The Power of the Positive: Leisure and Well-Being

THERAPEUTIC RECREATION JOURNAL Vol. 38, No. 2, 225-245, 2004

The Power of the Positive: Leisureand Well-Being

Cynthia P. Carruthers and Colleen Deyell Hood

For years, psychology has focused on repairing damage and curing mental illness rather thanhelping people develop the strengths and capacities necessary to thrive. However, a newparadigm that is gaining great momentum is "positive psychology" or the "psychology ofstrengths" (Seligman, 2002a). Its focus is to understand those individuals who experience deephappiness, wisdom, resilience, and psychological, physical and social well-being, and to helpothers develop those capacities in themselves. The capacities that allow people to thrive are thesame strengths that buffer against stress and prevent both mental and physical illness. In addition,Seligman argues that building strengths in clients is the most "potent weapon in the arsenal oftherapy." Subjective well-being can be enhanced by decreasing negative moods, and increasingpositive moods and life satisfaction. Psychological well-being is based on personal growth,self-acceptance environmental mastery, positive relationships, self-determination and a sense ofpurpose in life. The role of therapeutic recreation in the development of well-being is significant.

KEY WORDS: Positive Psychology, Strengths, Well-being, Health Promotion, TherapeuticRecreation, Leisure

For years, the focus in health and human human service professionals should considerservices has been on the understanding and themselves successful if they helped clients totreatment of diseases and deficits. The prevail- reduce the problems, deficits and diseases ining paradigm suggested that health care and their lives. However, a new paradigm is

Cynthia Carruthers in an Associate Professor at the University of Nevada at Las Vegas.Colleen Deyell Hood is an Associate Professor in Department of Recreation and LeisureStudies at Brock University in Ontario, Canada. Correspondence may be addressed toColleen D. Hood, Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock University, 500Glenridge Ave., St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada L2S 3A1.

Second Quarter 2004 225

emerging that challenges the old paradigm ona variety of fronts. First, the new paradigmasserts that the absence of problems is not thesame as psychological and physical health.Health is defined, instead, as a state of highlevel physical, emotional, social, cognitive andspiritual wellness (Shank & Coyle, 2002). Sec-ond, a reduction of negative deficits does notautomatically result in an increase in positiveassets (Lykken, 2000). In order to create thismore holistic health and well-being, positiveaspects of one's self and life must be inten-tionally cultivated (Hood & Carruthers, 2002).As Cowen (1991) stated, "allocations of ourenergies and resources must go increasinglytoward building wellness rather than towardstruggling, however compassionately, to con-tain troubles" (p. 404). Third, the new para-digm asserts that clients have assets andstrengths. The deficit model views clients asindividuals who are "broken" and in need of"fixing," which undermines their perception ofpersonal agency and competence (Benson,1997; Dattilo, 2002) and contributes to learnedhelplessness (Norman, 2000).

For the past two decades, many therapeuticrecreation (TR) specialists have found them-selves shaping their mission and services toaccommodate deficit models. Articulating thevalue of leisure and play strictly in terms ofdeficit reduction, rather than health promotion,was difficult. Many therapeutic recreation pro-fessionals working in the health care arenafound themselves marginalizing and de-em-phasizing their focus on leisure and its contri-bution to holistic health and well-being, whichis a central tenet found in most therapeuticrecreation practice models (Sylvester, 1994/1995). The emergence of models outside oftherapeutic recreation that focus on the cre-ation of positive capacity, rather than simplydeficit or problem reduction, affirms the fore-sight and value of therapeutic recreation andmay serve as a unifying theoretical frameworkfor the practice of therapeutic recreation. Ther-apeutic recreation plays a unique and essentialrole in helping clients build their positive ca-pacity for health and well-being (Murray,

2003) and should be instrumental in the ad-vancement of this new paradigm in health andhuman services (Shank & Coyle, 2002). Thus,the purpose of this paper is to articulate theessential role of positive experience and ca-pacity building in the creation and mainte-nance of well-being. In addition, the paper willprovide a strong rationale for the contributionsof therapeutic recreation health promotion ef-forts in the facilitation of well-being.

POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGYThe negative aspects of life have held the

attention of health and human service profes-sionals for a long time. Human service profes-sionals in communities have focused on reduc-ing urban blight, crime, pollution, and trafficcongestion. Youth workers have focused uponthe reduction of drug use, teen pregnancy,violence, and drop out rates. Yet the problemscontinued and people became discouraged(Benson, 1997; Kretzmann & McKnight,1993). It became increasingly obvious thatcommunities could not flourish by focusingonly on their needs and deficiencies (Kretz-mann & McKnight). Instead, community ca-pacity and empowerment require the identifi-cation and mobilization of the assets ina community toward positive change (U.S.Department of Health and Human Services[USDHH], 2000). Similarly, youth thrive incommunities and organizations that supportand build upon their strengths, rather thanfocusing solely on eliminating their weak-nesses (Benson; National Research Council,2002). Current youth development initiativesare guided by the principle, "Problem freedoes not mean fully prepared" (Pittman,2003).

The shift away from an exclusive focus ondeficits, pathologies and problems is also ap-parent in health care. The historic biomedicalorientation towards the amelioration of diseaseor functional deficit is giving way to a greaterfocus on increasing health and well-being(MacDonald & Bunton, 2002). This holisticmodel of health includes health promotion and

226 Therapeutic Recreation Journal

wellness (Shank & Coyle, 2002). Health pro-motion is a strategy for enhancing the "phys-ical, psychological, social and environmentaldeterminants of health and the capacity of theindividual, in concert with his or her commu-nity and culture, to define, determine, andmanage personal health and well-being"(Shank & Coyle, p. 15). Contexts for healthpromotion parallel the contexts in which ther-apeutic recreation services are provided, in-cluding health care institutions, schools, fam-ilies, and communities (Poland, Green, &Rootman, 2000).

The focus of health promotion is entirelyconsistent with the articulated purposes oftherapeutic recreation. These include "well-being and quality of life" (Van Andel, 1998),"highest levels of health and wellness (Austin,1998)," and "lifelong health and well-being"(Wilhite, Keller, & Caldwell, 1999). Althoughthere is a natural fit between TR and healthpromotion, an effective professional musthave a thorough command of theory and re-search by which to guide practice. The emer-gence of a new, consolidated body of theoryand research in psychology has the potential tomake a significant impact on the health pro-motion activities of therapeutic recreation.Moreover, the ability to use theory and re-search to articulate the value of therapeuticrecreation and leisure experiences to clientsand staff will further strengthen therapeuticrecreation practice. In addition to the paradigmshifts impacting community change, youth de-velopment and health care, a paradigm shifttowards a "positive" psychology (Seligman,2002b) or the "psychology of humanstrengths" (Aspinwall & Staudinger, 2003) isoccurring. According to Seligman, for the past50 years, psychology has focused almost ex-clusively on repairing damage and curingmental illness to the neglect of two equallyimportant professional missions. Those mis-sions are helping people to (a) lead moreproductive and satisfying lives, and (b)achieve their highest potential. Interestingly,there have been individuals who have madetheir life's work a greater focus on the posi-

tive (e.g., Antonovsky, 1979, 1987a, 1987b;Csikszentmihalyi, 1975; Diener, 1984; Kobasa,1979; Kobasa, Maddi, & Kahn, 1982; Maddi& Kobasa, 1991), but until recently this em-phasis has not been widely endorsed. Thus,while ameliorating pathology will continue inpsychology, a second "vital science and prac-tice" of positive psychology is emerging (Sny-der & Lopez, 2002).

The purpose of positive psychology is toacquire a scientific understanding of thestrengths and virtues that individuals, families,and societies need in order to thrive, and to usethat information to develop effective inter-ventions for positive change (Seligman &Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Until recently therehas been little interest in (or funding for)studying individuals, families and societieswho experience deep happiness, joy, wisdom,resilience, and psychological, social and emo-tional well-being. Yet it is exactly these indi-viduals who can show others what not only toavoid in life, but how to create a life that isworth living (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi).

The main intention of positive psychologyis to learn how to build the assets and strengthsnecessary to not only cope, but to thrive.However, an interesting and valued side effectis that the assets and strengths that allowpeople to thrive also buffer against stress andprevent both mental and physical illness (Se-ligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000). Strengthscan serve as crucial psychological resources orreserves to draw upon when individuals areconfronted with challenging or threateningevents (Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, Bower, &Gruenewald, 2000).

The role of positive psychology in the pre-vention of psychological and physical diseaseis to "identify and amplify" the positive humanqualities that buffer against psychopathology(Seligman, 2002b, p. 5). Examples of strengthsthat protect health include courage, futuremindedness, optimism, emotional intelligence,self-regulation, authenticity, capacity for plea-sure, and a sense of purpose (Seligman &Peterson, 2003). Effective prevention resultsfrom building competencies systematically,


rather than focusing only on the identificationand elimination of weaknesses. According toRyff and Singer (2003), "psychosocialstrengths appear to be critical ingredients forunderstanding who stays healthy and why. Putin epidemiological terms, psychological andsocial well-being may be prominent factorscontributing to delayed onset of morbidity andmortality" (p. 280).

Although the primary emphasis in positivepsychology is on positive thriving and primaryprevention, it has implications for therapy, aswell. According to Seligman and Peterson(2003), all effective therapies share somethingin common. They all identify and nurture thestrengths of clients. They all instill hope andoptimism, promote authentic relationships,and foster self-efficacy, self-responsibility,and a sense of personal control. Seligman(2002b) suggests that building strengths inclients is the most "potent weapon in thearsenal of therapy" (p. 3). In positive psychol-ogy, the emphasis shifts from a sole focus onthe reduction or elimination of nonproductivefeelings and behaviors to the intentional culti-vation of constructive and life-enhancing feel-ings and behaviors.

Mobily (1999) suggested that the field oftherapeutic recreation would benefit from ac-quiring theoretical and empirical knowledgefrom other disciplines to inform its practice.The positive psychology movement, with itsemphasis on strengths and capacity building,provides a strong theoretical foundation, aswell as research support, for the potential im-portance of therapeutic recreation services inhealth promotion. The TR discipline's focuson enhancing individuals' "capacity to useplay, recreation and leisure for ongoing healthand life quality" (Shank & Coyle, 2002, p. 53)is central to subjective and psychological well-being, the two cornerstones of positive psy-chology. The purpose of this paper is to ex-plore the individual qualities and experiencesthat contribute to subjective and psychologicalwell-being, the role of leisure in enhancingthese qualities and experiences, and a frame-

work for therapeutic recreation health promo-tion activities.

An interest in health and well-being is notnew to therapeutic recreation (Austin, 1998;Lee & McCormick, 2002; Murray, 2003;Shank & Coyle, 2002; Stumbo & Peterson,1998; Van Andel, 1998; Widmer & Ellis,1998; Wilhite et al., 1999). However, theacknowledgement within positive psychol-ogy of the importance of positive emotion,experiences, and psychological strength towell-being may provides a renewed vitalityto the therapeutic recreation profession. Thereaffirmation of the importance of leisureand recreation to the health and well-beingof individuals and communities may unifythe profession in its health promotion ef-forts.

WELL-BEING AS ACONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

One of the major conceptual psychologicalframeworks related to building strengths andresources is that of well-being (Vaillant,2003). Well-being is often identified as one ofthe main goals of therapeutic recreation(Shank & Coyle, 2002; Sylvester, Voelkl, &Ellis, 2001). The term well-being brings tomind concepts such as happiness, self-actual-ization, optimism, vitality, self-acceptance, apurpose-driven life, optimal functioning, lifesatisfaction, and others. There is little questionthat these ideas are universally appealing and,as a result, have been studied by a number ofresearchers (e.g., Antonovsky, 1979, 1987a,1987b; Csikzentmihalyi, 1975; Diener, 1984;Kobasa, 1979; Kobasa et al., 1982; Maslow,1968; Seligman, 2002a, 2002b).

Recently, Ryan and Deci (2001) summa-rized this discussion of well-being by describ-ing the two main approaches taken by re-searchers in understanding well-being (seeFigure 1). First, the hedonic approach includesthe typical characteristics associated withwell-being: subjective happiness, pleasure,and pain avoidance. "Thus, the concept ofwell-being is equated with the experience of


Hedonic Weil-Being(Subjective Weil-Being)

•Presence of positive mood•Absence of negative mood•Satisfaction with variousdomains of life (e.g., work,leisure)•Global life satisfaction

Eudaimonic Weil-Being(Psychological Weil-Being)

•Sense of control or autonomy•Feeling of meaning andpurpose•Feelings of belongingness•Social contribution•Competence•Personal expressiveness•Personal growth•Self-acceptance

FIGURE 1. HEDONIC AND EUDAIMONIC WELL-BEING.

positive emotions versus negative emotionsand with satisfaction in various domains ofone's life" (Fava & Riuni, 2003, p. 47). Thesecond approach, the eudaimonic approach,describes well-being as "fulfilling one's poten-tial in a process of self-realization [and in-cludes] concepts such as fully functioning per-son, meaningfulness, self-actualization, andvitality" (Fava & Ruini, p. 47).

The well-being framework has been usedto guide both research and service. Clinicaland counseling psychologists have found theeudaimonic perspective, in particular, to bevery helpful in conceptualizing services (Ryff& Singer, 1998). In fact, Ryff (1989) proposeda model of psychological well-being based onthe eudaimonic perspective that has beentranslated into a model of psychological ther-apy (Fava & Ruini, 2003). The primary focusof the model is on the facilitation of clients'autonomy, personal growth, environmentalmastery, purpose in life, positive relations, andself-acceptance, all related to eudaimonicwell-being. The recent positive psychologymovement (Seligman, 2002a) has, however,refocused attention on the importance of cli-ents experiencing pleasure and happiness indaily life, as well as working towards fulfillingtheir potential. Thus both the hedonic (subjec-tive well-being) perspective and the eudai-monic (psychological well-being) perspective

will be used in developing a framework fortherapeutic recreation service delivery.

Hedonic or Subjective Well-beingHedonic or subjective well-being consists

of subjective happiness and, at the most basiclevel, concerns the experience of pleasure ver-sus displeasure. Waterman (1993) cited Kraut(1979, p. 179), stating that happiness includes"the belief that one is getting the importantthings one wants, as well as certain pleasantaffects that normally go along with this belief"(Waterman, p. 678). Thus experiencing happi-ness and positive emotion is a central compo-nent of hedonic well-being.

Diener and Lucas (1999), building on thisconceptualization of happiness, indicated thatsubjective well-being consists of the presenceof positive mood, the absence of negativemood, and global assessment of satisfactionwith one's life. These three components, takentogether, represent a sense of happiness. Morerecently, Diener, Suh, Lucas, and Smith(1999) added another component, satisfactionwith the various domains of life, to the conceptof subjective well-being. Thus, from this con-ceptual framework, well-being is based onpositive mood and experiences, lack of nega-tive mood and experiences, cognitive evalua-tion of the various parts of one's life, and


global assessment of the overall "goodness" oflife.

The Origins of SubjectiveWeil-Being

A number of theories attempt to explainhow one comes to experience subjective well-being. According to Diener and colleagues(1999), subjective well-being has a significantrelationship to personality. Research suggeststhat people who are extraverted (e.g., Lucas,Diener, Grob, Suh, & Shao, 2000; Lucas &Fujita, 2000; Watson & Clark, 1997), disposi-tionally optimistic (e.g., Scheier & Carver,1985; Taylor et al., 2000) and worry-free (e.g.,DeNeve & Cooper, 1998) tend to have highersubjective well-being. The research on identi-cal twins by Lykken and Tellegen (1996)showed that about 50% of the variation insubjective well-being could be explained bygenes and inherited tendencies. These findingshave led some to believe that happiness is atrait; however Lykken (2000) argued that,while there is a genetic component to happi-ness, individuals can impact their own happi-ness levels through behavioral and cognitiveefforts. Individuals can train themselves tocultivate, notice and savor the positive expe-riences in their lives. The strategies used toenhance happiness and positive experiencesare directly relevant to therapeutic recreationpractice, particularly in relation to leisure ed-ucation. An increased ability to experience andsavor the pleasure experienced in leisure canbe learned, could be a focus of leisure educa-tion interventions, and may enhance the valueof leisure in the lives of clients.

Some theorists proposed that social com-parison influences subjective well-being.These theories suggest that individuals assesstheir own experiences and lives in comparisonwith other people, thus assessing experiencesand life first, then well-being (Diener et al.,1999). However, not all people make the samekinds of social comparisons. Generally, people"compare themselves when they think it willmake them feel good, but shy away from

comparing with others when they think it willmake them feel bad" (Brown & Dutton, 1995,p. 1292). In this effort to feel good, peoplemake two kinds of comparisons: downwardcomparison (a focus on people who performedworse) and upward comparison (a focus onpeople who performed better). Interestingly,Lyubomirsky and Ross (1997) found that un-happy people used both upward and down-ward comparison, whereas happy peopletended to use primarily downward compari-sons. This notion of social comparison as itrelates to well-being may also provide direc-tion for therapeutic recreation practice. In-creasing awareness of how one compares one-self to others and the potential to modify ourcomparative experiences (either through mod-ifying the situation or thoughts) are issues thatcan be addressed in therapeutic recreation set-tings and through leisure experiences.

Coping, Adaptation and SubjectiveWell-Being

Coping and adaptation have also been re-lated to subjective well-being. This relation-ship has been studied from two directions.Some research has examined the degree towhich various coping strategies impact happi-ness and well-being. Other studies have fo-cused upon the degree to which positive emo-tions impact perceptions of stress and the useof coping strategies. There is evidence thatcertain coping strategies, such as spirituality,positive reappraisal, optimism, and activeproblem solving, are linked to higher subjec-tive well-being (Diener et al., 1999; Folkman,1997). Folkman and Moskowitz (2000) sug-gested that, in addition to the strategies iden-tified above, the creation of positive eventswas a significant coping strategy related topositive affect. The creation of positive eventsincluded such things as using humor to createpleasure in daily experiences (Kuiper, Martin,& Olinger, 1993), "creating a positive psycho-logical time-out by infusing ordinary eventswith positive meaning" (Folkman & Mosko-witz, p. 116), and building pleasurable expe-


riences into daily life (Menec, 2003; Reich &Zautra, 1981; Zautra, 1996; Zimmer, Hickey,& Searle, 1995). These strategies are clearlylinked to the experience of leisure, in that oneof the defining qualities of leisure is pleasure(Gunter, 1987; Henderson, 1990; Kleiber,1999; Mannell & Kleiber, 1997; Shaw, 1984,1985) and because the leisure context is anideal place to build positive experiences intodaily life (Kleiber). Thus therapeutic recre-ation services must address the role of leisurein building clients' capacity to experiencepleasure in life, as a part of their overall copingresources (Carruthers & Hood, 2002; Hood &Carruthers, 2002).

Benefits of Positive EmotionResearch is uncovering much about the

role of positive affect in the good and mean-ingful life. People who experience high levelsof well-being have more positive affect andless negative affect in their daily lives thanothers (Diener et al., 1999). In a study ofhealthy and happy octegenarians, Vaillant(2003) reported that what best described themwas their "celebrant sense," or joy in living.Traditional thought suggested that removingproblems was the best path to well-being.However, current research (Lykken, 2000) hasfound that removing problems and stressorsfrom people's lives may help them feel lessunhappy, however, it doesn't automaticallylead to happiness. Evidence suggests that pos-itive and negative emotions and cognitions donot represent opposite ends of the same con-tinuum, but emerge consistently as largelyindependent state and trait dimensions(Larsen, McGraw, & Cacioppo, 2001; Lykken& Tellegen, 1996). Other evidence supportsthe divergence of the neural pathways andbiobehavioral systems responsible for positiveand negative affective and cognitive responses(Taylor et al., 2000; Watson, 2002).

Additionally, one's capacity for happinessand capacity for misery are not only indepen-dent, but they are heritable (Lykken & Telle-gen, 1996; Watson, 2002). There is accumu-

lating research evidence that people differ intheir genetic set points and dispositions forhappiness and misery (Diener, Lucas, & Oishi,2002). However, the existence of these dispo-sitions does not suggest that change is impos-sible. People can learn to operate at the mostoptimal levels of their own ranges (Lykken &Tellegen; Watson). A key feature of positiveprevention and health promotion interventionswill be in helping clients maintain their highestlevel of positive affect.

Positive Emotion and PhysicalHealth

Research suggests that positive affect maybe a key component in disease prevention andhealth promotion (Salovey, Rothman, Det-weiler, & Steward, 2000). Positive emotions inearly adulthood have been associated with lon-gevity six decades later (Danner, Snowden, &Friesen, 2001). People who have a sense of joyin life at the age of 50 are more likely to behealthy and happy versus sick and sad at theage of 80 (Vaillant, 2003). Positive affect hasbeen found to protect individuals against thephysical decline associated with old age, in-cluding loss of functional status, mobility, anddeath (Ostir, Markides, Black, & Goodwin,2000).

One possible explanation for the associa-tion between positive affect and health is thatpositive affect enhances immune function. Asignificant body of research suggests that in-ducing positive mood has a direct impact onimmune function (Charnetski & Brennan,2001). Positive moods enhance the body'sability to defend against invading organismsby increasing the activity of T-cells and B-cells (Charnetski & Brennan; Futterman, Ke-meny, Shapiro, & Fahey, 1994; Salovey et al.,2000) and antibodies, such as IgA (Stone,Valdimarsdottir, Jandorf, Cox, & Neale,1987). The positive affect associated with en-hanced immune function is derived from manysources, including sensory pleasures, appreci-ating beauty, rewarding relationships, or in-volvement in intrinsically motivated activities


through which one experiences a sense ofmastery or self-determination (Charnetski &Brennan).

Positive affect may also contribute to en-hanced cardiovascular functioning. Researchsuggests that experiencing positive affect canimprove heart rate variability, thereby reduc-ing hypertension and the likelihood of suddendeath (McCraty, Atkinson, Tiller, Rein, &Watkins, 1995). Experiencing positive emo-tion after a stressful event has been found toreduce cardiovascular activation much morequickly than exposure to a sad or neutral event(Fredrickson & Levenson, 1998). A variety ofstudies of the restorative effects of nature havefound similar effects. Exposure to nature vid-eos (Laumann, Garling, & Stormack, 2003),walking in nature reserves (Hartig, Evans,Jamner, Davis, & Garling, 2003), and hikingin the wilderness (Hartig, Mang, & Evans,1991) are associated with reports of positiveaffect, enhanced cognitive performance, anddecreased blood pressure. The deleterious ef-fect of negative emotion on the heart has beenunderstood for a long time. Researchers arejust beginning to investigate the role of posi-tive affect on heart health.

Positive Emotion and PsychologicalHealth

Emotional health. Positive affect may alsobe a key strength in future optimal psycholog-ical functioning. According to Fredrickson(2001), positive emotions are the foundationfor attainment of one's full potential. Positiveemotions "all share the ability to broaden peo-ple's momentary thought-action repertoiresand build their enduring personal resources"(Fredrickson, p. 219). People who are feelingjoyful, playful, curious or loving are morelikely to seek out novel and interesting expe-riences, and to think more expansively andcreatively (Ashby, Isen, & Turken, 1999;Fredrickson, 2003). Successful involvement inthese experiences, in turn, provides peoplewith enhanced perceptions of competency,self-determination and relatedness. These per-

ceptions result in a greater tendency to ap-proach novel and interesting experiences in thefuture, resulting in an "upward spiral towardemotional well-being" (Fredrickson & Joiner,2002, p. 172). They also serve as importantresources from which to draw in times ofchronic stress (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000).Fredrickson (2001) referred to this upwardspiral as the Broaden-and-Build Theory ofPositive Emotions.

Optimism. Positive affect is also associatedwith the explanatory style of optimism(Buchanan & Seligman, 1995; Raikkonen,Matthews, Flory, Owens, & Gump, 1999; Se-ligman, 1995). Optimists have hopeful andpositive expectations of the future, becausethey view the world as good and themselvesas capable and deserving (Gillham, Shatte,Reivich, & Seligman, 2001). Unlike pessi-mists, they do not see the misfortunes andmistakes in life as pervasive, permanent or dueto their own deficiencies. Optimism has beenassociated with a variety of health benefits,including: lower blood pressure (Raikkonen etal.); "higher numbers of helper T-cells, andhigher natural killer cell cytotoxicity" (Seger-strom, Taylor, Kemeny, & Fahey, 1998, p.1646); quicker recovery after a heart transplant(Leedham, Meyerowitz, Muirhead, & Frist,1995); fewer hospitalizations for coronaryheart disease (Miller, 2002); lower perceptionof disease severity and need for assistanceamong individuals with Parkinson's disease(Shifren, 1996); higher levels of general healthperception and vitality (Achat, Kawachi,Spiro, DeMolles, & Sparrow, 2000); remissionof cancer (Seligman, 1991); and reduced mor-tality (Maruta, Colligan, Malinchoc, & Offord,2000).

Optimism has also been associated withpositive mental health. Optimism reduces thelikelihood of depression and anxiety(Buchanan & Seligman, 1995; Seligman,1995). It is also associated with achievementin school, sports, and the work place beyondwhat would be predicted from aptitude alone(Seligman). Optimists are more adaptive, per-sistent, flexible and creative (Miller, 2002).


Optimists report trying to see the bright side ofbad situations and to learn from them (Carver& Scheier, 2002). Optimism contributes bothto the prevention of disease, and the full de-velopment of human potential.

Positive Emotion and Social HealthPositive affect has a strong and consistent

association with positive social relationships.Positive emotional expression in young adult-hood is a strong predictor of one's maritalstatus and satisfaction in middle age, as well asone's appeal to others (Harker & Keltner,2001). People who are happy may be moreinclined to reach out to others, and are likelymore attractive to others (Myers, 2000).

There is also extensive evidence that posi-tive social relationships contribute to positiveaffect and well-being. The need for regular,pleasant, ongoing relationships is a "powerful,fundamental, and extremely pervasive humanmotivation" (Baumeister & Leary, 1995, p.497). One of the primary contexts for theexperiencing of positive affect is through in-teraction with others (Watson, 2002). Not sur-prisingly, a happy marriage is one of the stron-gest predictors of physical and mental health(Vaillant, 2003) and well-being (Myers,2000). Having supportive and loving relation-ships has been associated with positive mentaland physical health (Ryff & Singer, 2000;Vandervoort, 1999), as well as longevity (Or-nish, 1998). Similarly, individuals experienc-ing serious, chronic health problems who havesocial contacts are more able to achieve stablerecovery and maintain it over time than thosewith fewer social contacts (Verbrugge,Reoma, & Gruber-Baldini, 1994). The valueof social support is not based solely on whatone receives from others. Recent research sug-gests that longevity was improved among in-dividuals who gave support to friends, rela-tives, and spouses, but not among those whosimply received support (Brown, Nesse, Vino-kur, & Smith, 2003).

Clearly, experiencing positive emotion hassignificant implications for physical, psycho-

logical and social health. Moreover, one of theprimary interest areas within the positive psy-chology movement has been to understandpositive emotion and experience with the goalof improving the well-being of all individuals,not only those with psychological or physicalproblems. Positive psychology has begun toexplore systematically how practitioners canimpact happiness and facilitate positive emo-tion.

Maximizing Hedonic ExperienceInterventions designed to increase happi-

ness are important both to therapeutic recre-ation and to the Health Promotion agenda. Asshown in this review, happiness is a desiredstate in its own right, and happiness has sig-nificant health outcomes. Moreover, the capac-ity to experience pleasure has direct implica-tions for therapeutic recreation practice, forhealth promotion initiatives, and for the expe-rience of leisure. The articulation of the valueof leisure for increasing happiness and in pro-ducing positive affect provides a strong ratio-nale for the role of therapeutic recreation inhealth promotion efforts and in facilitatingwell-being. Interventions designed to directlyincrease clients' ability to experience happi-ness and pleasure will not only increase thevalue or impact of leisure in client's lives, theywill also increase clients' capacity to use play,recreation and leisure for ongoing health andquality of life.

There have been two broad approachestaken to increase positive emotion, affect, andhappiness. First, there are strategies to directlyincrease clients' capacity to experience happi-ness and perceptions of pleasure. Second,strategies can be designed to help individualsbuild the foundational resources necessary togenerate an ongoing stream of positive affect(see Figure 2).

Increasing Capacity to ExperienceHappiness

In the literature related to happiness andpositive affect, there have been a number of


Increasing Happiness andPositive Affect

•Increase number of positive dailyevents

•Increase variety of experiences thatproduce pleasure

•Active engagement in physical andsocial activity.

•Pay conscious attention topleasure, savor positiveexperiences, and reminisceabout positive experiences

•Strive for personally meaningfulgoals

Building Resources thatSupport Happiness and

Weil-Being•Select experiences that are

challenging and that buildcompetence

•Select experiences that arepersonally expressive and reflectone's true self

•Find ways to be of service toothers

•Find experiences that help makesense of life events

•Examine and change thoughtsprocesses that may interfere withhappiness and well-being

•Increase ability to cope withstressful life events

Hedonic Well-Being(Subjective Well-Being)

Eudaimonic Well-Being(Psychological Well-Being)

Benefits of Well-Being

•Healthy aging•Improved physical health

(e.g., immune function,cardiovascular function)

•Disease prevention

•Optimal psychological functioning•Optimism and hope•Resilience•Increased capacity to cope with

stressful life events

FIGURE 2. A FRAMEWORK FOR THERAPEUTIC RECREATION SERVICES DESIGNEDTO ENHANCE WELL-BEING.

strategies identified that have been used toincrease clients' happiness and perceptions ofpleasure. Some of the strategies that are rele-vant for therapeutic recreation practice areavoidance of habituation, active engagement,increasing the number of pleasant events indaily life, and focusing attention on the plea-surable aspects of experience.

The process of habituation, as Watson

(2002) suggested, is an enemy of long-termchange in happiness levels. Lykken (1999)indicated that habituation occurs when "wegradually get used to the new circumstancesand our nervous systems become habituated tothe changes in stimulus input" (p. 20). Selig-man (2002a) also identified habituation as asignificant enemy of pleasure. "Repeated in-dulgence in the same pleasure does not work


. . . neurons are wired to respond to novelevents and not to fire if the events do notprovide new information" (p. 105). Thus, ex-periences repeated over and over graduallyresult in less stimulation (i.e., less happiness).Watson suggested that even major life events,both positive and negative, impact mood andhappiness dramatically and immediately but,due to habituation, have few long-term effectson overall levels of positive affectivity. Whilethere is a natural inclination to return to a baselevel of happiness, there is also support for thenotion that it is possible to directly impactmood and happiness (Lykken, 1999, 2000;Fredrickson, 2002; Seligman, 2002a; Watson).

The greatest impact on happiness is notcaused by a few major life events to whichindividuals eventually adapt, but by the fre-quent experiencing of positive mood in dailylife (Watson, 2002). Lykken (1999, 2000) sug-gested that individuals should cultivate "happyhabits—ways of seasoning one's day-to-dayand week-to-week existence with activitiesthat provide us with the little uplifts we need tokeep smiling" (Lykken, 1999, p. 85). Thus,daily activities ideally should include variety,novelty, and challenge, and should be person-ally meaningful to the individual.

A second agreed upon strategy for increas-ing positive mood and pleasure is active en-gagement (Lykken, 2000; Seligman, 2002a;Watson, 2002). Watson reported that changesthat emphasize action rather than thought aremost effective. "High levels of positive moodare most likely when a person is focusedoutward and is actively engaging in the envi-ronment" (Watson, p. 116). Moreover, Watsonindicated that social activity and physical ac-tivity are the two most powerful forms ofactivity for mood enhancement. Clearly, lei-sure experiences can be an important tool forincreasing positive mood and pleasure. Lei-sure experiences, because they are freely cho-sen and personally meaningful, set the stagefor active involvement (Csikszentmihalyi,1975, 1990; Kleiber, 1999). Moreover, leisure,particularly for adults, is motivated primarilyby the desire for social connectedness (Cald-

well & Smith, 1988). Most definitions of ther-apeutic recreation highlight the use of recre-ational and other activity interventions toaffect change in client behaviors (Shank &Coyle, 2002). This emphasis on active engage-ment within leisure is an important focus intherapeutic recreation services and can serveas an avenue through which clients can in-crease their hedonic capacity and well-being.

A third strategy for directly increasingpleasure is that of maximizing pleasant activ-ities in daily life. As defined by Diener andcolleagues (1999), subjective well-being isbased on the presence of more positive affectthan negative affect in daily life. Diener andcolleagues also suggested that the frequency ofpositive affect was more important than theintensity. Thus maximizing opportunities toexperience pleasure is an important strategy.This can be accomplished through increasingthe number of positive experiences in daily life(Menec, 2003; Reich & Zautra, 1981; Zautra,1996; Zimmer et al., 1995), by increasing thevariety of activities (Lykken, 2000; Seligman,2002a), or by increasing the amount of plea-sure that is experienced in daily activities(Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Fredrickson,2002; Kuiper et al., 1993). Increasing the num-ber and variety of leisure opportunities hasalways been an important part of leisure edu-cation and therapeutic recreation (Dattilo,Kleiber, & Williams, 1999; Mundy, 1998;Stumbo & Peterson, 2004). Using the well-being literature to justify this focus increasesthe credibility of therapeutic recreation ser-vices for clients and other health professionals.

The fourth strategy addresses the premisethat it is not enough to simply increase thenumber or variety of pleasurable activities indaily life. It is also important to intentionallyfocus attention on the pleasurable aspects ofthose activities (Lykken, 2000) by savoringthe experience (paying conscious attention topleasure) and reliving the positive aspects ofexperiences through reminiscence and storytelling. Seligman (2002a) also suggested thatthe speed of modern life is another enemy ofpleasure and recommended the practice of


mindfulness (slowing of thought processes andmindful attention to the present) in order toincrease attention to the pleasurable aspects ofexperience. Through therapeutic recreation,clients can be taught the skills of savoring andmindfulness, thereby increasing the impact ofleisure and other pleasurable experiences ontheir well-being.

A number of other strategies related toincreasing pleasure, happiness and positivemood have been identified in the psychologi-cal literature. They include: striving for per-sonally meaningful goals (Watson, 2002);monitoring, accepting, and accommodatingmoods and normal mood fluctuations in dailylife (Watson); "keeping busy, spending moretime socializing, developing positive thinking,and working on an healthy personality" (Fordyce,1983, p. 483); and relaxation (Fredrickson,2002). All of these strategies have the potentialto contribute to the subjective well-being ofclients, and are often incorporated as part oftherapeutic recreation practice.

Once again, the role of therapeutic recre-ation in facilitating increased leisure involve-ment and ultimately subjective well-being isapparent. Leisure involvement can result in anincrease in the number of daily pleasant activ-ities in one's life. Leisure experiences providean avenue through which to explore a varietyof options for experiencing pleasure (Kleiber,1999). Finally, the ability to focus attention onthe positive aspects of an experience is onethat can be learned, and is a skill that wouldclearly enhance the impact of pleasurable lei-sure experiences on well-being (Seligman,2002a). Therapeutic recreation services, withtheir inherent focus on leisure education andleisure involvement, are ideally positioned touse the literature related to well-being to en-hance and support the effectiveness of healthpromotion interventions.

Increasing Resources That SupportHappiness

In addition to directly impacting percep-tions and experience of happiness, individuals

can develop a variety of resources that arelinked to subjective well-being. Resources aredenned by Hobfoll (2002) as "those entitiesthat are centrally valued in their own right(e.g., self-esteem, close attachments, health,and inner peace) or act as a means to obtaincentrally valued ends (e.g., money, social sup-port, and credit)" (p. 307). As noted earlier,positive social relationships (Myers, 2000;Ryff & Singer, 1998; Vaillant, 2002; Watson,2002) and optimism (Buchanan & Seligman,1995; Carver & Scheier, 2002; Seligman,1995; Taylor et al., 2000) are two resourcesthat are clearly linked to positive affect andmood. In addition, Ryan and Deci (2001) iden-tified competence, self-efficacy, self-aware-ness, authenticity, and autonomy as importantresources linked to increased happiness andpleasure. While these resources are linked typ-ically to the psychological or eudaimonic well-being perspective, they are a source of moreimmediate happiness and pleasure as well.

In summary, it appears that the experiencesof happiness, pleasure, and positive affect areimportant for psychological and physicalhealth. Seligman (2002a) and others haveclearly indicated that the experience of plea-sure is important for authentic happiness andwell-being. Moreover, it is clear that it may bepossible to impact perceptions and experiencesof pleasure to increase the level of subjectivewell-being. These findings and directions forintervention provide important information inthe development of a framework for therapeu-tic recreation interventions designed to in-crease pleasure, positive mood, and subjectivewell-being.

Eudaimonic or PsychologicalWell-being

According to the eudaimonic perspective,well-being consists of more than just beinghappy. Well-being is being fully functional,rather than simply attaining desires. Ryan andDeci (2001), in describing eudaimonic well-being, suggested that "true happiness is based


on the expression of virtue" (p. 145). Cowen(1991) defined wellness from the eudaimonicperspective as "having a sense of control overone's fate, a feeling of purpose and belonging-ness, and a basic satisfaction with oneself andone's existence" (p. 404). Well-being, fromthis perspective, is based on personal growth,development, self-actualization, self-expres-sion, and acting in accord with one's values,and is referred to as psychological well-being.The theoretical foundations underlying manyof the TR service models address aspects ofpsychological well-being, including self-deter-mination, competence and effectance motiva-tion, intrinsic motivation, self-actualization,values, and peak flow experiences (Mobily,1999). Thus, therapeutic recreation serviceshave as direct goals many of the attributes ofpsychological well-being. These goals are cen-tral to therapeutic recreation's health promo-tion efforts.

It is important to look at the vital role ofleisure involvement in facilitating and main-taining psychological well-being. Throughhealth promotion, TR specialists can help cli-ents use their leisure to build capacity anddevelop to their full physical, emotional, socialand spiritual potential. If clients do requirehospitalization, short lengths of stay may re-sult in limited contact with therapeutic recre-ation services. Therapeutic recreation special-ists may not have the time to directly impactsignificant psychological resources such ascompetence or autonomy. However, they maywell be able to introduce clients to the role ofleisure in developing these resources after theyare discharged.

Positive affect, while not the primary focusin eudaimonic well-being, is linked to thedevelopment of one's full potential. Char-netski and Brennan (2001) stated that involve-ment in activities through which individualsexperience competence and self-determinationis a vital source of positive affect. Waterman(1993) supported this notion when he foundthat positive affect was a direct result of in-volvement in challenging, personally mean-

ingful activities. Vaillant (2003) proposed that"happiness that comes from joy or unselfishlove (agape), that comes from self-control andself-efficacy, or that comes from play or deepbut effortless involvement reflects health" (p.1380). Thus, psychological well-being, whilerelated to the experience of positive emotions,is based on the attainment of goals that arepersonally enhancing and lead to positivefunctioning.

There have been a number of differentconceptualizations of psychological well-be-ing as defined by the eudaimonic perspective.For example, Waterman (1993) used the term"personal expressiveness" to describe eudai-monic concepts. Well-being is based on theability to live life in accordance with one'strue self or daimon.

The daimon refers to those potentialitiesof each person, the realization of whichrepresents the greatest fulfillment in liv-ing of which each is capable. Theseinclude both the potentialities that areshared by all humans by virtue of ourcommon specieshood and those uniquepotentials that distinguish each individ-ual from all others, (p. 678)

Waterman described personal expressivenessvery similarly to Csikszentmihalyi's (1975,1990) concept of flow. According to Water-man, personal expressiveness occurs in activ-ities that require intense involvement, that ful-fill personal potential through the developmentof skills and talents, that are consistent withone's life purpose, and that provide feelings ofcongruence, fulfillment, accomplishment andaliveness. Personal expressiveness is themeans through which psychological well-be-ing is attained. The concepts of intense in-volvement, development, fulfillment, and ac-complishment are all descriptors of certainforms of leisure (Kleiber, 1999), and leisuremay be an important avenue for the expressionof one's daimon (Kleiber). Therapeutic recre-ation specialists may wish to incorporate this


perspective of leisure into leisure educationprograms, specifically focusing on the role ofpersonally expressive leisure involvement increating psychological well-being.

Ryff and Singer (1998) used the term hu-man flourishing to describe psychologicalwell-being. Ryff (1995) defined psychologicalwell-being as "the striving for perfection thatrepresents the realization of one's true poten-tial" (p. 100), a similar notion to Waterman's(1993) personal expressiveness and Sheldonand Elliot's (1999) self-concordance. Ryff andKeyes (1995) identified six concepts associ-ated with psychological well-being: auton-omy, personal growth, environmental mastery,purpose in life, positive relations, and self-acceptance. These dimensions, and the charac-teristics of individuals who possess them, arewell defined by Keyes and Lopez (2002, p. 49)and are presented in Table 1. These conceptshave been used extensively in understandingpsychological well-being and in designing in-terventions targeting well-being (Fava & Ru-ini, 2003). Moreover, these concepts are notnew to the field of therapeutic recreation (Dat-tilo et al., 1999; Mundy, 1998; Shank & Coyle,2002; Stumbo & Peterson, 2004). Leisure in-volvement has been recognized as an impor-tant avenue through which to develop thesehealth promoting resources or characteristics.It is important, however, for TR specialists toconnect leisure theoretically and empirically topsychological well-being.

Ryan and Deci (2000, 2001) suggested thatSelf-Determination Theory can also be used tounderstand psychological well-being. Theyproposed that humans have three basic psy-chological needs, competence, autonomy, andrelatedness, and that the satisfaction of theseneeds leads to both subjective well-being (in-creased pleasure and happiness) and psycho-logical well-being. The "fulfillment of theseneeds is essential for psychological growth(e.g., intrinsic motivation), integrity (e.g., in-ternalization and assimilation of cultural prac-tices), and well-being (e.g., life satisfaction

Table 1.

Dimensions of Psychological Well-Being

Autonomy: self-determining, independent,and regulate behavior internally; resistsocial pressure to think and act in certainways; evaluate self by personal standards.

Personal Growth: have feeling of continueddevelopment and potential and are open tonew experience; feel increasinglyknowledgeable and effective.

Environmental Mastery: feel competent andable to manage a complex environment;choose or create personally suitablecontexts.

Purpose in Life: have goals and a sense ofdirection in life; present and past life aremeaningful; hold beliefs that give purposeto life.

Positive Relations with Others: have warm,satisfying, trusting relationships; areconcerned about others' welfare; capableof strong empathy, affection, andintimacy; understand give-and-take ofhuman relationships.

Self-Acceptance: possess positive attitudetoward the self; acknowledge and acceptmultiple aspects of self; feel positive aboutpast life.

and psychological health), as well as the ex-perience of vitality and self-congruence"(Ryan & Deci, 2001, p. 146-147).

Well-being has been primarily viewedfrom an intra-personal perspective; that is,well-being is something that happens withinan individual. However, Keyes (1998) sug-gested that well-being is not only psychologi-cal but social as well. He defined social well-being as the more public evaluation of lifefunctioning, and he identified five social di-mensions of well-being. The first dimension ofsocial well-being identified by Keyes was so-cial acceptance, which means feeling positiveabout others and accepting others as they are.The second dimension was social actualization


and refers to a comfort level with society anda belief in the potential positive growth ofsociety. Social contribution was the third di-mension that Keyes identified and was dennedas feeling like one has a contribution to maketo society and that this contribution is valuedby others. The fourth dimension was socialcoherence, described as being interested in thesocial world and viewing it as comprehensibleand predictable. The final dimension identifiedwas social integration, which means believingthat one belongs, is supported, and sharescommon interests with others in the commu-nity; in other words, feeling a part of thecommunity (Keyes & Lopez, 2002). Thus,well-being, while being primarily intra-per-sonal, influences and is influenced by socialfactors.

Seligman (2002a) made a clear distinctionbetween leading a pleasant life, a good life,and a meaningful life. A pleasant life is one inwhich people experience pleasure regularly intheir day-to-day lives. They savor and livemindfully these "momentary delights." How-ever, these pleasurable experiences do notalone constitute a "good life." Instead, a "goodlife" is one in which people cultivate andinvest their signature strengths and virtues intheir relationships, work and leisure. This in-vestment of the best of self in challengingactivity results in the growth of the capacity ofthe individual, and feelings of competence,satisfaction, and happiness. Lastly, a "mean-ingful life" is one in which people use their"signature strengths in the service of some-thing larger" than oneself (Seligman, p. 249).According to Seligman, authentic happinessencompasses the pleasures of daily life and thegratification of personal growth, but rests ulti-mately on one's contributions to the knowl-edge, goodness and advancement of humankind.

Nakamura and Csikszentmihalyi (2002)proposed that "a good life is characterized bycomplete absorption in what one does" (p. 89).This absorption or flow occurs in activities thatstretch one's skills, and leads to the positive

evolution of the individual (Csikszentmihalyi,1993). Like Seligman (2002a), Csikszentmiha-lyi argued that pleasure and the independentcultivation of one's own personal growth arenecessary, but alone insufficient, in the cre-ation of a truly complex self. The evolution ofa complex, resilient individual requires inte-gration with others, and is characterized byaltruism, compassion, and dedication to a no-ble purpose.

Recognition of the importance of being ofservice to something greater than oneself topsychological well-being provides some im-portant direction for therapeutic recreation ser-vices. Social contribution, according to Keyes(1998) "includes the belief that one is a vitalmember of society, with something of value togive to the world" (p. 122). Typically clientswith disabilities and illnesses have primarilybeen the recipients of services. In addition,many of the models of therapeutic recreationthat include social networks have focused onthe development of social support, rather thanon interdependent, reciprocal relationships.Given that the ability and opportunity to makea contribution to others, the community, or theworld are important aspects of psychologicalwell-being, therapeutic recreation servicesmay need to emphasize the areas of socialcompetence that include interdependent rela-tionships, volunteerism and community' in-volvement as important desired outcomes.

Widmer and Ellis (1998) suggested thatwhen leisure is characterized by engagementin the "intellectual virtues of art, learning, andcreating" it leads to individual meaning andenrichment (p. 295), to the good life. Murray(1998, 1999) suggested that the purpose oftherapeutic recreation is to support clients asthey uncover a meaning and purpose in lifethat transcends stress and suffering. Therapeu-tic recreation specialists can provide opportu-nities for "meaning making" through the facil-itation of self-determination and enjoyment(Murray, 1998). Thus, therapeutic recreationhas a role to play in fostering the "good life"(Widmer & Ellis), as well as the meaningfullife (Murray).


SYNTHESIS OF CONCEPTSAND IMPLICATIONS FOR

THERAPEUTIC RECREATIONPRACTICE

Happiness and positive emotions areclearly important for physical and psycholog-ical health. Furthermore, the experience ofpleasure and happiness is a renewed focus ofinterest within the positive psychology move-ment, thus providing credibility and directionfor those who incorporate goals of pleasureand happiness into their scope of practice.Therapeutic recreation specialists may be ide-ally situated to take the lead in developinginterventions designed to enhance positiveemotions (Dattilo et al., 1998). Given that oneof the defining qualities of the leisure experi-ence is pleasure (Kleiber, 1999), professionalswho use leisure as an intervention tool, andwho have leisure involvement as a desiredoutcome of service (Stumbo & Peterson,1998), have the ability and means needed tohelp individuals build pleasure producing lei-sure experiences into their day to day lives.However, therapeutic recreation specialistsalso need to recognize that individuals need tonot only learn how to build leisure experiencesinto their daily lives, but may also need tolearn how to focus attention upon and savorthe positive, affect enhancing aspects of thoseexperiences.

The literature related to well-being andpositive psychology also indicates that findinghappiness is complex and involves cognitive,emotional and behavioral efforts. Learning tofocus attention on the positive, to reframehabitual thoughts, and to seek out opportuni-ties to experience pleasure are important as-pects of leisure and well-being. As such, ther-apeutic recreation specialists need to focusattention on all aspects of the experiences ofpleasure and leisure—thoughts, feelings, andbehaviors.

The experience of pleasure, while impor-tant to well-being, is not all that is required forpsychological well-being. Seligman (2002a)indicated that using one's strengths to find

meaning and contribute to the world is veryimportant to well-being. This focus onstrengths is not new to therapeutic recreationpractice. However, the notion of using one'sstrengths to make the world a better place maycreate a new focus in therapeutic recreationpractice. Typically, individuals with disabili-ties and illnesses are the recipients of services.Seligman's work suggests that clients alsoneed to have the opportunity to make a con-tribution to others, the community, or theworld. Leisure involvement provides a contextin which to discover strengths and capacities,as well as a context in which to be of serviceto others. Volunteerism, mentoring, and cre-ative activities are all avenues for making acontribution to the world and are valued formsof leisure involvement.

Finally, the development of well-being isboth a reactive process and a proactive pro-cess. At times, well-being results from suc-cessfully coping with life's difficulties. How-ever, well-being is also a state that arises fromthe proactive development of strengths andcapacities. These strengths inoculate individu-als against stress and help them adapt andchange positively in the face of difficulty.Therapeutic recreation specialists, workingwith individuals in the health care arena, assistindividuals in coping with difficulties. A dualfocus on capacity building and resilience willstrengthen clients and provide them with theresources necessary to build a positive, happy,meaningful life. A focus on capacity buildingand resilience is the foundation of health pro-motion.

The potential role of leisure and therapeuticrecreation intervention in the development ofwell-being is unmistakable. The translation ofthe concepts of well-being into interventionsremains a challenging task, however. Never-theless, the literature provides a rationale forincluding well-being concepts in therapeuticrecreation interventions, as well as directionfor service design and delivery. Therapeuticrecreation interventions that are designed totarget the experiences of pleasure and posi-tive affect, optimism, identity congruence,


competence, autonomy, positive relation-ships, flow-like experiences, and service toothers have the potential to contribute sig-nificantly to clients' physical and psycholog-ical well-being.

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The Power of the Positive: Leisure and Well-Being