The Process of Conducting The Process of Conducting ResearchResearch

What is a theory?What is a theory?

a set of general principles that a set of general principles that explains the how and why of explains the how and why of phenomena.phenomena.

Theories are not directly testable.Theories are not directly testable.

What makes a good theory?What makes a good theory?

Good theories are broadGood theories are broad

Good theories are parsimonious Good theories are parsimonious (simple)(simple)

Good theories are generativeGood theories are generative

What is a hypothesis?What is a hypothesis? an educated guess about how two or an educated guess about how two or

more variables are related.more variables are related. Can be CAUSAL or DESCRIPTIVE or a Can be CAUSAL or DESCRIPTIVE or a

QUESTIONQUESTION Must be testable and falsifiable!Must be testable and falsifiable!

Are these testable?Are these testable? Eating breakfast improves academic Eating breakfast improves academic

performance.performance. People should obey the law.People should obey the law. Owls can see better at night than Owls can see better at night than

chickadees.chickadees. A rabbit’s foot will bring a person good A rabbit’s foot will bring a person good

luck.luck. People are born with the capacity for People are born with the capacity for

evil.evil.

Where do hypotheses come Where do hypotheses come from?from?

own ideas, observations, experiencesown ideas, observations, experiences

existing researchexisting research

retesting previously tested hypothesisretesting previously tested hypothesis

theoriestheories

The Scientific ProcessThe Scientific Process

Theory

Hypothesis

Test

Results

Example of Scientific Example of Scientific MethodMethod

• Generally, you have an observation:Generally, you have an observation:• I notice that I tend to remember things I notice that I tend to remember things

better if I hear them rather than see them.better if I hear them rather than see them.

• This leads to a theory:This leads to a theory:• People are predominantly auditory learners.People are predominantly auditory learners.

• Next we operationalize this to a testable Next we operationalize this to a testable hypothesis:hypothesis:• People will remember more words People will remember more words

presented from a list that is read aloud presented from a list that is read aloud than from a list on paper.than from a list on paper.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONOPERATIONAL DEFINITION

Defines a variable in terms of the Defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to measure specific procedures used to measure it.it.

Translates the abstract into Translates the abstract into something observable and something observable and measurable.measurable.

ResultsResults

VisualVisual

MM = 15 words = 15 words

AuditoryAuditory

MM = 17 words = 17 words

Is this evidence to support our claim?

Evidence vs. ProofEvidence vs. Proof

We measure in terms of statistics, We measure in terms of statistics, which tell us whether a difference is which tell us whether a difference is likely to have occurred by chance.likely to have occurred by chance.

Even if difference is significant, it Even if difference is significant, it does not ‘prove’ a hypothesis.does not ‘prove’ a hypothesis.

Reporting your findingsReporting your findings

Psychological research is mostly Psychological research is mostly reported in professional journals. reported in professional journals. Journal articles have a standard Journal articles have a standard format. This makes them easier to format. This makes them easier to read efficiently.read efficiently.

You will write your own manuscript in You will write your own manuscript in this class, and it will follow this this class, and it will follow this standard format.standard format.

What is “Peer-Review”?What is “Peer-Review”?

• Experts in the author’s field review the Experts in the author’s field review the theoretical basis, methodology, statistical theoretical basis, methodology, statistical analyses and interpretation of findings.analyses and interpretation of findings.

• The editor and/or reviewers decide whether The editor and/or reviewers decide whether or not to accept the article for publication.or not to accept the article for publication.

• The intended audience is scholars that The intended audience is scholars that have knowledge in or are interested in the have knowledge in or are interested in the field.field.

• The article is not written for profit.The article is not written for profit.

How Do You Know if An Article is How Do You Know if An Article is “Peer-Reviewed?”“Peer-Reviewed?”

• The article is written by the researchers The article is written by the researchers that conducted the study.that conducted the study.

• The journal has “instructions to authors” The journal has “instructions to authors” about the submission guidelines and about the submission guidelines and peer-review process. peer-review process.

• In addition to the title and author In addition to the title and author information, the article includes abstract, information, the article includes abstract, introduction, method, results, discussion introduction, method, results, discussion and reference sections.and reference sections.

Anatomy of a research Anatomy of a research articlearticle

Abstract – summary of the research Abstract – summary of the research report, approximately 120 words in report, approximately 120 words in length.length.

Introduction – Introduces the research Introduction – Introduces the research question, reviews past research, states question, reviews past research, states the hypothesis.the hypothesis.

Method – Describes the research design. Method – Describes the research design. These are the specifics of participants These are the specifics of participants and procedures, and any materials used.and procedures, and any materials used.

Anatomy of a research Anatomy of a research articlearticle

Results – This is the statistical part of Results – This is the statistical part of the article. Reports what was found the article. Reports what was found in terms of the numbers (data).in terms of the numbers (data).

Discussion – States the conclusions Discussion – States the conclusions to be drawn from the data. to be drawn from the data. Discusses implications for future Discusses implications for future research, and possible limitations of research, and possible limitations of the current research.the current research.