

infrastructure, are neglected. Such situation calls for effective coordination between NDOE

and PDOE to improve the school system. This can be done through structural reform and

changes in organizational cultures that would allow all stakeholders to work collaboratively

to improve the teaching profession in order to address the quality of education provided by

the schools. Therefore, it is important to have national and provincial education

organizational structures that would cultivate vibrant organizational cultures and

management strategies. This is necessary in order to create an environment for change and

development if the standard and quality of education are to be pursued in schools through the

inspectorial system.

1.3.4 The Inspectorial System

The inspectorial system in PNG education covers all levels of education with each level

having its own inspectorial section. Teacher Education and Staff Development Division is

responsible for inspectorial functions in Teachers Colleges and Special Education Centers.

The Technical and Vocational Education and Training Division is responsible for

inspectorial responsibilities in Technical Colleges and Vocational Centers, and the

Inspection and Guidance Division is responsible for inspectorial duties in Elementary,

Primary and Secondary Schools, including National High Schools and the College of


33

Distance Education. The policies concerning the inspectorial functions and responsibilities

are derived from the Education Act and are implemented across all divisions (Department of

Education, 1983). For the purpose of this study, the functions and responsibilities performed

by the Inspections and Guidance Division is the main focus, that is, the focus is on the

inspectorial system particularly in primary schools.

The Inspectorial Functions and Responsibilities

The Inspections and Guidance Division has three professional sections concerned with

inspectorial functions and responsibilities; Elementary, Primary and Secondary Inspections.

The inspectorial functions and responsibilities performed by inspectors include the

maintenance and improvement of national education standards and requirements in

elementary, primary and secondary school levels; provision of quality control (and

assurance) in the areas of curriculum implementation and teacher performance; facilitation,

monitoring and improvement of professional development and growth of teachers; provision

and facilitation of guidance and counseling services to schools, and improvement of the

school supervision and management systems (Department of Education, 2004a).

With the exception of the provision of guidance and counseling services to schools which is

carried out by the Guidance Officers of the Guidance and Counseling Section of the

Inspections and Guidance Division, all responsibilities are carried out by respective

inspectorial sections.

The inspectors for elementary, primary and secondary schools are based in the provinces and

districts (primary inspectors) but their operations are managed from the Headquarters of

NDOE. There are 198 inspectors based in twenty provinces and the National Capital

District, and of these, twenty are elementary (excluding trainers who are assisting), 156 are

primary and twenty-two are secondary inspectors (Department of Education, 2004a). The

inspectors are appointed to their positions because of their experience as heads of schools

and have proven themselves to be outstanding in their work. Recent developments require

vacant positions to be advertised for head teachers to apply, with qualifications being

considered as one of the important criteria. When considering applications, however, proven

superior level of performance as assessed by the inspection processes is considered as a

major factor in appointing applicants to inspector positions (The Independent State of Papua

New Guinea, 1975; Teaching Service Commission, 1988).

A major concern of most inspectors is a perceived lack of theoretical and practical

knowledge and skills in the inspectorial strategies (from a broader perspective) that include


34

supervision, professional development, quality assurance, teacher professionalism, research

and other relevant educational phenomenon that would enhance performance of inspectors

(Department of Education, 1986a; Tapo, 2004). At the same time the decreasing level of

resources caused by the constraints in the PNG economy over the last fifteen years has

drastically affected the work of inspectors (Department of Education, 1998; Department of

Education, 2002a; Department of Education. 2003b; Department of Education, 2004b;

Australian Government, 2005). For example, inspectors used to pay two advisory visits and

one inspection visit to each school every year. However, over the last fifteen years these

visits have been reduced to one visit (either advisory or inspection) or two visits (one

advisory and one inspection) a year. Some schools are never visited for several years. Such

situations are well documented and are affecting the appraisal of teachers through the

inspection processes (Department of Education, 1985; Department of Education, 1989;

Department of Education, 1994b; Department of Education, 2004c). Teachers and head

teachers are beginning to loose confidence in the roles of inspectors and the functions of the

inspectorial system. Given these constraints, it is important to find out how teachers, head

teachers and inspectors perceive the operation of the inspectorial system and how it

influences teacher professionalism.

Specific Responsibilities of Inspectorial System

Inspectors carry out the inspectorial functions and responsibilities in PNG schools in two

distinct roles, the advisory and inspection (Department of Education, 1978; Guthrie, 1983;

Golightly, 1992; Department of Education, 1997). These roles, as previously stated, require

inspectors to visit each school at least twice a year and provide school advisory reports to

PDOE and NDOE authorities for information and action where appropriate, and produce

teacher inspection reports for ratings purposes (Baki, 2001a; Baki, 2001b).

The advisory role performed by inspectors is a process of assisting teachers in their

profession (Department of Education, 2000c, Department of Education, 2002a; Department

of Education, 2003a; Department of Education, 2004b). Inspectors are expected to check

and provide advice to teachers and heads of schools on the quality of teaching and learning,

subject department administration, management of schools, curriculum requirements, student

services and wellbeing, and school infrastructure requirements, maintenance and

development (Department of Education, 2004a). The advisory role also requires the

inspectors to use their experience, knowledge and skills to help teachers and schools in

identifying training needs and to facilitate, assist and advise in developing training programs

for teacher development at the school, district, provincial and national levels. The advisory

role is usually carried out during the first half of the school year followed by inspection.


35

Though the advisory role is not a prerequisite to inspection it does contribute considerably to

compiling inspection reports on teacher performance (Department of Education, 1983; Baki,

2001a; Baki, 2001b). Given the point made earlier concerning a perceived lack of

knowledge, skills and qualifications amongst the inspectorial staff there are problems

associated with this role (Department of Education, 1986a; Tapo, 2001).

In the inspection role inspectors carry out evaluations and assessments on teacher

performance and produce inspection reports. These inspection reports are used to rate

teachers’ performances at the end of each year by the Annual National Ratings Conference

(recently the Annual National Ratings Conference has changed to Annual Regional Ratings

Conferences). Teachers’ inspection reports are rated as superior, satisfactory or

unsatisfactory. The inspection processes usually begin during the third quarter of the school

year and are a culmination of the year’s performance by teachers being inspected. There are

three types of inspection and these are:

• Compulsory inspection: This is done for new graduates and qualified teachers

for registration as full time teachers; for teachers whose reports had been rated

unsatisfactory the previous year; and for teachers whose performances are

reported by head teachers and PDOE authorities to be in doubt. The latter

covers teachers who may also be disciplined by TSC for unprofessional behavior

and misconduct (Department of Education, 1983; Teaching Service

Commission, 1988; Baki, 2001b).

• Personal inspection: This is done for teachers who apply for personal

inspection reports because they are considered ready for promotion to the next

level of responsibility in that particular level of educational institution (Teaching

Service Commission, 1988; Baki, 2001a).

• Immediate Inspection: This type of inspection of teachers is done immediately

when requested by authorities for disciplinary action, renewal of contracts for

overseas employees and for other reasons. The immediate inspection reports are

not rated but are used to make decisions immediately whenever and wherever

appropriate (Teaching Service Commission, 1988; Baki, 2001b).

Inspectors use common checklists and standardized report formats to carry out inspection

and to compile inspection reports respectively. These are used to allow for consistency and

to control the quality of reporting (Department of Education, 1994b).


36

Inspectors also perform general responsibilities. They are required to “work closely with

provincial authorities, to carry out national (centralized) functions ……….. (and) to ensure

that there is sustainable educational supervision at the school level and that there is advisory

function at the school and provincial levels” (Department of Education, 2000c, p. 2)

concerning the quality of education provided by the schools (Bray, 1985; The National

Research Institute, 1988). The Tololo Review Committee into the Inspectorial System

categorized this responsibility into “administrative, supervisory, advisory, monitoring and

appraisal functions” (Tololo, 1995, p. 3). Given the number of responsibilities to be carried

out by the inspectors there is a question of whether these responsibilities are effectively

carried out and are impacting on teachers, academic standards and the quality of education

provided by the schools.

Conflicting and Multiple Roles of Inspectors

Though current roles of the inspectorial system in PNG are practically identified as

“advisory and inspection”, in reality, inspectors perform many tasks. The advisory role can

be categorized into means of maintaining, improving and developing the school system by

using strategies of supervision, quality assurance and professional development. The

inspection role can be categorized into the means of evaluating and assessing teacher

performance for registration and promotion purposes, disciplining teachers and appraising

teachers for employment and for further training. Thus the advisory and inspection roles

have the potential to create conflicts and dilemmas for teachers and can impact directly on

teachers. However, while the inspector is assisting teachers in the advisory role, the same

inspector is also assessing teachers and possibly creating an atmosphere of suspicion and

raises the question of the reliability of inspection reports (Department of Education, 1978;

Apelis, 1984; Department of Education, 1991; Golightly, 1992). The Tololo Committee

revealed that the nature of the advisory and inspection roles is a means of ‘policing’ the

education system’s requirements in schools resulting in inspectors being perceived by

teachers as “someone whose job was to look for mistakes, and more than often (teachers)

have felt reluctant to query advice offered” (Tololo, 1995, p. 3; Bacchus, 1984), an

indication of the existing conflict. In his study on career development of head teachers in

PNG, Maha (1992) further raised the dominant roles of inspectors that impact on school and

teacher development as a concern in PNG schools.

It may be argued that the conflicting roles result in no tangible outcomes because there is

“considerable confusion within Papua New Guinea over the roles and functions” (The

National Research Institute, 1988, p. 73) of the inspectorial system. There is no evidence to


37

suggest that the current functions and strategies create an environment or culture for change

and development in the school system.

In addition, the inspectorial system is intended to maintain and improve education standards

and the quality of education provided by the schools through its advisory and inspection

roles. However, to address education standards and the quality of education, teacher

professionalism is central. Thus it may not be apparent that the current functions and

strategies lead to enhanced teacher professionalism. Further, if changes in the inspectorial

system are anticipated, it is essential to analyze the context in which strategies and practices

have developed and are currently maintained. Through such an analysis, ideas can be

developed for constructing new strategies that may be more functional. However the central

argument here is that it is unlikely that any changes can be developed unless the context in

which the current inspectorial strategies and practices occur is modified so that it supports

any new or improved strategies of the inspectorial system. This study reveals the

experiences, beliefs and perceptions of teachers, head teachers and inspectors about the

operation of the inspectorial system and the dimensions of teacher professionalism, and their

relationships. It investigates how inspectors carry out their responsibilities when interacting

with teachers and head teachers. It further investigates how teachers, head teachers and

inspectors perceive the dimensions of teacher professionalism. In doing so, the study

concludes with a contextual framework of the inspectorial system that enhances teacher

professionalism. The ultimate outcome of this development is that if teachers and head

teachers are positively influenced by inspectors, the potential for improving education

standards and the quality of education is a certainty.

1.3.5 Quality Education in PNG

Quality is defined as “the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that

can bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs” (Dale, 1994, p. 4) or “exhibitions of

some kind of excellence or distinction that makes something desirable and beneficial”, in

other words a “product or service possesses quality if it helps somebody and enjoys a good

sustainable market” (Hoy, Bayne-Jardine & Wood, 2000, p. 3). Hoy, Bayne-Jardine &

Wood (2000) explain that quality is inherent in a product, however, it can also be argued that

the quality of the product or service depends also on the quality of input and the quality of

the process used in producing the product or service. Saarinen (2005), in analyzing the

evolution and meaning of ‘quality’ in his study on ‘The Bologna Process as an Example of

Transitional Developments in European Higher Education Policy’, reveals ambiguity in the

definition of quality and stresses that “the meaning of quality seems to converge more and


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more over the years, from varied aspects of customer ideology and ideas of European

openness to technical details ….” (p. 2000). Thus in educational situations the provision of

quality education can be determined by the quality of input (experience, qualifications,

resources, etc) and processes (interactions, learning and teaching methodologies, etc), and to

ensure quality education is enhanced, strategies of quality assurance are essential.

In PNG, the term “quality” is used ambiguously but is generally equated with outcomes of a

physical process, and in a social setting. Such outcomes would relate to positive attitudes

and behavior, and the knowledge and skills gained as a result of changes from a dominant set

of values to a political and cultural condition. Therefore, quality education in PNG is usually

equated to academic achievements and as outcomes of cycles of formal education that are

measured by national examination results (Welch, 2000).

Quality education is however more than academic achievements and relates to educational

processes and products in an educational context (Bray, 1985). Until recently quality

education in PNG was regarded and pursued as a ‘management doctrine’ (Hoy et al, 2000)

with emphasis on qualitative indicators (Throsby & Gannicott, 1990; Welch, 2000;

Department of Education, 2001b). Such qualitative indicators include the availability of

curriculum and basic materials, teacher qualifications and the provision of in-service

activities, school infrastructure and community involvement. Qualitative indicators

however, need to be monitored and their impact and influence on present and future

educational practices are noted so that quality outcomes are achieved. This is where quality

assurance strategies have to be in place. Quality assurance is important in the field of

education, particularly if teacher professionalism has to impact on student learning.

1.3.6 Quality Assurance: A task of the Inspectorial System

In quality assurance, educational qualitative indicators are some of the prime issues that the

inspectorial system in PNG has been focusing on through its stated functions. The

inspectorial system performs the function of “quality control (and assura