THE NEWCAMBRIDGE MODERN

HISTORY

VOLUME VII

THE OLD REGIME1713-63

EDITED BY

J. O. LINDSAY

CAMBRIDGEAT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

I966

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTORY SUMMARY (page 1)By J. O. LINDSAY, Formerly Fellow of Girton College and Lecturer in History

in the University of Cambridge

CHAPTER II

THE GROWTH OF OVERSEAS COMMERCE ANDEUROPEAN MANUFACTURE

By C. H. W I L S O N , Fellow of Jesus College and Reader in Modern Economic Historyin the University of Cambridge

Changes in world trade by 1713; decline of Dutch page 27Commercial expansion of England and France 28Beginnings of English industrial revolution 29-30Financing of industrial expansion 31-2English mercantilist regulation of overseas trade 32English naval strength 33French commercial expansion 33Fundamental weakness of French trade 34-5Anglo-French commercial rivalry 36Commercial rivalries in Atlantic 37-9Commercial rivalries in India 39Dutch strength in south-east Asia 40Commercial rivalries in Mediterranean 41Trade inside Europe 42Gradual decline of Dutch trade 42-3Holland remains financial centre 43-4Foreign trade relied on naval strength 45Economic theories 46Signs of change in theories 47-9

CHAPTER ΙΠ

T H E SOCIAL CLASSES A N D T H E F O U N D A T I O N SO F T H E STATES

By J. Ο. LINDSAY

Eighteenth-century society apparently aristocratic and French . . . . 50Aristocratic character supported by Church 51Society in fact less uniform 51Differences in relations of nobles a n d peasants in different countries . . . 52

F r a n c e 53Central a n d eastern E u r o p e 53-4

Political powers of nobles varied from country t o country 55Useless court nobility of F r a n c e , Spain 55Serving nobility of Prussia, Russia 56Politically powerful nobles of H u n g a r y 56

Poland, Sweden 57England 58

V

C O N T E N T S

Aristocratic nature of society undermined by growth of middle class . . .page 58Mercantile middle class of England 58-9Urban patriciate Italy, Switzerland, German cities, Holland . . . . 59-6oStatus of professional middle class 61Bureaucratic middle class of eastern Europe 6 2

Society not exclusively French 63Influence of Italy 6 3

Germany 6 4

World outside Europe 65

CHAPTER IV

THE VISUAL ARTS AND IMAGINATIVELITERATURE

By PROFESSOR S I R A L B E R T R I C H A R D S O N , Past President of the Royal Academy

Art and literature theoretically classical and derivative 66Architecture, classical transformed into baroque 66-7Early emergence of Gothic revival 69Originality of English town planning 70New social environment of coffee houses 70New journalism 71Natural treatment of contemporary life 72Poetry both classical and original 73Originality of satire and travel books 73Need for new genre, degeneracy of stage 74Rise of the novel 75-6Romantic poetry 76Art shows same development as literature 77Classical French painting 77Baroque painting 77-8Greater naturalness of French painting 78French sculpture remains classical 78English painting of real life 79Theories about art 80Influence of illustrated books on architecture and art . . . . . 81-4

CHAPTER V

THE ENLIGHTENMENTB y A . C O B B A N , Professor of History, University College, London

E n l i g h t e n m e n t b e g i n s b e f o r e 1 7 0 0 85E a r l y c r i t i c i s m o f r e l i g i o n 85-6L a t e r c r i t i c i s m o f r e l i g i o n i n F r a n c e a n d E n g l a n d . . . . . 8 6 - 7S u p e r f i c i a l i t y o f e i g h t e e n t h - c e n t u r y p h i l o s o p h y . . . . . 8 7S c i e n c e t h e n e w e v a n g e l 88I m p o r t a n c e o f N e w t o n 8 8 - 9P o p u l a r i t y o f n a t u r a l s c i e n c e 89B a c k w a r d n e s s o f c h e m i s t r y 90P e r i o d o f d i f f u s i o n r a t h e r t h a n a d v a n c e 91P s y c h o l o g y o f L o c k e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 1 - 2S o c i a l s c i e n c e s . . . . 92

vi

CONTENTS

Great importance of history page 93Vico . 94Theoretical presuppositions of philosophers 95Sensational psychology 95-6Hedonism and re-orientation of moral ideas 97Individual hedonism and the claims of society 98Political ideas of secondary importance 99German ideas of natural law 100English and French political ideas 101-2Economic ideas 103Optimism of the Enlightenment 104-5Belief in possibility of reform 105Diffusion of ideas of the Enlightenment 105-6Journals, dictionaries, the Encyclopaedia 106Influence of Paris salons 106-7Backwardness of universities 107Educational experiments 108Religion still very strong 108-9Protestant mysticism 109Metaphysical thinkers · . . · . · · · · · · · 110Emergence of romanticism in imaginative literature 110-11Small area influenced by Enlightenment 111

CHAPTER VI

RELIGIONBy R. W. GREAVES, Reader in History in the University of London

Decline of papal political influence 113The personalities of the popes 113Difficulties confronting the popes 114The renewed Jansenist controversy 114Unigenitus 114-16Last phase of Jansenist struggle 116Modification of Unigenitus by Ex Omnibus 117Similarities between Jansenists and philosophers 117-18Growth of historical criticism 118Reform of breviary and missal 118-19Strength of secular influences 119Van Espen 119Giannone's criticism of ecclesiastical power 120Von Honthein`s attack on Papacy 121Declining power of the Jesuits 122Failure of Jesuits, China 123Jesuits expelled from Portugal 123-5Suppression of Jesuits in France 125Jesuits overthrown not by 'philosophers` but by anti-papal Christians . . . 126Protestantism in England 126The Archbishop of Canterbury 126-7Political character of English episcopacy 127-8The Dissenters 128Relations of Church and State in England 129Lutheran and Reformed churches in Germany . 130

vii

C O N T E N T S

Pietism and rationalism both anti-clerical page 131

RationalismProjects of Christian reunion 133Archbishop Wake's projects for unionThe traditions of the Church of EnglandGrowth of MethodismEvangelical awakening of Church of England 139-40

CHAPTER VII

MONARCHY AND ADMINISTRATION1. European practice, by J. Ο. LINDSAY

2. The English inspiration, by W. R. BROCK, Fellow of Selwyn College andLecturer in History in the University of Cambridge

I. EUROPEAN PRACTICE

Contemporary writers on political thought 141Prevalence of absolute monarchy 141Difference between absolutism in different countries 142-3Improvement in central governmental institutions:

Sweden 144Russia 145France 145-6England 146Spain 147Prussia . 1 4 8Habsburg dominions 149

Financial methods still chaotic 150Indirect taxes in Spain 150Direct taxes 151Beginnings of a National Debt 152Administration of justice 152Increased efficiency of provincial administration 153Intendants in France 153Intendants in Spain 154Prussian provincial government 155Austrian provincial government 155-6Hungarian provincial government 157English J.P.'s 157-8Theories of government, cameralism 158-60Exceptions to absolute monarchy, Poland 160

2. THE ENGLISH INSPIRATION

Ideas about English liberty

CHAPTER VIII

THE ARMED FORCES AND THE ART OF WARBy the late E R I C R O B S O N , Formerly Senior Lecturer in History

in the University of Manchester

Eighteenth-century warfare governed by convention 163Emphasis on manœuvre rather than battle 164

viii

C O N T E N T S

Strategy primarily defensive page 164-5Limited objectives of eighteenth-century wars 165Many wars were purely dynastic 166Conventions of siege warfare 166-8Armies* lack of mobility 168Strict discipline necessary because of tactical methods 169Tactical formations elaborate and slow 169-70Naval tactics equally conventional 170Winter campaigns infrequent 170-1Formal character of warfare made few demands on officers 171Strategic methods of Frederick the Great characteristic of his age . . . 171-2Tactics of Frederick the Great original 172-3British reliance on naval supremacy 173British military methods unsuited to colonial warfare 173Gradual changes in British methods on land and at sea 174Armies relatively small, wars lacking in passion 174Armies recruited from nobles and vagabonds 175Composition of armies necessitated harsh discipline 175-6Inadequate evidence of conditions of other ranks 176-7Gulf between officers and men 177Frederick U's care for his men 178Growing consideration for men in British navy 178Development of conscription 178-9Use made of nobility in Prussian army 179Position of peasants in Prussian army 179-80Savage Prussian discipline 180-1Inadequacy of noble French military commanders 181-2French naval commanders more able 183French naval conscription 183Methods of recruiting for British army and navy 183-4Purchase of British commissions 185Influence and promotion . . . . 186No purchase of naval commissions 187Conditions of promotion in the navy 188-9

CHAPTER IX

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONSBy J. O. L I N D S A Y

Peace settlement, 1713-14 191Renunciation of Philip V to French throne 191Establishment of "barriers" 191English acquisition of naval bases 192English commercial benefits 192System of alliances after 1713 192-3Death of Louis XIV 193French reasons for desiring alliance with England 194England influenced by developments in Baltic to ally with France . . . 195Value to England of French alliance 195Diplomatic storm centres, Baltic and Mediterranean 195Baltic crisis of 1716 196

ix

C O N T E N T S

Mediterranean crisis provoked by Elizabeth Farnese pageExpeditions organised by Alberoni 197Quadruple alliance 197Success of Anglo-French diplomacy, 1719-21 198-9Congress of Cambrai 199Changes of personnel in France 200Spanish approach to the Emperor 200-1Mission of Ripperda, 1725 201Failure of Ripperda's policy 202Treaty of Seville, 1729 202Don Carlos in north Italy 202Anglo-French diplomacy in north-east Europe 203Holstein-Gottorp question 203British naval expedition to Baltic, 1726 203Emergence of Russia and Prussia as Great Powers 203-4War of Polish Succession 204English neutrality 205Breakdown of Anglo-French Alliance 205Growth of Russian power 205War of Austrian Succession, 1740 206Friction between England and Spain 206Share of South Sea Bubble in causing war of 1739 207-9French diplomacy 210Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle 210Diplomatic Revolution 211Outbreak of Seven Years War 211Peace of Paris, 1763 212-13

CHAPTER X

T H E D E C L I N E O F D I V I N E - R I G H T M O N A R C H YI N F R A N C E

By A. C O B B A N

Divine-Right monarchy in France still strong 214France best example of decline of absolute monarchy 215Weakness of French absolutism, administrative confusion 215Survival of independent enclaves 215Lack of unified fiscal system 216Decay of effective local self government 216Limitations in powers of the intendant 216-17Weakness of central government 217Councils 217-18Secretaries of State 218Difficulty o f enforcing royal will 219Crown as symbol of the State 219Incapacity of Louis for the role o f absolute monarch . . . . 220N o other authority to share burden of government 220Policy of regent . . . . 220-1Financial problems 221-2Financial reform of Law 223Results of Law's experiment · · 223

X

CONTENTS

Failure of regent's administrative reforms page 224Foreign policy of the regent 224Duke of Bourbon in power 224Fleury's administration 224Pacific foreign policy of Fleury 225Louis XV in control of policy 225-6Character of Louis XV 226Lack of consistent foreign policy 227-8Diplomatic Revolution and emergence of Choiseul 228Weakness of internal policy 228-9Religious disputes 229Richérisme among parish clergy 229Jansenist controversy 230Religious policy of the regent 230Revived Jansenist controversy, 1750 231Persecution of the Huguenots 232Spread of anti-religious spirit 233Suppression of the Jesuits 233Financial difficulties of the Crown only a symptom 234Social structure essential cause of collapse of Divine-Right monarchy . . . 235Complex characteristics of the nobles and of bourgeoisie 236Economic developments disrupting social structure . . . . . . 237Industrial developments 237-8Economic weaknesses 238

CHAPTER XI

ENGLANDBy W. R. BROCK

Economic conditions 241Exceptionally low rates of interest 242Bad communications 242Exports of great value 242-3Rural conditions 243The country gentleman 243-4Increasing political power of great landowners 244Borough politics 245Role of Church of England 245-6Dissenters 246Party alignments in 1714 246Triumph of Whigs 247Failure of Jacobite rising 1715 247-8Religious policy of Whigs to Dissenters 248Convocation silenced 249Dissensions among the Whig leaders 249Ascendancy of Sunderland and Stanhope, 1717 · - 249-50South Sea Bubble 250-1Political results of the Bubble, rise of Walpole 251Character and achievement of Walpole 251-2Growing opposition to Walpole 253

xi

C O N T E N T S

Walpole's successors, Carteret and Pelham page 251-4Jacobite rising of 1745 254Rise of Pitt 255Accession of George III 255Fall of Newcastle 256_Powers of Crown in eighteenth century 256-7Growth of cabinet government 258-9Ministers of the Crown 259Central bureaucracy 259-60Local government 260House of Lords 260House of Commons 260Influence and patronage 261-2Judicial system 262-3Nature of English liberty 264Libel and sedition 2Ó4

Younger sons of gentry entered professions 2 6 5Conditions of poor · 2 6 6

Industrial development 2i>7

CHAPTER XIT

THE WESTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND ITALYBy J. O. L I N D S A Y

Diplomatic initiative gained for Spain 269Spain in state of economic collapse at end of seventeenth century . . . 269-71Economic reform hampered by Church 271-3Nobility indifferent to reform 273-5Bourgeoisie few and apathetic 275Economic reforms of army 276AlberonPs reforms 277Ripperda's effort to restore prosperity to Spain 278Reforms of Patifto 278Attractive appearance of Italy in eighteenth century 280Reality less attractive, much poverty and oppression 281Changes in political maps of Italy, 1713-48 282Effects of these changes, reforms in Milan and Naples 284Rome 284Spanish policy under Ferdinand VI 285Carvajal's foreign policy 285Industrial reforms 286Ensenada's economic reforms " 287Charles III ! ! ! " " 287Portugal unstirred by reform till 1750 ! ! ! ! 288Economic conditions ! " 288Portuguese monarchy " 289Pombal's attack on trie Jesuits ' 290Pombal's economic reforms ! " * " 291

xii

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIII

THE ORGANISATION AND RISE OF PRUSSIABy W. H. B R U F O R D , Fellow of St John's College and

Professor of German in the University of Cambridge

German historians* treatment of rise of Prussia page 292Geographical character of Hohenzollern possessions 292Gradual unification of Hohenzollern territories 293Economic weakness 293Effects of Thirty Years War 294Creation of standing army by Great Elector and provincial Estates overcome . 294Frederick William I's contribution to growth of strong monarchy . . . 294-5Development of the army 295-6Efforts to increase royal revenue 296Exploitation of domain lands 296-7Other taxes 297-8Reform of civic administration 299Encouragement of immigration 302Reform of administration 303Combination of domain and excise officials 304Creation of General Directory 304-5Religious toleration 306Education 306Administration of justice 306Education of the Crown Prince 307-8Character and abilities of Frederick the Great 308-9Aggressive policy of Frederick the Great 310-11Political philosophy of Frederick the Great 310-11Frederick's reforms after 1756 3HComplete centralisation of government 312Objects of this system 312Attempts to improve the governmental system 312-13Industrial reform 315Trade 31kReform of the judicial system 3*7

CHAPTER XÏV

RUSSIABy IAN Y O U N G , Formerly Lecturer in Slavonic Studies in the University of Cambridge

New epoch as from 1709 318Economic conditions, chief wealth forest products 318Development of iron industry 318Other industrial developments 319Labour plentiful 319Communications 3J9Export trade 320Peter's fiscal reforms 320Population and social structure 321Conditions of the peasants 321-2The nobility 322-3

xiii

CONTENTS

Re-organisation of the army Page 3 2 3

Reform of administrative institutions 3 2 3

Reform of provincial administration 3 2 4Judicial system 324-5The Church 3 2 JReforms of education 3 2 5

Reign of Catherine I 3 2 7

Peter II, negotiations on behalf of Anna 3^8Anna's accession, administrative reform 329Concessions to the nobility, Volynsky 33°Ivan VI, intrigues on behalf of Elizabeth 331Elizabeth's accession, Diplomatic Revolution 332

Seven Years War, Bestuzhev's intrigues 333Peter III, further concessions to the nobility 334Orlov's revolution, the Church . 335Education and cultural life 33^Income of the nobility 337Shuvalov's financial and commercial reforms 33^

CHAPTER XV

SCANDINAVIA AND THE BALTICBy R. M. H A T T O N , Reader in International History

at the London School of Economics

Settlement after the Great Northern War 339-40Benevolent absolutism of the Oldenburgs 341Agriculture and land reform 342-3Policy of making Denmark and Norway economically complementary . . · 344Mercantilistic communal policy 344-5Danish foreign policy 345Holstein-Gottorp claims in Sîesvig-Holstein 345-7Crisis of 1723-7 347Danish foreign policy, alliance with France 34^Danish efforts to secure succession to Swedish throne for Danish prince . · 34$Tsar Peter Ill's claim to Slesvig-Holstein, 1760 . . . . . . . 349Settlement of Slesvig-Holstein 350Reduction of royal power in Sweden on death of Charles XII . . . . 350-1Ulrika Eleonora's election and abdication 351Swedish Constitution of 1720 352Composition and powers of the Four Estates 353-4Swedish political parties 355Brief ascendancy of Hessian party, 1720-1 355Holstein party in power, 1723-6 355Ascendancy of Count Horn and the* Caps* 355Hats' period of power, 1738-65 356-7Sweden's part in the War of the Austrian Succession 358Russian occupation of Finland 359Charles Peter Ulrich of Holstein-Gottorp refuses Swedish succession \ \ \ 360Sweden's dependence of Russia after Treaty of Abo 361Party struggle of Hats and Caps 362Further limitation of the monarchy; the Seven Years War . . . • 363Election campaign of 1764-5 364

xiv

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XVI

POLAND UNDER THE SAXON KINGSBy L. R. LEWITTER, Fellow of Christ's College and Lecturer in

Slavonic Studies (Polish) in the University of CambridgePolitical institutions page 365-6Administration of justice 367Backward condition of agriculture 368Trade and industry 369Education and intellectual life 370-1Rivalry for Polish throne; concluded, 1717 372Economic aspect of the settlement 372-3Russian domination after the Treaty of Warsaw, 1717 373Anti-Russian foreign policy of Augustus II 373-4Persecution of Protestants 374Religious crisis at Thorn, 1724 375-6Attempts to secure Saxon succession 377-8Czartoryskis and Potockis 378Succession of Augustus III 379War of the Polish Succession 379-8oSettlement of the War of the Polish Succession 381Political degeneration under Augustus III 382-3Waning influence of the Czartoryskis 384The Seven Years War 385-6Foreign policy 387-8Failure of the political system 389Russian and Prussian territorial claims · 390

CHAPTER XVII

THE HABSBURG DOMINIONSBy C. A. MACARTNEY, Fellow of All Souls, Oxford

Conclusion of the War of the Spanish Succession 391Hungary and the Treaty of Szatmâr 391Charles VI's conciliation of Hungary 392The female succession in Austria . 393Hungarian support of Charles's daughter 393-4War with Turkey, 1716-18 394Charles joins Quadruple Alliance 394Female succession confirmed in Hungary 395Rights of Hungary recognised by Charles VI 396Pragmatic Sanction enacted 397Friction over the Ostend Company 397War of the Polish Succession; marriage of Maria Theresa 398Cultural life 399Administrative institutions 4°°Austrian trade to East Indies; power of Church in Austria and Bohemia . . 401Weakness of Czech nationalism; Habsburg policy of preserving territorial division

i n H u n g a r y . . . . . . . - · · · · · 4 ° 2

XV

4 3

4 4

C O N T E N T S

Subordination of Hungary to Austria; survival of some Hungarian independence page 402-3

Habsburg support for Roman Catholicism in Hungary 4 3

The national pride of the nobility

Growth of populationIncrease in proportion of non-Magyar people 4J>Predominantly agricultural character 4

Turkish war 4 gUnsuccessful Peace of Belgrade 4

Maria Theresa's accession; the Pragmatic Sanction repudiated 40»

Maria Theresa's concessions to Hungary 4 O 9

Hungarian support for the Pragmatic Sanction 4°9Ultimate retention of throne by Maria Theresa, 1748 4 I °Maria Theresa's reforms after 1748 4">

Military reforms; Lombardy and the Netherlands 4* l

Maria Theresa's treatment of Hungary 4Π-12

Obstacles in way of reform 4 i 2

Administrative and judicial reforms; Haugwitz . 412-14Foreign policy after Aix-la-Chapelle 4*5

CHAPTER XVIII

THE WAR OF THE AUSTRIAN SUCCESSIONBy MARK A. THOMSON, Professor of Modern History

in the University of London

Diplomatic origins , 416Prussian invasion of Silesia 4ΠBritish and Russian reactions 418French support for Charles Albert of Bavaria 4 ^Prussian victory over Austrians at Mollwitz 419Prussia's uneasy alliance with France and Bavaria 419Convention of Klein Schnellendorf between Austria and Prussia . . . . 420Election of Charles Albert as Emperor 421French military reverses 421

Frederick's desire for peace, diplomatic schemes of Carteret for accommodationbetween Austria and Prussia 422

Dutch non-intervention, preliminaries of Breslau end Austro-Prussian War . . 423French retreat from Bohemia 424Austrian strategy in Germany weakened by Spanish intervention in Italy . . 424-6

French policy under personal direction of Louis XV, British victory at Dettingen 426-7Diplomacy of Carteret 428Treaty of Worms, 1743 429

George II discredited, naval battle off Toulon [ [ 430French invasion of the Netherlands, prussian invasion of Bohemia . . . 431Prussian invasion of Saxony; Treaty of Dresden, 1745 . . . \ \ * 432British and Dutch defeats, Franco-Spanish invasion of Sardinia [ ! ! 433Franco-Spanish armies repulsed * 434

British naval superiority, French victories in Dutch Flanders . [ \ \ 435Preliminary peace negotiations 436Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelie \

XVI

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XIX

THE DIPLOMATIC REVOLUTIONBy D. B. H O R N , Professor of Modern History in the University of Edinburgh

Signs of strain in the Anglo-Austrian alliance page 440Kaunitz's plan for a French alliance 441-2Britain's need for Austrian help increased by threats of colonial conflict . . 442Austria's terms become stiffer 443Austrian overtures to France, negotiations between Starhemberg and Bernis . 444-5Anglo-Prussian relations 446-7British convention with Russia, 1755 447-8Reactions of Prussia to Anglo-Russian agreement . . . . . . 448Convention of Westminster (1756) between England and Prussia . . . . 449French reactions 450Austrian reactions 451-2First Treaty of Versailles between France and Austria 453-5Austro-Russian relations 456-9Failure of Newcastle's foreign policy 460Final breach between France and Prussia 461Connexion between the Diplomatic Revolution and the outbreak of the Seven

Years War 462-4

CHAPTER XX

T H E S E V E N Y E A R S WARBy ERIC ROBSON

interconnexion of continental and colonial rivalries 465Geographical and political conditions affecting Prussia 465British obligations to Prussia 466Pitt's gradual conversion to value of continuing operations on the Continent . 467Frederick's masterly strategy 468Defeat and occupation of Saxony by Frederick II 469French success culminates in Convention of Kloster-Seven, Russian and Swedish

attacks on Prussia 470Prussian victories at Rossbach and Leuthen 471-2Britain recovers the position in western Germany, Army of Observation, Prussian

invasion of Moravia 473Austrian campaigns in Saxony and Silesia, 1758 474Russian victories, French advance into Westphalia 475Plan to invade England, rights of neutrals 476British privateers; campaigns of 1760 477Military stalemate; peace with Russia 478Peace negotiations in the West 479Britain witholds Frederick's subsidy 480Breach between Britain and Prussia 481Family compact 482Treaty of Paris 483Treaty of Hubertusburg 484Effect of the war on Prussian economy 484-5Results of the war for Britain and France 485-6

NCMHVD

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXÏ

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE AMERICAN

COMMUNITIES

I. Latin America, by J. H. P A R R Y , Principal of the University College of Swansea

2. North America, by FRANK THISTLETHWAITE, Vice-Chancellor of the Universityof East Anglia

1. LATIN AMERICA

Administrative incompetence in Spanish America page 487~8Defence; sale of administrative offices 4^9Colonial administration; corregidores 49°Social structure, Creole resentment of Spanish misgovernment . . . . 491Beginnings of Bourbon reform, enactments against the Church . . . 492

Reform of the coinage; silver mining 493Regulation of trade; breakdown of the convoy system 494Trading companies 495Creoles gain nothing by the reforms 495Grouping of administrative units 495-6Jesuit missions 497Brazil, reforms of Pombal 49**Visual arts, intellectual life 499

2. NORTH AMERICA

Spread of European immigration and settlement 5°°~2

Expansion by colonists as well as immigrants 502Plantation, colonies' expansion aided by new crops of rice and indigo . . . 502-3Foundation of Georgia 5°3Cleavage between older and newer settlements intensified by system of land holding 504-5Friction over home government's prohibition of colonial industry 5°5Problems of credit and prices intensify resentment of back country farmers . . 5°6Religious revivalism encouraged by spread of settlement 507-SMany tensions within colonial society 508Social structure, simplicity and poverty of hinterland society . . . . 510Royal government identified with eastern oligarchy by farmers of the hinterland . 510-11French expansion 511Economy based on fur and fish 512Trading posts; administration; the Church 513

CHAPTER XXII

RIVALRIES IN AMERICAI. The Caribbean, by J. H. PARRY

2. The North American Continent, by FRANK THISTLETHWAITB

I. THE CARIBBEAN

Claim of trade monopoly by Spain 514Relations between Spain and the South Sea Company <ÎIS~Î7War of Jenkins' Ear . . 518-19Anglo-French warfare, 1744-8 ! ! 1 ! ! 519-20

xviii

CONTENTS

Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle page 520-21Seven Years War: Pitt's strategy 521-22Naval warfare 522Capture of Guadeloupe; Family Compact 523Spain's entry into Seven Years War 524French and Spanish losses in the West Indies 524-5Peace negotiations 526-8

2. THE NORTH AMERICAN CONTINENT

Increasing Anglo-French tension, 1713-63 528French colonial development 528British colonial development 528-9Systematic French expansion, foundation of Louisbourg 529New Orleans; Georgia 53°French attempt to control Illinois District 53*Confederation of the Six Nations; French and Dutch trade 532Anglo-French hostilities; capture of Louisbourg 533Acadians deported; French and Indian co-operation 534French offensive in Ohio 535Virginians gain support of British government 536Failure of Braddock's campaign 537Full-scale hostilities directed by Pitt 538Fall of Fort Duquesne; the attack on Quebec 539British naval victories; Treaty of Paris 54°

CHAPTER XXIII

RIVALRIES IN INDIABy C. C. D A V I E S , Reader in Indian History in the University of Oxford

Decline of the Mogul Empire 54i-*Administrative institutions 543Fratricidal warfare after death of Aurangzeb, persecution of Sikho . . . 544Rule of Bahadur Shah; court factions 545Marathas under Sivaji 546Marathas under Shahu, aims of Maratha policies 547Maratha claims in the Deccan - 548Raids into Malwa and Gujarat 549Attacks on the Siddis and on Portuguese territory . . . . 550Nadir Shah's invasion . 551-2Growth of the 'country powers* 553Maratha invasions of Bengal 554-5Maratha invasions of the Carnatic 556-7European trading factories; Anglo-French hostilities, 1744-8 . . . . 558Condition of India in 1748; French bid for Indian Empire 559Succession struggles in the Carnatic and the Deccan 560Reasons for Dupleix's failure 561-2Clive's conquest of Bengal 562-3Marathas driven southwards by Afghans 564Consolidation of British rule in Bengal 565

xix 2-3

CONTENTS

CHAPTER XXIV

ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN AFRICA ANDTHE FAR EAST

I. Africa, by J. GALLAGHER, Fellow of Trinity College andLecturer in History in the University of Cambridge

2. Asia, by VICTOR PURCELL, Lecturer in Far Eastern Historyin the University of Cambridge

I. AFRICA

Slave-trading regions Page 556Techniques and units of exchange 567Formation of national companies 568Prussian, Danish and Portuguese companies 569Dutch and French companies 570-1British companies 571-2Fierce competition and rising costs of slaving 573European penetration in Africa limited 574Effect of slave trade on African society 575Dutch settlements in South Africa 576-7Portuguese empire in Africa 578Madagascar, Ethiopia 579

2. ASIA

Dutch trading settlement in Japan 579-80European relations with China 580Trading ventures of British East India Company 581Chinese control over foreign trade 582European trading missions 583Chinese distrust and misunderstanding of foreigners 584-5Coffee production in Indonesia 585-6Spread of Dutch power 587Chinese penetration in Indonesia 588Decline of the Dutch East India Company 588-9Trade and economic relations in the Philippines 589-90Persecution of the Chinese 591Land tenure in the Philippines 592

I N D E X 593

xx