The Institution of Social Science

The Olympic Games – An Instrument for Environmental Political

Change.

- A case study exploring the Environmental Political approaches of the Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games

in Beijing.

Lukas Karlsson

Master Essay, 15p University of Kalmar Autumn 2009

Tutor: Gunnar Hansson The Institution of Human Sciences Social Sciences 61-90p

UNIVERSITY OF KALMAR - SWEDEN The institution of Social Science Project: Master Essay 15points Title: Olympic Games – An instrument for Environmental Political Change? -A case study exploring the Environmental Political views of the Olympic Games – with special focus on the 28th Summer Olympic Games in Beijing. Author: Lukas Karlsson Tutor: Gunnar Hansson ABSTRACT The essay´s aim was to explore the complex political environmental opinions and opportunities to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes, with special focus on the 2008 summer Olympics Games in Beijing. In the light of two environmental political theories (The Green Business and Critical Ecology Theories) The International Olympic Committee's (The IOC) third pillar, the environment, the Beijing Olympic Committee 's motto (BOCOG) “Green Olympics” and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO:s) such as Greenpeace and their motto “Green Games” have been reviewed. The aim was to see the organisations aim to use the Beijing Olympics as a tool for environmental political changes. The study involves six qualitative interviews, one group interview, one written questionnaire and participating observations, during an eight week field study, during the Beijing Olympics in 2008. The conclusion of the study demonstrates that the Olympic Games can be used as important instrument to address the organisations environmental work toward a “Greening” of Olympic cities with firstly technical measures under political control. The Olympics are also used as an instrument to raise the environmental awareness of the public in Beijing and China. The City of Beijing was seen as a showcase of green standards hopefully to be spread nationally. The “Greening of Olympics” is still though a complex social and scientific matter. Countries and cities have different conditions, knowledge, interests and ambitions. Universal standards are not always universally understood. Keywords: Green Olympics, Green Games, Beijing Olympics, The Olympic Games, The International Olympic Committee, Environmental Political Theories.

CONTENTS PREFACE ........................................................................................................................ 5 

1  INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 6 

1.1  PROBLEM DISCUSSION AND PURPOSE ................................................ 8 1.1.1  How can the Beijing Olympic Games be used as an Instrument for Environmental Political Changes? ............................................................................ 8 

1.2  Environmental Political Theories .................................................................. 9 1.2.1  The Development of Environmental Politics – a Modern Historic Overview? .................................................................................................................. 9 1.2.2  Theoretical Framework ............................................................................... 10 1.2.3  The Green Business Theory ........................................................................ 10 1.2.4  The Criticism of the Theory ........................................................................ 12 1.2.5  The Critical Ecology Theory ....................................................................... 12 1.2.6  The Criticism of the Theory ........................................................................ 13 1.2.7  The theoretical Framework as Guidance ..................................................... 14 

1.3  Method ............................................................................................................ 14 1.3.1  The Case Study Method .............................................................................. 15 1.3.2  Yin´s Method as Guidance .......................................................................... 15 1.3.3  The Preparation and the Carrying out of the Case study ............................. 16 1.3.4  Selection of Participators ............................................................................. 16 1.3.5  Literate Research ......................................................................................... 19 1.3.6  The Interviews ............................................................................................. 19 1.3.7  The Participant Observations....................................................................... 21 1.3.8  Method Discussion ...................................................................................... 21 

2  BACKGROUND: THE OPINIONS OVER A GREEN OLYMPICS .............. 23 

2.1  The International Olympic Committee ....................................................... 23 2.1.1  The International Olympic Committee and its Ideals .................................. 23 2.1.2  Olympism and Cultural Differences ............................................................ 25 

2.2  The Third pillar of the Olympism, the Environment ................................. 25 2.2.1  Former Olympic Games Environmental Initiatives, a Brief Review .......... 26 2.2.2  IOC and its Environmental Guidelines ........................................................ 27 2.2.3  The Environmental Approach in the Applicant Process for The Olympic Games. ..................................................................................................................... 28 2.2.4  The Introduction of the Term “Green Games” ............................................ 28 2.2.5  The IOC Environmental Approach – a Conclusion: ................................... 30 

2.3  China and its Environmental status – a Modern Historical Overview. ... 31 2.3.1  Future Challenges for China ........................................................................ 33 

2.4  Beijing Olympics - “Green Olympics”........................................................ 34 2.4.1  Beijing’s Application and the Transformation toward a “Green Olympics”. 34 2.4.2  Beijing’s Bid and its Political Views ........................................................... 35 2.4.3  The “Green Olympics” Process and Participators ....................................... 36 2.4.4  An Overview of Beijing’s Plan of the “Greening of the Olympics” ........... 37 2.4.5  Conclusion over the BOCOG “Green Olympic and Action Plans. ............. 38 

2.4.6  The NGO:s Perspective Toward the Beijing Olympics .............................. 39 2.4.7  The Result of the “Green Olympics” - and the Work Beyond the Olympics 40 

3  ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS TOWARD GREEN OLYMPICS .................................................................................................................... 44 

3.1  Environmental Changes in the Combination with the Organisations´ Culture and Interests. ............................................................................................... 44 

3.1.1  The Vision of an Impressive Olympics ....................................................... 45 3.1.2  The Observations ......................................................................................... 46 3.1.3  Analysis and Interpretation .......................................................................... 46 

3.2  “Green Olympics” – Who shall have the Political Control? ..................... 47 3.2.1  Observation - The Political Control ............................................................ 49 3.2.2  Analysis and Interpretation - Green Olympics and the Political Control .... 49 

3.3  Technical improvement under Political Control ........................................ 50 3.3.1  Observation- Technical Improvements ....................................................... 51 3.3.2  Analysis and Interpretation of Technical Improvements ............................ 51 

3.4  Peoples Olympics – The Olympic Games as an Instrument for Public Awareness, toward an Ecological Lifestyle! ............................................................ 52 

3.4.1  Observation - Raised Awareness ................................................................. 53 3.4.2  Analysis and Interpretation - Awareness ..................................................... 53 

4  CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................... 55 

4.1  Discussion ....................................................................................................... 58 4.1.1  Own Reflections .......................................................................................... 61 4.1.2  Suggestions for Future Research ................................................................. 62 4.1.3  Weaknesses in the Result ............................................................................ 62 

SUMMARY .................................................................................................................... 63 

REFERENCES………………………………………………………………………...65 TABLES

Table 1: Analyse schedule: The theoretical Framework as Guidance ............................14 Table 2: Table based on Yin´s case study structure………………...………………….15 Table 3: A summary over the organizations aims, goals and environmental political discourse………………………………………………………………………55 APPENDIX Interview guide

PREFACE In May 2007, I spent ten days in Beijing and the nearby areas during my holiday. Buildings, subways and sport arenas were under construction for the upcoming Olympics. One year later, in the summer of 2008, I had the big honour of coming back to China to conduct a Minor Field Study (MFS) - an eight week field study aiming to shed a light over whether and who the Beijing Olympics were used as a political instrument for environmental progress. I must thank all participants and friends in China. The conducting of the field study in the right context have left me with many memorises and interesting knowledge that will follow me during a long time. Respondents: Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China, Beijing, Ms Zee Zee Zhang, Roots and Shots , Shanghai, Mr Liajian Zhen, Fuping Development institute, Beijing. Ms Michelle Lemaitre, The International Olympic Organisation. Mr Zhang Jun, Lenovo group, Beijing. Jim, volunteer leader and the volunteers Sunny, Memory, Karen, Ivy, Sunrise, Beijing. Mr Ola Wong, Correspondent, Svenska Dagbladet, Sydsvenska Dagbladet, Shanghai Informants: Ms Marie Carlsson, Sinologist, University of Gothenburg. Ms Annika Siewert, SIDA consult, Beijing Ms Linda Andersson, International Office of Kalmar. Ms Maria S Jonsson, Swedish Church in China. Ms Gunilla Lindberg and Mr Stefan Lindeberg Swedish Olympic Organisation. Mr Gunnar Hansson, tutor, University of Kalmar. Friends Chu Ly – for your hospitality when taking care of a confused and nervous foreigner when he first arrived to China! Peter Carlsson, for taking your precious time, guiding me through the jungle of English grammar. You are a good friend and superb English teacher! ....And Jenny, for your support and patience during this busy period with a full time work and essay writing! Thank you all for your assistance and helpfulness during this essay. Without your help this study could not have been written. Thank you!

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1 INTRODUCTION In 1987, The Bruntland report was released. The report was concerned over the situation where the struggle for economic growth did not take environmental protection under enough consideration. The importance of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources and with economical, social and political development, particularly linked to the benefit of the poorest members of society must be raised. Many undeveloped countries saw the report as an instrument in their process toward western standards.1 Environmental concerns and the debate concerning international commitments to solve these matters are very important questions on the International political agenda. Environmental politics is though a very complex social and scientific matter, where different countries have different knowledge, concerns and goals. The Olympic Games is a large event which during the years has grown to become one of the worlds must powerful events. The International Olympic Committee with its main display, The Olympic Games has acknowledges environmental questions. During the mid 1990ties the philosophy of Olympism with its two pillars, Sport and Culture was joined with another pillar, the Environment. According to The IOC, the Olympic Games shall be arranged in balance with the environment. It shall not have a negative impact; it should instead give opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies. These positive legacies must remain after the games, not only for the host cities but also for the whole country.2 The Olympic Movement wants to use the Olympic Games as a instrument for positive environmental legacies. Former Olympics such as Los Angeles(1974) and former Olympics in the Asian region, in South Korea(1988) and Japan(1960) have shown that the Olympics, can be an effective mechanism for reaching economic and political goals, such as economic growth, increasing the image of the host city and legitimacy for the government hosting the games. 3 But it is not only the IOC that puts the environmental questions on the agenda. Campaigning host cities have since the mid 1990ties been forced to emphasise the environmental perspectives in their application. In 2001, the City of Beijing won the battle to host the 2008 years Summer Olympic Games. In Beijing’s application the environmental aspect played an important role. Beijing’s bidding committee declared that the Olympic Games would make a positive change on China's environmental status. The Beijing bidding committee claimed that their environmental plans and actions will leave “The greatest Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.” 4 However, the media, different organisations and athletes criticised the environmental status in China, such as the high level of pollution, which could seriously harm the

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1 Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press. 2The International Olympic committee ( 2007) Going Green. Olympic Review Magazine. Internet: www.olympic.org/upload/news/olympic_review/review_20071030115557_UK.pdf - The IOC(2007) Olympic Charter. Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf 3Horne, J – Manzenreiter, W (edt 2006) Sports mega-events : social scientific analyses of a global phenomenon . Blackwell Pub./Sociological Review. 4 UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Internet: http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf, p 4

athletes’ health during the Olympics. 5 Despite the criticism of the environmental status, Beijing and its environmental approach towards a “Green Olympics” gained a strong support from the IOC and the evaluation commission.

Beijing currently faces a number of environmental pressures and issues, particularly air pollution. However, it has an ambitious set of plans and actions designed and comprehensive enough to greatly improve overall environmental conditions. 6

One though, has to consider that China's economic growth, from a very poor undeveloped country to a richer country, has not been achieved in balance with the environment development. China is only ranked at place number 133 of 146 on the environmental index for durable development. Concerns such as air pollution, water waste and lack of rechargeable energy consumption are growing problems for China and the government. 7 The Chinese government is currently well aware of these problems and has made some reforms to improve the situation.8 The Beijing Olympic Games and its motto “Green Olympics” and “greening of the city of Beijing”- can be seen as one way to put the environmental concerns on the agenda. The Olympic Games is a large and powerful event that since the mid 90ties embraced an environmental approach. This study will focus on different organisations and their environmental approach. Firstly, The International Olympics Committees (The IOC) and their third pillar of Olympism, the environment. Furthermore, the study also will focus on the Beijing Olympic Committee's (BOCOG) and Non-Governmental Organisation's (NGO:s, Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots, Shanghai and Fuping Development Institute, Beijing) works and polices towards a “Greening of the Games”. The analysis will be carried out on political theories concerning the environment. The study includes a literary research, participant observations and formal interviews with participants with knowledge of the “Green Olympics” and its environmental approach.

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5 Telegraph UK Internet: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/3311716/Beijing-pollution-still-major-Olympic-concern.html, http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/sports/othersports/11olympics.html, 6UNEP 2007, p 2 7 SIDA(2009) Internet. http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=540 8Sweden aboad(2007) Kinas miljö – situationen och utmaningarna . Internet: http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf

1.1 PROBLEM DISCUSSION AND PURPOSE The environmental status in the world is under pressure. Different reports have criticised the lack of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources with economic, social and political development. In the globalised world countries, organisations and the public has become more aware of these problems. The environment affects us all around the world. The environmental concerns are though put on the agenda. The awareness has been raised by governments, companies and organisations which now proudly are proclaiming their responsibilities for the environment. The political environmental work is though a very complex matter when different actors are processing this political question from different perspectives, knowledge and visions. Andrew Jamison equalises environmental political theories to other political theories. It operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its context (local- national).9 Actors have different interests and goals with their environmental work. The Olympic Movement with its main display, the Olympic Games is an important actor in the International sphere, which since the mid 90ties acknowledges and invited in the environment as the third pillar of Olympism. The Olympic Games hosted at different location and countries can therefore be used by different participators as an instrument for environmental political changes. In 2008, The city of Beijing hosted the Olympics. The IOC:s choose to let a rapidly growing city, in a rapidly growing country, host the Olympic Games was discussed. The environmental perspectives of the Olympics, Beijing’s and Chinas environmental concerns were now highlighted. The essays purpose is to review whether and how the Beijing Olympic Games are used as instrument for environmental political changes. The case study will put focus on The International Olympics Committees(The IOC), Beijing Olympic Committee's (BOCOG) and Non-Governmental Organisation's (represented by Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots, Shanghai and Fuping Development Institute, Beijing) works and polices towards a “Greening of the Games”. The analysis will be carried out of the two political theories, The Green Business Theory and the opposite theory, the Ecological Resistance theory (Critical Ecology theory).

1.1.1 How can the Beijing Olympic Games be used as an Instrument for Environmental Political Changes?

The study attend to explore the different views of political environmental discourses, exemplified by The IOC, The BOCOG and NGO:s organisations, which are used in the accordance to the Beijing Olympic Games. The Analysis will be carried out in the light of the political theories, The Green Business theory with its three discourses; Nature Capitalism, EcoEffiency and Ecological Modernism discourse. And the opposite pole Ecological Resistance (Critical Ecology) with its three discourses Local Activism, Professional Activism and Personal Activism (All theories are explained further in chapter 1.2.2).

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9 Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.

The International Olympic Committee´s third pillar, the environment, The Beijing Olympics Committee´s motto “Green Olympics” and Non-governmental Organisations, represented by Greenpeace, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development Institute will be reviewed in the light of environmental political theories. To limit the length of the research, the following questions have been used as guidance.

• What environmental political views are apparent in the three category groups’

environmental approaches to use the Beijing Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?

• As a result from the analysis of question one, can any conclusions be drawn if

and why the groups have different views, concerning the Beijing Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?

1.2 Environmental Political Theories The content of this chapter is to explore the environmental political theories that will work as a theoretical framework and guidance in the analysis of the case studies results.

1.2.1 The Development of Environmental Politics – a Modern Historic Overview?

Two different poles concerning the world of environmental politics will be used as a theoretical framework. The first theory (pole) is The Green Business theory with its three different discourses, ecoefficiency, nature capitalism and ecological modernism. The other theory (pole) is The Ecological Resistance or Critical Ecology with its different activisms such as local, professional, military and personality activism. In the end of the chapter a summary and an analysis schedule over the theoretical framework will be introduced. At first, an overview of the historical process of environmental politics and the term sustainable development will be illustrated. According to Corel & Söderberg one can summarise the environmental political process in three important conferences about the environment. Firstly, In 1972 - Sweden took an initiative for an international conference about the Environment and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) was established in Stockholm. 113 countries declared their collective responsibility for the world’s environment using “Only one earth” as their motto. The mission of the UNEP was to coordinate environmental questions in the UN and to take initiatives in the international work. In Stockholm Indira Gandhi, the prime minister of India - made a famous and important statement when she declared that the undeveloped countries have to develop their economy before they can consider to protect the environment. The Stockholm conference raised the international awareness of the environmental questions. 10

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10Correll, E – Söderberg, H(2005) Från miljöpolitik till hållbar utveckling – en introduktion. Liber . Malmö.

The report “Our common future” was released in 1987 and the idea of sustainable development had its breakthrough.11 The report is also known as The Bruntland Report described that in the future; “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” 12 The development shall give long-term preservations of our environment and our lifestyle. The report also described the importance of simultaneously combining the environment and its natural resources with economic, social and political development, particularly linked to the benefit of the poorest members of society. The idea of “Sustainable development” has both had its faults and praises. It has been criticised for being a weak term, meaning all or nothing – but others have praised the idea for being all embracing and its use in political contexts. Many undeveloped countries saw the report as a way for all countries to succeed in their process to western standards. Hence, the report became very important. Sustainable development can as Corell & Söderbergh describes be seen as a goal for how the society should strive to improve our living conditions. 13 The Bruntland report was the ignition key to the Agenda 21 agreement in Rio de Janeiro, the 2nd conference, in 1992. Agenda 21 was an agreement of action to be taken globally, nationally and locally by organisations such as the UN, governments, and local groups in areas where humans have impact on the environment. In Johannesburg, the third conference the international society reviewed the implementation of the Agenda 21. The perspective had changed from initially focusing on human environment, to concentrating on the connection between environment and economic growth. Correl & Söderberg describes the period 1992-2002, as a time when attempts were made to combine the handling of resources in a sustainable matter in the practical implementation. Energy and money were spent on environmental and developing matters These three conferences (Stockholm, Rio de Janeiro, and Johannesburg) resulted in the perspective of today, where the three pillars environment, social and economic factors and importance of cooperation, were established. All these must function together.14

1.2.2 Theoretical Framework Andrew Jamison equalises environmental political theories to other political theories, as it operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its context (local – national). Jamison is discussing two opposite poles concerning the world of environmental politics. He discusses the theory of Green Business and the opposite theory, the Ecological Resistance or Critical Ecology. These two opposites will be described below and used as guidance in the analyses of in the result chapter. 15

1.2.3 The Green Business Theory

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The green business theory seeks to redirect environmentalism into a profit-making direction. Sustainable development is important in the process of global corporate

11 Ibid 12 United Nations World Commission on The Environment and Development (1987)Our common future. Internet: http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm 13 Correll – Söderberg, 2005 14 Ibid 15Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press.

expansion. The green business theory has transformed from the change of peoples´ involvement in environmental questions. Jamison explains these changes in the environmentalism as a “positive- sum game”. Economic growth can be combined with or even strengthen by means of environmental improvements. A term as “natural capitalism”, where economic activity can be adapted to ecological laws and principles are nowadays more common. Companies and other global participators are proudly proclaiming their environmental measures and how they take their responsibility to create a sustainable development. The green business theory approach is often summarizes in three different discourses, ecoefficiency, nature capitalism and ecological modernism.16 The Ecoeffiency The companies' approach is to combine environmentalism with the company’s culture. The strategy is not to change too much. Instead the product process shall be more environmentally friendly with help of technical measures and most of, a higher efficiency concerning energy and resource consumption. 17 Nature Capitalism In the nature capitalism, the strategy is to reduce the pressure on the environment. Technical solutions are not enough, a new economic and industrial structure must develop in order to succeed. The schools spokesman are talking about the “factor-ten”, where the resource and energy consumption will be reduced by ten percent from the current level. Changes must proceed in many spheres and the result can not be achieved by only technical improvements. 18 The Ecological Modernism The ecological modernism is quite similar to the ecoefficiency discourse. The discourse is promoting smaller changes rather than radical. But the idea is also open to add responsibility to governments and public authorities. Ecological modernism was initially founded in Europe. The strategy was to give public support to technical improvement combined with political control and policy instruments. Taxes should not be used in a proactive way, where tax coming from non-environmental activities should be invested in sustainable development investments. The discourse is nowadays more open for cooperation between the governments, researches and the business world. 19 Andrew Jamison's research of the organisation GIN (Greening of industry production) showed that focus has changed towards changes in the organisation structure rather than technological changes. Jamison is furthermore talking about the change towards a development of an unholy alliance between different participators where decision making is reduced to negations and governments are reduced to governance. The importance of creating dialogues, cooperations, communications and entrepreneurs are often mentioned. The term “greening” is also often used in modern ecologism. Greening

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16 Jamison, 2002 17 Jamison, Andrew(2003) Miljö som politik. Studentlitteratur. Lund 18 Ibid 19 Ibid

can be seen as the industrial world's version of sustainable development. Jamison describes that the ambition of “greening” more have turned into a discussion about business terms such as environmental management, green business economy, sustainable product development and product responsibility working towards the original idea of sustainable development. 20

1.2.4 The Criticism of the Theory

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xt (local – national).

Many corporate officials and business leaders have, according to Yummiest, acknowledged the need to focus more on environmental questions. The importance of sustainable development is acknowledged but it is reduced to those activities that can turn a profit. The competition and marketability makes participators choosing economic development rather than environmentalism.21 Another perspective is that organisations are dependent on changes to the wider socio-economic system in which the organisation works. The Organisations can have problems to fully adhere to a green business discourse of sustainability, not being influenced by the socio-economic system22 Andrew Jamison also equalises environmental political theories to other political theories, as it operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its social-conte

1.2.5 The Critical Ecology Theory The theory developed as discourse criticising the Green business theory has recently has been reviewed. Some ideas have a more aggressive tone, for example to re concur the animal's rights – like a global right movement. Other ideas are talking about the agenda and that it has to transform from civilisation and a consumer society. The realists and reformists are still fighting to establish the society to be more environmentally friendly. 23 One discourse in the Critical Ecology discourse, the militant activism, that are discussing “equality between different species” will not be used as a theoretical framework, and will therefore not be used in the analysis. The Local activism Through research and empiric knowledge, the activist wants to transform the politics and the agenda. The activism argues in favour of technical changes, with the help of evidence from research. The local activists still believe in the democratic ambitions to argue and effect. Today, the groups work on local level to counteract environmental damages and to create alternative solutions for environmental friendly processes in the local society. Jamison sees the local activists as science groups on the local level that gives information to the local society. This will result in participation and social innovations that will both raise the level of democracy in the society and create a better environment. In different projects, such as for example Agenda 21, the local activists have found ways to effect the decision making. According to Jamison, the problem with the discourse is the temporary efforts on specific targets. The local activism has

20Ibid 21 Jamison , 2003 22Wendy Stubb, Chris Cocklin (2006) An ecological modernist interpretation of sustainability. Internet: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/112718277/abstract 23Jamison , 2003

difficulties to remain as an important role in the society. When the goals are fulfilled or when the money has run out, the local activism has a tendency to disappear. 24 The professional activism The professional activism is often described as lobbying organisations. According to Jamison, it is difficult to generalize the different groups but some similarities can be seen. They are often NGO:s (Non-Government-Organisations) that have employed staff that produces knowledge about the environment. They have experts working in different fields such as; juridical, administrative, scientist, commercial or pedagogic. The organisations are depending on external support to finance their expert knowledge’s. The professional organisation wants to be an important participator; therefore their growth and survival are important factors in the choice of subjects and methods to work with. The organisation works with subjects not recreating other's work or competing with actors that can do the work much better. This special focus can be a problem if the coordination between activities is not working. Other critical views are that there is often no quality control over the knowledge the organisations are producing and that they are only to be responsible in front of its own board of directors. 25 Their work can be divided in to three different branches. It can involve reports about special environmental questions. The other type is creating material for the public - practical tips on how to be more environmentally friendly both for the public and for companies. The last type of product is to combine different approaches, discusses new strategies or new directions. This group exists on an individual level but they still see themselves as part of a movement. The experts want to increase the awareness and therefore shows their opinions and political proposals as professional experts, often employed in a organisation, institute or earning their living on their writing and lectures. Their different participators are often cooperating on different levels and with different participators within media, business world, international organisations and NGO:s. 26 Personal activism The activism tries to make the political matters transform to individual level where efforts to take action and act in an environmental way are in focus. The ecological lifestyles have changed since the 1960s with new age philosophy through the 1990s and ethical discourse about genetic modified organisms. According to Jamison, it is hard to make any conclusion from this type of actions. But it is ascertained that the personal standpoints and activism will continue to develop.

1.2.6 The Criticism of the Theory The problem with the discourse is the different participators and their different views. All groups are fighting for their standpoints, acknowledgement and economic resources. The different views of activism must sort out the different opinions. According to Jamison there is a dynamic relation between the different groups. They are in way competing and in other ways cooperating.

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24Jamison, 2003 25 Ibid 26Ibid

1.2.7 The theoretical Framework as Guidance The new environmental political agenda can according to Jamison be described as two opposite poles. Below I have tried to summarise the green business and Critical ecology discourses in an analyse schedule. The Green Business Theory The Critical Ecology Theory

Table 1; Analyse schedule, summarising the environmental political theories that will work as guidance in the analysis of the thesis from the literature research, interviews and observations.

A I M

The Ecoeffiency -Small environmental changes in combination with the company’s culture.

Nature Capitalism -Reduce the pressure on the environment.

The Ecological Modernism -Sustainable development. -“Greening”

The Local Activism -Effect the political agenda towards a better environment -Informative

The Professional Activism -Raise the awareness. Produce knowledge’s about the environment -Lobbying

Personal Activism -Political matters on individual level. -Ecological lifestyle

M E T H O D

-Technical measures, reduce the energy and resource consumption

-The system and structure must transform to be more environmentally friendly. -Factor ten solutions concerning energy and resource consumptions.

-Increasing responsibility for governments/public institutions. -Support technical improvements with political control. -Cooperation, environmental managements, sustainable product development, and product responsibility.

-Technical changes -Counteract environmental damage, create alternative solutions.

-Science Reports -Practical tips -Cooperation’s in different spheres

-Personal activity -Take action

1.3 Method Robert K Yin's book “A Case Study Research – Designs and Methods”27 – has been used as guidance in the process of this research. The method is a process or record of research into the development of a situation - and in this case different participant’s environmental political approach to use the Olympic Games as a political instrument, with special focus on the summer Olympics in Beijing in 2008. The chapter will explain how the study has been processed, which methods and respondent that have participated to form the case studies results. Finally, a discussion about the case studies validity and reliability will be discussed.

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27 Yin, Robert K(2003) Case study research – design and methods third edition. Sage publication. USA

1.3.1 The Case Study Method The Study; An instrument for environmental political change is a comparative case study exploring the opportunity to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for political environmental change, with special focus at The Beijing Olympics. Yin describes five important components for the comparative case studies design. At first, the problem and the questionnaire are very important; Yin explains that the “how” and “why” questions are preferable in a case study. Secondly, the study must have suggestions to answer the questions for the study’s research. Only if you are forced to state some suggestion one will move in the right direction, according to Yin. Thirdly, Yin means that the unit of analysis can be a problem when one defines what the case really is. The study's questions and propositions are very important to make the study easier and not so extensive. The fourth and fifth components, linking data to propositions and criteria for interpreting the findings, are according to Yin the least well developed components in the case studies. One promising approach is the idea of pattern matching, where several pieces of data can be related to some theoretical proposition.28

1.3.2 Yin´s Method as Guidance The Schedule below explains Yins guidance and the column to the right, is a short overview of this case studies approach designed to match Yins structure. Furthermore, all the terms will be explained during this section. Finally, a discussion concerning the choice of method and a reflection over how the procedure worked and how mistakes could have been avoided will be included. Test Case study tactic Phase of research

in which tactic occurs

The Research

Construct validity -Use multiple sources of → evidence - Establish chain evidence → -Have key informants → review draft case study report

data collection → data collection → composition of → report

Literature research, Observations & Interviews. Different sources. Tutor & Contacts in field.

Internal validity - Do pattern-matching → - Do explanation-building → -Address rival explanation → -Use logic models →

data analysis → data analysis → data analysis → data analysis →

Different sources match in different patterns.

External validity - Use theory in single case → studies

research design →

Environmental political theories are used in the analysis.

Reliability - Use case study protocol → -Develop case study → Database

data collection data collection

- Question guide, recorded - transcribed interviews and reviewed scripts from respondents. Observation diary.

Table 2. Table based on Yin´s case study structure.

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28 Ibid, p 33

1.3.3 The Preparation and the Carrying out of the Case study In may of 2007, I visited Beijing. The city and the country were preparing for the Olympic Games. People were proud to have the chance to host one of the most respectably events in the world. The slogan; “One world – One dream” were printed all over the city. Within the slogan and in the preparation work, the “Green Olympic”- motto were truly involved. One could still though, feel the pollution, and the blue sky were still in absence. As an upper secondary school teacher teaching the subjects Social Science and Physical Education, the Olympic Games and its impact surely match my profession, but also my interests. During the spring of 2008 I applied for an SIDA financed, Minor Field Study Scholarship, in order to carry out a field study in China. From the ending of June to the middle of August, during the culminating of the Olympic Games, I took part of the Olympic and Chinese spirit and culture during my field study, involving qualitative interviews and participant observations. During the mandatory preparation course in Gothenburg I had a meeting with Ms Marie Carlsson, Sinologist at Gothenburg University. Throughout the discussions with Marie Carlsson I decided to emphasize on the Olympic Games, its “Green Olympic” motto - and its environmental impact, as an instrument for environmental political views. The environmental issues are very important topics in the world and especially in China. The Beijing Olympic Committee and the regime also included the “Green Olympics” motto, in the overall plan for the 2008 Olympic Games. The preparations now proceeded in finding contacts in field. My first contact in field was Ms Maria Jönsson, working at the Swedish Church in Hong Kong. Luckily Marie worked in Beijing during the Olympics and had an extensive network both in China and contacts with The Swedish Olympic Committee. These contacts later preceded to members in the IOC, with knowledge of the research questionnaires. Ms Annika Siewert, who worked as SIDA-coordinator at the Swedish Embassy also helped me to get in contact with different NGO:s in Beijing. The NGO:s participating in the research were contacted via email.

1.3.4 Selection of Participators The studies participators were chosen for different reasons. At first the respondent must as Yin explains, be relevant to the study.29 In this case, this meant having knowledge of the work concerning the “Greening of the Games”. As mentioned earlier, the Olympic Movement is a large movement - with many members and participators. According to Yin, a case study can use different respondents with different perspectives to make the investigation more interesting. 30 The aim respondents were initially members of the Olympic Organisation (IOC), Beijing Olympic Organisation Committe (BOCOG) and environmental Non Governmental Organisations’ that were working in China and had connections to the Olympic Games.

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29Yin, 2003 30 Ibid

In the prepatory work and during the field study represents of the BOCOG, different NGO:s, such as World Wildlife Found and Conservation International, were contacted to participate in the study. The NGO:s candidates kindly declined to participate, partly due to lack of time. In the matter of BOCOG – the mail enquiry to different participants within the organisation were not responded. The validity of the study would have been increased if the questionnaires had been tested with a qualitative interview or written questionnaire, with a representative of the BOCOG organisation. The analysis in the essay was based upon the BOCOG:s applications contracts, Olympic action plan and the research concerning the Beijing Olympic motto, “Green Olympics”. The validity had also increased if a qualitative interview with a participator from the International Olympic Committee had been possible. Unfortunately an interview was not carried out during the field study. Via Ms Marie Carlsson, I got in contact with Mr Stefan Lindeberg and Ms Gunilla Lindberg at the Swedish Olympic Committee, who helped me to get in contact with Ms Michelle Lemaitre who works as a IOC:s project manager on Games operations. The thesis from the literature study has therefore instead been questioned through a written questionnaire, with IOC representative Ms Lemaitre. The Greenpeace, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development institute are representatives of the NGO perspective. However, even more participators could have raised the validity. The following respondents have participated in the case study:

• Ms Amy Chang - Greenpeace China

Greenpeace China is a Non-Governmental Organisation that has been involved in the work toward a “Green Olympic”. Ms Amy Chang is also one of the authors to the Greenpeace report -”China after the Olympics: Lessons from Beijing.”

• Ms Zee Zee Zhang - Roots and Shoots Ms Zee Zee Zhang, works as an operative director at Roots & Shoots a Non-governmental Organisation that also has been involved with special projects related to the “Green Olympics.” The Organisation was sanctioned by the government to promote education for environmental improvements, for examples in schools.

• Mr Liajian Zhen - Fuping Development institute (FDI)

Fuping Development Institute is a Non- Governmental Organisation stationed in Beijing. FDI aims to promoting social innovation, social equality, to alleviate poverty and encourage sustainable development, thus promoting the establishment of a harmonious society.

• Ms Michelle Lemaitre – The International Olympic Organisation

Ms Michelle Lemaitre works as International Olympic Committees project manager on Games operations. The Games operation is in charge of the

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organising committee’s environment and sustainable development function. Ms Lemaitre participated through a written questionnaire, which was sent by mail.

During the field studies process, new respondent have been involved to give the case study more perspectives. All of the respondents and their profession have some kind of involvement in the Olympic family or knowledge about the Chinese society and environmental questions concerning the “Greening of the Olympics”. Respondent in this category are:

• Mr Zhang Jun – Lenovo group Mr Zhang Jun works as a senior designer at the Olympic Partner Programme (TOP-sponsor) Lenovo Group, whom was the biggest sponsor for the Beijing Olympic Games. Mr Zhang Jun worked in the designing team that designed the Olympic Torch for the Olympic torch relay.

• Mr Ola Wong

Mr Ola Wong is working as correspondent in China for Swedish newspapers, Svenska Dagbladet and Sydsvenska Dagbladet. Mr Wong is also an author and has written different books about the Chinese Society.

During my field study I also meet university students who were working as volunteers for the Olympic Games. I decided to use them in my study during one group interview, also known as a focus interview. As volunteers for the Olympic Games, the volunteers were trained for their mission. Secondly, they are all young (20-24), students at Beijing University and their generation is the future of China. The participators are named by the English given name.

• Group interview – Volunteers Sunny(21 years), Memory(20), Karen(23), Ivy(21) and Sunrise(21) all students working as volunteers during the Beijing Olympic Games.

• Volunteer team leader - Jim Jim is a 20-year-old student that during the Olympic Games worked as a team leader for the interviewed volunteer group (above), for the benefit of the Beijing Olympic Games.

I have also had two informants during the study, whose interesting views on the social and cultural life in China, have made the preparations and the ongoing work during the field study much easier.

• Ms Annika Siewerts – Swedish International Developing Apartment (SIDA) Ms Annika Siewerts worked as a correspondent for SIDA at the Swedish Embassy in Beijing during my field study. Our meeting developed into interesting discussions about her work as a correspondent, the culmination of the Olympics and development of the ongoing field study.

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• Marie Carlsson – University of Gothenburg Ms Marie Carlsson works as Sinologist at the department of Social Studies at Gothenburg University. Ms Carlssons knowledge of the Chinese society was of great importance during the preparation course.

1.3.5 Literate Research The construct validity proposes different sources for data collection. This research will use three kind of different sources; literate research, interviews and participant observations. The literature research is divided in two parts. Further on in Chapter 2, the IOC:s , BOCOG:s and the NGO:s approach and work toward a “greening of the games”, have been reviewed. This preliminary literature research proceeded in to different thesis about the IOC:s, BOCOG:s and the NGO:s environmental political approach. Secondly, the literature research has also been used as a complement in the result chapter. The thesis from the literature research has been analysed with the questionnaires and the theoretical framework, and their validity has been questioned through qualitative interviews and participating observations. According to Yin, the most important uses of documents is to corroborate and augment evidence from other sources. As Yin explains the investigator must be careful in his/her analysis. Yin reminds the researcher that every document is written for some specific purpose and some specific audience.31 The limitation to investigate the participators environmental political approach toward a “Green Olympics” made the study more focused. Formal reports about the Olympic movement and statements from different participant are also important documents that will be researched. Once again, the thesis from the literature research (chapter 2) will be questioned throughout the interviews and observations.

1.3.6 The Interviews The respondents were informed through email, including a PM about the research, its meaning and purpose. It also contained a short information about the researcher and the significance of the scholarship. The Respondents also had the opportunity to know the questions in advance, which all respondent excluding the volunteers used. This worked both as a benefit and disadvantage. The respondents had the opportunity to study the questions to find the “right answers”. This research required this alternative, in order to get the respondents to cooperate in interesting discussions. Some of the respondents were also representing an organisation and their ideals; thus, sending the questions in advance have in my opinion not been a weakness in this research. On the contrary, it has worked as key benefiting discussions during the meetings. The PM also gave the respondents the alternative to be anonymous or just to be “quoted” as a member in an organisation. The interviews were taped and transcribed. All participants have also had the opportunity to review the script before it has been used in the analyse.

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31Yin, 2003

The interviews were structured in a way that Yin name as “focus interviews”, where the respondents were interviewed approximately 45 minutes. The interview usually took place in the respondents’ office. Three interviews were made in restaurants during lunchtime, this due to the fact of the busy time schedule. All interviews were in English excluding the interview with Mr Ola Wong, which was in Swedish. The interviews were not hindered by language barriers, as the respondents had extended skills in the English language.

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manner.

The interviews corroborated certain facts that according to Yin, one already thinks have been established.32 A question sheet worked as guidance. The Questions were of an open character and they were careful worded so the interviewer appears genuinely naïve about our topic. If one asks leading questions the purpose of the interview will not be served. As an investigator one have, according to Yin, two jobs during the interview. Firstly, to follow your own line of inquiry, as reflected by ones case study protocol and secondly to ask actual questions in an unbiased 33

The first interview was with Ms Ola Wong, the Swedish journalist – after this interview some minor alterations were made. The opening questions were now changed with the aim to explore the participators’ perspective of the Olympic movement and the Olympic Games. These question were meant as an opener that also could be reflected and matched against former reports, such as Michael Payne’s study investigating The Olympic - DNA.34 The introduction should also lead forward to the core of the research, the participators views about the Olympic Games as an environmental political instrument. The interview guide was also used as a questionnaire folder to the IOC – participator Ms Michelle Lemaitre. The respondents in this study have different professions and therefore the interviews sometimes took different ways during the discussions, the key questions in the question guide still worked as a guidance throughout all interviews. The focus/group interview took place in a small and quiet restaurant. The group included three male and three female respondents. The Question guide worked as guidance and the author as a moderator, to provide the word to different respondents in the group. The respondents did not want to use a recorder and therefore the interview was written. The interviews were transcribed, and reviewed by the respondents before it was used in the analysis. Wibeck states that the focus interviews shall be used as a tool in order to explore how a specific group views a special question, in this case this studies questionnaire. The interviews can be seen as a meeting where different people meet and share opinions. 35

32 Yin, 2003 33 Ibid 34Payne, Michael. (2006)Olympic turnaround : how the Olympic Games stepped back from the brink of extinction to become the world's best known brand. Westport conn. 35Wibeck,Victoria. (2000). Fokusgrupper: Om fokuserade gruppintervjuer som undersökningsmetod. Lund. Studentlitteratur.

According to Wibeck the group shall be constructed of at least four and at most ten people. Wibeck also suggests three – five focus groups to a small study. In this study, only one group was established because of the studie's duration. The participants know each other since before, in their work as volunteers. They have also been trained for their mission. Therefore one could presume that the participators had the same thoughts and ideas. From the group interview I also used the opportunity to proceed to more extensive discussions with one of the volunteers. The participator (Jim) was chosen for his work as a team leader for a small group of volunteers and for his knowledge and opinions. According to Wibeck it can be interesting to do a follow-up on the group interviews to explore the respondents’ true opinions. The interview with Jim was recorded, transcribed and reviewed by respondent before it has been used in this analyse. 36

1.3.7 The Participant Observations The case study also used participant observations as a source. The observations with correct behaviour and environment conditions – is according to Yin an important perspective in its collaborations with the literature research and the qualitative interviews. The observer wants to explore the actual society and culture. These observations can be used as an important source if they are representative for the study’s purpose. It is important to match the key respondent’s perspective with discussions with people and observations in the normal way of living in the community. The observations have been documented in a diary during or near the “meetings”, in order to recall the “meeting” accurately. If one waits with this procedure, one can build up a false picture which decreases the validity.37

1.3.8 Method Discussion As have already been mentioned, Yin explains that everything is written for a special purpose and audience. In this case study the ambition has been to review the environmental political visions from the participants, with former researches. The empirical data, thesis from the literature research have been matched with the qualitative interviews and the observations to gain internal validity so that the conclusions can be durable. If the patterns match the study’s validity will increase.38 The external validity will increase if a theory is used. A single case often offers a poor basis for generalising. This study will be an analytic generalisation. According to Yin, the investigator is striving to generalise a particular set of results to some broader theories, to increase the external validity. 39 The thesis from the literature research (chapter 2) has been matched with the qualitative interviews, written questionnaires and participating observations. The data have been read several times and categorised throughout the questionnaires. The results have been interpreted and analysed to the theoretical framework and former reports.

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36 Ibid 37 Yin 2003 38 Ibid 39 Ibid

Reliability is discussed in the perspective to use the right measurements in the investigation. It’s important to notice that situations change and that the interviews with “open-ended” character maybe will turn into different direction. The participants in this case study had different professions, knowledge and interests. The interviews therefore have turned in various directions. Still, the Questionnaires have worked as guidance in all interviews. According to Yin both the validity and the reliability increases if one use different qualitative methods in the case study, which the case study has acknowledged. 40 The following circumstances must also be taken into recognition:

• The results have mostly been analysed only by the author from a “Swedish perspective”. The cultures and the political perspectives are different. According to Yin, the validity rises if key informants review the process of the study including the results. 41All interviews were in English and all respondents have also been given the opportunity to review the script before it was used in the analysis. The respondents have also had the opportunity to review the study before its final print.

• During this period many of the respondents have had a busy schedule that can have influenced the interview. Though all interviews were guided by a question guide and the respondent have had the time to review the script and I have had the opportunity to ask further questions via email if necessary.

• Different reports such as Greenpeace (2008) and UNEP (2006, 2008)42

highlights of the lack of independence in the Chinese system. All environmental information is according to these reports not available for third parties to review, which also can have an affect on this actual case study.

• As recently explained, more participators could have increased the validity.

However, a case study is not aiming for representative results and it can be difficult to make generalising conclusions. This research has only investigated the participator's view of the sited questionnaires. According to Yin, the studie's validity increases if the results are accurate to former researches and theoretical frameworks.43

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41 Yin. 2003 42 UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Internet: http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf 43 Yin, 2003

2 BACKGROUND: THE OPINIONS OVER A GREEN OLYMPICS

The result from the introducing literature research will lead up to the case study´s result and the interpretation and analysis.

2.1 The International Olympic Committee The International Olympic Committee is a big organisation with its main display the Olympic Games. This paragraph will only give a brief introduction to the organisation, their fundamental principles leading up to their mission concerning environmentalism. The International Olympic Committee was officially established 1894. Pierre de Coubertin took the first initiative to start an organization with the vision that through sport and education create a better and more peaceful world.44 From a legal standpoint, IOC is an independent organisation with non-governmental and non-profit ambitions.45

2.1.1 The International Olympic Committee and its Ideals The environmental approach is only one of the Olympic Organisations pillars and must therefore be seen in a wider perspective. The International Olympic Committee's work and cooperate with all participants must be in accordance to the Olympic Charter and in the spirit of Olympism.46 According to Coubertin, Olympism consisted of five principles; a spirit of harmony, self improvement, amateurism, a link with sporting principles (fair play) and peace. Olympism often describes this with the three leading pillars; sport, culture and environment. 47 The Olympism goes beyond the Olympic Games; the education should be on-going, according to Coubertin48 The Olympic charter is based on six fundamental principles. Fundamental principle number one explains:

1. Olympism is a philosophy of life, exalting and combining in a balanced whole the qualities of body, will and mind. Blending sport with culture and education, Olympism seeks to create a way of life based on the joy of effort, the educational value of good example and respect for universal fundamental ethical principles. 49

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The fundamental principles are principles which all participants belonging to the Olympic movement must acknowledge. 50 The Olympic movement's missions and roles

45 The IOC website (2009) Internet. http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/ioc/organisation/index_uk.asp 46The International Olympic Committee(2007) “The Olympic Charter” Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_122.pdf 47 The Olympic Charter(2007) 48Michael Byaruhanga Kadoodooba ( 2005) Implications for Olympic education and training through Olympism in Africa. Internet: http://www.coubertin.ch/pdf/PDF-Dateien/129-Kadoodooba.pdf 49-57The Olympic Charter, 2007 50-58The International Olympic Committee (2007) Factsheet – Olympic Truce. Information center. Infocenter@olympic.org

is to fulfil their overall goal: to create a better and peaceful world through the education of sport. The IOC explains their role:

In this the third millennium, the IOC is more convinced than ever of the positive role that sport can, and must, play as a catalyst in our society. It unites and teaches about respect and tolerance, two values that are essential in today’s world. 51

The President of the IOC, Mr Jacques Rogge describes that the sport movement in general have a social responsibility – to provide access to sport practice, and in so doing to spread the values of sport to all sections of society. 52 This responsibility is not something IOC can fulfil on their own. The IOC should also according to the Olympic Charter, “cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace”.53 The Olympic Movement must promote a positive legacy from its movement to the host cities and host countries. 54

In 2006, the former marketing manager for IOC, Michael Payne released a study called The Olympic Turnaround, How the Olympics Games Stepped Back from the Brink of Extinction to Become the World’s Best Known Brand.55 In the report, Payne wanted to investigate and discover what he calls the Olympic DNA. The comprehensive study involved interviews and focus groups including 5500 people in 11 countries. The study also involved 250 interviews with key media, the Olympic family and sponsors. Payne's results were concluded in to four key propositions. The Olympic Brand offers hope for a better world by using sport without discrimination. Through the Olympics, participants want to fulfil dreams and therefore find inspirations to fulfil their mission. The Olympic Games endures power to inspire humanity to achieve dreams. The Olympic Games also provides friendship and fair play that can overcome political, economic, religious and racial prejudices through the values inherent in sport. Finally, the Joy in effort, to do one’s best, regardless of the outcome. Through the honour and dignity in competition, Olympic athletes teach lessons to the society. The study also noted a paradox, according to Payne, commercial goals could possible undermine or even pose a threat to the realisation of non-commercial goals. Sponsors and broadcasting contracts generate the most of Olympic Movement's turnover. The total income during the period 2001-2004 was 4,189,000,000 US/dollars. The broadcasting turnover consisted of 53% of the IOC.s incomes, compared to sponsorships 34%, ticketing 11% and licensing and other revenues 2% 92% percent of this income was distributed to Organising Committee for the Olympic Games

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59 The Olympic Charter, 2007 60 Payne, 2006

(OCOG:s), International Federations (IF:s) and National Olympic Committees (NOC:s) The remaining 8 % were distributed to the administrations and operations of the IOC. 56

2.1.2 Olympism and Cultural Differences Payne and Susan Brownell, author to the book, Beijing's Games : what the Olympics mean to China57 argues that Olympism is dynamic rather than fixed and static. Payne and Brownell both states; that the Olympics must adapt to the cultural differences of non-western countries, such as China and Sub- Sahara Africa. The Western Ideals are not universally understood. According to Brownell the Chinese culture is different, compared to the western perspective.58 Brownell further explains that The Beijing Olympics will be a global event where eastern and western culture meets and the Olympic movement can be seen as a transcultural, transethnic, transnational and global cultural system.59 From Michael Payne's research one can conclude that the environmental field is not seen as a main focus for the philosophy of Olympism. This is in contrast to the IOC standards, which clearly puts the environment as a vital part of the Olympic spirit. At the Lausanne Conference in 2005 the participants once again acknowledged the direct link between peace, security and the protection and sustainable management of the environment.60 According to Payne the IOC:s the Olympic Games raise both nations and individuals, athletes and spectators to a higher plain. Just like former South Africa president Nelson Mandela described;

Sport reaches areas far beyond any sphere of political influence and has probably done more to unify nations that any politician has been capable of. 61

2.2 The Third pillar of the Olympism, the Environment In 1996 The IOC added the paragraph on environmental protection into the Olympic Charter as they recognised the importance of environmental and sustainable development. The IOC describes their role as;

The IOC:s role to environment is to encourage and support a responsible concern for environmental issues, to promote sustainable development in sport and to require that the Olympic Games are held accordingly62

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56 International Olympic Committee (2008)Olympic Marketing fact file . Internet http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_344.pdf 57 Brownell, S (2008) Beijing's games : what the Olympics mean to China. Rowman & Littlefield. England 58Ibid 59 Bale, J – Christensen, M_K (Edt, 2004) Post-Olympism? – Questioning Sport in the Twenty-first century. Berg. Oxford. 60 United Nation.(2009)Sport as a tool for development and peace. Internet: http://www.un.org/sport2005/resources/task_force.pdf 61Former South Africa president Nelson Mandela, Quoted in Payne 2007, p 3 62The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development. Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) Infocenter@olympic.org, p 1

The President of The IOC, Mr Rogge sees the Movement as a leader in environmental debate. The Athletes, they need clear and healthy condition to develop in their sports. Damaged environments can pose a huge threat to future sport and the Olympic Games. Furthermore, Rogge describes that the second issue is the impact that sports and especially the Olympic Games can have on the environment. The Olympic Games and practise of all sport should not have any negative effects on the environment. On the contrary, sport gives opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies. 63 The IOC has set up different kinds of working groups and guidance to provide these sustainable environmental legacies, such as the sport and environment commission. Steven Mass describes in the Olympic review magazine that IOC has been one of the leader sport organisations to acknowledgment sport's impact on environmental issues. 64

2.2.1 Former Olympic Games Environmental Initiatives, a Brief Review

The Winter Olympics in Lillehammer 1994 are commonly mentioned as the first Olympic Games with an environmental approach. With education of the public, recycled energy from different arenas and activities and co-operations with nature protection groups regarding locations for buildings, the Lillehammer Olympics started a modern development for the Olympic Games with more focus on environmental questions and co-operation between OGOC: environmental authorities and volunteers.65 Nagano in 1998 followed in Lillehammer’s spirit. In Sydney (2000), the environment initiatives though increased to a bigger scale. The key achievements included increased public transport, the use of solar power, recycling of construction waste, energy and water conservation and wetland restoration. The Organisation Committee and the Olympic Coordination Agency for the Sydney Olympics won the 2001 United Nations Environment Programmes, global 500 Roll of Honour Award for their environmental efforts. 66 When the Summer Olympics arrived home to its homeland in Athens 2004, Greece planted over a million large bushes, 290 000 trees and 11 million small trees throughout Athens. Environmentally friendly materials and new energy technology were used. Environmental friendly vehicles and the creation of the Olympic Environmental Alliance to support effective co-operations with all bodies and the parties were carried out Finally, eco- excursions to educate the public promoting the protection of the environment were important decisions made in accordance to sustainable environment. Winter Olympics in Turin became the first hosting city to involve both an ISO 14001 international environment standard certification and an EMAS certification for its environmental systems and programmes.67

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63The International Olympic Committee, Olympic Review (2007) Going Green. Internet: http://www.olympic.org/uk/games/athens2004/home/full_story_uk.asp?id=2499 64Ibid 65The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development. Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) Infocenter@olympic.org. 66 Ibid 67 Ibid

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In 1994, the IOC also made an agreement with the United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP) to implement different activities that will educate people on environmental matters in sport. Since then, the UNEP has been a co-operation partner to the IOC and the hosting cities/countries including, Athens 2004, Turin 2006 and Beijing in 2008. The UNEP have also been participating in the IOC World Conference on Sport and Environment along with other important representatives such as governments, international-nongovernmental organisations, companies, research institutes and media. The IOC sees this congress as an opportunity to discuss the result of sport and sustainable development. The aim is to increase further developments of, environmental policies in sport.68 In this matter The IOC:s wants to ensure that the Olympics are held in “conditions that demonstrate responsible concern for the environment.” 69

2.2.2 IOC and its Environmental Guidelines The IOC is the head of the organisation and sets guidelines. But the day to day work is handled by the National Olympic Committees´, International Federations and Olympic Organisations for the Olympic Games. This meant that every member of the Olympic movement had to change its perspective and work to implement standards toward a sustainable environment. The IOC therefore established itself as an authority to provide guidance and support to its members. Different sports and arrangements impact the environment differently. Different guidelines such The Olympic Agenda 21, The Guide on Sport, Environment and Sustainable Development and Guidelines for the Olympic Applicants have therefore been established to encourage and support members to create different action plans. 70 The Olympic Agenda 21 and guidelines In 1999 the Olympic Session decided to accept their own Olympic Agenda 21 based on the Earth summit of Rio de Janeiro and on its own Olympism. The idea was to place sport at service for harmonious development of man in a peaceful society with the protection of human dignity. 71 The aim was to encourage its members to “…participate actively in sustainable development.” 72 In 2005 a wider guide was published based on Agenda 21. A 200-page document called “The Guide on Sport, Environment and Sustainable Development” 73was produced in cooperation with all 35 IF:s, for practical guidance such as concrete action programmes to provide the theory to practical changes and behavioural changes. This was to be used by all the members of the Olympic Movement, from big organisations, down to small organisation and all the way to individual level. The program's aims were to educate people in the global challenges and the needs for “environmental protection considering The Guidance once again fully promoted the environment as an important issue. The Olympic Movement and The IOC saw themselves as important participators for the local specification coming from diverse geographical, socioeconomic, cultural and sport

68 Ibid 69 The International Olympic Committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development. p 2 70 The International Olympic Commitee. The Olympic Review(sept 2007) Nr 64, Going Green 71 Ibid 72 Olympic Agenda 21, 1999 73 Olympic Review 2007, p 35

context. 74Environmental protection and sustainable development, thus ensuring that present and future sport activities are held in a healthy and natural environment. The manual also stated that the contribution of the Olympic Movement must be a complement, the main responsibility to protect the environment are still lying with the Governments. 75

2.2.3 The Environmental Approach in the Applicant Process for The Olympic Games.

In 1999, the IOC adopted a two-phase procedure for awarding an Olympic Games to a city. The cities must describe their current environmental conditions and the ongoing work. The selected candidate cities then create a “Candidature file”, with guarantees and undertakings to the IOC. The File is according to IOC the central element in the development of a “Green Games”, involving details regarding geographical features, public authorities, environmental management systems, venue constructions and development projects. Furthermore, details requested air quality, protection areas, public authority roles and responsibilities, environmental Impact Assessment and construction work are also elements included in the file. In addition, the work with NGO:s, cooperation with suppliers and sponsor, features and actions, should also be included in the candidature file. 76

The Organising Committees shall also work with government authorities to fulfil the goal, ”… to implement nation-wide policy's and program developments and actions outlined in the Bid needed for a city to fulfil it Host city contract obligations.” 77 The IOC, UNEP and external expertise from NGO:s and media are consulting in these actions, based on expertise and knowledge from past Games, all to “ensure maximum fulfilment of commitments and maximum use of the opportunity to improve environmental conditions and practices”.78

2.2.4 The Introduction of the Term “Green Games” Starting in 1992, Greenpeace promoted viable environmental solutions for Sydney’s Olympic bidding campaign, the so called “Green Games” approach. Environmental guidelines helped Sydney to win the right to host the Summer Olympic Games 2000. After the Summer Olympic Games in Sydney, Greenpeace updated their Olympic Environmental Guidelines, to ensure that the Sydney’s green games shouldn’t be a once-only effort. The “Green Games” should according to Greenpeace, work with environmental questions in the Olympic Games such as transportation, energy, waste disposal, refrigeration and constructions options, ozone depletion, habitat protection,

74 Manual on sport and the environment, updated 2005 75 Ibid 76 IOC Guide on sport, environment and Sustainable development. Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_1109.pdf 77The official website of the Olympic movement. “ Promotion of sustainable development” Internet: http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/environment/environmental_protection/planning_uk.asp

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78 Ibid

pollution (air, water and soil) and water conservation.79 The IOC have acknowledge the work toward “Green Games” in Sydney and have some commitment that the Organising Committee and other participants involved in the Olympic preparations must successfully implement: “…a range of environmental and sustainability standards, management systems, practices, policies and actions which minimise adverse effects, maximise benefits and create lasting, sustainable legacies” 80 to fully be considered a Green Games. These standards should improve the environmental actions in both city and country. According to IOC the Olympic preparation cannot in any way affect the environment; it should instead help to ensure that positive legacies are left for the Host City, as region and Country.81 Greenpeace called on the IOC to establish the guidelines as a formal set of rules, to ensure that all future Olympic events should work hard for solutions to global environmental problems. The Guidelines must be non-negotiable and they need according to Greenpeace to be backed up by national law in the host country. Any violations to these laws must be severely punished. These environmental data must be open to the public to ensure credibility.82 According to Greenpeace, the IOC has the responsibility that the Olympic Games has a minimum impact on the environment and also to leave a positive legacy. Furthermore the opportunities given by creating the games as a showcase for environmental solutions should be used. IOC should directly put pressure on bidding and hosting cities to fulfil the environmental commitments. Host cities should develop their own detailed guidelines; environmental specific issues should be settled to each game. The guidelines should also in accordance to Greenpeace corporate with Olympic partners such as sponsors, suppliers and agencies. 83 Stephanie Beyer discusses in her article “The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 2008” that in one way the Olympics shall work as a catalyst for sustainable development. As t the entire world turns its attention to the hosting city and country during the culmination of the Olympics, the Games can be seen as a catalyst for environmental, social and political chance. However, Stephanie Beyer also is questioning the Olympic Games as creating numerous environmental problems such as; resource consumption, waste accumulation and shortage in transportation capacity. Beyer therefore raises the question, whether the environment will actually benefit at all from the Olympics? 84 Beyer clearly states that the concept of “Green Games” must be placed in a broader context of sustainable development. Firstly, because of its multibillion-dollar business

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79 Greenpeace (2000 ) Environmental Guidelines : http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/australia/resources/reports/general/greenpeace-olympic-environment.pdf 80The official website of the Olympic movement. “Operations and legacies” Internet: http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/missions/environment/environmental_protection/operations_uk.asp 81Greenpeace 2000, p 2 82 Ibid 83 Ibid 84 Stephanie Beyer (2006) ”The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 2008”, Chinese Journal of International Law Advance Access. Internet: Http://chinesejil.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/5/2/423

with competing interests involved. But also for its highly mobile affairs, were the Olympics are hosted in different locations and the difficulties it brings of the implementation of universal standards in different cultures and hosting countries. Host cities are proclaiming themselves to be “greener” or “greenest of them all”. 85 In 2003, the IOC:s released the Olympic Games Impact study. The study contained over a hundred different indicator categories in the three spheres, economic, socio-cultural and environmental. The study aims to indicate if and how the Olympic Games have acted as a catalyst, leaving a lasting mark on the host city and country. 86 The study declares that different cities have different needs and priorities, different collaborations from government and organisations. Therefore, what matters according to IOC is that each organising committee, in collaboration with a wide range of stakeholders, does whatever it can to improve the environment in which it operates and sets an example for future Games and for the sport community in general.87 At present three studies exploring Beijing, Vancouver and London Olympics are under construction.

2.2.5 The IOC Environmental Approach – a Conclusion: The spirit of Olympism initially started as a sport and cultural exchange. In the mid 1990:s the Environment became the third pillar of Olympism. One of IOC:s biggest responsibility is to ensure that all athletes have the opportunity to perform their sport. In addition, IOC wants to make sure that the activity can be performed in a healthy environment both for athletes and spectators. In the third millennium the environmental questions are one of the big challenges in the strive to accomplish a better world. The IOC sees themselves as a movement having a social responsibility and the Olympic Games as its main display. It shall work as a catalyst in our society, or as IOC puts it; “It unites and teaches about respect and tolerance, two values that are essential in today’s world.”88 On a global scale, the IOC wishes to promote educational programmes for the Olympic family and strives to work with environmental challenges as new opportunities for sport communities to be associated to sustainable development. 89 If one explores the International Olympic Committee’s role and ideal with special focus on the third pillar, the environment, one can explore some key responsibilities and ideals that the Olympic movement wants to promote:

• The Olympic Games shall be arranged in balance with the environment. It shall not have a negative impact; it shall instead give opportunities to provide sustainable environmental legacies, by successfully implementing a range of

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85 Ibid 86 The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development. Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) Infocenter@olympic.org, p 1 87 Ibid 88 The international Olympic committee – factsheet, The Olympic truce. Lausanne. Switzerland (2007) p 1 Infocenter@olympic.org. Internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_839.pdf 89 The International Olympic Committee (updated 2005)Manual on Sport and the environment http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_963.pdf

environmental and sustainability standards. The positive legacies shall remain after the games, not only for the host cities but also for the whole country.

• The athletes need clear and healthy conditions to improve in their sport. The Olympic movement considers themselves as an important participator for environmental protection and sustainable development for future generations of athletes and Olympic Games.

• The IOC shall promote and through sport educate people in healthy environments and also set good standards. Mr Rogge describes the organisation “as a leader in environmental stewardship”. Different contracts and guidelines such as; Olympic Agenda 21, The Guide on Sport, Environment and Sustainable Development and Host-City contracts are used to set these standards. The IOC is an authority that provides guidance and support to its members in environmental questions, rather than environmental contracts that are binding. The IOC also cooperates with different groups and organisations.

• The Olympic Movement wants to harmonise the development of sport with the environment, to the cause of sustainability - though the basic responsibility to protect the environment is on a governmental level.

2.3 China and its Environmental status – a Modern Historical Overview.

According to the IOC:s OGI reports approach, all cities have different needs and priorities. According to Jamison, the green business discourse and its environmental approach in many ways are dependent and influenced by changes in the wider socio-economic system, in which the organisation works. As this case study sheds a light over the Beijing Olympics and the Greening of the Olympics, a short review describing China’s environmental status and environmental politics is necessary. In 1949, leader Mao and his party, The Communist Party of China, announced the People's Republic of China. The Communist party took a firm grip over the Chinese Society. During 1967-1977, Mao introduced the Culture revolution. This ideological struggle have afterwards been criticised and called the “Ten years of catastrophe”. In the revolution, Mao and his partners removed dissidents. Political actions reimbursed education and many highly educated citizens had to work in the agricultural field for many years.90 The open door reform In 1977 chairman Mao died and the Cultural Revolution that had been going on for ten years was over. Deng Xiaoping became the new leader. In a reform called the “The open door” Deng Xiaoping started to open China to a market oriented economy –

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90 Fang, T. (1999). Chinese Culture and Chinese Business Negotiating Style. Linköping: Department of Management and Economics. Sweden

however still under a strong communistic leadership. It was during this period China made its first step to become the economic superpower as they are today. 91 Industries, factories and foreign investors started to establish themselves in China. Deng Xiaoping and the regime wanted to lift people up from poverty and aimed to build a strong, stabile and harmonic society. The sooner, the better. 92The Chinese economic growth has from 1979 increased by over 90percent. During the period 1990 to 2008, the growth was still around 9-10 percent per year. The Chinese development in terms of economy has improved in some fields. In 1981, 49 percent of the people lived with less than 1 US/dollar per day. In 2002 that figure had changed to 6,9 percent. However, China’s fast development has not worked in balance with the environment. 93 1990-2000 and the environment perspective The most visual growth indicator in China is the manufacturing industry. The industrialism started to grow about 15 years ago and consequently the environment started to suffer. Mr Pan Yue, the vice president of SEPA (State Environment Program- the Chinese Government adviser) describes the situation: “The economic growth, that took the western world over one hundred years to develop, succeeded China to achieve in less than thirty years”.94 Ten years ago the Chinese leadership started to take bigger notice of the environment and its problems. Different rules and laws were settled. In 1979, an overall environmental law was settled which has been rewritten several times. In 2002, the work for a sustainable development was also printed as a part in the overall goals aiming to stabilise the Chinese economic growth. This will help China in their strive to become developed country by the year 2049. The goals are:

• The energy efficiency shall increase by twenty percent until 2010. • The recycled energy consumption shall by 2020, be increased from 5 percent to

fifteen percent. • The air and water pollutions shall be decreased by ten percent until 2010. • The service sector shall develop, thus decreasing the energy consuming

manufacturing industry. • The prize of environment friendly products and the import tax on environmental

technique shall be reduced. 95

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91 Ibid 92 Sweden Abroad (2007) Miljörapport. Internet: http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf 93Swedish international development cooperation agency(SIDA) Internet: http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=540 94State Environmental Protection Agency respondent – quoted in the Swedish Embassy report “ Kinas miljö- situationen och utmaningarna”, 20070427, Authors translation. 95 Sweden Abroad(2007) Miljörapport. Internet http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/Miljoerapport_070427.pdf

2.3.1 Future Challenges for China Even though the awareness from Chinese authorities has increased, the environmental problems are becoming worse by every year. According to OECD96 - 16 of the world’s 20 most polluted cities are located in China. Over 30 percent of the water areas in China are seriously polluted. In the southern China, over 300 million people do not have water supply, and in the north it is the water pollution that is the worst problem. OECD have also estimated that 50 percent of the community waste - and 80 percent of the industrial waste are wasted in a not controlled or registered. The biological diversity is also threatened. China is world leading coal producer and has the third biggest coal resources in the world. The coal industries are currently the most important energy resources for China’s growing. It seems as China will become the world’s biggest green house gas polluter, some reports claim they already are. 97 In Beijing the air can reach levels of 300-400 hundred on indexes that score particle density. Car emissons from almost 3 million cars in Beijing and coal burning factories are some circumstances to the high levels. This in comparison to European Standards, where index 50 and over is considered as unhealthy. 98 OECD and the Swedish Embassy report, point at some problems and challenges that the Chinese government are up against. These challenges concluded from the reports are collected and summarised by below. 99

• The political reforms must be more effective and include the cooperation between government, local governments and institutions. The laws and regulations are accomplished in theory, but not in reality. Economic incitements are suggested as catalysts to changes for both the local governments, as well as for the population to be more environmental. Furthermore, according to OECD, The Government must also operate the law system so that breaking the rules will have consequences. Nowadays it costs more to change the techniques and systems towards a more environmental-friendly construction for the companies, than to pay the fines.

• The low price on fuel, electricity and water is also a problem. These resources

are over consumed. This is a problem for the Chinese government as the low prices are set to help the poorest regions in their developing. If the regime will raise the prices to much – protests will held in the rural areas and the people in these areas with low-class conditions are in majority in China.

• In other countries, different environmental organizations (NGO:s) have made

changes with its environmental lobbying work. In China this work is much more difficult. Some organisation has been founded in the last years, but they do not have as great lobbying influence as in other countries. The awareness and

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96OECD report, Internet: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/23/37657409.pdf 97 Ibid 98 Ibid 99 Sweden Abroad(2007) Miljörapport, OECD report(2006)

knowledge about the environment must improve in order to stop the unknown human factor.

• The growing Chinese middle class, with more money and a “consumerist

identity” are pressuring and - will pressure the environmental status. The awareness of an ecological lifestyle must increase among the public.

China has an open opinion about environmental concerns such as, their carbon pollutions and the climate changes. They are against regulated norms and see them self as a developing country which has the right to step aside from some rules in order to make way for the economic growth. The Chinese leadership points to the fact that some of the developed countries, such as the US and Australia, do not sign these regulations, so why should China? 100 One also has to have in mind that the western world is a part of these problems. Companies have since the open-doors reform established their production in China, for its low-priced production and the products are mostly exported back to the western world consumers. Foreigner companies, most of them from Europe, are according to the British foreigner ministry institute (Chatman House) standing for half of the Chinese foreign trade. 101

2.4 Beijing Olympics - “Green Olympics” As recently been reviewed China have some environmental challenges to struggle. The environmental questions are though put on the agenda. The “Green Olympic” motto can in one be seen as a way to address these questions. This chapter will try to explore the “Green Olympic” message. The contents of this section (2.4) are:

- A review of the environmental fields in the bidding process which leads forward to a review over the Beijing Olympics' application and their “Green Olympics” action plan.

- A review of the NGO:s' approach toward a “greening of the Olympics” – with special focus on The Beijing Games.

2.4.1 Beijing’s Application and the Transformation toward a “Green Olympics”.

As earlier explained the environment became the third pillar in the philosophy Olympism, in the mid 90s, and therefore became an import part in the bidding process. According to Beyer, Sydney won the bid in 1993, because of superiority in comparison to the Chinese application, even though all economic factors spoke in favour of Beijing. 102 The country of Australia made the sustainable development plan as a vital part of its application. With a two-vote margin, Sydney became the first city to win the Olympic bid with a set of coherent environmental criteria’s attached to its application. China learned a lot from the defeat. After a couple of year’s preparation and by integrating a

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100 China Daily 20080317, 2008071 101 The Swedish institute of international affairs : Internet http://www.ui.se/default.aspx?country_id=81 102Beyer, 2006

comprehensive environmental programme, Beijing was now again ready to apply for the Olympic Games. 103

2.4.2 Beijing’s Bid and its Political Views The motivation behind the Government's second application was similar to the first in 1993. The Olympics should be seen as a development catalyst for Beijing and the surrounding areas, but it would also increase China's status as a domestic and international member. According to Ryan Org, The Olympics would be an important opportunity for the regime to achieve many goals simultaneously, such as infrastructure and environmental goals. 104 Heidi Østbø Haugen describes the Beijing’s application as a mission to achieve “world class” status. Entrepreneurial goals were in focus to restore Chinese national greatness and gain international respect in order to gain investors and favourable images of China abroad. 105 Furthermore the environmental field came to play an important role. In China’s overall motto, “One world, One dream”, the “Green Olympics” motto became together with “High-tech and people Olympics” the mantra for the Olympics. But the environment field could have posed a weakness for the Chinese application. Different organisations and media reported that one of the weaknesses were the cities pollutions problems. 106 Haugen describes though, how China’s big problems with environmental issues went from being a weakness, to becoming an advantage “ At the IOC conference on the legacies two years later (2002) environmental concerns were repeatedly cited as a major reason for granting Beijing the right to host the Olympics.”107 The Evaluations Commission describes:

Beijing currently faces a number of environmental pressures and issues, particularly air pollution. However, it has an ambitious set of plans and actions designed and comprehensive enough to greatly improve overall environmental conditions. 108

According to Hauge, Beijing tried in its application to see itself as a tool to for the Olympic Movement to reach its environmental goals. The Beijing application gained a strong support from the government and the Chinese people.109 BOGOC stated in its own bidding material:

An enduring goal for the XXIX Olympic Games will be to popularize the notion that the environment is the third pillar of Olympism and that sport can be a powerful force in raising awareness about sustainable development at local and global levels”110

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103Beyer, 2006 104Org, R “New Beijing, Great Olympics: Beijing and its Unfolding Olympic Legacy: http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal42/china3.pdf 105Haugen, H-Ø(2003) The construction of Beijing as an Olympic City. SUM Dissertations & Theses No. 05/2002. Internet: http://www.sum.uio.no/publications/pdf_fulltekst/dt2003.05.haugen.pdf 106Ibid 107 Ibid, p 58. 108The Evaluations Commissions (2001) Internet: http://moscow2001.olympic.org/en/pdf/rapport_commission.pdf, p 1 109 Ibid 110 Haugen 2003, p 59

Furthermore, the Evaluations Commission stated that the results will be a major environmental legacy for Beijing and the awareness among the population. 111 China turned itself into an object that needed to be changed and the Olympic movement would work as catalyst for these changes. Therefore Hauge concludes; “The bid material thereby reinforces the Olympic Movement’s image as an engine for modernisation and progress while making the case for giving Beijing the right to host the Olympic Games” 112 According to IOC:s evaluation Commission, Beijing’s application was strengthened by the government and Beijing’s Municipal Governments support. Their investments and co-operations with the Beijing Sustainable Development plan, costing 12,2 billion dollars during the period 1998-2007, including 20 key projects and anti-pollution measures. For the Olympic Games actions the OCOG had a budget consisting of 118 million US dollars spread over different departments. 113 Haugen labels Beijing’s bid as an ecological modernist bid - because of its relationships between the environment, the economy and state intervention. The key features were the mutual benefits of economic development and environmental protection, the role of markets dynamics, innovators and entrepreneurs in ecological reform. Technological and organisational improvements are in focus to show environmental legacies of the Beijing Olympics. 114 The Beijing application committee claimed that their environmental plans and actions will leave “The greatest Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.” Many goals are not specifically linked to the Olympics but according to Evaluation Commission the bid has provided, will provide and make environmental reforms go faster.115 Both Hague and the evaluations committee for the Olympic Games, described that it could be seen that the BOCOG presents itself as an environmental leader and role model for environmental processes in China.

2.4.3 The “Green Olympics” Process and Participators After the election in 2001 the Beijing Organisation Committee for Organising the Games (BOCOG) published a three-phase-plan for the Olympics and also an action plan which outlined the committee’s strategic themes and its overall plan. In 2005, BOGOC and UNEP signed an agreement for the commitment to host the “Green Games”. The “Green Olympics” concept was launched by BOCOG and the Beijing Municipal Government to promote the environment. BOCOG coordinated environmental issues in the construction and venues across all cities and in the organization of activities. Beijing Municipal Government handled city-wide environmental improvement efforts including

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111 Ibid 112 Ibid p 85 113The Evaluation Commission ,2001 114 Haugen, 2003 115The Evaluation Commission , 2001

pollution control measures, renovation and expansion of public transport and the overall greening of Beijing. 116

2.4.4 An Overview of Beijing’s Plan of the “Greening of the Olympics”

The authorities in China invested 118 million US dollars on environmental projects for the games. The games were included in the Beijing environmental master plan, an environmental protection program for the period 1996-2015. The 12,2 billion dollars that should be spend through Beijing’s master plan with its 20 key projects and anti-pollution measures, also had a big effect on the Olympic Action Plan. The plan's integration into the application accelerated some deadlines. Originally planned to be reached in 2010, they were now moved to 2008, the year of the games. 117 The Olympic Action Plan stated that priority will be given to environmental protection in the preparations for planning, designing and constructing of Olympic venues and facilities. Ecological standards and environmentally friendly systems shall be established, such as protection technologies to promote environmental treatment. The awareness among the public for green consumption should also increase. The key indicators in the action plan can be divided in different factors such as, improvement of air quality, water environment, ecological conservation and construction, industrial pollution and solid waste management. Also educational programmes were established mostly in cooperation with different NGO:s - to raise the awareness among the population. 118 The main issuesof the action plan were:

- Air Quality, Increase the air quality by developing new technologies, such as electrical automobiles. Implemented a new vehicle regulation, similar to The European Unions automotive standard, by 2010. A “even – odd” number plate reform. On certain days the Beijing population is not allowed to drive their car in the Beijing area, depending on their licence plate number.

- Industrial pollutions, a environmental management system, ISO4001 will be introduced to all key enterprises, to practice clean production. The chemical industrial zone and some 200 polluting enterprises within the fourth ring would by 2008 be relocated.119 The Capital Iron & Steel Plant should also reduce its steel production by 200 million tons, and review its method toward more clean production. Some heavy polluting industries were also meant to be closed.

- Water Environment, By 2008, Beijing wanted to achieve the goal of water

quality in its area reservoirs as similar to national standards. Beijing also wanted to resume function as a drinking water source in order to agree with the WHO

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116UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An Environmental Review. Internet: http://www.unep.org/downloads/BeijingReport.pdf 117 Ibid 118 Ibid 119 Ibid

Guidelines. Furthermore water savings, agricultural pollution preventing and urban wastewater treatment system improving stood on the agenda. 120

- Ecological Conversation and Construction. The Beijing action plan goals were

to build the capital into a ecological city, with green hills, clear water, grass covered ground and blue sky. By 2007, Beijing´s urban green coverage should be raised around 50 percent. 121

The “Green Olympic”- impact can truly be seen in the Beijing Olympic symbols. The Beijing Olympics have five mascots, four of them representing the natural elements. According to the BOCOG homepage “the mascots promotes environmental awareness and underline the Beijing’s commitments.”122

2.4.5 Conclusion over the BOCOG “Green Olympic and Action Plans.

“Green Olympics” was integrated with the High-tech and people's Olympics and worked as a motto toward the Beijing Olympics. The Olympic Action plan was also integrated into the 12,2 billion dollars Beijing’s environmental master plan. The leading words for the action plan, was to build an ecological and balanced city. In integration with the High-tech Olympics and people's Olympics, the Green Olympic motto was promoting environmental protection. Ecological standards and environmental friendly systems were to be established, such as environmental technologies in the construction of the Olympic Games venues and facilities. 123 Education programs in order to raise the environmental awareness throughout the whole society were also a cornerstone of the “Green Olympic” motto. The public should be encouraged to play an important role in the action aimed at ecological environment improvement. 124 BOCOG coordinated environmental issues in the construction of venues across all cities, and in the organisation of activities. Beijing Municipal Government handled city-wide environmental improvement efforts including pollution control measures, renovation and expansion of public transport and the overall greening of Beijing. These organisations had the overall responsibility to fulfill their goal of “The greatest Olympic Games Environmental legacy ever.”125

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120 UNEP 2007 121 Ibid 122The official website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Internet http://en.beijing2008.cn/spirit/beijing2008/graphic/n214068254.shtml 123 UNEP, 2007 124 Beijing Official website international. Internet: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Government/Mayor_office/Mayor_bulletin/t929893.htmIbid 125 UNEP 2007, p 24

2.4.6 The NGO:s Perspective Toward the Beijing Olympics BOCOG and Beijing Municipal Government, (including Beijing´s environmental Bureau), cooperated with different NGO:s, toward a “Green Olympics”. In UNEP’s report Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An Environmental Review126 three different NGOs, Greenpeace, World Wide Fund of Nature (WWF) and Conservation International (CI), reported their perspective toward the Beijing Games and the “Green Olympics”. The case study NGO: representatives are Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development Institute. Therefore this section will put focus on Greenpeace China and their environmental view in the UNEP report. Greenpeace guidelines were provided to increase BOCOGs of the organisations standards. Greenpeace commented and supported BOCOG in their work toward a Green Olympics. Greenpeace highlighted different important environmental areas to alert BOCOG to carry out improvements. Areas such as forest protection, food safety, improvement of Olympic Sponsors commitments, strengthen the dialogue between the BOCOG, NGO:s and media, as well as the raise of public awareness were issues for the Greenpeace lobbying. 127 All Organisations describes in UNEP:s report Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An Environmental Review, that the work were heading toward a positive result and that Beijing Committee in many perspectives showed interest to take part in the Organisations expertise. Still, all the Organisations also reminded the Olympic Movement and BOCOG in different important fields. In the report Greenpeace reminds The IOC of the importance to make environmental standards a requirement rather than an option. Violators breaking these roles should be punished. 128 Greenpeace also suggests that sponsors and contractors who have the best environmental practises should be rewarded missions. Information and all environmental data must be available in order to let third parties review the environmental wins and losses of all Olympic Games. Third-party stakeholders should also be consulted while developing environmental guidelines. 129 Furthermore Greenpeace concludes that the long-term legacies beyond the Beijing Olympics, are depending on whether the Chinese Government learns from the Olympics to integrate environmental concerns in the overall development policy. These knowledge and awareness must also increase among the Chinese population in order to engage environment protection. Finally Greenpeace “...urges BOCOG to use this opportunity given by the Olympics to spark a new era for sustainable development and to demonstrate environmental leadership globally.”130

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126 Ibid 127 UNEP 2007 128 Ibid 129 Ibid 130 Ibid, p 4

2.4.7 The Result of the “Green Olympics” - and the Work Beyond the Olympics

Presently, (Autumn 2009), the Beijing Olympics and Paralympics is over. Other questions such as the global financial crisis have taken the spotlight in the international debate. However, the Olympics last in our memories. Over seven years of planning resulted in one of the biggest Olympics ever with 1,7 million volunteers, 11,468 Olympic athletes, 6,7 millions spectators and 4,7 billion TV-viewers.131 The Olympic Games truly provided an opportunity for Beijing to think about its developmental priorities. But how “Green” was in fact the Beijing Games?

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Action plan.

In the waiting for the IOC:s OGI-study that are under construction, studies from UNEP132 and The NGO, Greenpeace International133 will form this section (2.4.9) in the aim to shed a light on the Beijing Olympics – “green Olympic” – motto and its profits and missed opportunities. The reports will be reviewed and match to the BOCOG aims according to Green Olympic Air Quality BOCOG have according to their action plan achieved some mission concerning the air quality. These actions include vehicles been replaced with natural gas and Euro standards, industries having switched from coal-fired energy generation toward less polluting fuels and industries with sulphur dioxide and carbon monoxide have also been reduced. UNEP notes that, “Significant efforts before and during the games were focused on improving Beijing’s air quality, and that the air quality improved significantly.”134 The number of blue sky days (days with an Air pollution index of 100 below) rose from less than 180 in 2000 to 274 in 2008. 135 UNEP reports though some remaining concerns. Still over 1000 new cars being daily registered. And with Coal still working as a key energy fuel, some key pollutants remain high. Beijing’s location, surrounded by mountains, makes the air standing still. During the spring of 2006, eighteen dust storms endured the city. 136Another big concern is missed opportunities to reduce the greenhouse gases.137 Greenpeace salutes BOCOG:s hard work toward better air quality, but the temporary measures, such as reducing vehicle and shutting down industrial production to meet standards during the Games does not result in any long-term legacy. Greenpeace concludes that clean

131 UNEP (2008) Independent environment assessment – Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Internet: http://www.unep.org/publications/UNEP-eBooks/BeijingReport_ebook.pdf 132 UNEP 2007, 2008 133 Greenpeace(2008) China after the Olympics – a lesson from Beijing. Internet http://www.greenpeace.org/raw/content/china/en/press/reports/green.pdf 134 UNEP 2008, p 29 135 Ibid 136 Ibid 137 UNEP, 2006

production measures should have been used more widely across and the standards were not meet during the whole year. 138 Water and Waste Investments in different system concerning water, sewage treatment and rainwater harvesting and intelligent irrigation systems have given a positive effect. The minimized water use and maximized efficient use of existing water resources and protection of the water ecosystems could be used as an international example. China should according to UNEP continue with these achievements in other venues and constructions. 139 The BOCOG have also set a target to recycle at least 50 percent of the waste (paper, metal, plastics at venues). UNEP commends the test run, during the World Softball Championships in 2005, were over 90 percent of the waste was recycled. According to the report organisers has also achieved an extraordinary effort by avoiding chemicals that damages the Ozone layer. 140 Both UNEP and Greenpeace were still though concerned by the fact that the main focus was on waste processing rather than waste minimisation. Greenpeace regarded the fact the Games were not used as an opportunity to move toward a zero-waste policy as a missed opportunity. 141 Ecological conversation and construction Both UNEP and Greenpeace describes that the city has become greener. The 900 hectare Olympic green area with its rare species and drought resistant species, covers a lot of the total 1.160 hectare. An Olympic park, with 580 hectare forest in the city has also been opened during the Olympics and will serve as a green lung after the Olympics. The Olympics also made it easier for the government to implement future sustainable transport initiatives. Furthermore, new subways and eco-friendly buses were established.142 Education The government ministries, the city councils, environmental groups, schools, the private sector and local communities (NGO:s) have all been spreading the “Green Olympics” message. Activities such as “reserve a barrel of water this summer“Green Home campaigns “Close to the nature hand in hand with Fuwa exhibition” - travelling , “bring your own plastic bag” and “bring our on chopsticks” are some examples of environmental friendly activities. However, UNEP still feels that more can be done concerning the environmental awareness generated in the whole country and for visitors attending to the Olympics.143 Greenpeace commends the BOCOG:s dialogue with

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138 Greenpeace 2008 139 UNEP, 2008 140 UNEP, 2008 141UNEP, 2008, Greenpeace 2008 142 UNEP, 2008 143 Ibid

NGO:s as a positive step toward collaborations between government and the Chinese community. 144 Concluded profits The BOCOG and the Beijing municipal government have according to Greenpeace created a positive legacy for the city of Beijing. Both UNEP(2006) and Greenpeace (2008) commends BOCOG work in areas covering:

• Waste management • Cleaner transport systems • Water treatment • The phazing-out of ozone delegating chemicals, • Provision of energy effiency and green-energy techniques at buildings and

sport venues. The UNEP report described:

UNEP believes the variety of clean energy and energy saving solutions being employed by venue designers in Beijing provides a positive showcase and an inspiration for future games organizers. 145

The UNEP report from 2006 stated that the games were proving to be a catalyst for an increase of environmental improvements across the city of Beijing. The executive director of UNEP, Achim Steiner, declared that many promises toward a Green Games were accomplished. “They have fulfilled the promise of a Green games in many areas including public transport, waste treatment and Green Olympics venues. “ 146 In addition, the UNEP report stated that Beijing raised the environmental bar and the games left a lasting legacy for the city. The Olympics were also arranged in a rapidly developing city, in a country with development problems. These circumstances make the achievement even more impressive. 147 Missed opportunities According to Greenpeace the lack of openness have made it hard to verify whether BOCOG:s set of guidelines were achieved. 148 UNEP also describe a lack of information such as methology and reliable figures made it difficult to assess the carbon footprint of international flights. 149 Although Greenpeace commend the positive step of cooperation between government and NGO:s , Greenpeace noted some concerns:

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144 Greenpeace, 2008 145UNEP 2006, p 57 146 UNEP 2008. Press release. Internet: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en 147 UNEP, 2008 148 Greenpeace, 2008 149 UNEP, 2008

“China still has a long ways to go in engaging with civil society as true partners. Chinese official governing bodies could have worked more with environmental NGOs to further efforts to green the Games as well as to further engage the public if more open, regular and transparent communication had been established. Currently, there is still limited communication between NGO groups and government. Environmental information needs to be more transparent and easily accessible to ensure third party assessment and scrutiny all Olympic Games.”150

Another missed opportunity was insufficient cooperation with non-governmental organizations in order to benefit from their expertise on areas such as cutting the Olympic and Paralympics games carbon footprint.151 Beijing had in 2006 not openly declared any commitments to reduce the green house gases.152 According to UNEP, Beijing continues to rely on coal for 40 per cent of its energy consumption. UNEP suggested that the supply of clean and renewable energy must increase.153 Furthermore, UNEP describes that more could have been done concerning the environmental awareness generated in the whole country and for visitors attending the Olympics. The short-term solutions such as closing down industries and reducing car use (number plate campaign) have given effect, now they have to further develop into long-term solutions. 154 Greenpeace once again establish, in addition, that the International Olympic Committee has an important role to play in ensuring that all Olympic host cities meet some minimal environmental standards. 155 The UNEP and Greenpeace reports finally concluded that the interesting part is to see how the profits can develop into long –term legacies. “The challenges are now how Beijing and China, consolidates the achievements of the games and turn them into green legacy in the long term.”156

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150 Greenpeace 2008, p 43 151 UNEP, 2008 152 UNEP, 2006 153 UNEP, 2008 154 UNEP, 2006 155 Greenpeace, 2008 156UNEP 2008 press release. Internet: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en

3 ANALYSIS OF THE DIFFERENT OPINIONS TOWARD GREEN OLYMPICS

The collected material from the interviews, written questionnaire and observations will be categorised first and then analysed and interpreted, in the light of environmental political discourses and former reports.

3.1 Environmental Changes in the Combination with the Organisations´ Culture and Interests.

All the respondent were asked how they viewed the Olympic Movement, The Olympic Games and third pillar of Olympism, the Environment. The same type of questions were also asked about the Beijing Olympics and the ”Green Olympic” motto. Generally all the participators at first described the Olympic movement and the Olympic Games as a sporting event that proclaims peace, cultural exchange and friendship.

I think it is every four years – a special moment for all humans. The Olympic joy and peace. In this time every war must be stopped. So, only for the Olympics – I think that not anything else can do this – only the Olympics. (Volunteer leader Jimmy 2008)

The senior designer, Mr Zhang Jun, at the Top-sponsor Lenovo-group explained the Chinese saying, that “ The Olympics is coming to our house”. Both Mr Zhang Jun and the volunteers in the group interview described the Olympic Games as a big party where different cultures and countries are integrated. The environmental perspectives of the Olympic Games are explained as an approach working in collaboration with the Olympism two originally pillars, sport and culture and Olympic fundamental principles. The IOC respondent Ms Michelle Lemaitre describes that the education of the fundamental principals through sport is still in centre : “...in a spirit of excellence, friendship and respect”. Ms Lemaitre further explains that the environment is the third pillar of Olympism. “This means the Olympic Movement has a responsibility to address environmental issues”. The respondents viewed the IOC as a movement that takes responsibility.

The IOC care about the environment – they see the environment challenges faced by all human beings in the global world. In this matter point they have a sort of connection, and the IOC wants to play an active role and they influence some other big operations to take social responsibility. (Mr Liajian Zhen, Fuping Development Institute 2008)

Ms Lemaitre summarises the IOC:s environmental goals and responsibilities, as two sided. Firstly, IOC must ensure that the Olympic Games are held in conditions in accordance to environmental issues. According to Ms Lemaitre major efforts have been accomplished in the cooperation with organising committees, UNEP and NGO:s. The valuable experiences from past and future Organising Committees are collected in transfer programmes, the experiences must not be lost from one game to another.

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The second goal is according to Ms Lemaitre more on a global scale. The IOC promotes its educational programmes in this field among the members of the Olympic family. The Guidance shall according to Ms. Lemaitre turn the general principles of sustainable development, as Agenda 21 serves, into specific actions and programmes for the organisations within the Olympic Movement. The participators representing the NGO:s - Greenpeace China, Fuping Development Institute and Roots & Shoots, are all describing the Olympic Movement and the Olympic Games initially as a sporting event with the mission to create peace and friendship. But the Olympic Games is a big event that includes different perspectives. The NGO:s describe that the Games can be used to create certain ideals, in this case for sustainable effects. The Greenpeace representative describes:

I think pre dominantly it is a sport event, that’s what it is...I think it though is certain, the Games can be used in certain ideals for example, sustainable probabilities and issues like that....but i think if we don’t have binding targets or binding rules these remain ideals and the cities can use the Olympics, to whatever they want. (Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China 2008)

3.1.1 The Vision of an Impressive Olympics The respondents acknowledge that China and Beijing have environmental challenges to face. The environmental questions have been put on the political agenda.

As you know because of the fast development of the economy - we have some problems. I think that’s not our future. Sometimes we have to have fast development – two hundred years ago the western culture develops their economy by using other countries resources – but we can’t. We have some problems but we want to change these. You will find some or our product that are environmental friendly. Green is the future. In China the people start to think that this is more and more important.(Mr Zhang Jun, Lenovo Group 2008)

The Beijing Olympic motto “Green Olympics” is viewed as a way for the Government to address environmental questions. Firstly, it is seen one important instrument in the overall goal, aiming to host an impressive Olympics.

...in China it’s about national pride, we say; we will host an excellent – the best Olympics ever, everybody wants to do something to make it happen. So, if the government says; to be more environmental will help and do your part to help the Olympics, people will think, all right, I will do it. It’s a good opportunity for us to green the whole country. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang , Roots and Shoots 2008)

Volunteer leader Jimmy explains these matters further when he describes the Beijing Olympics as a catalyst for modernisation.

Before the Beijing hold the games is hard to imagine how the City can be rebuild so quickly in seven years. So the Olympics for us, is a change to let our people live more modern more soon. I didn’t say Beijing not will had been modern anyway. I just want to say that the Olympics give us a chance to live more modern sooner than before.(Volunteer leader, Jimmy 2008)

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Secondly, some of the respondent also agreed in the matter of integration between the Olympic Movement and the Beijing Olympics environmental approaches. Beijing stated in its own Olympic bidding material:

An enduring goal for the XXIX Olympic Games will be to popularize the notion that the environment is the third pillar of Olympism and that sport can be a powerful force in the raising awareness about sustainable development at local and global levels. 157

The Green Olympic motto showed that both sides, IOC and BOCOG, care about the environment and the questions are on the agenda. The Greenpeace respondent explains. I think that the thinking at that time(bidding process 1993) was not to given the Olympics

to Beijing because Beijing will become the Greenest city - but maybe it gone help to encourage certain environmental initiatives, in a developing country especially, to take place. Because the Olympics is a huge event and invests a lot of money – so why not invest it in areas where it can push the city to developing more sustainable grades. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)

Shoots & Roots respondent explains this matter further:

So, I think, people now associate the Olympics with the environment and this is not a bad thing for IOC, because right now global warning and climate changes are such hot topics, it doesn´t hurt for the IOC to have this Green topic. It is probably proper for them. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)

The Swedish Journalist Ola Wong, stationed in China, views the Olympic Games as an event that wants to grow in importance. He states that the decision to let Beijing host the Olympics was one example of this aim. The choice was further a result of the Chinese economy and its status in the international sphere.

3.1.2 The Observations During my field study I also had the opportunity to travel to the southern parts of China. In the city of Guilin, I meet Lei, an physical educations teacher at Guilins University. Lei had had the honour to run with the Olympic torch on its arrival to his hometown. Lei was very proud and discussed about the Olympics as a opportunity to show China and its true face and he welcomed all visitors to embrace the Chinese culture and to exchange joy and happiness. Lei´s pride to parade his homeland during the Olympic weeks was generally seen over all the places I visited during the summer of 2008. The message was to welcome all foreigners to collect their own view of cultures China, a country striving for modernisation.

3.1.3 Analysis and Interpretation In the participant´s answers one can still explore that sport and culture still are the two central pillars that describes the Olympic Movement (The IOC) and the Olympic Games. The participators views of the Olympic movements ideals and roles, match in many ways the result from Michael Payne’s study, where he investigated the Olympic DNA.

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157 Haugen , p 59

His four key prepositions; hope for a better world, fulfilling dreams, friendship and fair play are also themes that can be viewed in the participants’ answers. The Green Business discourse with its three poles, (The Ecoeffiency, The Nature capitalism and The Ecological modernism) place the “growth” and environmentalism in collaboration into a profit-making direction. Companies are proudly proclaiming their responsibility and work to create sustainable development. The Olympic Movement and the BOCOG organisation proudly proclaim their environmental approach. The third pillar of Olympism, environment reaches other important areas in the international sphere, where the Olympic Movement can be an important actor. The Olympics hosted in a rapidly growing city/country can develop the Olympic spirit including the “green” message. The government supported the “Green Olympics” as a way to address their responsibilities and work, which according to the NGO:s participators is in accordance to the Olympic Movement ideals. Toward a EcoEffiency and Ecological modernism discourse The respondent views are indicating that both BOCOG and the IOC shows similarities toward an eco-efficient and ecological modern discourse. Their environmental approaches are working in collaboration with the companies´/organisations´ original culture and goals. The Olympic Movement´s sport and culture message is still in centre, but the organisation wants to take environmental responsibility when these questions are important on the international agenda. The participators views BOCOG:s approach toward the “Green Olympic” as a way for the government to address environmental questions. The goal to host an impressive Olympics, strongly included the green message. The Olympics was also seen as a catalyst for modernisation in Beijing and China. Haugen describes that the motivation behind the governmental bid, was to see the Olympics as an engine for Beijing and surrounding areas. Haugen states that entrepreneurial goal were in focus to restore Chinese national greatness and gain international respect. The Olympics was from the Chinese side an opportunity to achieve many goals simultaneously, including environmental goals. 158

3.2 “Green Olympics” – Who shall have the Political Control?

According to the IOC respondent, Ms Lemaitre, the Olympic Games shall be held in conditions accordance to environmental issues. The IOC as the coordinator of the Olympic Movement has according to Ms Lemaitre a leading position, and works close relation to the UNEP, the leading international institution in the field of environment. Commitments are made with cooperation with National Organising Committees, in this case the BOCOG organisation. The IOC promotes educational programs. General principles of sustainable development, such as Agenda 21, shall be specific to actions for the Olympic family and the Olympic Games. The IOC is by the respondents seen as a responsible organisation, which have acknowledged and established guidelines to work

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158 Haugen , 2003

in accordance to the environment. In one manual, the Guide on Sport, Environment and Sustainable development, the IOC states that the contribution of the Olympic Movement must be a complement. The main responsibilities to protect the environment are still laying with the Governments. 159 The respondents agree over that the governmental control and impact over the “Green Olympic” process have been high. The Green Olympic motto is once again seen as a way for the Government to address their work for environmental improvement.

So I think for our government to feature the environment for Beijing Olympics it also demonstrates the need and resolution of our government to create a better environment to improve the pollution in China, because it has become a big problem for the country and our government needs to address it and this is one way for the government to say, it is on our agenda, we are looking at it right now.( Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)

Beijings Muncipal Government had the overall responsibility for the city-wide environmental improvement, including polluting control measures, public transport and the “Greening of Beijing”. The NGO:s respondent explains that the Government are the financier behind the green initiatives.

...they have invested a lot of money into green initiatives, they have also set aside various plans to everything from dealing in air quality to raising emission standards in the city - to building transportation infrastructure - to reduce the moving to effect our energy - so it is really, its definitely a lot of achievements that Beijing has achieved. There are also thinks could have be more force able about, but it have definitely been an encouraging toward green awareness in the City.(Ms Amy Chang 2008)

In general the respondents describe that the Governmental uses its influence and power in the work toward “Green Olympics. The government’s enthusiasm to address these questions has given effect.

I think it is positive - when you say green Olympics it makes people think about the environment they are in and it makes people see what they can do to be more environmental. I think again – because it comes from the Government it is more effective that way in terms of driving the media, press here, in terms of spreading the word, it is much more effective than a small organisation like us, because it reaches out to a large audience and cover the whole country. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)

The Greenpeace respondent proclaims higher responsibility from the IOC and the hosting cities. The problem with the IOC:s Guidelines and sustainable ideas are the guiding principle. Different cities can therefore create their own projects and targets. The Greenpeace environmental guidelines see the IOC and Olympic Games as an instrument in the work for solutions to global environmental problems.

Greenpeace actually dropped an environmental guideline at the Sydney Olympics. So, we have specific criterias and things that we would like see the games accomplish in order to be a Green Games. So there are 24 points on various things, everything from sponsor

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159 The IOC: Manual on sport and environment internet: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report963.pdf

responsibility to public engagement – all various things that can be done for the environment ( Ms Amy Chang 2008)

According to Greenpeace the IOC should put direct pressure on the hosting cities to fulfil these guidelines. Greenpeace China’s respondent suggests that applying cities should have environmental assessment factors, targets to be met, and if these targets not are met, the hosting city should be considered incapable to host “Green Games”.

…but if it were to be binding, it would have stronger impact on cities. Especially if the IOC could transform a specific system to compare the active fields in different cities and help out carrying and take lesson we have learn forward to future systems.( Ms Amy Chang 2008)

Greenpeace environmental guidelines even support the fact that national laws and strong penalties shall be available in order to implement the guidelines.

3.2.1 Observation - The Political Control The Green Olympic motto was, as all other information about the Olympics, hot topics in media, during the field study. In the media different positive environmental initiatives from organisations, schools, citizens were highlighted, often in cooperation with governmental participators. On train stations and in airports commercials were informing the citizens how they could be more environmentally friendly. The environment a popular topic on the political agenda, and the “green Olympic” was one way to address these questions.

3.2.2 Analysis and Interpretation - Green Olympics and the Political Control

In the respondents view one can see that the IOC and its main display, the Olympic Games is an important instrument for environmental improvements. Ms Lemaitre views the IOC as a coordinator, leading the work, closely to UNEP. The Olympic Movement’s contributions is only one part of the work toward sustainable development, the main responsibilities are still lying with the government. The respondent’s view about the organizations shows similarities with the ecological modernism discourse. Beijing Olympics was a integration between the state, the economy and the environment. The “Green Olympics” motto was strongly supported and financed by the government, as a way to address their environmental work. Further, the Greenpeace respondent proclaimed is similarity to the Greenpeace guidelines that binding targets should be established. In this case, the IOC control must increase to put pressure on host cities to accomplish these targets. The lobbying for national laws and penalties, are also increasing the political control over the work toward “Green Games”. In addition, the IOC describes their work as a coordinator, leading the work, but they also acknowledges that the main responsibility still is lying with the Government.

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3.3 Technical improvement under Political Control The respondents all agree that one of the Beijing Olympics highest profits was the investments in ecological constructions and systems. The “Green Olympic” theme was collaborating with the people and high-tech themes as the Beijing Olympics mottos. Mr Chen Jiliang at FDI, reviews the Green Olympic theme as a slogan to demonstrate High-technology. BOCOG stated that the Olympics should have minimized negative impact on the environment. Resources were settled to be implemented in the preparation and construction of Olympic venues. The government was viewed by the respondents as the leading financier for these high-tech investments. The volunteers highlights technical solutions, mentioning the solar and wind systems, along with the recyclable methods, which according to the volunteers means less pollutions and cleaner air. Ms Lemaitre at the IOC also describes the BOCOG:s efforts to use green standards in the building of Olympic venues. Ms Lemaitre takes the Olympic Village as one example. The village was awarded a LEED gold certification for its green standards from the U.S Green Building Council.

The Beijing Olympic with its goals to build an ecological city, use environmental friendly technology, is from the respondent views seen as a showcase for China in their strive to develop nationally. Greenpeace respondent describes:

...if you talking about specific initiatives for the games a lot of them are very Beijing focused just because the Olympics is taking place here, but actually one of the most important things that could happen from the games is that...the Olympic Games are from our perspective a kind of a opportunity for a city to introduce a lot of new technology that could later be widely applied, in the case of China that are developing so quickly that are lot of cities, just starting to get shape and its very important to them to introduce this new technology into buildings constructions and policies inside cities to be more environment-friendly. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)

The respondents are viewing the “Green Olympics” as a catalyst for environmental improvement. The process has been sped up.

I think that the Olympics really have pushed a lot of, in terms of policies the Government have sped up a lot of it Beijing 15- year plan and a lot of environmental work have been pushed ahead. The introduction of the new emission standards have been pushed ahead two years before the games - and I think it really have spread up…The process yeah, I think it’s a catalysis for this changes but it is hard to say what happens, probably there are indicators that these policies that are there, probably had take place but in longer terms. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)

To summarise, the respondent acknowledges the long-term legacies of technical improvements, such as infrastructures, transportation, and the new technology in buildings.

...so in terms of pulling energy development, it would be really great - if all this new technology in infrastructure could be mandated to be used in all new buildings to safe energy. I guess that are positive indicators, there are more sustainable models that can take place, and that’s definitely something that should be nationally. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)

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According to Greenpeace, their guideline includes criterias toward sustainable models, in order to be a “Green Games”. Ms Lemaitre explains that the IOC encourages organising committees to maximize sustainability, in the constructions of venues and infrastructure, but also to stage the games themselves. According to Ms Lemaitre, BOCOG:s “Green Olympic” philosophy reflected this and will leave a great legacy for China.

3.3.1 Observation- Technical Improvements In 2007, I was in Beijing for a ten day vacation. In the summer of 2008, I returned and during one year one could see many improvements. Beijing was definitely greener, concerning more trees and bushes. The transportation had improved with new buses and subway lines were in traffic. The air was fresher and a blue sky was appearing. When I spoke to the locals, they were really happy about the development, firstly about that the reduced air pollution, that really had made a big difference in their lives. Many hotels/hostels had a more environmental touch, by using a recyclable system regarding waste. They were also lobbying for the guest to use not so much water during showers. During my visits to different events and venues, such as The Olympic Stadium/Birdnest and Watercube (swimming arena) one could see top-modern venues. The government had invested a lot of money, in top modern venues with “Green Standards”.

3.3.2 Analysis and Interpretation of Technical Improvements In the respondents views the “Green Olympic” motto and its governmental investments shows similarities with the Green Theory discourses (Eco-Effiency and Ecological Modernism) discussing environmental technical improvements under political control. The Government invests a lot of money to achieve different environmental standards. The economic development, environmental protection and ecological reforms were integrated in the Chinese government’s work toward sustainable development. Hauge 160and Org161 claimed that the motivation behind the governmental actions, was to see the Olympic as a engine for Beijing and surrounding areas. All these new technology can also be a step toward modernisation. The “Green Olympic motto worked in collaboration with the High-tech motto, in order to use new “green technology” in the constructions of the Olympic venues. The participants describe just as the UNEP and Greenpeace report162 that the Olympics worked as a showcase and inspiration for the variety of clean energy and energy saving solutions. The participators are lobbying for Beijing being used as a good example to be nationally spread. A future challenge is to develop all these technical profits. It is still the government´s responsibility and their political agenda if the modernization will be spread nationally.

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160 Hauge, 2003 161 Org, (Found 2009, http://www.standford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal42/china3.pdf) 162 UNEP 2009, Greenpeace 2008

3.4 Peoples Olympics – The Olympic Games as an Instrument for Public Awareness, toward an Ecological Lifestyle!

The respondents agree with the fact that the environment has been highlighted and that the awareness among the chinese people have been raised. The volunteers’ participating in the group interview described that people nowadays pay more attention to these questions. The Green Olympics are an opportunity to talk about these questions. Volunteer leader Jimmy explains:

So, every little thing we can do to make it greener so, yes thanks to the Green Olympic and the spirit we all memorize. Yes we can actually do something for it, I think it’s more than a motto it’s about a lifestyle (Volunteer leader Jimmy 2008)

The NGO:s respondents describes the Olympics as an opportunity to raise awareness through different campaigns.

...so for Greenpeace the Olympics is really a good opportunity for us to get environmental awareness. Basically we see it as a good opportunity to, for cities as a showcase, green technology for instance, raise public awareness concerning environmentalism.( Ms Amy Chang 2008)

The BOCOG cooperated with different organisations to implement education programs in order to raise environmental awareness. The programs should also according to BOCOG, encourage the public to play an active role for ecological environmental improvement. The NGO’s also describe that their work got more attention from governmental institutions.

I think for Beijing to host the Olympics is working towards our advantage. It is because our government says we are going Green Olympics, That is coming for from the central government and we do feel that the local government in Shanghai, they do pay more attention to our work, and they will give us a call , so for The Green Olympics, what are the activities/programs you are running. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang)

Ms Lemaitre at the IOC salutes the cooperations between BOCOG.s and local environmental NGO:s. She also acknowledges BOCOG:s cooperation in their work to reduce the environmental impact in preparations for the games. The Greenpeace respondent acknowledges the cooperations but describes that their lobbying work still is limited.

BOCOG, the Organisation Committee they have been more opened than previous governments and agencies. But NGO:s in China still have a long way to go – previously Olympic games for example, Turin Olympics definitely NGO:s had more improvement to pushing the government to do something. Is kind of getting better but there are more to do. (Ms Amy Chang 2008)

The NGO´s expresses that their environmental lobbying and ability in many cases depend on the government’s willingness to embrace their expertise. The FDI respondent, Mr Liajian Zhen describes that the environmental processes must go along

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with the political reforms in China and he states that the real challenge is to change people’s mindset.

Awareness is only one thing. It needs support policies. I have a friend that drove his car everyday to his work. But now days his taken the subway – because he has a station nearby. He even changed when the oil prices were very low. This is just a question about how important it is to support environmental friendly policies. Make it easier. (Mr Liajian Zhen 2008)

The NGO’s were hoping that the successful campaigns toward environmental awareness would continue even after the Olympics. But according to the NGO´s it is up to the government how they want to take this question further.

…The Olympics can be the beginning for long-term environmental movement here in China. But honestly I don’t know what’s on the governments agenda. But how much resources is going to be allocated to drive the green moment here, or if laws will be in place, the whole infrastructure and the institutions will be set up to reinforce environmental law and regulations here. (Ms Zee Zee Zhang 2008)

3.4.1 Observation - Raised Awareness In newspapers one acknowledged that the public welcomed the improvements in the urban environment. China Daily163 describes that parts of Beijing were now almost free from pollutions comparing to earlier when smoke and pollution were the sign of development. Western media showed a more sceptical view about the achievement, concerning air quality and the appearance of a blue sky. The shut down of industries in Beijing, with nearby areas and the car number plate campaign was mostly seen as temporary measures to fulfil the standards to create suitable environments during the Olympic culmination.164 But the interesting part was the way the Chinese newspapers described the citizen new demand, which also the Jim the Volunteer leader described; “The Olympics is only a start of a marathon to catch up with the citizens new demands”. The new demands are basic needs, to have clean air and fresh water. Because of the “Green Olympics” many citizens took notice of the environmental work that different NGO:s actually are doing. The Greenpeace represent explained that it is not for certain that more citizens will take part and work active in organisations, as word to action is a long process in China.

3.4.2 Analysis and Interpretation - Awareness The BOCOG’s “Green Olympic” motto was according to the respondents once again a way to address these questions. The BOCOG supported by the government wanted to create an impressive Olympics. The public had an important role to play, in the BOCOG:s aim to fulfil “the best Olympic legacies ever”. With the awareness campaigns, BOCOG worked as a lobbying organisation, using campaigns and researches to influence the public to embrace a personal activism, toward an ecological lifestyle. As the Olympics were hosted in Beijing, obviously the city and its nearby surroundings

163 China Daily 20080804

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164 Swedish newspaper : Dagens industri 20071023

were in the centre of these campaigns. But the campaigns were also spread to other parts of China, in order to increase the public’s awareness about the environment. The lobbying work, or what Jamison categorises as Professional activism are also seen in the Olympic Movements campaigns and guidelines, such as manual on sport, environment and sustainable environment. The manual serves practical tips for sports and athletes in their day-to-day activities. The Beijing awareness campaigns were collaboration with the IOC educational principles, to educate people toward a more ecological lifestyle.

The UNEP and Greenpeace reports reviewing the “Green Olympics” and its impact, acknowledged the cooperation and campaigns toward “Green Olympics”. The NGO:s and their professional activism used the Olympics as a target and opportunity to spread the organisations message. In general, the studies respondents are interested in how these campaigns can develop after the Olympics and what the Government have on their agenda. One can notice tendencies toward what Jamisons explains as the problem with the local activism. Projects only have temporary effect on specific targets, it seem to have difficulties remaining an important role in the society. In this case, how will the profits in environmental awareness and cooperation continue to develop after the Olympics

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4 CONCLUSIONS Based on the empirical data it can be established that the Olympic Games and Beijing Olympics and its impact, is used as an instrument for political environmental improvements. The organisations knowledge’s´, interests and methods to fulfill their goals are in some way similar but is shows also many differences. The table below concludes the organisations aims and methods toward Green Olympics. The table will serve as a basis for discussion to conclude the most important results and tendencies.

The IOC

The Beijing Olympics

The NGO:s

Aim

- A tool for the IOC to work with their environmental responsibilities. -Olympic Games must be held in condition in accordance to the environment. -Sustainable development in and throughout the education of sport. -Raise the environmental awareness

-Host impressive Olympics. -Reach different political goals simultaneous to working toward modernisation, including the environment. -Address environmental issues. -Raise the environmental awareness

- Highlight the organisations lobbying work and environmental issues. -Establish sustainable standards to be used toward “Green Games” -Raise the environmental awareness.

Method

-Coordinating and supporting the work toward these goals. -Environmental Guidance’s such as, Olympic Agenda 21, Manual on sport and environment and host city contracts. -Cooperation with the hosting country, but also environmental expertise such as, UNEP and NGO:s. Main responsibilities toward sustainable development are though lying with the governments.

-Governmental support, investments and control toward environmental protection to create an impressive Olympics. -High-tech, Green and Peoples Olympic themes for the Olympics. -Limited cooperation with civil environmental expertise, such as NGO:s.

-Awareness campaigns, guidance and lobbying work. - Greenpeace also wants to add the political control, using binding targets, settle national laws and the opportunities to raise penalties for breaking the contracts. -Cooperation’s between participators to raise the environmental legacy.

Env.pol view

-Ecological modernism tendencies. Proudly proclaiming their environmental responsibly, whose working in collaboration with the organisations original goals. Environmental protection in accordance to the growth of the Olympic Games. -Coordinator, guidance and supports the work toward, sustainable standards, systems, policies. -Add political control. Cooperation’s with governments, who´s has the main responsibilities. -Professional activism aiming to raise the environmental awareness, toward an ecological lifestyle throughout the education of sport. (Toward personal activism)

-Ecological modernism tendencies. The goal of hosting an impressive Olympics included environmental protection. -Technical improvements under the governments control. -The “Greening” of Beijing and the Olympic games is the term for the development toward modernisation (growth) in combination with environmental protection. - Professional activism. Raise the environmental awareness, in the aim to host an impressive green Olympics. (toward personal activism)

-A Professional activist, using the Olympic Games for its lobbying work. An important opportunity to reach out with their campaigns. -Ecological modernism tendencies, proclaiming environmental protection in process toward the Olympic Games. Protections such as technical improvements, using green standards and green technology. - Professional activism, Highlighting different campaigns to raise the environmental awareness of the people.(Toward personal Activism)

Table 3. A summary over the organizations aims, goals and environmental political discourse.

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Both The IOC:s and BOCOG:s approaches show more tendencies toward two of the Green Business discourses. The growth of the Olympic Games could as the green business discourse explains be combined with or even strengthen by means of environmental improvements. The Ecoeffiency and ecological modernism discourse are combining environmentalism with the companies’ culture. In accordance to the organisations’ culture and overall goals, the three groups are also proudly proclaiming their environmental measures and responsibilities toward sustainable development. The IOC saw the Beijing Olympics as a way to address their environmental approach. The Beijing Olympics could be a catalyst for environmental improvements in China. The IOC:s work and responsibilities concerning the environmental work could now develop to a higher grade, considered that the Olympics were hosted in a rapidly growing city with many environmental concerns. BOCOG:s green message was supported and integrated into the governments environmental work. The Olympics was seen as an instrument for the government to address their environmental work. Technical and organizational improvements were in focus to show environmental legacies, even from the start in Beijings application. The result of the study shows that BOCOG and the government present itself, in what Hauge labels, a role model for environmental processes in China. 165 All three groups are proclaiming technical improvements toward “Green Games”. All groups have released different guidelines, campaigns and action plans to work toward “Green Games”. The three groups agree toward an Ecological modernism discourse, when they are open to add responsibility the host countries governments and public authorities. The term greening is in the ecological modernism discourse a business term working toward the idea of sustainable development. The three groups are showing tendencies toward this business term. Technical improvements such as sustainable product development and product responsibility are combined with the organisations aims to create green games. Furthermore, all the three groups partly cooperate to raise the environmental awareness toward the public. Firstly the NGO:s are a professional activists, but also the BOCOG and IOC:s work can be seen as professional activist, by using the Olympics campaigning for an ecological lifestyle in different spheres. All though many similarities, mostly toward an ecological modernism discourse are seen in the organisations environmental political views, the methods toward their goals shows differences. All organisations are proclaiming their measures and responsibilities to create a “Green Olympics” and work toward sustainable development. But as Jamison discuss, the political views operates with different interests that translates or interprets global

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165 Haugen, 2003

doctrines in its social context. In this case, the organisations aim to use the Beijing Olympics show some differences. 166 The BOCOG:s goal was integrated into The Beijing Master Plan. The result from the case study matches former reports exploring the Beijing Olympics as a way to address the government’s environmental work. The “Green” message was one part of the overall goal to host an impressive Olympic Games. Haugen and Org are describing the Beijing Olympics as a way for China to achieve many goals simultaneously toward modernisation and to gain international respect. The environment is one puzzle piece toward this goal. 167 The result from the case study is showing tendencies toward Payen’s report, reviewing the Olympic DNA.168 The respondent firstly sees the IOC and the Olympic Games as a sport organisation proclaiming the message of peace, friendship and culture exchange throughout the education of sport. However, they also explain that the IOC takes responsibility for the environment. The IOC:s environmental approach and responsibilities were highlighted when the games were given to a rapidly growing city and country with many concerns, that according to some participants were just in line with the IOC;s ideals. The IOC also saw the chance that The Olympic Games could be used as a catalyst toward environmental improvements. The NGO:s, using a professional activism approach wanted to be an important participator in the work toward green games. According to Jamison the professional activist´s choice of subject and methods are important. The NGO:s approaches the Olympic Games as an opportunity to highlight their lobbying work and campaigns.169 All the members embrace a type of political control over the environmental work toward the “Greening of Olympics”. Greenpeace have higher demands toward the goal of a Green Games. Tendencies with the Green business theory are seen when Greenpeace proclaims that Olympic Games and its growth must be adapted to ecological laws and principles. Greenpeace states that IOC and the hosting governments control and responsibility must increase, to fulfil these commitments. They have the main responsibility to fulfil a green game. If not, laws and penalties shall be admitted. The IOC sees themselves as a coordinator that precedes environmental guidance to its members. They proclaim that that the main responsibility lays with the countries’ governments. The Beijing Olympics and the BOCOG organisation work was integrated with the government’s political control toward environmental questions. The Ecological modernism integrates public support for technical improvement. The three groups are in many ways embracing an ecological modernism discourse by using the term “Greening”. They all want to establish green standards and environmental technical improvements toward the Beijing Olympics.

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166 Jamison 2003 167 Haugen , Org 2003 168 Payne 2006 169 Jamison 2003

The IOC work is two folded. Firstly, The Olympic Games shall be held in accordance to the environmental issues. Secondly, on a global scale, IOC promotes educational programmes and guidance to turn the general principle of sustainable development. The IOC is a coordinator that has acknowledged important fields in the ecological modernism discourse, discussing the importance of cooperation’s between the government, researches and business world. Jamison is discussing the importance in the ecological modernism discourse by creating dialogues, cooperation’s, communications and entrepreneurs.170 All organisations more or less proclaim the ecological modernism methods in their work toward the Olympics. Even though the NGO:s acknowledged a higher interest for their work from the government, they want more cooperation and dialogues. Former reports from OECD and Sweden Abroad describes the concern over the limited cooperation and influence that the civil organisations in general have had in the environmental political work in China. 171 The ecological modernism discourse is open to adding governmental support and control. The political control toward a “Green Olympics” is both seen as an advantage and a weakness. On one side, The Green Olympic influenced Beijing and China, by its high investments in technical environmental improvements and lobbying work for an ecological lifestyle, toward an impressive “Green Olympics, gained many profits. On the other side, the Government’s strong leadership also limited the openness in the management system and what Jamison calls the importance of dialogues, cooperation’s, communications and entrepreneurs.

4.1 Discussion The environmental status is under pressure and in the globalised world these challenges are acknowledged. Countries, organizations and companies are aware of problems and are in a higher grade proclaiming their responsibility to work with environmental questions. An event that certainly is affected and influenced by this work is the Olympic Games. The result from the case study in Beijing shows that the Olympic Games is and surely will proceed to be used as instrument for political environmental work. However, it can be used in different ways actors have different knowledge, interest and goals. In general, all the participants describe the Beijing Olympics as a type of catalyst toward environmental changes. Former reports from UNEP and Greenpeace172 states that the technical improvements in areas such as clean energy and energy saving solutions provided a positive showcase for China. Beijing had raised the environmental bar, and according to UNEP173, the achievements were even more impressive concerning the fact that the Olympics were arranged in a rapidly developing city. The Beijing Olympics cooperation with organisations and environmental expertise to raise the awareness

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170 Jamison 2003 171 Sweden Abroad 2007, OECD 2006 172 UNEP 2006,2008 – Greenpeace 2008 173 UNEP 2008

toward a more ecological life was also profits that have been acknowledged, both in this case study and in former reports. However, the ambition toward a “Greening of the Games” is more complex than to describe it as just a showcase or catalyst for environmental changes. Stephanie Beyer goes as far as to raising the question whether the environment actually will benefit at all from the Olympics? The Olympics is a huge event and cities must be rebuilt to manage to host an Olympic Games. The Olympic Games itself is according to respondent Ola Wong and Beyer174 creating numerous environmental problems, such as resource consumption, waste accumulation and shortage in transportation capacity. Secondly, Stephanie Beyer also states that the concept of “Green Games” must be placed in a broader context of sustainable development. Firstly, because of its multibillion-dollar business with competing interests involved, but also for the Olympics highly mobile affairs. The Olympics hosted in different locations, brings, according to Beyer, difficulties in implementing universal standards.175 The western ideals that the Olympics are transmitting are not, according to Michael Payne’s report, universally understood.176 Countries have certainly different knowledge, interests and goals. Jamison further explains this matter by describing that political environmental politics operates with different interests that translates or interprets global doctrines in its context(local or national) 177 The critics of the Green business theory states that organisations are dependent on changes to the wider socio-economic system in which the organisations work. According to the critics, the organisations can have problems in completely fulfilling the green business discourse, not being influenced by the socio-economic system. These circumstances can in some cases explore the differences in the three categories groups’ environmental approaches. One have to acknowledge that the green business discourses were firstly established in Europe with western references, just like the Olympic Movement and the third pillar of Olympism, the environment. During the last thirty years China and Beijing have developed rapidly. Former reports such as OECD and Swedish Embassy reports178 are declaring that development has not worked in balance with the environment. The IOC closely cooperate with UNEP, and the NGO:s were using and hoping that the Beijing Olympics could be a catalyst to implement ecological standards in a rapidly growing city and country. The NGO:s and especially Greenpeace think that the IOC support and work was not enough. They strongly proclaim universal standards, backed up by laws and penalties if they not are fulfilled.

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174 Beyer 2006 175 Ibid 176 Payne 2006 177 Jamison, Andrew(2002) Making of Green Knowledge. Cambridge University press. 178 Sweden Abroad , 2007 - OECD, 2006

The Beijing Olympics with its “Green Olympic” motto must be seen in a broader context. The governmental support and control of the Olympics were seen as a way for the government to address their environmental work, toward modernisations and development. Environmental goals could be fulfilled simultaneously in this process. The environment was also one area that had to improve if the goal to host the best Olympics ever should succeed. The Green message was influenced by the socio-economic system and the importance of economic growth in combination with environmental protection. In the press release for UNEP report in 2008, the future development was highlighted; “The challenges are now how Beijing and China, consolidates the achievements of the games and turn them into green legacy in the long term.”179 All organisations could toward the Beijing Olympics highlight and proclaim their environmental responsibilities. All organisations proudly proclaim their work toward a “Greening Of the Olympics” including ecological modernism tendencies such as; technical improvements, green technology, cooperation with environmental expertise and awareness campaigns. The Government in China is a strong leader and could therefore influence the Olympics and the public toward ecological legacies, a catalyst for environmental changes. Just like former reports from UNEP and Greenpeace180, the case studies participants are talking of these ecological modernism tendencies as long-term legacies both for the hosting city and country. The Green Business theories are describing that technical solutions is not enough to reduce the pressure on the environment. Changes must proceed in many spheres and the result cannot be achieved only by technical solutions. Even though many profits have been acknowledge by the creating of a “Green Olympics” - some participants are not certain if this profits will develop into long-term legacies. Firstly, it is up to government and what is on their political agenda. Once again different reports describes that the “Green Games” must be place in a broader context. China still sees themselves as a developing country with the economic growth and modernization process as highest priority. The critical voices of the green business discourses describe this matter that the importance of sustainable development is certainly acknowledged but it is reduced to those activities that can turn a profit toward economic development. Economic growth is often chosen before environmentalism. Other political questions such as the financial crisis may have higher priority than the development of all environmental profits from the Olympics nationally. Secondly, former report such as OECD and Swedish Embassy181 report discuss the environmental challenges China face. The Political reforms must be implemented more efficiently on different levels.

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179UNEP press release 2008, Beijing Olympics Get Big Green Tick. Internet: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp ?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en 180 UNEP 2006, 2008 - Greenpeace 2008 181 Sweden Abroad 2007, OECD 2007

Thirdly, The NGO:s participating in this study describe just like in former reports, that the lack of NGO’ influence in the environmental work in China is a problem. The NGO:s were stimulated by the fact that their work was highlighted by the government during the Olympics. But, they are all concerned over the groups’ limited influence and if and how their lobbying work will develop after the Olympics. The term “Green Games” can be seen in a broader context. But one can also uplift the Olympics toward a local activism discourse. If one reviews the Olympics as a local event, one can acknowledge the respondents concerns and former reports questions, what will happen after the Olympics? The Local activism believes in a method, to raise the democratic ambitions to create a better environment. The Beijing Olympics must according to the respondent not turn out to what Jamison describes being the problem with the local activism, temporary efforts on specific targets. When the culmination of an impressive Olympics is over, the profits must remain and further develop. Both technical improvements but also the NGO:s work and the awareness campaigns toward the public cannot disappear, as local activism have a tendency to do. Once again, the Governments power and control can be seen as an advantage. They can target the profits from the Olympics and the environmental questions toward sustainable legacies. On the other hand the Governmental control can be a weakness. The NGO:s mentioned their limited influence and different reports are also discussing the weakness in the Chinese systems, concerning openness and validity in environmental reports. As the Olympic Games was collaborating with the Governmental goals and interests one can only assume that the work with the future environmental changes, must go hand in hand with the Governmental aims of modernization toward a developing country by the year of 2049.

4.1.1 Own Reflections The environment and the process toward sustainable development is a big challenge. During my field study I have embraced that the Olympic Games is a respectful event with message of peace and cultural exchange. The Olympics have a strong impact in the political sphere, including political environmental questions. In my field study I have meet many people that are making an important work toward improvements for the environment. The Olympic Games was an opportunity to highlight their work. I believe that many people in China have now noticed the importance of the environment in a higher grade. Firstly, the citizens of Beijing, that have seen many environmental profits rapidly develop toward the Olympics. Secondly and most important, most of the young generation I meet acknowledged the important of the environment. The Green Olympics motto highlighted these questions and it was a topic that was transmitted by the government, which made it fully approvable for the public to take part of in discussions and actions in a higher grade.

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The Beijing Olympics had the ambition to host the best Olympics ever. This aim involved the “Green” message which from one side generated many profits. On the other side, these profits must developed into long term legacies. This responsibility is laying with the government. Universal democratic values concerning openness, political influence, freedom of speech and opinion have not developed in the same rate as the

economic growth in China. Unfortunately, both former reports and the case study respondents are pointing at the limited lobbying influence within the environmental expertise and the public society. The Olympic Games in Beijing required a rebuilding of the city, toward the ambition to host the best Olympics ever. The fact that the Olympics are getting bigger and bigger, and cities must be rebuild in the ambition to host an impressive Olympics, also raises the question whether there are any Olympic Games that truly can be considered as green?

4.1.2 Suggestions for Future Research As the respondents and former reports describes, the interesting part is to see how China and Beijing develop the profits from the Olympics to long-term legacies. Future studies could explore for example the NGO:s work and how their work have been influenced by the Olympics. Have their lobbying work toward political environmental improvements been raised with help of the Olympics?

4.1.3 Weaknesses in the Result Even though the result from the thesis have been analysed and compared to a theoretical framework and former reports, that are some details that could have been done in a different way. Once again these weaknesses must be mentioned. One weakness is that the study was written from a Swedish perspective. This circumstance may influence the study result concerning the fact that the field study was conducted in a foreigner country with different culture. A Swedish perspective is different from the Chinese culture and way of living. Statements and opinions are viewed and understood from different perspectives. The literature research was based on mostly literature by non Chinese authors and the circumstances that no respondent were representing the Beijing Olympics (BOCOG organisation) is consider as weaknesses. The Chinese perspective could have been more extended. As former reports acknowledge the lack of informative and openness have also made it harder to verify the Chinese perspective, views and achievements. The analysis in the study has therefore been viewed from a Swedish perspective. Finally, China and the Beijing Olympics, The Olympic Movement and The NGO:s participating are big actors in the international sphere and this study only investigated a small part of their work and views. Remember, a case study is only a small part of the complex reality.

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SUMMARY The Olympic Games – An instrument for environmental political change is a comparative case study exploring the opportunity to use the Olympic Games as an instrument for political environmental change, with special focus at The Beijing Olympics. The Olympic Games is a highly respected event that through sport shall spread the message of peace and cultural exchange. The Olympic Games are also an event that have been and will be used as a mechanism for political changes. Allowing a rapidly growing city and country, such as Beijing and China host the Olympic Games in 2008, surely highlighted the environmental political questions. China has had an enormous growth and development during the last thirty years. China and the International society are well aware that the growth has not worked in balance with the environment. The Olympics could therefore be an opportunity for different groups to highlight their work and use the Olympics as a mechanism for environmental improvements. But environmental politics are a complex social and scientific matter. According to Andrew Jamison, the environmental political discourses are operating with different interest that translates or interprets global doctrines in its own context. The knowledge, interests and ambitions are different between countries, companies and organisations. The main questions for the study was to explore, how the Olympic Games can be used as an instrument for environmental political changes and which environmental political opinions that are collaborating in the ambition to use the Olympics as a political environmental instrument. The International Olympic Committee’s third pillar, the environment, The Beijing Olympics Committee´s motto, “Green Olympics” and Non-Governmental Organisations represented by Greenpeace China, Roots & Shoots and Fuping Development Institute - have been reviewed in the light of environmental political theories. The Analysis was carried out in the light of the two political theories, The Green Business theory with its three discourses, Nature Capitalism, EcoEffiency and Ecological Modernism discourse. And the opposite pole Ecological Resistance (Critical Ecology) with its three discourses Local Activism, Professional Activism and Personal Activism. To limit the research the following questionnaires were used as guidance:

• What environmental political views are apparent in the three category groups’ environmental approaches?

• As a result from the analysis of question one and two, can any conclusions be

drawn if and why the groups have different views, concerning the Olympic Games as an instrument for environmental political changes?

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The case study consisted of an opening literature research. The validity of the empiric background material was questioned by six qualitative interviews, one group interview, one written questionnaire and participant observation. The material was collected during an eight week field study in the summer of 2008. The results conclude that the organisations are all using the Olympics as an important instrument to address their environmental work. The ambitions and lobbying work show tendencies toward the Green Business theory and especially the ecological modernism discourse. Firstly, the environmental questions shall work in accordance to the organisations’ original culture and structure. Secondly, technical improvements in the process toward “Greening of the Olympics” are highlighted as a profit that hopefully will be nationally spread. Thirdly, all organisations’ acknowledged the need of the government support and control toward Green Games. The International Olympic Committee (The IOC) describes themselves as a coordinator and guide to use the education of sport as a tool toward sustainable development. The Olympic Games shall according to The IOC be held in conditions in accordance to environmental issues and also educate the members within the organisation about general principles toward sustainable development, using guidance as Olympic Agenda 21 and Sport and environment manuals. The IOC states though that the main responsibilities are laying with the governments. The Beijing Olympics (BOCOG) and their motto “Green Olympics” was financed and controlled by the Government. The Olympics was a way to address the work with environment, in accordance to the goal to host an impressive Olympics. Technical improvements were in focus. The Beijing Olympics highlighted the IOC responsibilities concerning the environment. The Olympics are therefore seen as a catalyst toward China’s overall goal of modernization and gaining international respect. The NGO:s and the Greenpeace “Green Games” approach are also using the Olympics to highlight their lobbying work as professional activists. Toward the Beijing Olympics the NGO:s have noticed a higher interest for their work, both form the government and the public. The NGO:s are lobbying partly for the public toward a more ecological lifestyle(personal activism) but also toward the hosting country and the IOC. Greenpeace wants bidding targets backed up by national law. Hosting cities that do not fulfill the binding targets shall be punished by penalties. It is certain that the Olympic Games can be used as an important instrument toward environmental improvements. The respondents and former reports are discussing the challenge to develop the profits from the Olympics toward long-term legacies. But these matter are laying within the Chinese governments power and ambitions. Once again, The “Greening of the Olympics” is still though a complex social and scientific matter. Countries and cities have different conditions, knowledge, interest and ambitions. Universal standards are not always universally understood. And the fact that the Olympics are getting bigger and bigger, and cities must be rebuild in the ambition to host an impressive Olympics, raises the question, are there any Olympic Games that truly can be considered as green?

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Haugen, H-Ø(2003) The construction of Beijing as an Olympic City. SUM Dissertations & Theses No. 05/2002. Found 20090616 Internet: http://www.sum.uio.no/ publications/pdf_fulltekst/ dt2003.05.haugen.pdf National Development and Reform Commission, People’s Republic of China. Chinas national climate change programme. Found 20090616: http://www.ccchina.gov.cn/ WebSite/CCChina/UpFile/File188.pdf OECD(2006) Environmental performance review of china – conclusions and recommendations. Found 20000616: http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/58/23/37657409.pdf Org, R “New Beijing, Great Olympics: Beijing and its Unfolding Olympic Legacy: Found 20090616: http://www.stanford.edu/group/sjeaa/journal42/china3.pdf Stephanie Beyer(2006) The Green Olympic Movement: Beijing 2008 , Chinese Journal of International Law Advance Access. Internet: Found 20000616: http://chinesejil.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/short/5/2/423 Sweden Abroad(2007) Kinas miljö – situationen och utmaningarna. Found 20090616: http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/ Miljoerapport_070427.pdf Sweden Abroad(2007) Kina, klimatfrågan och framtida förhandlingar. Found 20090616; http://www.swedenabroad.com/SelectImageX/20428/ Kinas_klimat_070510.pdf The International Olympic Committee (2001) Evaluation Commission for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad in 2008. Found 20090616: http://moscow2001.olympic.org/ en/pdf/rapport_commission.pdf The International Olympic committee – factsheet, Environment and Sustainable Development. Lausanne. Switzerland. (2007) Infocenter@olympic.org, Found 20090616: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_842.pdf The International Olympic Committee (2007) Factsheet – Olympic Truce. Information center. Infocenter@olympic.org. Found 20090616: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_839.pdf The International Olympic Committee (updated 2005)Manual on Sport and the environment. Found 20090616: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_963.pdf The International Olympic Committee (2008) Olympic Marketing fact file. Found 20090616: http://multimedia.olympic.org/pdf/en_report_344.pdf The international Olympic Committee(1999) Olympic Movement’s agenda 21 - Sport for sustainable development. Found 20090616: http://multimedia.olympic.org/ pdf/en_report_300.pdf

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The International Olympic Committee. Olympic review(Sept 2007) Nr 64, Going Green. Found 20080616: http://www.olympic.org/ezine/en/index.htm UNEP(2007) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games – An environmental Review. Found 20090616: http://www.unep.org/sport_env/Documents/ BeijingReport07/Chapter1.pdf. UNEP (2008) Independent environment assessment – Beijing 2008 Olympic Games. Found 20090616: http://www.unep.org/publications/ UNEP-e Books/BeijingReport_ebook.pdf UNEP Press release (2008) Beijing Olympics Get Big Green Tick. Found 20090616: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=562&ArticleID=6086&l=en UN inter agency task force on sport for development and peace(2005). Sport as a tool for development and peace - toward achieving the United Nations millennium development goals. Found 20090616: http://www.un.org/sport2005/ resources/task_force.pdf United Nations World Commission on The Environment and Development (1987)Our common future. Found 20090616: http://www.un-documents.net/ocf-02.htm Wendy Stubb, Chris Cocklin (2006) An ecological modernist interpretation of sustainability. Found 20090616: http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/ 112718277/abstract Websites Beijing Official website international. Overall strategic concept . Found 20090616: http://www.ebeijing.gov.cn/Government/Mayor_office/Mayor_bulletin/t929893.htmIbid China Daily (20080710) China 'committed to fighting' climate change. Found 20090616: http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/bizchina/2008-07/10/content_6834200.htm China Daily G20 (20080317) climate-change meeting concludes without agreement. Found 20090616. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/world/2008-03/17/content_6542319.htm Dagens industri(2007-10-23) Kinas svåra dilemma - bromsa tillväxten eller förorena mer. Found 20090616: https://di.se/Nyheter/?page=/Avdelningar/Artikel.aspx%3 FArticleID%3D2007%255C09%255C28%255C250156

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Official website of the Olympic Movement. Promotion of sustainable development. Found 20090616: http://www.olympic.org/uk/organisation/ missions/environment_uk.asp Swedish international development cooperation agency(SIDA) Found 20090616: http://www.sida.se/sida/jsp/sida.jsp?d=540 Telegraph UK. Beijing pollution still major Olympic concern. Found 20090616: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/ 3311716/Beijing-pollution-still-major-Olympic-concern.html. The New York Times. Citing Pollution, Gebrselassie Opts Out of Olympic Marathon. Found 20090616: http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/11/ sports /othersports/11olympics.html. The official website of the Beijing 2008 Olympic Games - Games of the XXIX Olympiad. Beijing Olympic Action Plan. Found 20090616: http://en.beijing2008.cn/59/80/column211718059.shtml Interviewees NGO:s Ms Amy Chang, Greenpeace China, Beijing

Ms Zee Zee Zhang - Roots and Shoots, Shanghai

Mr Liajian Zhen - Fuping Development institute, Beijing

The IOC

Ms Michelle Lemaitre – The International Olympic Organisation (written questionnaire)

Further interviewees

Mr Zhang Jun – Lenovo group, Beijing

Mr Ola Wong, correspondent, Svenska dagbladet, Shanghai

Volunteer team leader – Jim, Beijing

Volunteers(group interview) Sunny, Memory, Karen, Ivy and Sunrise, Beijing.

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APPENDIX

Interview questions To whom it will Concern:

________________________________________________________________________ Dear participator: The interview guide starts with some general questions concerning the Olympic movement, leading up to the main questions about the “Green Olympics”.

- How does one perceive the Olympic Movement?

- How does one perceive the Olympic Movement, its role and ideals concerning the third cornerstone of Olympism, the environment?

- To which degree did the environment aspect play a part in the Beijing

application, resulting in the decision to let Beijing host the 28th Olympic Games?

- To which degree has your organisation used the Olympic Games to communicate your environmental political approach?

- In what way has the “Green Olympics” influenced your organisation?

- In what way has the “Green Olympics” influenced the Chinese and in particular

the Beijing community in the different spheres?

- To which degree has the Beijing Olympic Games been used to communicate with the environmental lobby?

- Will the “Green Olympics” give any long-term changes?(Organisation/

Beijing/China) Thank One for Ones participation! Yours Sincerely: Lukas Karlsson Karlsson_lukas@yahoo.se