The Persecutions of Early Christians

7/28/2019 The Persecutions of Early Christians

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The Persecutions of Early Christians

"Who shall separate us from the love of Christ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or

persecution, or hunger, or nakedness, or danger, or the sword?(Romans 8:35)

The Christian religion developed rapidly in Rome and all over the world since the 1stcentury, owing to its being original and suitable for all mankind; but this was also due to

the testimony of fervour, of brotherly love and of charity shown by the Christians towards

everybody.

The Roman authorities were at first indifferent to the new religion, yet very soon, incited

also by the people showed themselves hostile to it, because the Christians refused to

worship the ancient pagan deities of Rome, as well as the emperor. The Christians wereaccused of disloyalty to their fatherland, of atheism, of hatred towards mankind, of

hidden crimes, such as incest, infanticide and ritual cannibalism; likewise they were held

responsible for all natural calamities, such as plagues, floods, famines, etc.

The Christian religion was proclaimed "strana et illicita - strange and unlawful"

(Senatorial decree of the year 35); "exitialis - deadly" (Tacitus); "prava et immodica -


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wicked and unbridled" (Plinius); "nova et malefica - new and harmful" (Svetonius);

"tenebrosa et lucifuga - mysterious and opposed to light" (from "Octavius" by Minucius);

"detestabilis- hateful" (Tacitus); therefore it was outlawed and persecuted, because it wasconsidered the most dangerous enemy of the power of Rome, which was based upon the

ancient national religion and on the emperor's worship.

The first three centuries constitute the age of Martyrs, which ended in 313 with the edict

of Milan, by which the emperors Constantine and Licinius gave freedom to the Church.

The persecution was not always continuous and universal, nor equally cruel and bloody.Periods of persecution were followed by periods of relative peace.

1.1 A New and Malevolent Superstition

The first instance of the Roman State taking action against Christians arose in the reign ofthe Emperor Claudius (41-54 A.D.). The historians Suetonius and Dio Cassius tell us that

Claudius had to expel the Jews because they were continually arguing among themselves

about a certain Chrestos. "Here we have first mention of the response to the Christianmessage in the community of Rome," comments Karl Baus.

The historian Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus (70- ca.140) was a high-ranking official atthe imperial courts ofTrajan and ofHadrian. He was a scholar and counsellor of the

emperors. He justified this and future actions of the State against Christians defining

them as a "new and malicious superstition"; very harsh words.

As a "superstitio", Christianity was linked to "magia". For the Romans it was the same as

the irrational practices which magicians and witches of evil character used to deceive the

ignorant populace who had no training in philosophy. Magic was against reason and wascommon knowledge as opposed to philosophical knowledge. The accusation ofmagia

(witchcraft), as well as that ofinsanity was a weapon with which the Roman State

branded and suppressed new and suspect groups in society, such as Christianity.

The word malefica (=bringer of evil) caught the popular and suspicious imagination of

the populace which viewed this (and everything new) as intrinsically dangerous. It wastherefore the cause of evil and inseparable from plague, flood, famine and invasion by the

barbarians.

1.2. Nero and the Christians as seen by the historian Tacitus.

In the year 64 a fire destroyed 10 of the 14 wards of Rome. The emperor Nero, accused

by the people of being the instigator of the fire, threw the blame on to the Christians. He

began the first great persecution which lasted until 68 and saw perish, among others, theapostles Peter and Paul.

The great historian Tacitus Cornelius (54-120), senator and consul, described theseevents when, in the reign of Trajan, he wrote his Annals. He accused Nero of having

unjustly attacked the Christians, but declared himself convinced that they merited the

most severe punishments because of their superstitions from which sprang everynefarious deed. Thus he did not even share in the compassion experienced by many

people in seeing them tortured . Here is the famous quotation from Tacitus:


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"To cut short the public outcry, Nero had to find someone guilty, and blamed a race of

men despised for the perversity of their rites and commonly called Christians. The namecomes from Christus (Christ), who was put to death when Pontius Pilate was pro-Consul

and Procurator of Judea. Now, this pernicious superstition has broken out anew, not only

in Judea, the place of origin of this scourge, but even in Rome, where all that is shamefuland abominable comes together and is accepted.

At first were arrested those who openly confessed their belief. Then, after theiraccusation, a great multitude were imprisoned not just accused of having caused the fire,

but because they were regarded as being burning with hatred against the human

race.They were put to death with refined cruelty, and Nero added scorn and derision to

their sufferings. Some were clad in the skins of wild beasts and thrown to the dogs to bedevoured; others were nailed to the cross, others burned alive, and still others covered

with inflammable material which was then set on fire to serve as torches after sunset.

Nero allowed his gardens (on the Vatican hill) to be used for this spectacle, which also

included circus games. As he proclaimed the opening of the circus games, he himself,driving a chariot and dressed as a charioteer, mingled with the crowds.

Although these punishments were against a blameworthy people who merited such

original torments, there arose a sense of pity, since they had been sacrificed not for the

common good but from the cruelty of the tyrant." (XV,44)

Thus the Christians were believed by Tacitus as well to be a despicable people, capable of

horrendous crimes. The worst evil doings attributed to Christians were ritual infanticide

(they spoke of the Lord's Supper, the Eucharist, as the killing and eating of a child !) andincest (clearly a travesty of the kiss of peace "between brothers and sisters" which

occurred in the celebration of the Eucharist). These accusations, based on popular gossip,

were thus sanctioned by imperial authority which persecuted and condemned Christiansto death.

From this time on (Tacitus maintains) there was added to the burden of Christians, theaccusation that they hated the human race. Pliny the Younger, ironically, writes that with

a similar accusation anyone could from now on be condemned.

1.3. The accusation of atheism

We have scarce references of the persecution which struck the Christians in the year 89

under the emperorDomitian. Of particular importance is the information given by the

greek historian Dio Cassius, who became a praetor and consul in Rome. In book 67 ofhisRoman History, he tells us that under Domitian they were accused and condemned

"for atheism" (atetes) the consul Flavius Clemens and his wife Domitilla, and with

them many others who "had adopted the practices of the Jews".

The accusation of atheism, at this time, was thrown at those who did not consider as

supreme deity, the imperial majesty. Domitian, strictest restorer of centralised authority,

arrogated to himself the highest worship, as centre and guarantor of "human civilisation".


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It is worth noting that an intellectual like Dio Cassius designated as "atheism" the refusal

to worship the emperor. It meant that in Rome there was no concept of God separate fromthat of the imperial majesty. Those who thought differently were regarded as gravely

dangerous to "human civilisation".

2.1. An Illegal but Harmless Association

In 111 Pliny the Younger, governor of Bithynia on the Black Sea, was returning from an

inspection of his rich and well-populated province when a fire devastated his capital,Nicomedia. Much could have been saved, had there been firemen.

Pliny reported to the emperorTrajan (98-117): "It is up to you to decide whether it is

necessary to create a 150-strong association of firemen. For my part, I will make surethat such an association will accept only firemen. . ." Trajan replied rejecting the

proposal: "Do not forget that your province is prone to societies of this kind. Whatever

their name or purpose, I do not wish to have people united in a body, who then, for

whatever reason quickly become an eterie. "The fear of the eterie (the greek name for

associations) prevailed over the fires.

This was a phenomenon of ancient times. Associations of any type, which transformedthemselves into political groups, had pushed Caesar into forbidding all associations in 7

B.C.: "Whoever establishes an association without special authorisation, is liable to the

same penalty as those who, with armed forces, attack public places and temples." Thelaws were still in force, but the associations continued to flourish; the boatmen on the

Seine, the doctors of Avenches, the wine merchants of Lyons, the buglers of Lamesi.

They all defended the interests of their members putting pressure on the publicauthorities.

Pliny was not slow to apply the interdict on eterie to a particular case presented to him in

112. Bithynia was full of Christians. "They are a crowd of people of all ages, andconditions, dispersed throughout the cities, in the villages and the countryside," he wrote

to the Emperor. He goes on to tell of a complaint received from the makers of religious

amulets upset by the Christians who preached about the uselessness of such nicknacks.He had set up a special inquiry and found out that they had "the habit of gathering on a

fixed day, before sunrise to sing a hymn to Christ as though to a god. They try to live

justly, they oblige themselves by oath not to commit crimes, theft or robbery or adultery

or deceit with words. They have the custom of dining together, and in spite of what othersmay say, the food is ordinary and harmless." The Christians had not ceased having these

meetings even after the governor had reissued the interdict against eterie.

Continuing the letter (10,96), Pliny assures the Emperor that he saw no malice in what

they are doing. However, the refusal to offer incense and wine before the statue of theEmperor seemed to him an act of public sacrilege. The obstinacy of these Christians

seemed "unreasonable and foolish". From the letter of Pliny it appears clear that theaccusations of ritual infanticide and incest had been droped out as absurd. There still

remained the accusation ofrefusing to worship the Emperor(i.e. high treason) and of

establishing an eteria.

The Emperor replied, "The Christians ought not to be sought out by the authorities. If,


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however, they are denounced and found guilty, they will have to be condemned." In other

words: Trajan encourages turning a blind eye to them: they are a harmless eteria like the

boatmen on the Seine or the wine merchants of Lyon. But since Christians are practisingan "unreasonable and foolish superstition" (as Pliny and other intellectuals of the time

such as Epictetus said) and continued to refuse to do emperor worship (and thus were

considered "outcasts" from civic life), Pliny should not pretend as if nothing happened. Ifthey are denounced, they are to be condemned. Thus there continued the policy (even if

in less rigid form) of "It is not legal to be Christians". Certainly victim in this period

were Simeon, the Bishop of Jerusalem, crucified at the age of 120, and Ignatius, Bishop

of Antioch, carried to Rome as a roman citizen and executed there. The same policy

towards Christians came to be adopted by the emperors Hadrian (117-138) and Antoninus

Pius (138-161).

2.2. Marcus Aurelius: Christianity is folly

Marcus Aurelius (161-180), philosopher emperor, spent 17 of the 19 years of his reignfighting. In hisMemoirs, which he wrote each night in his military tent, he recorded his

thoughts "for himself". He greatly despised Christianity. He considered it folly since itproposed to the common, ignorant people a certain manner of conduct (universal love,

forgiveness, sacrifice for others without waiting for reward) which only philosopherssuch as himself could understand and practise through long meditation and discipline. His

rescript of 176-7 prohibited fanatical sects, and the introduction of new cults so far

unknown which might threaten the state religion. The situation for Christians, alwaysgrave, became even worse under him.

The flourishing communities of Asia Minor founded by the Apostle Paul were liable day

or night to robbery and plunder by the mob. At Rome, Justin and a group of Christianintellectuals were condemned to death. The flourishing Christian community of Lyon was

destroyed by accusations of atheism and immorality. (There perished under severe torture

the very young Blandina and the fifteen year old Ponticus).

We realise that public opinion was hardening against the Christians. Great public

calamities (such as war and plague) had raised the conviction that the gods were angrywith Rome. When it became known that the Christians did not take part in the expiatory

ceremonies ordered by the Emperor, popular wrath tried to find pretexts for raging

against them.

This situation continued even into the first years of the emperorCommodus, son of

Marcus Aurelius.

2.3. The lines of arguments used by anti-Christian intellectualsIn the reign of Marcus Aurelius, the offensive of the intellectuals of Rome against the

Christians reached its peak.

"Frequently and erroneously - writes Fabio Ruggiero - it is believed that the ancient

world had combated the new faith with the weapons of law and order, in a word, with the

persecutions. If this is true (and only in part) for the first century of the Christian era, itwas no longer so in the second half of the second century. Both the gentile (=pagan)

world and the Church understood, about the same time, the necessity of discussion and


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dialogue on the level of philosophical and theological argumentation. Ancient culture,

trained for centuries in the subtleties of reasoning, could bring very sophisticated

arguments against Christian teaching. Soon enough the Church itself, taking account ofthe force which classical thought could exert as a brake on the spread of the Gospel,

understood the necessity of developing genuinely Christian philosophical and theological

thought. At the same time this must be expressed in a language and in cultural categoriesintelligible to the graeco-roman world in which the Church was becoming more deeply

involved."

2.4. The lines of argument used by antichristian intellectuals

The arguments ofMarcus Aurelius (121-180), Galenus(129-200), Lucian, Pellegrinus

Proteus and especially Celsus (all of whom wrote their works in the second half of thesecond century) can be summarised as follows:

"Salvation" from the insignificance of life, from disorder of events, from the annihilation

of death, from sorrow, can be found only in a "philosophical wisdom" on the part of a

highly intelligent elite.

The answer which Christians gave to this "salvation" as "faith" in a man crucified (like aslave) in Palestine (a border province) and declared to be risen, was folly. The fact that

Christians believed in the message of this crucified one, adopting a preference for the

outcasts and poor (the dregs of humanity) and preaching brotherly love for everyone (ina society tightly built in a pyramid and considered the 'natural order') was another

intolerable folly, which everyone rejected. Christians had to be eliminated as the

adversaries of human civilisation.. The criticism of antichristian intellectuals was markedby the same idea of "revelation from above", not based on "philosophical wisdom"; on

Christian scriptures, which had contradicted history, and logic; on the "irrational"

teachings; on the actions of the Logos (Living Word) of God that became man (Gospel ofJohn) and submitted himself to death as a slave; on Christian morality (fidelity tomarriage, honesty, respect for others, mutual help) which could be accepted by a small

number of philosophers, but certainly not by the vast number of ignorant poor.

All of Christian teaching, for these intellectuals, was folly, since the claim of resurrection

is folly (i.e. the claim of life after death), the preference God gave to the poor, and

universal brotherly love. It.is all irrational.

The greek philosopher Celsus, in his True Discourse, wrote: Accepting ignorant people,

joining the vilest population, the Christians bring down the honourable and the noble, and

finally go as far as calling everyone brother and sister without distinction

The object of their veneration is a man on whom the most severe punishment was

inflicted, and from the fatal wood of the cross is made an altar, as it is suited for depravedand criminals.

3.1. The grave crisis of the third century (200-300)

The Third Century saw Rome in very deep crisis. The relationship between Christianity


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and the roman empire changed (even though not all noticed it). This great crisis is

described by the greek historian Herodian: In the previous 200 years, there never was

such a quick succession of rulers, of civil wars, of wars against tribes on the borders andof great migrations of peoples. There were innumerable attacks on cities within the

Empire and in many barbarian countries, earthquakes and pestilence, rulers and

usurpers. Some were in charge for a long time, others held power for the briefest ofperiods. Some were proclaimed emperor and crowned one day and overthrown the next.

The Roman Empire had been gradually extended by the conquest of new provinces. Thiscontinuing expansion allowed the exploitation of ever new and greater territory (Egypt

was the granary of Rome, Spain and Gaul were its vineyards and olive groves). Rome

had seized ever newer mines (Dacia was conquered for its gold mines). The wars of

acquisition produced countless multitudes of slaves (prisoners of war), unpaid manpower.

Towards the middle of the 3rd century (ca 250) the party was over. In the East was

formed the mighty Sassanid empire which launched strong attacks on the Romans. In260, the emperorValerian and his whole army of 70,000 men were captured and the

provinces of the East laid waste. Plague devastated the surviving legions and overflowedthe empire. In the North was formed another alliance of strong peoples: the Goths spread

over Malaya and Dacia. The EmperorDecius and his army were massacred. The Goths

spread devastation from the North as far as Sparta, Athens and Ravenna. The piles ofrubble they left were terrible. Most of the people of culture lost their lives or were taken

into slavery, and could not be replaced. Life returned to a primitive and savage state.

Agriculture and commerce were wiped out.

In this time of great uncertainty, the security guaranteed by the State collapsed. Now were

the gentiles (pagans) to become "irrational", no longer having confidence in the imperial

order but in the protection of the strangest and most mysterious gods. On the Quirinalrose a temple to the Egyptian goddess Isis. The emperorElagabulus imposed the

worship of the sun-god, the people had recourse to magical rites to drive away plague.

Yet even in the Third Century there were terrible persecutions of the Christians. Nolonger was it because of their "irrationality" (in a sea of people confiding in magical rites,

Christianity was the only rational system) but in the name of renewed ethnic cleansing.

Many emperors (although barbarians by birth) saw in a return to centralised unity the

only hope of salvation. So they decreed the extermination of the ever more numerousChristians so as to expel from the roman ethnic group, this "extraneous body" which was

more and more seen as a different ethnic group ready to take over the empire founded on

force of arms, robbery and violence and now in decline.

3.2. Septimius Severus, Maximin the Thracian, Decius and Gallus.

With Septimius Severus (193-211), founder of the Syriac dynasty there seemed to beannounced for Christianity a phase of undisturbed development. Christians occupied

influential positions at court. Only in the tenth year of his reign (202) did the emperor

radically change his stance. In 202 appeared an edict of Septimius Severus whichprescribed grave penalties for those who became converts to Judaism or to Christianity.


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The emperor's sudden change can only be understood by assuming that he realized that in

striving strongly for religious unity for the whole of society throughout the world. They

were therefore suspect.

The damage was most obvious in the abolition of the celebrated Christian School of

Alexandria and the Christian communities of North Africa.

Maximin the Thracian (235-238) reacted violently and coarsely against the friends of

his predecessorAlexander Severus, who had been tolerant towards Christians. He threw

the Church of Rome into confusion with the deportation to the mines in Sardinia of thetwo leaders of the Christian community, bishop Pontian and the presbyterHippolytus.

The attitude of the mob towards Christians had not changed. There was launched inCappadocia a true and proper hunt for Christians when they seemed to be to blame for an

earthquake. This popular reaction tells us that the Christians were still considered in

general as "strangers and malefactors" (cf. K Baus,Le origini,p 282-287).

Under the emperorDecius (249-251) there was let loose the first systematic persecutionof the Church, aimed at finally wiping them out. Decius (successor ofPhilip the Arab

who was very favourable to Christians and may even have been one himself), wasoriginally a senator from Pannonia, and was very attached to roman traditions. Being

deeply conscious of the pollitical and econbmic break up of the empire, he believed that

would restore unity by gathering all the energies of the protectors of the state. All theinhabitants were required to sacrifice to the gods, after which they would receive a

certificate. Those who refused this act of submission were arrested, tortured and

executed. At Rome at Roe were executed bishop Fabian and with him many priests andlaity. At Alexandria there was a persecution accompanied by plundering. In Asia the

martyrs were numerous: the bishops of Pergamum, Antioch and Jerusalem. The trinitas

(triadic) teacherOrigen was subjected to inhuman torture and survived the sufferings forfour years (reduced to a mere human shell).

Not all Christians endured suffering. Many agreed to sacrifice. Others, by bribes, secretly

obtained the famous certificates. Among them, according to letter 67 ofCyprian, therewere two Spanish bishops. The persecution which had seemed the death blow for the

Church, ended with the demise of Decius in battle against the Goths on the plains of

Dobrugia (Romania). (cfr. M Clvenot,I Cristiani e il potere,p. 179s). The next seven

years (250-257) were ones of tranquillity for the Church, disturbed only at Rome by theoutbreak of persecution when Trebonianus Gallus (251-253) had the head of the

Christian community, Cornelius, arrested and exiled to CentumCellae (Civitavecchia).

The conduct ofGallus was probably a giving in to the mood of the people, who blamed

the Christians for the outbreak of disease devastating the empire. The Christians were stillseen as "superstitious", strange and malicious! (cf. K. Baus, Le Orgini, p 292).

3.3. Valerian and the financial state of the empire.

In the fourth year of the reign ofValerian (257) something unforeseen occurred, a severe

and bloody persecution of the Christians, However, it was not due to religion but rather tomoney. Because of the precarious situation of the Empire, the imperial counsellor (and


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later usurper) Macrianus persuade Valerian to confiscate the goods of wealthy

Christians. There were illustrious martyrs (from bishop Cyprian and Pope Sixtus II, to

the deacon Lawrence). However, it was simply robbery under the pretext of ideologicalmotives, and ended with the tragic death ofValerian. In 259 he and all his army fell

prisoners to the Persians. He was reduced to life as a slave and died.

The forty years of peace which followed, favoured the internal and external development

of the Church. Several Christians reached high office in the State and proved themselves

capable and honest.

3.4. Financial disaster falls into the lap of Diocletian

In 271, the emperorAurelian ordered his soldiers and roman citizens to abandon to theGoths the vast province of Dacia with its gold mines. The defence of this territory would

cost by then too much blood.

Since there were no more provinces to conquer and despoil, all attention was focused onthe ordinary citizen. On them fell taxes, the ever-more onerous chores (maintenance of

aqueducts, canals, sewers, roads, public buildings. . .). They literally did not know howthey would manage to survive and pay the taxes. In 284, after a brilliant military career,

Diocletian, of Dalmatian origin, was proclaimed emperor. Now the taxes would have to

be paid pertesta (head)and perjugero i.e. for each individual and for each unit of landunder cultivation.

The collection was entrusted to a shrewd and lumbering bureaucracy, which ensured it

was impossible to avoid the payment. It punished inhumanly those who tried and wasvery costly to the state.

The taxes were so heavy that they took away all incentive to work. Remedy: it wasforbidden to abandon one's job, the piece of soil one cultivated, the workshop or military

service.

This was just the beginning- wrote F. Oertel, professor of ancient history at theUniversity of Bonn - of the oppressive measures of the State which squeezed the last drop

from the population. . . Under Diocletian, a complete socialist state was brought into

being: terrorism by officials, severe limitation of individual freedom, progressive state

interference, heavy taxation.

4.1. Persecution by Galerius in the name of Diocletian.

In the first twenty years of the reign ofDiocletian we see no molesting of Christians. In

303, with a change of scene, the last great persecution of Christians began. It was thework ofGalerius, the "Caesar" of Diocletian - wrote F. Ruggiero - in 303 he put an end

to the prudent policies of Diocletian, which were restrained although he held totraditional feelings, and went over to intransigent and intolerant acts. Four consecutive

edicts (February 303 - February 304) imposed on Christians the destruction of their

churches, confiscation of their goods, the handing over of sacred books, torture and even

death for those who would not sacrifice to the emperor.


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As always, it is difficult to determine what motives induced Diocletian to approve a

policy of this kind. We suppose it was pressure from the fanatical pagans who supported

Galerius. In a situation of "widespread anguish" (as Dodds calls it), only return to theancient faith of Rome, according to Galerius and his friends, could save the people and

persuade them to make such sacrifices. It required a return to the vetera instituta, i.e. to

the ancient laws and traditional roman discipline. The persecution reached its greatestintensity in the Orient, especially in Syria, Egypt and Asia Minor. To Diocletian who

abdicated in 305, there succeeded as "Augustus" Galerius and as "Caesar" Maximin Daiawho showed himself more fanatical than his leader.

Only in 311, six days before he died of cancer of the throat, did Galerius grudgingly issue

a decree ending the persecution. With this document (which finally signalled the freedom

to be Christian), Galerius deplored the obstinacy of Christians who mostly refused to turnto the religion of ancient Rome. He declared that to persecute Christians any more was

futile, and he exhorted them to pray to their God for the health of the emperor.

Commenting on this decree, F. Ruggiero, wrote: The Christians had been an extremely

anomalous enemy. For more than two centuries, Rome had sought to absorb them into itssocial fabric. . . Physically within the civitas Romana, but in many ways outside of it

they had finally brought about a radical transformation of the civitas itself intosomething Christian.

4.2. The Profound Revolution

The final systematic persecutions of the Third and Fourth Centuries were as ineffective as

the sporadic ones of the First and Second Centuries. The ethnic cleansinginvoked and

upheld by the Graeco-roman intellectuals was never achieved. Why not?

Because the indignant accusations of Celsus (Gathering ignorant people, belomging to

the vilest population, the Christians bring down the honourable and the noble, and finallygo so far as to call people brother and sister without distinction. ) in the long run became

the best eulogy for Christians. It recalled the dignity of each individual, even the lowliest

and their equality before God (the most revolutionary point in the Christian message).This had imperceptibly made its way into the consciousness of most individuals and of

most peoples whom the Romans had relegated to the positions of born slaves and human

garbage.

Essential Bibliography: K.Baus, Le origini, Jaca Book; F.Ruggiero, La Follia dei

Cristiani, Il Saggiatore; T.Bosco, Eusebio di Vercelli nel suo tempo pagano e cristiano,

Elle Di Ci; J.Danielou, H.Marrou, Dalle origini a San Gregorio Magno, Marietti;M.Clevenot, Gli uomini della fraternit, 1-2, Borla. From: Dimensioni nuove, LDC,

10096 Leumann, Torino, N.7, 1996, p.29-39

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The Persecutions of Early Christians