1

T H E P R I M E S H O P P I N G C E N T E R ,

E N U G U

An

M.Sc (ARCH) THESIS REPORT

By

F A T O W O R E, E. O

PG/M.Sc/06/45887

Submitted to the Department of Architecture, University of Nigeria in

Partial Fullfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Science (M.Sc) in Architecture.

October 2008

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T H E P R I M E S H O P P I N G C E N T E R E N U G U

(M.Sc ARCH THESIS)

By

F A T O W O R E, E. O

Pg/M.sc/06/45887

D E P A R T M E N T O F A R C H I T E C T U R E,

UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS,

ENUGU.

Supervisor

A R C. C . O. O D U M

October, 2008

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C E R T I F I C A T I O N

This dissertation is submitted to the Department of Architecture, UNIVERSITY OF

NIGERIA, ENUGU CAMPUS, ENUGU STATE, in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of Master of Science in Architecture (M.Sc.

ARCH).

October, 2008.

This report is originally

Prepared by ------------------------------------------

FATOWORE, EMMANUEL OLUWAROTIMI

Certified by ------------------------------------------

ARC. C. O. ODUM

(Project Supervisor)

Accepted by -------------------------------------------

ARC. UZUEGBUNAM

(Head of Department)

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T I T L E P A G E

T H E P R I M E S H O P P I N G C E N T E R,

E N U G U

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D E D I C A T I O N

This project is dedicated to God Almighty for seeing me through to this end. All glory,

honor and adoration be unto his name.

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A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T

This project would not have been possible to this end without the invaluable support of

well meaning people who in various ways made contributions and assistance.

In appreciation of this fact I sincerely acknowledge the following people for the

inestimable roles they played in realizing this dream.

Firstly, to God Almighty who is the fountain of all knowledge for seeing me through all

my endeavors and for giving me life, wisdom and the ability to succeed in this project.

To my supervisor, Arc. C.O. Odum, for his support, guidance, encouragement, and

direction during the course of this project.

To the department of architecture, lecturers and staff.

My parents, Mr. and Mrs. M.O. Fatowore, and siblings for their encouragement and

support.

My friend, Arc. Oku thanks for being there all these years.

Finally, I drop my immense indebtedness to my friends and colleagues: Akpujiha Zino,

Usua Mkpouto, Nwiwu Henry, Okafor Chinenye, King Alex, Uboma Ijeoma,

Ogbunude Arapuna, Abanobi Jude, Ibokete Odudu, and all my classmates. Thank you

for being there for me. You are highly appreciated. L O V E

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T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S

C E R T I F I C A T I O N -----------------------------------------------------------------i

T I T L E P A G E ------------------------------------------------------------------------ii

D E D I C A T I O N ----------------------------------------------------------------------iii

A C K N O W L E D G E M E N T -----------------------------------------------------iv

T A B L E O F C O N T E N T S-----------------------------------------------------v

L I S T O F P L A T E S----------------------------------------------------------------ix

L I S T O F F I G U R E S-------------------------------------------------------------xiii

L I S T O F T A B L E S----------------------------------------------------------------xiv

Chapter 1.0 : I N T R O D U C T I O N------------------------------------1

1.1 - Background information-----------------------------------------------------2

1.2 - Statement of architectural problem----------------------------------------5

1.3 - Motivation for the project----------------------------------------------------6

1.4 - Aim and objective for the study--------------------------------------------7

1.5 - Justification of the project---------------------------------------------------8

1.6 - Scope and limitations--------------------------------------------------------9

1.7 - Significance of the project--------------------------------------------------10

1.8 – Research methodology-----------------------------------------------------11

Chapter 2.0 : L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W-----------------------12

2.1 – Historical development of shopping centers---------------------------13

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2.2 – History of the modern shopping center--------------------------------14

2.3 – Historical trends in the development of shopping

concepts and design-------------------------------------------------------------21

2.4 – Definitions and configurations of shopping centers-----------------23

2.5 – Types of shopping centers-----------------------------------------------25

2.6 – Development of shopping centers in Nigeria-------------------------27

2.7 – Definition of terms-------------------------------------------------------28

- General terminologies----------------------------------------------------29

Chapter 3.0 : C A S E S T U D I E S-----------------------------------32

3.1 – Tinapa Business Resort, Calabar, Cross River, Nigeria.------------34

3.2 – The Palms Shopping Center, Lekki Peninsula, Lagos, Nigeria.--49

3.3 – Canal Walk Shopping Center, Cape Town, South Africa.--------60

3.4 – Mall of America, Bloomington, Minnesota, United States.------67

Chapter 4.0 : P L A N N I N G P R I N C I P L E S----------------75

4.1 – General planning considerations--------------------------------------75

4.1.1 – Approaches in shopping center layouts and design-------------76

4.2 – Basic solutions in design of shopping centers----------------------78

4.3 – Design Considerations-------------------------------------------------79

4.3.1 – Vehicular/Pedestrian Movement-----------------------------------79

4.3.2 – Circulation of Traffic-------------------------------------------------81

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4.3.2.1 – Parking Pattern-------------------------------------------------------82

4.3.3 – Service Areas-----------------------------------------------------------86

4.3.4 – Structural System-------------------------------------------------------91

4.3.5 – Conveying System-----------------------------------------------------92

4.3.6 – Ventilation---------------------------------------------------------------95

4.3.7 – Water Supply and Plumbing------------------------------------------96

4.3.8 – Electricity Supply------------------------------------------------------97

4.3.9 – Lighting------------------------------------------------------------------97

4.3.10 – Communication-------------------------------------------------------102

4.3.11 – Fire Safety-------------------------------------------------------------102

4.3.12 – Acoustic----------------------------------------------------------------105

4.3.13 – Security-----------------------------------------------------------------106

4.3.14 – Administration---------------------------------------------------------106

4.3.15 – Future Expansion------------------------------------------------------107

4.3.16 – Environmental Impact Mitigation Measures----------------------107

4.3.17 – Deductions-------------------------------------------------------------108

4.4 – Shopping Facilities-------------------------------------------------------108

4.4.1 – Departmental stores----------------------------------------------------109

4.4.2 – Retail stores--------------------------------------------------------------111

4.4.3 – Service stores------------------------------------------------------------112

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4.4.4 – Supporting facilities---------------------------------------------------113

Chapter 5.0 : L O C A T I O N S T U D I E S------------------------117

5.1 – Brief History of Enugu--------------------------------------------------118

5.2 - Geography of Enugu-----------------------------------------------------120

5.3 – Demographics------------------------------------------------------------120

5.4 – Economy of Enugu------------------------------------------------------120

5.5 – Transport------------------------------------------------------------------121

5.6 – Energy---------------------------------------------------------------------121

5.7 – Vegetation of Enugu-----------------------------------------------------122

5.8 – Climate of Enugu---------------------------------------------------------123

Chapter 6.0 : T H E S I T E----------------------------------------------132

6.1 – Criteria for the choice of site--------------------------------------------133

6.2 – Site Analysis---------------------------------------------------------------134

6.2.1 – Site location-------------------------------------------------------------134

6.2.2 – Size and Zoning--------------------------------------------------------137

6.2.3 – Topography and Drainage--------------------------------------------137

6.2.4 – Access to site-----------------------------------------------------------139

6.2.5 – Sources of Discomfort-------------------------------------------------139

6.2.6 – Building Orientation---------------------------------------------------139

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Chapter 7.0 : T H E D E S I G N ---------------------------------------141

7.1 – Design Evolution---------------------------------------------------------142

7.2 – Design Concept-----------------------------------------------------------142

7.3 – Design Layout Concept--------------------------------------------------145

7.4 – Space requirement and programme-------------------------------------147

7.4.1 – Detailed space programme---------------------------------------------148

C O N C L U S I O N ----------------------------------------------------------153

B I B L I O G R A P H Y------------------------------------------------------154

A P P E N D I X : Presentation Drawings

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L I S T O F P L A T E S

Plate 2.1: Country Club Plaza

Plate 2.2: Northgate center 1951 in Seattle

Plate 2.3: Mission Valley Shopping Center 1961

Plate 2.4: Hurton plaza 2001

Plate 3.1: 3d representation of the shopping area

Plate 3.2: Perspective view of Tinapa business resort calabar,Source:www.tinapa.com

Plate 3.3: Plan showing the site plan of Tinapa business resort calabar, Source:

www.tinapa.com

Plate 3.4: Picture showing the retail shops along the walkway

Plate 3.5: Picture showing the retail shops along the walkway, Source: Author

Plate 3.6: The shopping emporium interior with roof open to hall showing service pipes,

floor finished with epoxy which is expensive, Source: Author

Plate 3.7: Picture showing the entertainment area, Source: Author

Plate 3.8: Picture showing the retail shops along the walkway, Source: Author

Plate 3.9: Source: www.tinapa.com

Plate 3.10: Source: www.tinapa.com

Plate 3.11: Shoprite, Source: www. Tinappa.com

Plate 3.12: The palms entry, www.architectafrica.com

Plate 3.13: Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.14: ground floor plan, Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.15: Upper floor plan,Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.16, Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.17: Interior view of the palms, Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.18: view showing the parking lot, Source:www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.19: The entrance at night, Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.20: Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Plate 3.21: Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

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Plate 3.22: Canal walk, Source: author

Plate 3.23: Ground floor plan, Source: www.canalwalk.co.za

Plate 3.24: First floor plan, Source: www.canalwalk.co.za

Plate 3.25: Shoppers during a summer's evening, Source: Wilkipaedia, the free Encyclopedia

Plate 3.26: Atrium-like glass ceilings provide natural light to the double-storey mall, Source: Wilkipedia, the free Encyclopedia

Plate 3.27: A massive food court with multi-media entertainment, Source: Wilkipedia, the free Encyclopedia

Plate 3.28: Source: www.mallofamerica.com

Plate 3.29: Interior view of atrium , Source: www.mallofamerica.com

Plate 3.30: A departmental store in the mall, Source: www.mallofamerica.com

Plate 3.31: A departmental store in the mall, Source: www.mallofamerica.com

L I S T O F F I G U R E S

Figure 3.1: Plan showing the emporiums, the entertainment area and the parking spaces,

Source: author

Figure 3.2: Plan showing the emporiums and retail shops, Source: Author

Figure 4.1: the magnet layout system

Figure 4.2: Turning and parking, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.3: Turning and parking, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.4: Loaading bays, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.5: Loaading bays, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.6: Air movement

Figure 4.7: Escalators, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.8: Escalators, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.9: Central air conditioning system, Source: neuferts architects data

Figure 4.10: Lighting arrangements, Source: neuferts architects data

Figure 4.11: Artificial lighting positiioning

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Figure 4.12: Escalators, Source: Ernst and Neufert architectural data

Figure 4.13: A sprinkler system, Source: neuferts architects data

Figure 5.1: Map of Nigeria showing Enugu

Figure 5.2: Vegetation of Nigeria,Source: Author

Figure 5.3: Climate of Nigeria,Source: Author

Figure 5.4, 5.5: Wind Movement,Source: Author

Figure 5.6: Rainfall chat of Enugu,Source: Author

Figure 5.8.: Huidity chat of Enugu,Source: Author

Figure 5.7: Temperature chat of Enugu,Source: Author

Figure 6.1: Enugu city map showing site, Source: dept of surveying, UNEC

FIgure 6.2: The proposed site showing the wind and sun movement and , Source: The

Author

FIgure 6.3: Noise movement into site, Source: The Author

FIgure 6.3:Topography and Drainage

Figure 7.1: Bubble Diagram showing the relatioship between the various functions

providedd in the center

Figure 7.2: the relationship between the functions of the center and the proposed site

L I S T O F T A B L E S

Table 7.2: Space requirements and programme

Table 7.1: Space requirements and programme

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1.0 I N T R O D U C T I O N

1.1 - BACKGROUND INFORMATION

The idea and concept of trade by barter is a situation whereby one gives away what he

has in return for what he needs. This was common during the ancient times because

there was no medium of exchange – money.

Other forms of exchange were introduced when money was invented. It became a

general legal tender for business all over the world. This gave a boost to commerce,

thereby expanding its scope as well as enhancing its value.

Markets as it were then in our rural environment was open to air with people displaying

their goods on mats (ground) and tables in a parallel arrangement. They were

completely open to air under trees; thatched roof shelters, timber make shift shops

inadequate and exposed to the adverse effects of the weather. These hazards were an

influencing factor that brought about the emergence of market squares where people

converge to carry out business. Apart from being a forum for commercial activities, a

market square in the traditional setting is a place for social cultural interactions. As a

social gathering, people meet people, make friends and enhance their relationships with

other people.

The market is the center of business activity in any city. The market is a hub around

which most of the public facilities are located. The shrine, the town hall, masquerade

houses, playgrounds and as seen mostly in the western part of Nigeria the oba’s palace.

The importance of the market in our economy, social interactions as well as our culture

can never be overemphasized.

The business of trading being inevitable, it has to be organized by the creating of spaces

and enclosing them to enhance business activities. Evident of this are the squares,

shops, shopping complexes, malls, super markets, open markets, etc.

At the inception of civilization, efforts have been made to modify and enhance the

business of buying and selling.

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Commerce in the world was stagnant as there was no much improvement in its function

until the industrial revolution era which brought about new innovations and

developments in all aspects of human life. Commerce has been enhanced by

innovations in the areas of technology, transportation, food processing, etc.

Technology has played a vital role in that during the industrial revolution as a result of

mechanical inventions which brought about mass production of goods. This direct

application of power and technology affected commerce a great deal both in scale and

sophistication. This revolution brought about the ability to build multilevel buildings

with compact interior spaces, air conditioned with lifts to create a modern and more

comfortable environment for customers and workers.

Movement and haulage of goods and merchandise by the introduction of the various

means of transportation both on land and sea has been playing a vital role in

commerce. This includes the ease and possibility of moving business from town to

town and city to city. It enhanced urbanization and brought about migration of people to

cities thereby increasing and improving the scale of business in the cities. Shipping and

railway transport systems brought about the ability to move supply of goods to distant

regions.

Food processing was possible in ancient times traditionally by the use of ointments and

storage in jars but with the introduction of tins and cans in 1830 it was easier to

preserve food over a long period of time. However the knowledge of canning and

bottling was made successful by the works of Louis Pasteur in 1860 whose theoretical

basis of this discovery was later elaborated and its applications extended to the

successful preparation of non tinned food like bread.

Distribution process

The idea and concept of a modern shopping center is such that it provides an outlet for

all the players involved in the distribution of goods and services. This begins from the

manufacturers or producers to the retailers through the wholesalers and finally to the

consumers.

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The manufacturer uses mechanical technology to produce his brand of goods in very

large quantities (mass production). The products are made for wholesale proposes

whereby distributors purchase in large quantities and distribute to the retailers in lesser

quantities and finally the consumer gets supplies from the retailer in a much lesser

quantity.

Wholesalers and retailers carry on most domestic commerce, or trade, in Nigeria.

Wholesalers buy goods from producers and sell them mainly to retail business firms.

Retailers sell goods to the final consumer.

Manufacturers should market their goods directly to customers in factory outlet malls.

Prices are often lower in these outlets than in regular retail stores. Customers often

travel hundreds of miles to shop at larger factory outlet malls. At the other end of the

spectrum, mail order catalogs and Internet sites have made it possible for many

consumers to purchase products directly from companies by mail or using personal

computers.

Convenience should be the key to consumer markets in Nigeria, whether it is fast food,

movie theaters, clothing, or any of hundreds of different types of consumer goods.

Products are being delivered to people in a more efficient manner, as industries and

business firms have decentralized to more closely fit the distribution to the population.

Retailers play an important role in getting products from producers to consumers.

Retailers help direct the physical flow of goods and services from places that produce

goods to places where goods are used. Since the retailer has direct contact with the

users of goods and services, the retailer can discover and attempt to meet the needs and

preferences of consumers.

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1.2 - STATEMENT OF ARCHITECTURAL PROBLEMS

Many problems are seen in various shopping centers today across the country. They

range from construction methods to materials of construction used as well as concept of

design and proper functionality of interior spaces. Most of the designs have become

obsolete. They do not depict dynamism and creativity in their designs and

configurations as obtainable in some other part of the world. Some of these problems

will be pointed out and solutions will be proffered architecturally.

Other major problem in the development of shopping centers in Enugu is zoning. There

are no particular layouts for shopping activities apart from market locations. This has

brought about the locations of shops and mini shopping plazas scattered around the city.

Zoning ordinances as regards the location of shopping facilities are not adhered to.

Ogui road, Chime avenue were not mapped out for shopping activities of any sort but as

seen today, almost all the buildings along the roads have shopping outlets in front of

them. These thereby create congestions in these areas as shoppers tend to park vehicles

along the roads. This does not enhance the urban environment.

A major problem in the design of large shopping malls and centers is lighting of the

interior spaces. In the case of Nigeria, lack of adequate lighting in the case of power

failure.

The common problem of movement and circulation in the shopping center for both

vehicles and pedestrians. This is usually noticed from the entry into the center, within

the shopping area and malls. This reduces the value of any building. Proper

functionality of the internal and external envelope is very important.

The problem of crime and security. This is a very important aspect of the shopping

administration that has been neglected and it has impaired with shoppers freedom to

making transactions that involve huge sums of money. Therefore because the basic

functions of the shopping center have so much to do with money it is very important to

improve security.

Wrong location of shopping centers. The choice of site for a shopping center should be

influenced by a number of factors. In as much as it should be located outside the areas

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where the population is dense because of traffic problems, it should be situated in

places where people can easily access within the residential neighborhood. This has

been the reason for failure as this is the case with some local centers in Abakpa and

Trans Ekulu. They are located in areas that are isolated and completely off transit

routes.

Wrong orientation of the building in relation to parking facilities as well as service and

pedestrian routes.

The use of long narrow corridors to access shops and spaces. These are not functional.

Inadequate public facilities in shopping centers. In addition to buying and selling, other

activities should be incorporated in the designs. This can be said to be the reason why

shopping centers fail in Enugu city.

Easy access to money in cash. Most shopping centers do not have ATMs and banks

because this will enhance easy transaction and business.

1.3 - MOTIVATION FOR THE PROJECT

The city of Enugu where this project will be situated does not have a working shopping

center and the business of buying and selling being very important and inevitable in our

everyday activity there is a pressing need to provide a forum for shopping, leisure and

entertainment.

Since the inception of the present tenure of democratic rule by President Yar Adua

which started in 2007, a lot of bills have been deliberated upon by the legislative arm on

some projects which includes upgrading some of the local domestic air ports to an

international standard. Enugu happens to be one of them. Therefore the development of

a shopping center in the city of Enugu will serve as an international market for visitors

and inhabitants.

Other buttressing reasons that motivated me for this project includes the quest to

eliminate the oddities noticed in my case studies and findings. They include proper

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access and circulation in shopping areas, problems of crime and security, location,

inadequate lighting, etc. These will help enhance our traditional market system to meet

up with the basic needs and demands of our immediate environment today.

As one of the key states in the south east with all its potentials deserves an ultra modern

shopping center where locally made products like fabrics (textiles), furniture (raffia),

pottery, painting, sculpture (art and craft can be exhibited, showcased and marketed.

This will make the state a center of business activity in the south east.

1.4 - AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The primary aim of this research is to come up with and evolve a unique proposal that

will demonstrate a careful analysis of the architectural problems noticed from previous

shopping centers especially the ones studied in this work and come up with a solution.

The result will be a skillful synthesis of the data analysis which will give an expression

to the proposed shopping center through Function, Form, Design and Architectural

character.

The key to proffering a solution to the problems in shopping center designs lies in a

planned and well coordinated set of architectural functions.

Generally the aims are as follows

Developing an ultra modern multi proposed shopping center that will meet with every

need of its users as well as provide comfort and maximum satisfaction.

Ensuring effectively proper interaction between all the players in the distribution

process of goods and services; the producer, wholesaler, the retailer and the consumer.

Encouraging and enhancing tourism in the state and the south east.

The above mentioned will be achieved in the following ways with more emphasis on

the design and architecture of the shopping center.

• Enclosing our cultural market system. This is achieved by creating an outdoor

shopping impression as seen in our traditional setting although enclosed.

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• Provision of leisure facilities like restaurants, gymnasium, etc.

• The provision of credit facilities like banks and ATMs to enhance shopping

activity.

• Introducing open shopping style and design. Apart from restoring our style of

market, it will encourage outdoor interaction.

• The provision of public facilities like laundry services, transport services,

offices, bank etc.

1.5 - JUSTIFICATION OF THE PROJECT

This project seeks to provide adequate service to an increased population of the public

who are conscious of the need for a modernized outfit of shopping facilities.

The population data and the understanding of the development need for an ever

growing Enugu state validates and attests to the urgent need for a shopping center

which will serve the neighboring states as well.

The failure of shopping centers could be attributed to poor accessibility, location,

zoning and proximity to the neighboring environment, inadequate planning as well as

the configuration of the usages of the facilities provided.

Before choosing a location for a shopping center, the proximity to its users and the

immediate environment should be well considered. This includes access, proper zoning,

the kind of wares and merchandise sold and the provision of public facilities which will

serve as a magnet that will attract people to shop. The development of a shopping

center in Enugu has been completely neglected but with care full consideration of the

above the possibility of its success is very viable.

A shopping complex should not just be designed for the purpose of buying and selling.

It should inculcate other attractive facilities that will enhance leisure, proper location,

accessibility to the center, etc.

Most retailers and wholesalers travel far in search of wares and merchandise to

purchase. This is very strenuous and not very profitable. The shopping design is such

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that it will provide an outlet for large stores and depots for the large manufacturers.

This will make the exercise of buying and selling less laborious.

With these facilities properly maintained, people will always find it interesting to spend

their time and leisure with their family and loved ones.

1.6 - SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS

The scope of the project shall be limited to the design of an ultra-modern shopping

complex with departmental stores, retail stores, open shops, banks and other ancillary

facilities like restaurant, office spaces, laundry, relaxation spots in a configuration that

meets up with the trend of technological advancement in the use of materials like glass,

steel and concrete to meet up with the standards obtainable in other parts of the country

and the world at large.

The complex will be located at the Thinkers Corner layout, after orthopedic hospital by

Abakaliki express way. The reason for the choice of this location is because it is

situated along a major transit route to the industrial layout, Emene where the Akanu

Ibiam airport and other large establishments are located. This tends to serve as a service

center which tends to attract large number of people to the shopping center and that part

of the town.

Limiting factors:

The existence of the Ogbete market, Ogui road can be said to be a limitation because it

poses a threat to the existence of the proposed shopping center. It is ever expanding as

new shops are being added to the upper floors of each row. The location of the market

is quite far from the proposed site and because people are more conversant with the

market there might be problems with people getting used to the new complex which

tends to be better and more organized.

The attitude of the people towards development and their ability to fit in to the new

trend of shopping could be a problem to the inhabitants.

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The site is located along a major road which is very good for accessibility but the

problem of traffic is likely to occur as the main entrance into the development will be

from the major road.

1.7 - SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

This project has been carefully considered and deemed viable. This is because of the

following reasons:

The shopping center will stand as an edifice that will enhance and improve the urban

imagery of its environment which is an aspect of urban development.

It will serve as a focal point for the development of a new neighborhood in a centrifugal

manner, moving from the source outwards.

It will encourage the development of governmental and private establishments in the

environment. They include banks, security companies, etc.

It will enhance mutual interaction between the different users and tenants as it is

noticed in our traditional market system. As well as encourage communal interaction

between people from various works of life who tend to come together to perform their

individual functions.

The erection of a project of this magnitude in Enugu state will go a long way in

providing job opportunities for a good number of people ranging from professionals to

non professionals.

This shopping center will therefore be effectively and efficiently designed to provide

functional, pleasant shopping environment that will offer very beneficial experiences to

the users.

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1.8 - RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

In carrying out this research work, the selection of site, the case study selection,

influencing factor considerations, facilities and their standards among other things were

determined by the following means:

Interviews and enquiries gotten directly and indirectly from people and inhabitants of

Enugu.

Observations of the general commercial behavior of the residents of Enugu state, their

response to shopping as well as studying the requirements needed for the physical

planning of shopping facilities.

Data collection, study and extracts from past published and unpublished works on

shopping complexes; design and construction. In printed or electronic formats.

The use of case studies of existing similar shopping complexes based in Nigeria and

abroad.

Site investigations and field visits to the proposed site

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2.0 L I T E R A T U R E R E V I E W

2.1 - HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SHOPPING CENTERS

During the early periods before civilization, the primitive man wandered about and his

major concern was his shelter where he retired to at the end of the day. As time went on

he realized that he had to settle down and cultivate an organized life style. To meet up

with his day to day needs, he had to face the task associated with his new life style

therefore he needed skills in farming, live stock, etc.

He later realized that it wasn’t just enough to farm, rear livestock. This is because it is

practically impossible for him to be self sufficient enough to meet up with the basic

necessities of life. This brought about the traditional style of exchanging goods for

goods, trade by barter. . By this, people met on fixed dates and locations to exchange

their goods.

This system progressed and continued until it became obvious that there was need for a

form of shelter.

The first market was recorded to have been during the ancient Greek civilization. The

Agora was originally the site of the popular assembly in ancient Greece, but as time

went by it was used increasingly for commercial purposes. Large and open and easily

accessible, it was regarded as the center of political, commercial, religious, and social

life in the city. The agora was surrounded by public buildings and temples, frequently

with colonnades on the side facing the square. The Emperor Trajan, in his time engaged

his architect, a Greek slave, Appolodorus, in the building of a shopping center adjacent

to the roman forum in the year A.D. 100. The center had two levels, enclosed with

shops lined with open fronted shops. Also the Arabian market of the Middle Ages also

had malls with open fronted shops.

This trend continued until there was need for more organized and functional

compartments of spaces for proper shopping activities. This was spurred and enhanced

by the industrial revolution .Since then the development of shopping centers have been

very innovative with various interesting ideas and concepts. This includes adequate

lighting of the massive interior spaces, proper ventilation of malls and smaller shops,

28

stabilization of the interior climate of the centers which are mostly enclosed and air

conditioned.

2.2 - HISTORY OF THE MODERN SHOPPING CENTERS

Shopping centers have existed in some form for more than 1,000 years as ancient

market squares, bazaars and seaport commercial districts.

The antecedents of the modern shopping center were the ancient agoras and medieval

piazzas of European cities. The industrial revolution of the nineteenth century produced

the department store but made cities crowded and dirty, and the desire to improve life

by moving away from the city gave birth to the suburb and shopping mall.

The modern shopping center, which includes everything from small suburban strip

centers to the million-square-foot superregional malls, had its genesis in the 1920s.

The concept of developing a shopping district away from a downtown is generally

attributed to J.C. Nichols of Kansas City, Mo. His Country Club Plaza, which opened in

1922, was constructed as the business district for a large-scale residential development.

It featured unified architecture, paved and lighted parking lots, and was managed and

operated as a single unit.

Plate 2.1: Country Club Plaza

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In the latter half of the 1920s, as automobiles began to clog the central business districts

of large cities, small strip centers were built on the outskirts. The centers were usually

anchored by a supermarket and a drug store, supplemented by other convenience-type

shops. The typical design was a straight line of stores with space for parking in front.

Grandview Avenue Shopping Center in Columbus, Ohio, which opened in 1928,

included 30 shops and parking for 400 cars.

But many experts consider Highland Park Shopping Village in Dallas, Tex., developed

by Hugh Prather in 1931, to be the first planned shopping center. Like Country Club

Plaza, its stores were built with a unified image and managed under the control of a

single owner, but Highland Park occupied a single site and was not bisected by public

streets. And its storefronts faced inward, away from the streets, a revolutionary design.

In the 1930s and 1940s, Sears Roebuck & Co. and Montgomery Ward set up large,

freestanding stores with on-site parking, away from the centers of big cities. Nighttime

shopping was inaugurated at Town & Country Shopping Center in Columbus, Ohio,

when developer Don Casto hired Grandma Carver (a woman who dived from a 90-foot

perch into a 4-foot pool of flaming water), to perform her act in the lighted parking lot,

bringing shopping center promotion to a new level.

The early 1950s marked the opening of the first two shopping centers anchored by full-

line branches of downtown department stores. Northgate in Seattle, Wash., (two strip

centers face-to-face with a pedestrian walkway in between) opened in 1950, and

Shoppers World in Framingham, Mass. (the first two-level center), debuted the

following year. The concept was improved upon in 1954 when Northland Center in

Detroit, Mich., used a “cluster layout” with a single department store at the center and a

ring of stores around it. The parking lot completely surrounded the center. Northland

was also the first center to have central air-conditioning as well as heating.

30

Plate 2.2: Northgate center 1951 in Seattle

Plate 2.3: Mission Valley Shopping Center 1961

In 1956, Southdale Center in Edina, Minn., outside of Minneapolis, opened as the first

fully enclosed mall with a two-level design. It had central air-conditioning and heating,

a comfortable common area and, more importantly, it had two competitive department

stores as anchors. Southdale is considered by most industry professionals to be the first

modern regional mall.

By 1964 there were 7,600 shopping centers in the United States. Suburban development

and population growth after World War II created the need for more housing and more

convenient retail shopping. Most of the centers built in the 1950s and 1960s were strip

centers serving new housing developments.

31

By 1972 the number of shopping centers had doubled to 13,174. Regional malls like

Southdale and The Galleria in Houston, Tex., had become a fixture in many larger

markets, and Americans began to enjoy the convenience and pleasure of mall shopping.

During the 1970s, a number of new formats and shopping center types evolved.

In 1976 The Rouse Co. developed Faneuil Hall Marketplace in Boston, Mass., which

was the first of the “festival marketplaces” built in the United States. The project, which

revived a troubled downtown market, was centered on food and retail specialty items.

Similar projects were built in Baltimore, Md., New York, N.Y., and Miami, Fla., and

have been emulated in a number of urban areas.

The Bicentennial year also marked the debut of the country’s first urban vertical mall,

Water Tower Place, which opened in Chicago, Ill., on Michigan Avenue. To many

experts, Water Tower Place with its tony stores, hotel, offices, condominiums and

parking garage, remains the preeminent mixed-use project in the United States. With

the opening of Water Tower Place and Faneuil Hall, the shopping center industry had

returned to its urban roots.

The 1980s saw an unparalleled period of growth in the shopping center industry, with

more than 16,000 centers built between 1980 and 1990. This was also the period when

super-regional centers (malls larger than 800,000 square feet) became increasingly

popular with shoppers. In 1990, a Gallup poll found that people shopped most

frequently at super-regional malls and neighborhood centers. Americans average four

trips to the mall per month.

Between 1989 and 1993, new shopping center development dropped nearly 70%, from

1,510 construction starts in 1989 to 451 starts in 1993. The sharp decline in new center

starts was attributed to the Savings and Loan crisis, which helped precipitate a severe

credit crunch. While overbuilding occurred among small centers in some regions of the

United States, shopping centers remained the most attractive and best-performing real

estate category for investors during this difficult period.

The year 1993 was marked by the transition of several privately held, family-run

shopping center development companies (Simon, Taubman, etc.) into publicly traded

32

real estate investment trusts (REITs). The access to Wall Street capital provided a

financial jolt to an industry that still had not fully recovered from the credit crunch.

One of the newer retail formats that has become increasingly popular in the United

States is the power center, which loosely defined is a center between 250,000 and

600,000 square feet, with approximately 75% to 90% of its space occupied by category

killers or destination anchor stores. Power centers are often located near regional and

super-regional malls. San Francisco-based Terranomics is credited with pioneering the

concept at 280 Metro Center in Colma, Calif. In 1993, 16 power centers opened in the

United States, compared with only four super-regional malls.

Factory outlet centers were one of the fastest growing segments of the shopping center

industry in the 1990s. In 1990, there were 183 outlet centers. Today, there are over

approximately 312 outlet centers in the United States. Outlet malls are tenanted by

manufacturers selling their own goods at discounted prices. Some large projects

combine outlet stores with traditional off-price stores like Marshalls. One such project,

Sawgrass Mills in Sunrise, Fla., is more than 2 million square feet and features outlets,

discounters and retail clearance stores.

The largest mall in the United States is currently Mall of America in Bloomington,

Minn., which includes a seven-acre amusement park, nightclubs, restaurants and covers

4.2 million square feet (with about half that total devoted to retailing). The center has

been heralded as a bellwether for its innovative mixture of entertainment and retailing.

The forerunner to Mall of America, and the largest mall in North America, is West

Edmonton Mall in Alberta, which encompasses 5.5 million square feet.

Entertainment quickly became an industry buzzword in the early 1990s as technological

advances allowed shopping center developments to foster the same magical experiences

that were once only seen in national amusement parks such as Disney World. Since the

start of the entertainment wave, retailers have focused on keeping their presentations

exciting and shopping center owners have striven to obtain tenant mixes that draw

traffic from the widest audience possible. Under one roof or in an outdoor retail format,

consumers enjoy children’s playscapes, virtual reality games, live shows, movies in

multiplex cinemas, a variety of food in either the food court or themed restaurants,

carousel rides, visually stunning merchandising techniques, robotic animal displays,

33

and interactive demonstrations. Many shopping centers are also focused on added

service-oriented tenants, which offer today’s busy consumer an opportunity to complete

weekly errands or to engage in a variety of other activities. Among the many services

found in today’s malls are churches, schools, postal branches, municipal offices,

libraries, and museums.

As the 1990s drew to a close, Internet retailing was heralded as the wave of the future

and a threat to the stability of the shopping center industry. In July of 1998, Time

magazine predicted the demise of the shopping mall. In bold type, Time’s cover advised

its readers to, “Kiss Your Mall Good-Bye: Online Shopping is Cheaper, Quicker and

Better.” While the cover was purely sensational, the tone was clear. The shopping

center industry was under attack, yet again, from an alternative shopping format.

Several years earlier similar claims were made about the impact home television

shopping would have on the industry. In fact, the cover of BusinessWeek magazine in

July of 1993 read, “Retailing Will Never Be the Same: The Home Shopping

Revolution.”

Unlike home television shopping, Internet retailing quickly captured the attention of the

public, the media and Wall Street as companies rushed to develop websites that would

sell directly to consumers. In the euphoria it mattered little that many of these Internet

companies had little or no retail experience. Fearing the cannibalization of store sales,

brick-and-mortar retailers at first were hesitant to sell directly to the public via the

Internet. However, when it became apparent that they had some clear advantages over

pure Internet retailers (brand name recognition, distribution facilities, supplier

relationships, ability to accept returns at stores, etc.) brick-and-mortar retailers launched

their own websites. These advantages quickly paid off for brick-and-mortar retailers. In

fact, in 1998, brick-and-mortar retailers’ websites captured 60% of online sales.

In addition to buying online, brick-and-mortar retailers discovered that their consumers

were using the web as a research vehicle. Consumers were logging on to retailers’

websites to search for goods, and services, and armed with product information, were

making purchases at stores. Thus the Internet has transformed a large and growing

number of retailers into “multi-channel” retailers with all sales channels (stores, web,

and catalog) working as one to help retailers maximize the value of their brands.

34

Understanding that there is great synergy between the Internet and brick-and-mortar

stores, shopping centers owners have created their own websites and are working with

their retail tenants to create distribution channels to satisfy the consumer, whether the

consumer decides to shop at a shopping center, on the Internet or both.

In 1999, Simon Property Group, the nation’s largest shopping center developer, created

two separate business units, clixnmortar.com and TenantConnect. Through

TenantConnect, Simon is installing broadband Internet connections inside its own malls

and those of other developers, so that stores can have high-speed access to the Internet.

Also, retailers at Simon malls can take part in two clixnmortar initiative: FastFrog.Com

and YourSherpa. In both programs, consumers carry handheld scanners through the

mall, and scan items they are interested in buying. When shoppers are finished, the

information is loaded into computer kiosks. From the FastFrog kiosk, shoppers can

have their list of items forward to friends or relatives. At the YourSherpa kiosk, users

can type in their credit card number and check out immediately, or delay the final

purchase until they go home. Mall employees pick-up scanned items at stores in the

mall and customers have the option of picking-up the items at the mall or having them

delivered.

Plate 2.4: Hurton plaza 2001

General Growth Properties, the nation’s second-largest mall developer is also

incorporating the Internet into their malls. General Growth’s Mallibu.com website links

35

retailers in each of the company’s malls, allowing consumers to buy online directly

from those retailers and have their purchases delivered to them.

Other shopping center developers are also working with their retailers to incorporate the

Internet into their businesses model. Many shopping centers have their own websites

and have added their web address to their advertising and promotional vehicles. Most

shopping center websites have maps and directions to the center, a list of tenants and a

calendar of events. Some shopping centers are even providing free Internet access for

their customers. The center can e-mail the customer information on sales and special

events that are taking place at the center.

As we enter the 21st century, shopping centers continue to evolve and serve

communities’ social and economic needs. With the combination of fashion, food,

entertainment, and services, shopping centers have greatly expanded their role in the

communities they serve.

2.3 - HISTORICAL TRENDS IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SHOPPING

CONCEPTS AND DESIGNS

The nature of retail business is that there is always change. Each decade brings large-

scale and sometimes surprising shifts on both the supply and demand side. Retail

businesses have been affected by a succession of innovations dating from the mid-

1800s: "packaging in containers of fixed sizes and weights (1840s); standardized

methods of sorting, grading, weighing and inspecting (early 1850s); fixed prices

(1860s); standardized clothing sizes (early 1880s); periodic presentations via catalog

(1880s); the buffet-style restaurant (1885) and the cafeteria serving line (1895); fully

automated vending machines (1897); standardization through franchising (1911); drive-

through auto service stations (1913); self-service store layout (1916);...packaging that

'sold itself' (late 1920s); 'fair trade' enforced price uniformity (1931); and wide selection

of competing brands displayed on open shelves (1934)."

(The Future of U.S. Retailing. p. 54-55.)

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As described by Hutter (1987), the downtown department store was the first true

modern commercial phenomenon. From the 1880s to the 1920s it provided something

new--a convenient one-stop, one-price shopping establishment. Trachtenberg (1982)

points out that "in department stores, buyers of goods learned new roles for themselves,

apprehended themselves as 'consumers,' something different from mere users of goods."

(Alan Trachtenberg 1982.

The Incorporation of America. New York: Hill and Wang. p. 130.)

Part of the success of the large department store was the technology developing during

the Industrial Revolution including such new inventions as the elevator, improvements

in gas lighting, and pneumatic tube systems. But there was also a social element to the

phenomenon, for shopping in these "grand emporiums" represented a new ethic of

consumerism that was being glorified during this period and represented the success of

the American economic system. They also were important in teaching women to be

proper users of goods.

As much as the school and much like the factory, the shopping centers served its

customers as an educational institution. Proferring infinite charm at cheap prices, it sold

along with its goods a lesson in modern living. The departments taught the social

location of goods; trousers as "men's clothing," silks as "women's wear," reclining

chairs as "parlor furniture."...department stores taught families what they needed, taught

symbolic as well as practical functions of things. The lessons inhered in the design of

things themselves, their packaging and advertisement, their place and manner of

presentation, the entire gestalt assuming a continuous act of learning and using, along

with buying.

(Tractenberg. p. 132.)

The department store also provided post-Victorian women a safe place to go in the

industrial city. Many provided more than basic shopping facilities, including ladies'

lunchrooms, sitting rooms, and even "silence rooms" for a peaceful respite. Detroit's

Hudson's store had a room where mothers could nurse their babies and change their

diapers. Ultimately this emphasis led to the "feminization of spending." (Duncan 1965)

37

Technology also had much to do with the new form of convenience shopping, for the

automobile no longer made centrality necessary to retail success, and shopping

followed the development of residential areas of the urban fringe.

In the last sixty years there has been a gradual, but inexorable, shift of retail from the

city center to new suburban centers. At first retail followed new residential

development, but then residential followed retail as the convenience of new commercial

centers became better established.

This shift has been a relatively tranquil process, and has been widely accepted. Little

friction to it has been created either through public policy or private competition.

Indeed, it has generally been the strategy of formerly downtown businesses to join the

surge to the suburbs rather than fight it. Thus, the functions that remain in the

downtowns were either too weak or too established in a special niche to move.

2.4 - DEFINITIONS AND CONFIGURATIONS OF SHOPPING CENTERS

A shopping center can be defined as:

(a) Collection of retail businesses in a building or set of buildings under one or more

ownership or management.

(b) An aggregation of retail outlets coordinated for the convenience of customers and

the mutual advantage of the stores.

(c) Typically a linear arrangement of connected row of stores fronted by a walkway and

parking area.

It can also be defined as a group of retail and other commercial establishments that is

planned, developed, owned and managed as a single property, with on-site parking

provided. The center's size and orientation are generally determined by the market

characteristics of the trade area served by the center.

The growth of suburbs around large cities has been responsible for an important

shopping development.

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In a shopping center, large retail stores selling many different kinds of merchandise

are arranged in separate departments. Such stores are found in nearly every important

city in the world, and the large department store often contain more than 100 separate

departments and shops.

Besides making many diverse items available for purchase in one complex, department

stores offer numerous services, including delivery and mailing of purchases; credit

service, usually in the form of charge accounts.

The organization of a modern shopping center/departmental store is often complex

because of the large number of goods and services provided.

There are three basic physical configurations of shopping centers and they are as

follows:

1. Mall: The most common design mode for regional and super regional centers

is often referred to as a “shopping mall.” The walkway or “mall” is typically enclosed,

climate-controlled and lighted, flanked on one or both sides by storefronts and

entrances. Onsite parking, usually provided around the perimeter of the center, may be

surface or structured.

2. Open-Air Center: An attached row of stores or service outlets managed as a

unit, with on-site parking usually located in front of the stores with common areas that

are not enclosed, is often referred to as an “open-air center.” Open canopies may

connect the storefronts, but an open-air center does not have enclosed walkways linking

the stores.

3. Hybrid Center: A center that combines elements from two or more of the

main shopping center types. Common hybrids include value-oriented mega-malls

(combining mall, power center, and outlet elements), power-lifestyle centers

(combining power center and lifestyle center elements), and entertainment-retail centers

(combining retail uses with megaplex movie theaters, restaurants, and other

entertainment uses).

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2.5 - TYPES OF SHOPPING CENTERS

Industry nomenclature originally offered four basic terms: neighborhood, community,

regional, and super regional centers. However, as the industry has matured, these four

classifications are no longer adequate. To remove some of the ambiguity and

accommodate new shopping center formats, The International Council of Shopping

Centers has defined eight principal shopping center types and they are under two

categories.

Malls and open air center types;

Malls

• Sub regional center

• Regional center

• Super regional center

Sub regional center

A shopping center with 150,000 to 400,000 square feet GLA (Gross leasable area: the

total area of floor space (usually cited in square feet) leased for retail shops, consumer

services, and entertainment, including restaurants), often an enclosed mall, with 15 to

40 stores anchored by one or more department stores.

Regional center

A shopping center with 400,000 to 800,000 square feet GLA, often an enclosed mall,

with 40 to 100 stores anchored by one or more department stores. It is usually enclosed

with an inward orientation of the stores connected by a common walkway. Parking

surrounds the outside perimeter.

Super regional center

The largest classification of shopping center; it is usually an enclosed mall larger than

800,000 square feet GLA with more than 100 stores, including several department

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stores. Similar to a regional center, but because of its larger size, a super regional center

has more anchors, a deeper selection of merchandise, and draws from a larger

population base. As with regional centers, the typical configuration is an enclosed mall,

frequently with multilevel. Parking may also be structured to accommodate the sheer

size of the center.

Open air centers

• Sub urban/neighborhood center

Sub urban / Neighborhood center

Typically, an open-air shopping center of 30,000 to 150,000 square feet GLA with 3 to

15 stores, anchored by a supermarket. This center is designed to provide convenience

shopping for the day-to-day needs of consumers in the immediate neighborhood.

Centers may have a canopy or other façade treatment to provide shade and protection

from inclement weather.

Other types of shopping centers include:

Community Center: A community center typically offers a wider range of apparel and

other soft goods than the neighborhood center. Among the more common anchors are

supermarkets, super

drugstores, and discount department stores.

Power Center: A center dominated by several large anchors, including discount

department stores, off-price stores, warehouse clubs.

Theme/Festival Center: These centers typically employ a unifying theme that is

carried out by the individual shops in their architectural design and, to an extent, in their

merchandise. Featuring restaurant and entertainments, associated with a place of

historic or cultural interest.

41

Outlet Center: a shopping center with national brand-name retailers, factory outlets, or

close-out outlets selling discounted merchandise.

Lifestyle Center: Most often located near affluent residential neighborhoods, this

center type caters to the retail needs and “lifestyle” pursuits of consumers in its trading

are Lifestyle center: Typically, an open-air shopping center whose array of retail

outlets (fashion stores, jewelers, leather goods, and restaurants) are designed to appeal

to upscale consumers; lifestyle centers usually include attractive landscaping, fountains,

outdoor seating, and other features that encourage browsing.

2.6 - DEVELOPMENT OF SHOPPING CENTERS IN NIGERIA

The idea of shopping in Nigeria was nothing other than common scenario of our

traditional markets until the intrusion of the white man’s idea into our traditional

values. The influence was so great that it completely changed our thought patterns as

regards to our tradition. As seen today our traditional market system is still preserved

with little or no modifications but moving with the trend of advancement in this century

there is a need to improve our system from what it used to be.

Earlier in Nigeria market activities were scheduled periodically in a market days and

the days differ from one culture to the other. Over time this system faded because there

was need for a day to day business. This is evident in our local markets as seen today.

The foreigners who brought civilization into our commercial activities influenced our

market system tremendously. This gradual trend led to the emergence of shops, stalls,

supermarkets and departmental stores.

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2.7 - DEFINITION OF TERMS

Airport mall: specialty retail, restaurant, and other services concentrated in airports.

Arcade: a type of enclosed urban shopping center popular in the 19th century, typically

with an arched glass roof and two rows of shops either side of a pedestrian passageway,

which often connected two parallel streets.

Enclosed mall: a shopping center entirely inside a roofed structure, so that entrance to

the mall is controlled by a limited number of entrances and most stores are accessible

only via interior corridors.

Entertainment complex: a shopping center that features theaters, restaurants,

amusements and related retail stores.

Fashion mall: a shopping center featuring stores that offer stylish clothing, posh

merchandise, and quality consumer goods .

Galleria: a glass-roofed mall or mall courtyard, derived from the European glass-

vaulted Victorian-era shopping arcades, especially the design of the Galleria Vittorio

Emanuele II (built 1867) in Milan, Italy.

Mall: any large shopping center (usually enclosed) with adjacent parking and out

buildings.

Mixed-use center: an integrated complex that may contain residences, offices,

restaurants, theaters, a hotel and other services, in addition to retail stores.

Open-air: a shopping center in which stores are directly accessible to the public;

exterior walkways may be covered, but the stores are not enclosed under a single roof.

Strip: a small open-air neighborhood shopping center, typically smaller than 10,000

square feet GLA , with at least three stores, arranged in a connected row facing a

parking area.

Urban mall: shopping center located within a city, the largest of which may be on

several levels with adjacent multi-level parking.

43

Value-oriented mall: a large shopping center characterized by low-end, discount, and

outlet stores.

Village center: an open-air shopping center having several wings and often a central

plaza.

GENERAL TERMINOLOGIES

Anchor stores: the largest retail outlets, usually located at the ends or corners of

shopping centers, and chosen in part for their potential to attract customers to the

shopping center generally; departments stores usually anchor regional and super-

regional malls and supermarkets are typical anchors in community centers.

Back of the house: the office, stock room, and other non-retail areas of a store.

Big box: a large stand-alone store that specializes in a single line of products, such as

home improvements, toys, or office supplies; no-frills discount stores that sell in

volume and category killers are often big box stores.

Cart: a wheeled display from which merchandise is sold in pedestrian areas of a mall,

often fitted out with shelves, display racks, and the likes.

Cash wrap: the front counter with the cash register and often a wrapping or packing

area.

Category killer: a large national chain store specializing in one line of products, such as

home improvements, office supplies, or toys, that can overwhelm both smaller and

more diverse competitors because of its size, variety of merchandise, and prices.

Community room: an area available for public use, ranging from a bare meeting room

that can accommodate folding chairs and tables to a more elaborate hall with stage,

adjacent kitchen, and other services.

Double dumbbell shape: a cross-shaped shopping center with anchor stores at the end of

each cross.

44

Draw tenant: a store that attracts a large number of potential customers to a shopping

center, often an anchor store.

Dumbbell: a linear shopping center with anchors stores on each end.

Factory outlet: a retail store that sells merchandise direct from the manufacturer, usually

at reduced prices.

Food court: a separate area of a shopping center containing fast-food outlets and a

common seating area.

Free-standing store: a retail outlet not associated with a shopping center, especially

those at a distance from congested shopping areas and downtowns.

Irregulars: salable merchandise with minor imperfections sold at reduced prices.

Junior department store: (1) a small department store offering a limited selection of

goods; (2) a scaled-down version of a full-sized department store.

Kiosk: a semi-permanent booth placed in pedestrian areas of a shopping center and used

to sell small items or to offer specific services, such as jewelry repair .

L-shaped: a shopping center with two linear strips of stores connected at right angles,

forming the letter L; anchors are typically located on the two ends or at the apex, with

parking inside the apex; L-shaped is a common design for community-sized centers.

Market area: the geographical area from which a shopping center draws its customers.

Off-price center: a retail store that sells brand-name clothing or other goods (often with

labels).

Shrinkage: (1) difference between value of inventoried merchandise and merchandise

book value, attributable to waste, shop wear, carelessness, fraud, theft, and so on; (2)

more specifically, loss of merchandise due to shoplifting, usually reported as a

percentage of sales.

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T-shaped: a shopping center comprising two linear arrays of stores forming the shape of

the letter T, with anchor stores at each of the three ends and parking on all sides

Tall-wall stall: a temporary retailing display and counter built against an empty wall.

Temporary tenant: typically, a retailer that rents space in a common area for a cart,

kiosk, or tall-wall stall for less than a year.

46

47

3.0 - C A S E S T U D I E S

Over the past decade, the world retail development, driven by money and modern

communication, has grown rapidly in the emerging markets. In many major African

cities, there has been a wave of construction and malls are now becoming part of the

shopping landscape, alongside traditional markets. There is an increasing trend towards

more formalized shopping centers with anchor tenants and many national retailers.

The resultant changes to people’s lives have been significant. In regions where

shopping once meant walking to an open air market or a neighborhood shop, consumers

are now able to browse the aisles at a supermarket or select brand-name goods at a mall.

Shoppers have become consumers and an emerging middle class with disposable

income has created a substantial demand and a new set of expectations for consumer

goods.

A growth in the retail industry in Nigeria has been a catalyst for local economic growth

with positive benefits for developers, tenants and consumers. Other positive

consequences include job creation, the reduction of protectionism and infrastructural

improvements.

The Lagos Palms for example, created employment for 500 Nigerians and another 5

000 jobs indirectly.

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TINAPA BUSINESS RESORT (the emporiums), Calabar.

Plate 3.1: 3d representation of the shopping area

Location: Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria

Opening date: 2006

Developer: GAPP, Architects & Urban Designers,

Africa

Management: Gendel Group

Client: Cross River State Government

No. of anchor tenants: 4 emporiums

Total retail floor area: 80,000m² emporiums (retail & wholesale).

Parking: 3000 public parking spaces, parking for trucks and services.

49

Plate 3.2: Perspective view of Tinapa business resort calabar

Source: www.tinapa.com

50

Plate 3.3: Plan showing the site plan of Tinapa business resort calabar

Source: www.tinapa.com

51

Figure 3.1: Plan showing the emporiums, the entertainment area and the parking spaces

Source: author

52

Figure 3.2: Plan showing the emporiums and retail shops

Source: Author

The activities in the shopping area are as follows

Emporium A

• Supermarkets

• Fish market

• Fruits and vegetables

• Banks

• Travel agents

• Books

53

• Pharmacy

• Tobacconist

• Cell phones

• Specialty

• Photographic

• Car hire

• Dry cleaner

• Optometrist

• Courier service

Emporium B

• Appliances and electronics

• Furniture

• Beddings and mattresses

• Specialty audio

• Art and farming

• Computers

• Leather and luggage

• Coffee shop

• Lighting

• Tile showroom

• Home accessories

Emporium C

• Vehicle showroom

• Outdoor showroom

• Lifestyle

• Hardware

• Motor accessories

• Sports goods

• Linen and fabric

54

• Toys

• Specialty

• Stationery

• Office equipment

• Telephone shop

• Internet café

• Books and music

Emporium 4

• Textiles fashion

• Ladies shoes

• Gents shoes

• Hair dressers

• Branded fashion

• Specialist fashion

• Sports goods

• Coffee shops

• Children clothing

• Fashion accessories

• Cosmetics

• Jewelry

55

Plate 3.4: Picture showing the retail shops along the walkway

Source: www.tinapa.com

56

Plate 3.5: Picture showing the retail shops along the walkway

Source: Author

Tinapa business resort, calabar is a world-class business outfit in Nigeria, opened in the

year (2006) amidst great excitement and anticipation. Foreign based GAPP, Architects

and Urban Designers, Africa, internationally recognised designers, were retained by the

developers to design the project with their Nigerian representative as COGEDS, calabar

who were able to manage the project from start to its present stage.

57

Plate 3.6: The shopping emporium interior with roof open to hall showing service pipes,

floor finished with epoxy which is expensive

Source: Author

The Tinapa business resort is the latest and most ambitious development in cross river

state trade and leisure strategy, located in the calabar trade zone.

Tinapa is the realization of a calculated business initiative designed to attract traders

and tourists alike.

Calabar, a city in the southern part of Nigeria located around the oil producing states in

Nigeria, Port Harcourt, Delta, Eket, Bayelsa, etc. Demographic studies have found out

that there are about 400,000 people residing in calabar with an additional student

population of 40,000.

The architectural design of Tinapa exploits the natural richness of Africa through

explorations into worlds of water and succulent vegetation.

58

Plate 3.7: Picture showing the entertainment area

Source: Author

The emporium is an open space with partitions for rentable space. It is double volume

of above 6m from finished floor level.

The total development comprises of wholesale emporiums, 4 of them. These

emporiums are supported by a vast array of retailers of books, specialty CD and DVD

outlets, pharmacies, beauty salons, banks and jewelry stores. Adjoining the shopping

area is an entertainment complex embracing the hotels and a waterfront development -

the Fisherman's Wharf. There are also cinemas, food court, internet café, a game arcade

and a parking facility for 3000 cars and other parking spaces for trucks and services.

59

Plate #.8: Picture showing the retail shops along the walkway

Source: Author

APPRAISAL

Merits

• Tinapa is aimed at being a Business resort, and as such, the facilities introduced

meets the functions in which it’s meant to perform.

• The market hall/ emporium will create a busy atmosphere which should be a

characteristic of a shopping center.

• The service/dock yards are well zoned such that it is away from the rest of the

emporium by the use of dwarf wall partitioning and landscape screen elements.

• The use of the central air conditioning system to regulate the internal climate of

the emporiums.

• There is proper management and control of refuse.

• Its design and zoning suits the tropical climate of its host environment.

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• The parking space of 3000 plus is enough and caters for the influx of visitors to

the facility conveniently as regards the scale of the project and calabar.

Plate 3.9: Source: www.tinapa.com

Demerits

• The emporiums are very massive in size therefore quite difficult to maintain as

well as inadequate security system.

• The hall has double volume headroom with the roof trusses showing. This does

not look too good because all the service pipes and fittings are completely exposed.

• The roof is covered with aluminium sheets therefore heat transmittance to the

interior through radiation is not reduced. The hall is open to the roof.

• Lighting in the interior space is solely with the use of artificial lighting. There is

little or no space for natural lighting.

• The floor is finished with epoxy floor finish which is expensive. In the case of

partitioning the floor into a number of rentable spaces, it has to be tampered with. This

is dependent on the kind of partitioning. If they have to be fixed, the floor will be

affected, but if moveable partitions are used it poses a threat to safety.

61

Plate 3.10: Source: www.tinapa.com

62

SHOPRITE

Plate 3.11: Shoprite

Source: www. Tinappa.com

Shoprite Holdings Limited is an investment holding company whose combined

subsidiaries constitute the largest fast moving consumer goods retail operation on the

African continent. Its various chains operate a total of 846 stores in 17 countries

including Nigeria, all integrated electronically into a central database and replenishment

system.

The group’s primary business is food retailing to consumers of all income levels. The

management’s goal is to provide all commodities in Africa with food and household

items in a first world shopping environment at lower prices. Shoprite is signed up with

Tinapa, calabar ant the Palms, Lagos.

63

T H E P A L M S , Lagos.

Plate 3.12: The palms entry

www.architectafrica.com

Location - Lekki Peninsula, Lagos, Nigeria

Opening date - March 2006

Developer - Tayo Amusan/Actis

Management - Tayo Amusan

Owner - Persians Property Limited

No. of stores and services - 69 shops

64

No. of anchor tenants - 3

Total retail floor area - 20,000m²

Parking - 1,000 cars

No. of floors -1 floor for shopping and an upper floor for a cinema

Website - http://www.thepalmshopping.com/

Plate 3.13: Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

65

Platr 3.14: ground floor plan

Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

66

Plate 3.15: Upper floor plan

Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

The Lagos Palms, the first world-class shopping centre in Nigeria, opened in February

this year (2008) amidst great excitement and anticipation. Johannesburg based Bentel

Associates International (BAI), internationally recognised retail design experts, were

retained by the developers to design and project manage this unique and pioneering

regional property venture.

Lagos, the largest city in Nigeria and the second largest city in Africa, has a population

of approximately 15.5 million people. The Lagos Palms is the first mall of its kind in

Nigeria and is comparable to other large shopping centres anywhere in the world. It

offers the exciting concept of ‘one-stop shopping’ and the convenience and unique

experience of retail, leisure and entertainment facilities under one roof.

This impressive retail facility is expected to radically alter local consumer shopping

styles. “There is huge demand for world-class retail facilities in Nigeria,” says Franc

Brugman BAI project director and architect for the development. “Previously very little

in the way of retail space here could have been described as world-class.”

The US$40 million (R300 million) shopping and entertainment centre is located on a 44

000 m2 site. The total built area is 23 600 m2, with a gross leasable area of 20 000 m2

providing a wide range of retail and service outlets, a food court and five cinemas. In

addition to the 800-space car park, a small car park caters for the tenants. Described by

67

the developers as ‘lifestyle shopping at its best’ the mall provides Nigerians with their

first 21st century shopping experience.

The developer of The Palms Shopping centre is Persianis Properties Limited (PPL), a

joint venture between Actis and Snap Blu. Actis (previously known as CDC Capital

Partners) is a UK based private equity investor with an extensive portfolio in emerging

markets. Snap Blu is owned by Nigerian developer Tayo Amusan. “Amusan is an

experienced property developer who saw the potential for a world-class retail facility in

the heart of Lagos. Actis shared this optimism and through a joint venture with Amusan

provided most of the capital and experience required for the development and

construction of the centre. It was an ambitious vision and a courageous decision on the

part of both parties to develop the first shopping complex of its kind in a country where

retail facilities are relatively unsophisticated,” says Brugman.

Plate 3.16

Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

68

The Palms is conveniently and ideally located just a few kilometers away from the

Victoria Island business district and the rapidly developing affluent residential area of

the Lekki Peninsular in Lagos. The site is directly linked to the Lekki Expressway

providing convenient access to Victoria Island, Ikoyi and Lekki and is surrounded by

commercial and residential development. The Mall has two main entrances - to

decongest the heavy traffic flow emanating from the Lekki Expressway end and an

alternative entrance through Ligali Ayorinde Street.

Plate 3.17: Interior view of the palms

Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

The Palms accommodates 62 shops ranging in size between 28 - 590m2, a food court

and a five-screen NuMetro cinema complex. The mall features some of South Africa's

premier retailers – including three major anchor tenants who together utilise more than

50% of the space: supermarket giant Shoprite, Game, a discount retail chain selling

household goods and Nu Metro, providing five cinema screens and a media store to

provide the necessary entertainment requirements of the centre. A multitude of major

international brands are represented including names like Clarins, Wrangler and

Konica. Broll Nigeria has secured a five-year tender to provide property management

services.

69

“The quality of delivery in retail developments still remains the main risk to investors

and retailers in Africa. Actis’ experience of retail development on the continent has

enabled them to build a network of strong relationships with retailers across the region.

As a result they were able to attract some of Africa’s leading retail names to the Palms,”

adds Brugman.

A massive effort was involved in this retail venture; the architects were especially

challenged in that they had to constantly take cognisance of local customs, preferences

and business norms. “Retail knowledge is limited as many Nigerians have never

experienced a first-class, world-standard, retail complex,” comments Brugman, who has

an impressive retail design portfolio that includes the Accra Mall under construction in

Ghana and the prestigious Michelangelo Towers in Johannesburg. “The design of the

Lagos Palms has not been without some really interesting but often frustrating

challenges. For example, during the design process some of the local retailers had to be

convinced of the value of best-practice store design and layout. They essentially wanted

a door into their store that opens and closes. Along with the developers and Broll, we

had to go back to basics and educate them about the benefits of having wide-open

entrances so that shoppers passing by can see all the way into the store. The whole

design had to be looked at from the point of view that this type of development and

retail environment is unprecedented in Nigeria.”

Plate 3.18: view showing the parking lot

Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

70

An impressive design has incorporated all the components of the development into a

modern contemporary design. “The developers brief was to ensure that the centre, once

complete, compared favourably with any centre of its size and finish in the world.” says

Brugman. The challenge was to ensure that whilst finishes matched current global

trends, the practicalities of the design and specifications were possible in a country

where traditional shopping centre complexes were unknown to the construction

industry and the market. The design of the centre was therefore limited to the abilities

of the local construction industry and its technologies as well as the abilities of local

and international sub-contractors to perform in such an environment.

The design, whilst modern, was kept simple and clean to accommodate the above

constraints. Mill finish aluminium sheeting was applied to the roof and on it was also

utilised on the elevations which form the slick backdrop to the modern skylights, the

imposing entrances and the 800 vehicular car park, a first in Lagos which traditionally

does not provide parking in any retail development of any sort. The interiors of the

centre are world-class. The client and architects ensured that the finishes, from the flush

plastered ceilings, the porcelain tiled floors and the aluminium shop fronts, matched

standard finishes to be found in any comparable centre.

Lighting throughout the centre is high tech, affording shoppers a substantial level of

lighting comfort and aesthetics. The malls are illuminated with metal halide lights. The

external façade is up lit affording the centre a high degree of visibility at night.

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Plate 3.19: The entrance at night

Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

Further constraints included the fact that power outages in Lagos are numerous, water

supply is questionable and there is no sewer system to connect into. Brugman says,

“We are very proud of the fact that this shopping centre is truly a self-sufficient centre

in every aspect, a fact I am sure most shopping centres in the world could not match.

We have our own water purification plant, a sewer treatment plant and back-up power

that ensures that no matter the status of power in the rest of Lagos, one can continue

shopping in an air-conditioned environment at The Palms uninterrupted!”

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Plate 3.20: Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

An efficient central air-conditioning system has been included in the design and the

energy supply is backed up with a 2900KVA generating plant. Fire safety is a priority;

efficient fire escapes and state of the art fire detection systems have been installed as

well as a reserve water tank. Other state-of-the-art facilities include sophisticated

security systems and surveillance, advanced telecommunications and satellite

infrastructure, unwired telephone points, and signage electrical points.

APPRAISAL

Merits

• The palm is a shopping center of an international standard aimed at being world

class, and as such, the facilities introduced meets the functions in which it’s meant to

perform.

• The image of the building in relation to the environment is much appealing

depicting modernism in architecture.

• The mall and food courts tend towards creating a busy atmosphere which should

be a dominant characteristic of a shopping center.

• The use of the central air conditioning system to regulate the internal climate of

the emporiums.

73

• There is proper management and control of refuse.

• Its design and zoning suits the tropical climate of its host environment.

• The use of sky lights and roof lights to lighten the interior space.

Demerits

• The problem of traffic will become a serious problem in the center because of

its location in the heart of Lagos.

• The parking space of 800 is not enough and does not cater enough for the influx

of visitors to the facility conveniently as regards the scale of the project and location,

Lagos.

Plate 3.21: Source: www.thepalmshopping.com

74

C A N A L W A L K , South Africa

Plate 3.22: Canal walk

Source: author

Location - Century City, Cape Town, South Africa,

75

Coordinates - nil

Opening date - 26 October 2000

Developer - nil

Management - Hyprop Investments Limited and Ellerine Bros (Pty) Ltd

No. of stores and services - 400 +

Others - 20 cinemas, restaurants

Total floor area - 125,000m2 of lettable retail space and 9,600m2 of office space

Parking - unknown

No. of floors - 2

Website - http://www.canalwalk.co.za/

Plate 3.23: Ground floor plan

Source: www.canalwalk.co.za

76

Plate 3.24: First floor plan

Source: www.canalwalk.co.za

Legend

77

Canal Walk is a 125 000 m² shopping centre in Cape Town, South Africa, built around

a series of canals. The centre forms the heart of a mixed-use development known as

Century City, which includes office blocks, residential areas and the Ratanga Junction

theme park.

Plate 3.25: Shoppers during a summer's evening

Source: Wilkipaedia, the free Encyclopedia

Canal Walk is the largest shopping centre in Africa in lettable area (Gateway Centre in

Durban is larger in total area) and the Sandton City complex in Johannesburg is larger if

you include the Nelson Mandela Square annex. Built in what the developers call "Cape

Venetian architecture", the shopping centre hosts over 400 stores, numerous restaurants,

20 cinemas plus a game arcade and the MTN Sciencentre, an interactive science centre

which in 2007 applied to the Guinness Book of World Records for the world's largest

cellphone.