NIKOLAUS HARNONCOURT

The Musical Dialogue

Thoughts on M o n t e v e r d i , Bach and M o z a r t

Translated by Mary O'Neil l

Reinhard G. Pauly General Editor

Am A M A D E U S PRESS

Portland, Oregon

The Tonal Image of Medieval Music

We k n o w a l m o s t n o t h i n g w i t h cer ta inty of the s o u n d of m u s i c p r i o r to 1500, A n y o n e in teres ted i n this mus ic m u s t a l w a y s keep this fact i n m i n d and use e x t r e m e caut ion in assessing statements m a d e b y those a l l eg ing that t h e y are i n possession of i n c o n t r o v e r t i b l e e v i d e n c e . E v e r y t h i n g achieved u p to the present in this area is h y p o t h e t i c a l i n n a t u r e , and w i l l r e m a i n so f o r e v e r because this music i n its t r u e f o r m has d i e d away once and for a l l . T h e o n l y o p t i o n o p e n to us is to t r y to i m a g i n e , as prec ise ly as possible, the w a y in w h i c h music was m a d e at that t i m e , u s i n g eye­witness accounts and c o n t e m p o r a r y d o c u m e n t a t i o n . N o r s h o u l d w e forget that the m u s i c a l practice of that t i m e , above al l i n secular w o r k s , a lmost a lways u t i l i z e d i m p r o v i s a t i o n that was m o r e or less b o u n d b y a specific set of rules I n the actual p e r f o r m a n c e of th i s m u s i c par t i cu lar ly , we m u s t re ly l a rge ly o n o u r feel ings tor mus ica l style. The greater o u r c o m p r e h e n s i o n of the ent i re s p i r i t u a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l m i l i e u of those t imes, the m o r e p e r f o r m a n c e of this music w i l l c o m m u n i c a t e to us. But , since c o m p l e t e u n d e r s t a n d i n g is unat ta inab le , the ' ' M u s i c of the G o t h i c A g e ' w i l l n e v e r again be heard i n a c o m p l e t e l y a u t h e n t i c w a y — w e w o u l d have fo become the p e o p l e w h o l i v e d d u r i n g that p e r i o d to real ize a f u l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . We are o n l y able to a p p r o a c h its t rue f o r m t h r o u g h i n t u i t i o n a n d k n o w l e d g e ; the closer w e come, the m o r e c o n ­v i n c i n g the results w i l l be

It is a l m o s t i m p o s s i b l e to discuss s o n o r i t y i n a s t r u c t u r e d a n d c o m p r e ­hens ib le way M u s i c a l sound is a p h e n o m e n o n that e ludes any a t t e m p t to descr ibe it . Just a shor t t ime after a tone has f a d e d a w a y the f ine p o i n t s of its p a r t i c u l a r qual i t i es can hardly be recal led to m e m o r y . Each of us k n o w s h o w d i f f i c u l t it is to recall the s o u n d of an i n s t r u m e n t that we have h e a r d , to i m a g i n e i t w i t h ai l its nuances. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t is w e l l - n i g h , i m p o s s i b l e to c o n v e y tonal qual i t i es i n w o r d s i n a g e n e r a l l y accessible way. There s t m p l v are no l inguis t i c means to descr ibe such qual i t ies . We must make d o w i t h v isual or o ther c o m p a r i s o n s , s u c h as b r i g h t and dark , open and m u f f l e d However . , these express ions t h e m s e l v e s are b y n o means u n a m b i g u o u s ; the same w o r d s suggest q u i t e d i f f e r e n t s o u n d s to d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e Physica l cr i ter ia ot ter us the o n l y p o s s i b i l i t y of d e s c r i b i n g s o u n d s u n a m b i g u o u s l y H o w e v e r , e v e n w h e n p r e s e n t e d graphica l ly , this t y p e of analysis is so abstract tha t v e r y f e w p e o p l e can i m a g i n e the c o r r e s p o n d i n g tones w h e n they see the n u m b e r s or w a v e f o r m s , and t h u s th is m e t h o d is n o t suitable for a d i s c u s s i o n of this t o p i c . H o w e v e r , such an analysis is e x t r e m e l y va luable for assist ing the ear i n systematic s tudies of tones

W h y are we in teres ted in quest ions of m u s i c a l sound? W h a t is the na ture of the i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n a c o m p o s i t i o n a n d its t o n a l

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r e p r o d u c t i o n ? A r e there b i n d i n g r u l e s w h i c h m a n d a t e the se lec t ion of c e r t a i n s o u n d c o m b i n a t i o n s in p e r f o r m a n c e , especial ly the p e r ­f o r m a n c e of early music? For m u s i c w h i c h is g e n e r a l l y fami l ia r , let us say f r o m Viennese classicism o n , i t goes w i t h o u t saying for us that the specif ic i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n is g i v e n . T h i s m e a n s that the c o m p o s e r de ter ­m i n e s n o t o n l y the p u r e l y m u s i c a l c o n t e n t of his w o r k , b u t he also defines,, u n e q u i v o c a l l y a n d precise ly , the " K l a n g b i l d " or t o n a l i m a g e of the r e n d i t i o n . T h e r e are w o r k s for h a r p s i c h o r d , for o r g a n , for a l l the usual i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d the i n d i v i d u a l i n s t r u m e n t s , e v e n i n the case o f large orchestras, are precisely p r e s c r i b e d . D u r i n g the act of c o m p o s i ­t i o n , c o m p o s e r s have i n m i n d the s o u n d a n d the special way in w h i c h these i n s t r u m e n t s are p l a y e d a n d a r t i c u l a t e d ; they w r i t e w i t h these i n s t r u m e n t s i n m i n d .

B u t the f u r t h e r back w e go i n t i m e , the sparser and m o r e g e n e r a l i z e d are the composer ' s d i r e c t i o n s . " F o r s i n g i n g a n d p l a y i n g o n a l l m a n n e r of i n s t r u m e n t s " is a c o m m o n i n s t r u c t i o n for m u s i c of the 16th c e ntury . M e d i e v a l music v e r y s e l d o m prescr ibes p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s , s u c h as is f o u n d i n the " i n S a e c u l u m v i e l l a t o r i s " of the B a m b e r g C o d e x . Yet these spare d i rec t ives b y no means i m p l y that se lect ion of i n s t r u m e n t s was a mat ter of c o m p l e t e i n d i f f e r e n c e . Ear l ier m u s i c was not c o m p o s e d i n its p o l i s h e d , f i n a l shape as was the mus ic of later ages. For m a n y of these w o r k s , we cannot speak of a specif ic vocal or i n s t r u m e n t a l style f o r p a r t i c u l a r i n s t r u m e n t s ; instead, the m u s i c was a d a p t e d to the charac­terist ics of the i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h w e r e used. The m u s i c p r o v i d e d the c o m p o s i t i o n a l substance w h i c h c o u l d be p e r f o r m e d w i t h the m o s t v a r i e d types of g r o u p s , i n accordance w i t h available resources. T h e i d i o s y n c r a t i c m u s i c a l f igures that w e r e t y p i c a l of specif ic i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e i m p r o v i s e d o n l y d u r i n g p e r f o r m a n c e .

T h e p r i m a r y reason u n d e r l y i n g these p r a c t i c e s — t h o r o u g h l y d e p a r t ­i n g f r o m those p r e v a i l i n g t o d a y — i s to be f o u n d in the f u n d a m e n t a l d i f ­ference i n the p r o f e s s i o n of m u s i c i a n t h e n a n d n o w . W h e n W e s t e r n m u s i c h a d o n l y en tered its d e v e l o p m e n t , w h e n n o t h i n g h a d yet b e e n w r i t t e n d o w n , the c o m p o s e r a n d the p e r f o r m i n g m u s i c i a n w e r e i d e n t i c a l . M u s i c was s i m p l y i m p r o v i s e d i n p u b l i c , as w e w o u l d say today. The separa t ion b e t w e e n these t w o f u n c t i o n s , i.e. that o f the c o m p o s e r a n d tha t of the p e r f o r m e r , d e v e l o p e d g r a d u a l l y as a resul t of the d e v i s i n g of m o r e elaborate means of n o t a t i o n to, descr ibe a c o m p o s i t i o n i n a concre te way, a n d the desire of t h e c o m p o s e r s to g ive the i r w o r k s a d e f i n i t i v e f o r m . O n l y recent ly has the abso lute separa t io n been reached . M u s i c i a n s today o r d i n a r i l y have n o k n o w l e d g e of the art of c o m p o s i ­t i o n ; t h e y have a d o w n r i g h t s lav ish r e l a t i o n s h i p to the w r i t t e n m u s i c t h e y receive f r o m the c o m p o s e r . T h e i r task is s i m p l y to p e r f o r m the c o m p o s i t i o n s of o thers as p e r f e c t l y as poss ib le i n t e r m s of t e c h n i q u e a n d e x p r e s s i o n . The precise d e s i g n a t i o n of a l l the o r n a m e n t s w h i c h w e r e to be p l a y e d , a c o m p o s i t i o n a l pract ice w h i c h b e g a n i n the late B a r o q u e

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p e r i o d , was i n i t i a l l y r e g a r d e d by m u s i c i a n s as a d e g r a d i n g insu l t . D u r i n g the M i d d l e Ages , c o m p o s e r s w e r e p e r f o r m i n g music ians , a n d a l m o s t e v e r y m u s i c i a n was also a c o m p o s e r . I n any case, every g o o d m u s i c i a n had to master the rules of c o m p o s i t i o n and of i m p r o v i s a t i o n , a n d so i t was t a k e n f o r g r a n t e d that the latest f o r m of a w o r k w o u l d emerge o n l y o n the occasion of its c u r r e n t p e r f o r m a n c e .

I w i s h to a v o i d here a d i scuss ion of the q u e s t i o n of w h i c h i n s t r u m e n t s are to be used for w h i c h music a n d w h a t effects the m a n y p r o h i b i t i o n s on i n s t r u m e n t a l music i n the c h u r c h have had. Th i s topic is too c o m p l e x to be i n c l u d e d i n a d iscuss ion d e v o t e d p r i n c i p a l l y to ques t ions o f m u s i c a l s o u n d . H o w e v e r , I m u s t at least p o i n t out the i n c r e d i b l e •disparity that exists b e t w e e n the i n s t r u m e n t a l music w h i c h was u n ­d o u b t e d l y a n d ex tens ive ly p l a y e d a n d the r i d i c u l o u s l y f e w i n s t r u ­m e n t a l c o m p o s i t i o n s w h i c h have been preserved—as c o m p a r e d w i t h the host of extant vocal w o r k s . This d i s p a r i t y cannot be e x p l a i n e d b y acc identa l losses w h i c h o c c u r r e d over the course of the centur ies . T h e r e are t w o possible reasons for this d i f ference . First: m u c h i n s t r u m e n t a l mus ic was i m p r o v i s e d . Second: i n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s used c o m p o s e d vocal music , w h i c h they m o d i f i e d a n d a d a p t e d to g i v e n c o n d i t i o n s a n d ava i l ­able resources. This practice can be seen f r o m the later tablatures for lute , h a r p s i c h o r d and o r g a n , as w e l l as treatises such as the Tratado de Glosas of D i e g o O r t i z of 1553, a n d f r o m m a n y o ther sources as w e l l .

The value of mam. of the w r i t t e n sources f o r s t u d y i n g the m u s i c a l pract ice of the M i d d l e A g e s is s e r i o u s l y c o m p r o m i s e d b y the d i s p a r i t y that ex is ted f o r centur ies b e t w e e n - t h e o r y and practice, w h i c h , p a r t i c u ­l a r l y i n the M i d d l e Ages, was i n s u r m o u n t a b l y large. T h e o r y was r e g a r d e d as a f i e l d i n itself. S tudies w e r e constant ly based o n B o e t h i u s ( a r o u n d 520 A . D . ) , or later o n G u i d o d ' A r e z z o (c. 1000-c. 1050), e v e n at a t ime w h e n musical practice h a d great ly advanced. T h e t h e o r i s t was descr ibed as musicus, the p e r f o r m i n g music ians as cantores. L e a r n e d theor is ts s c o r n f u l l y d i s r e g a r d e d al l secular m us i ca l practice, a n d e v e n s u r r o u n d e d sacred music w i t h a p u r e l y theore t i ca l f r a m e w o r k of d o c t r i n e , w h i c h was t h e o r y for i ts o w n sake, u n r e l a t e d t o actual pract ice . Since most mus ic was not w r i t t e n d o w n , the p r e d o m i n a n c e of t h e o r y o v e r pract ice arose o u t of the w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n , a fact w h i c h has been g r e a t l y - m i s u n d e r s t o o d ,

I n his d e f i n i t i v e s t u d y o n m u s i c a l i m p r o v i s a t i o n , Ernest , F'erand r e p e a t e d l y p o i n t e d o u t this fact i n a c o n v i n c i n g a n d e m p h a t i c m a n n e r . I n a n y case, a c c o r d i n g to t e s t i m o n y f r o m Ekkehard" of St. G a l l , i n s t r u ­m e n t a l m u s i c was i n c l u d e d i n the basic e d u c a t i o n of y o u n g n o b l e m e n i n the 9 th a n d 10th centur ies . A n educated m a n l i v i n g a r o u n d 1200 was expec ted to have mastered the f i d d l e , f lute , h a r p , rebec a n d psal tery.

O f course there w e r e a w h o l e series of u n w r i t t e n rules s t i p u l a t i n g w h i c h i n s t r u m e n t s c o u l d a n d c o u l d n o t be used together . C e r t a i n c o m ­b i n a t i o n s a lways appear i n the p i c t u r e s w e hav e f r o m that p e r i o d , a n d

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sources such as Sebastian V i r d u n g ' s Musica getutscht, a n d the w r i t i n g s of M i c h a e l P r a e t o r i u s c o n v e y a clear idea of the v a r i o u s w a y s i n w h i c h the i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n c o u l d be p r o p e r l y assembled. A l t h o u g h Praetor ius l i v e d i n a d i f f e r e n t p e r i o d , his w o r k s p r o v i d e us w i t h i m p o r t a n t i n f o r m a ­t i o n c o n c e r n i n g the s t r u c t u r e a n d p r o p e r t i e s of m u s i c a l s o u n d a n d the p e r f o r m a n c e pract ice of ear l ier t imes . Th i s a b i l i t y to u t i l i z e avai lable resources m a y w e l l be the f i rs t sk i l l w e s h o u l d a t t e m p t to acquire .

F r o m c. 1200 to c. 1500, the i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n r e m a i n e d largely u n c h a n g e d . T h e most c o m m o n l y used s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s were the f i d d l e , rebec a n d t rornba m a r i n a or " n u n ' s f i d d l e . " The w i n d s i n c l u d e d t r u m p e t , bass s h a w m , s h a w m , b a g p i p e , por ta t ive o r g a n , recorder , a n d transverse flute. P l u c k e d i n s t r u m e n t s i n c l u d e d the h a r p , psalter1,;, lute, m a n d o l a , a n d gui tar . Percuss ion i n s t r u m e n t s i n c l u d e d the t a m b o u r i n e , c y m b a i s , t r i a n g le a n d t i m b r e l r i n g . Very typ ica l c o m b i n a t i o n s of two i n s t r u m e n t s i n c l u d e the p o r t a t i v e o r g a n a n d f i d d l e , f i d d l e a n d lute, p o r t a t i v e o r g a n a n d h a r p , p o r t a t i v e o r g a n a n d lute , all o f t e n also used to a c c o m p a n y singers. For three i n s t r u m e n t s , f i d d l e , h a r p a n d p o r t a t i v e organ ; p o r t a t i v e o r g a n , lute a n d h a r p ; p o r t a t i v e organ , f i d d l e a n d lute, w e r e o f t e n c o m b i n e d . I n some p ic tures we see a r e c o r d e r r e p l a c i n g the p o r t a t i v e organ or a n o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t .

The i n s t r u m e n t s i n those days w e r e descr ibed e i ther as l o u d / s t r o n g or as s o f t / q u i e t . The l o u d i n s t r u m e n t s i n c l u d e d t r u m p e t s , shawms, bagpipes , a n d ket t le d r u m s ; the q u i e t ones i n c l u d e d f i d d l e s , recorders , lutes, a n d harps . I t is l i k e l y that l o u d i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e u s e d p r i m a r i l y o u t - o f - d o o r s , w h i l e the q u i e t i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e r e s e r v e d for c h a m b e r music p l a y e d in smal ler r o o m s . H e i n r i c h Besseler be l ieves that o p e n - a i r music p l a y e d o n s h a w m s , bass s h a w m s and t r u m p e t s h a d a h o m o ­geneous s o u n d as ear ly as the 15th century , a characterist ic f o u n d in the o the r categories of i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c o n l y after the great t r a n s i t i o n that o c c u r r e d a r o u n d the year 1500.

The w i d e v a r i e t y of th i s i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n is c o u n t e r p o i n t e d by the h u m a n vo ice , the o n l y " i n s t r u m e n t " that has been p r e s e r v e d u n c h a n g e d u p to o u r o w n day, at least i n t e r m s of p h y s i o l o g y N o n e t h e l e s s , w e m u s t n o t assume that the s o u n d of s i n g i n g has gone u n c h a n g e d since those ear ly days . A f t e r ail, the r o o t s of W e s t e r n mus ic reach back to the O r i e n t . B o t h the earliest i n s t r u m e n t a l practices as w e l l as c h o r a l mus ic , the m o n o p h o n i c c h o r a l a n d solo s i n g i n g i n c h u r c h , w e r e t a k e n f r o m the East a n d o n l y g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o w h a t w e descr ibe t o d a y as Western music .

O r i e n t a l s ingers use a s i n g i n g t e c h n i q u e that is f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f ­ferent f r o m o u r o w n . Professor H a n s H i c k m a n n , w h o l i v e d for m a n y years i n E g y p t i n o r d e r to s t u d y the sources of W e s t e r n music o n the basis o f s u r v i v i n g O r i e n t a l m u s i c a l practices, po ints o u t the s i m i l a r i t y of facial p o s i t i o n s of s ingers d e p i c t e d i n o l d p a i n t i n g s w i t h the facial p o s i ­t ions o f O r i e n t a l s ingers . T h u s , u n t i l 1500 or s h o r t l y thereaf ter , w e can

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i m a g i n e the s o u n d of the h u m a n s i n g i n g voice as b e i n g s o m e w h a t s imi lar to T u r k i s h , E g y p t i a n and somet imes even S p a n i s h f o l k s ingers today. The s o u n d is t h r o a t y a n d nasal, a n d has a large d y n a m i c range.

I f w e n o w cons ider the i n s t r u m e n t s , the q u e s t i o n is m u c h m o r e d i f f i ­cul t , because, prac t i ca l ly speak ing , no i n s t r u m e n t s of the 1 3 t h or 14th centur ies have been p r e s e r v e d . We are forced to re ly e x c l u s i v e l y o n p i c t o r i a l representat ions . The earliest extant i n s t r u m e n t s are f r o m the 15th century , and they are i n d i v i d u a l spec imens (rebec of the F i g d o r C o l l e c t i o n , rebec i n M o d e n a ) w h i c h can h a r d l y be r e g a r d e d as r e p r e ­sentative of the actual i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n used d u r i n g the p e r i o d . M o r e o v e r , the present c o n d i t i o n o f these i n s t r u m e n t s p r e c l u d e s ser ious s tudy of t h e i r o r i g i n a l s o u n d .

Q u i t e a n u m b e r of i n s t r u m e n t s of the 16th c e n t u r y have been preserved . Nonethe less , in s t u d y i n g these i n s t r u m e n t s w e m u s t c o n ­stantly ask w h e t h e r we are e x a m i n i n g i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h w e r e actual ly used or perhaps o n l y col lectors ' i tems w h i c h d e r i v e d t h e i r v a l u e , even at that t i m e , p r i m a r i l y f r o m the i r rar i ty or h i g h l y art ist ic w o r k m a n s h i p . A f t e r a i l , w h a t e v e r has been preserved consists p r i m a r i l y of r i c h l y o r n a ­m e n t e d showpieces f r o m the p r i v a t e co l lec t ions or " K u n s t k a m m e r , " as thev w e r e called at that t ime, of noble fami l ies . O n l y af ter a b o u t the second h a l f of the 16th c e n t u r y is it possible for us to d e r i v e a s o m e w h a t adequate sense of the i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n , of the s o u n d of the i n s t r u m e n t s a n d of the i r p l a y i n g t e c h n i q u e

The s tudy of the oldest extant i n s t r u m e n t s r e q u i r e s an u n c o m ­p r o m i s i n g and cr i t i ca l e x a m i n a t i o n of all of the p e r t i n e n t data, p a r t i c u ­lar ly w i t h regard to the age of the i n s t r u m e n t , since m o s t ear ly i n s t r u ­ments are not dated a n d since pr iva te col lectors a n d (at t i m e s ) m u s e u m s alike have a c o m p l e t e l y u n d e r s t a n d a b l e t e n d e n c y t o . pre -date the i r oldest i n s t r u m e n t s i n o r d e r to make t h e m appear o l d e r . F r o m the v e r y b e g i n n i n g , the d i f fe rence b e t w e e n the g e n t l e / q u i e t a n d t h e l o u d i n s t r u ­m e n t s , descr ibed centur ies later b y M i c h a e l Prae tor ius , is v e r y e v i d e n t . A n a d m i x t u r e of these t w o types is v e r y u n a t t r a c t i v e i n t e r m s of s o u n d a n d is rare ly expressed in pictures .

A t th i s p o i n t , I w o u l d l ike to discuss the most i m p o r t a n t i n s t r u m e n t s i n d i v i d u a l l y . I he f i d d l e w a 3 e v i d e n t ! ) the most w i d e l y - u s e d i n s t r u ­ment . I t existed i n v e r y diverse, f o r m s : ova l , shaped l i k e a " f i g u r e - 8 , " b u t most f r e q u e n t l y i n the fami l iar g u i t a r - l i k e shape. T h e w r i t t e n .sources ex to l the s u p e r i o r qual i t i es of the f i d d l e . A r o u n d 1300, f o r e x a m p l e , Johannes de G r o c c h e o w r i t e s , " f t seems to m e tha t the fiddle deserves p r e e m i n e n c e a m o n g al l the s t r i n g e d i n s t r u m e n t s . " U l r i c h v o n Eschen-bach speaks of its sweet s o u n d . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , since n o m e d i e v a l f i d d l e s have been p r e s e r v e d , w e have n o idea h o w t h e y s o u n d e d . We can o n l v d r a w conc lus ions based on the earliest p r e s e r v e d i n s t r u m e n t s a b o u t the s o u n d o f the i r predecessors, an a p p r o a c h w h i c h appears to m e the most rel iable .

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T h e K u n s t h i s t o r i s c h e s M u s e u m i n V i e n n a o w n s a n u m b e r of the very-earl iest extant s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s , f r o m s h o r t l y after 1500. W i t h o u t e x c e p t i o n , these i n s t r u m e n t s have an e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y b e a u t i f u l a n d sweet s o u n d . T h e y speak v e r y r e a d i l y a n d l ightness is one of t h e i r spe­cial t o n a l character is t ics—there is n o trace of coarseness or harshness . The fact that such s o n o r i t y characterizes a l l the i n s t r u m e n t s that have been p r e s e r v e d m a y w e l l indicate that th is is n o c o i n c i d e n c e . I o w n a bass i n s t r u m e n t f r o m the year 1558. It is s o m e w h a t larger than a cel lo a n d has the gui tar - shape of the o l d f idd les . T h i s i n s t r u m e n t also has a w o n d e r f u l l y m e l l o w a n d s m o o t h tone that is i m m e d i a t e l y not iceable to a n y m u s i c a l p e r s o n , a tone that can be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m the s o u n d o f the gamba or cel lo . A n exper t can see i m m e d i a t e l y f r o m t h e m a s t e r f u l e x e c u t i o n , the choice of w o o d a n d v a r n i s h , that this c anno t be s i m p l y a p r i m i t i v e l o w e r r u n g o n the l a d d e r t o the f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p e r f e c t i o n of s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t m a k i n g . O n the contrary , it is a m a t u r e a n d s k i l l f u l l y executed w o r k of art , the equal of any later master i n s t r u m e n t . I f w e s t u d y a l l of these i n s t r u m e n t s i n d e p t h , w e are b o u n d to c o m e to the c o n c l u s i o n that the s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s of that t i m e are no t the resu l t of f u m b l i n g at tempts i n the d i r e c t i o n of a s o u n d idea l w h i c h w o u l d be a c h i e v e d o n l y at a later date. T h e y are g e n u i n e masterpieces w h i c h c o r r e s p o n d per fec t ly to the t o n a l i d e a l o f t h e i r age. A f t e r a l l , even at that t i m e i n s t r u m e n t makers l o o k e d back o n a c e n t u r i e s - o l d t r a d i t i o n w h i c h reached to the O r i e n t . I t is n o t l i k e l y tha t the f i d d l e s of the 1 3 t h -16th centur ies s o u n d e d m u c h w o r s e t h a n the earl iest p r e s e r v e d i n s t r u ­m e n t s , a n d such a n a s s u m p t i o n w o u l d be d i f f i c u l t to p r o v e i n any case, o n t h e basis of p i c t o r i a l a n d s c u l p t u r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s .

I n s o m e r e m o t e areas, such as i n the Caucasus or B a l k a n r e g i o n s , w e occas ional ly f i n d i n s t r u m e n t s s i m i l a r to t h e f i d d l e or the rebec, w h i c h are u s e d t o d a y for f o l k music . H o w e v e r , u s i n g such i n s t r u m e n t s to inves t igate the t o n a l aspects of m e d i e v a l i n s t r u m e n t s appears to m e a ra ther d u b i o u s u n d e r t a k i n g , for a n u m b e r of reasons. I n terms of t h e i r t o n a l qual i t ies , such s t r i n g e d f o l k i n s t r u m e n t s (e.g. the f i d d l e s p l a y e d by-A m e r i c a n h i l l b i l l i e s ) are usual ly a far cry f r o m the a r t - m u s i c p r o t o t y p e s after w h i c h t h e y w e r e m o d e l e d . A n y s i m i l a r i t y is based p u r e l y o n exter­na! appearance . I t is also clear tha t the peasants w h o made,- a n d st i l l make , such p r i m i t i v e i n s t r u m e n t s for t h e i r o w n use cannot c o m p e t e w i t h t h e pro fes s ion a l s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t m a k e r s w h o prac t i ced t h e i r craft as a h i g h l y c o m p l e x art f o r m h a n d e d d o w n f r o m g e n e r a t i o n to genera­t i o n . N o one w o u l d t h i n k of u s i n g peasant v i o l i n s of the 18th a n d 19th centur ies as a basis for s t u d y i n g the t o n a l q u a l i t i e s of s t r i n g e d i n s t r u ­m e n t s of those t imes. Such a n o t i o n w o u l d be a b s u r d .

T h e r e c o r d e r s of the M i d d l e A g e s p r o b a b l y s o u n d e d s i m i l a r to those b u i l t at a s o m e w h a t later t i m e , e.g. the 16th c e n t u r y , m a n y of w h i c h are p r e s e r v e d . T h e technica l features of the i r c o n s t r u c t i o n , the w o r k f r o m one p iece , the v e r y w i d e b o r i n g , the large f i n g e r - h o l e s a n d the r e l a t i v e l y

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h i g h c u t o u t of the m o u t h - h o l e resul t i n a f u l l , v e l v e t y tone w h i c h d i f fers great ly f r o m the s o u n d of the B a r o q u e recorder as i t is g e n e r a l l y f o u n d t o d a y B a r o q u e recorders s o u n d m u c h b r i g h t e r t h a n Renaissance recorders , or, to p u t i t s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t l y , t h e i r s o u n d is r i cher i n h a r m o n i c s . The B a r o q u e recorder is p r i m a r i l y a solo i n s t r u m e n t , w h i l e Renaissance recorders , a n d p r o b a b l y the earl ier r e c o r d e r s as w e l l , w e r e used for ensemble p l a y i n g . T h e latter also have a m u c h smal ler tone range, i n k e e p i n g w i t h the p u r p o s e for w h i c h t h e y w e r e used.

I t is not easy to i m a g i n e the s o u n d of the lu te , w h i c h h a d m e t a l s tr ings d u r i n g the M i d d l e A g e s and was p l u c k e d w i t h a q u i l l p l e c t r u m . I f w e were to use s i m i l a r m e t a l s t r ings on a Renaissance l u t e , w e w o u l d have an a p p r o x i m a t e idea of h o w the G o t h i c lute m i g h t have s o u n d e d . I d o nor t h i n k that the c o n s t r u c t i o n of ear l ier i n s t r u m e n t s was essential ly d i f ­ferent f r o m that of Renaissance lutes, a n d this e x p e r i m e n t thus seems m e a n i n g f u l to me . T h e s o u n d of a Renaissance lu te w i t h m e t a l s tr ings , p l u c k e d w i t h a q u i l l , resembles that of an o l d F l e m i s h s p i n e t : v e r y clear, but no t v e r y l o u d , f u l l in the f u n d a m e n t a l tone , b u t nonethe less w i t h b r i l l i a n t o v e r t o n e s . O n l y one m e l o d i c l ine is u s u a l l y p l a y e d o n i t . T h e t rans i t ion to the Renaissance l u t e w i t h gut s t r ings a n d p l u c k e d w i t h the f ingers p r o b a b l y o c c u r r e d a r o u n d 1500. F r o m that p o i n t o n , the lute appears as a p r e f e r r e d solo i n s t r u m e n t for p o l y p h o n i c p l a y i n g , s i m i l a r to the k e y b o a r d i n s t r u m e n t s . The m a i n d i f ference b e t w e e n the t w o types does not exist i n the i n s t r u m e n t itself, but ra ther i n the t y p e of s t r ings used a n d i n the f u n d a m e n t a l l y d i f f e r e n t ways o f p l a y i n g .

I n the case of the p o r t a t i v e o r g a n , h o w e v e r , i t is poss ib le t o g ive m o r e deta i led i n f o r m a t i o n . For several centuries , th is was one of the m o s t f r e q u e n t l y used i n s t r u m e n t s . A l t h o u g h no p o r t a t i v e o r g a n has c o m e d o w n to us, i t is re la t ive ly easy to reconstruct its s o u n d . M u c h v i s u a l m a t e r i a l is avai lable , some of i t (the p a i n t i n g s of M e n d i n g o r Van Eyck, f o r e x a m p l e ) of a l m o s t p h o t o g r a p h i c clarity. M o r e o v e r , w e k n o w the scal ing of the p i p e s a n d the w a y i n w h i c h w i n d was s u p p l i e d . I n the ear­liest p o r t a t i v e organs, all p ipes h a d the same d i a m e t e r , w h i c h is d e s c r i b e d as b e i n g a b o u t the size of a p igeon ' s egg, m e a n i n g tha t the s o u n d c h a n g e d f r o m the l o w e r to the u p p e r tones . T h e l o w p i p e s have a v e r y n a r r o w scal ing and for that reason have a s o u n d s o m e w h a t l i k e a b o w e d s t r i n g i n s t r u m e n t , w h i l e the h i g h p ipes h a v e an e x t r e m e l y w i d e scaling, s o u n d m o r e f l u t e - l i k e and have f e w e r h a r m o n i c s . F r o m the p u r e l y m u s i c a l p o i n t of v i e w , the p o r t a t i v e o r g a n s h o u l d p r o b a b l y be i n c l u d e d a m o n g the quie t i n s t r u m e n t s . I t is u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h such i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d a balance b e t w e e n , say, a f i d d l e , h a r p a n d a l o u d -s o u n d i n g p o r t a t i v e o r g a n is u n t h i n k a b l e . I n his s t u d y of the p o r t a t i v e o r g a n , H i c k m a n n m e n t i o n s th i s i n s t r u m e n t ' s capaci ty f o r v a r y i n g b o t h the v o l u m e a n d p i t c h , w h i c h is p r a i s e d i n o l d sources . F r o m the w e a l t h of v isual m a t e r i a l o n this i n s t r u m e n t , i t appears that m o s t p o r t a t i v e organs, especial ly the F l e m i s h ones, h a d a s ingle b e l l o w s , w h i c h was

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l i f t ed a n d depressed b y h a n d . T h i s means, o n the one h a n d , that one has to breathe a n d c a n n o t p l a y w i t h o u t a pause, l i k e p l a y i n g a w i n d i n s t r u ­m e n t , a n d o n the o t h e r h a n d that the w i n d pressure can be c o n t r o l l e d b y h a n d , w h i c h is of cr i t i ca l i m p o r t a n c e i n actual pract ice . I n t e r m s of the technical aspects of o r g a n - b u i l d i n g , re la t ive ly n a r r o w l i m i t s are set here w i t h r e g a r d to v o l u m e a n d t i m b r e as w e l l . The i n t e n s i t y of s o u n d is d e p e n d e n t o n w i n d pressure and o n the sca l ing or m e n s u r a t i o n of the pipes , i.e. on t h e i r d i a m e t e r , m o u t h - w i d t h , c u t - u p , etc, T ne w i n d pressure cannot be selected at w i l l ; it is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50 m m F L O . I t w o u l d h a r d l y be possible to d e m a n d greater w i n d pressure f r o m the player , because this w o u l d make it too d i f f i c u l t to press the b e l l o w s . O n l y i n the case of p o r t a t i v e organs w i t h s m a l l b e l l o w s c o u l d one select a s o m e w h a t h i g h e r w i n d pressure w i t h o u t o v e r t a x i n g the s t r e n g t h of the p layer . To be sure, th is i n s t r u m e n t w o u l d t h e n be v e r y s h o r t - w i n d e d . B u t there is a secona i m p o r t a n t reason for l o w w i n d p r e s s u r e : the v e r y n a r r o w l o w e s t p i p e s can p r o d u c e a correct tone o n l y w i t h v e r y l o w w i n d pressure , w i t h o u t the use of a r t i f i c ia l m e a n s of v o i c i n g . O n e c o u l d s t r e n g t h e n the h i g h e r p ipes , b u t that w o u l d r e s u l t i n an i m p o s s i b l e p r o p o r t i o n b e t w e e n l o w e r and h i g h e r tones , since t h e h i g h e r tones are by n a t u r e m o r e p r o m i n e n t than the l o w e r tones. F u r t h e r m o r e , th is w o u l d be p ra c t i ca l ly unbearab le f o r the ears of the p l a y e r , w h i c h are d i r e c t l y beside the pipes . I f a sharper s o u n d w e r e d e s i r e d , h i g h e r cut -ups a n d m o r e w i n d pressure m u s t be selected, s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is u n l i k e l y because of t h e excessive w i n d c o n s u m p t i o n . I l l u s t r a t i o n s of i n s t r u m e n t s i n o l d p a i n t i n g s also s h o w q u i t e c lear ly t h a t this was no t the case. Close a t t e n t i o n m u s t t h e r e f o r e be p a i d to see ing to i t that the e x t r e m e l y n a r r o w l o w p ipes speak at al l , a n d that t h e e x t r e m e l y w i d e h i g h p i p es s o u n d w i t h o u t too m u c h secondary noise . The a b i l i t y to ad just the i n t o n a t i o n to the o ther i n s t r u m e n t s b y r e g u l a t i n g w i n d pressure w i t h the left h a n d is of great i m p o r t a n c e , as t h e p e r f o r m e r can great ly i n f l u e n c e the t o n e i n this w a y as w e l l . I n s u m m a r y , it can be said that the pmrtat ive o r g a n is p r o b a b l y the o n l y m e d i e v a l i n s t r u m e n t w h o s e s o u n d w e can r e p r o d u c e w i t h a fair degree of accuracy, t h r o u g h consc ient ious r e c o n s t r u c t i o n .

The q u i e t c o r n e t was used r e l a t i v e l y c o m m o n l y af ter the second h a l f of the 15 th century . T h i s p r o b l e m a t i c i n s t r u m e n t w a s a lways d e s c r i b e d as v e r y d i f f i c u l t to master . Based o n examples f r o m t h e 16 th c e n t u r y w h i c h are p r e s e r v e d i n m u s e u m s , m o s t of w h i c h speak r e l a t i v e l y l i g h t l y , I can i m a g i n e tha t the t i m b r e of this i n s t r u m e n t w a s v e r y s u p p l e a n d var iable , m o s t c losely r e s e m b l i n g that of the a c l a r i n e t .

The h a r p , u s u a l l y w i t h g u t s tr ings , w a s p r o b a b l y ra ther soft a n d m e l l o w i n tone .

The s h a w m s , w h i c h w e r e used p r i m a r i l y o u t d o o r s and for dance music , w e r e p r o b a b l y the l o u d e s t of al l t h e w i n d i n s t r u m e n t s , yet t h e i r s o u n d was c e r t a i n l y n e i t h e r r o u g h n o r v u l g a r . I h a d an o p p o r t u n i t y to

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hear a v e r y g o o d r e c o r d i n g of Catalan s h a w m players . Even t h o u g h these i n s t r u m e n t s have u n d e r g o n e some m o d i f i c a t i o n s as c o m p a r e d w i t h the o l d i n s t r u m e n t s , nonetheless i n essential p o i n t s t h e y l a r g e l y resemble the o l d s h a w m s , e.g. in the use of a p i r o u e t t e at the reed , i n t h e b o r i n g , a n d p r o b a b l y even i n the reeds. The t o n e of the s h a w m is v e r y f u l l a n d ra ther inc i s ive , b u t never r o u g h a n d b y n o means r i g i d , as c l a i m e d b y m a n y musicologis ts , b u t f u l l y capable o f shadings . T h u s , despite t h e p i r o u e t t e , a l i t t l e r o l l that is p laced a r o u n d the reed so that i t o n l y p a r t l y emerges , the players can i n f l u e n c e the t o n e w i t h t h e i r l ips t o a v e r y great extent ; it is q u i t e l i k e l y that this was also t r u e of o l d s h a w m s .

A t the b e g i n n i n g of the 15th century, the s l ide t r u m p e t a n d the t r o m b o n e were d e v e l o p e d f r o m t r u m p e t s w h i c h h a d been i n use f o r qui te some t i m e . The t r o m b o n e has r e m a i n e d r e l a t i v e l y u n c h a n g e d a n d has been an i m p o r t a n t w i n d i n s t r u m e n t up to the present . T he earl iest p r e s e r v e d t r o m b o n e s are f r o m the 16th c e n t u r y , b u t i n t e r m s o f m e n s u r a t i o n t h e y appear to bear a s t rong re se mblance to i n s t r u m e n t s o f the 15th c e n t u r y w h i c h w e k n o w o n l y f r o m p i c t u r e s , a n d thus w e can also d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t the i r s o u n d . The s o u n d o f this t r o m b o n e ( I a m t h i n k i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y of an i n s t r u m e n t m a d e i n 1551 w h i c h 1 once h e a r d p l a y e d b y a superb t r o m b o n i s t ) is e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y v e l v e t y a n d l y r i c a l T h e attack of the tone is very m e l l o w a n d f u l l , l i k e that of a v e r y o l d garnba. The d y n a m i c possibi l i t ies are greater t h a n i n a n y o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t of the p e r i o d . I o w n a t r o m b o n e f r o m a b o u t 1700, w h i c h is very s i m i l a r in tone a n d almost ident ica l i n the bore to the o l d e r i n s t r u ­ment . I t appears that the des ign and s o u n d of the t r o m b o n e u n d e r w e n t no f u n d a m e n t a l changes u n t i l late i n the 18th c e n t u r y .

W h a t has b e e n said of the t r o m b o n e is also l a r g e l y t r u e of the t r u m p e t , except that a v e r y clear change in tone can be o b s e r v e d , f r o m the l o w register, w h e r e the tone is p e n e t r a t i n g and b l a r i n g , to t h e u p p e r register, w h e r e the s o u n d is v e r y l y r i c a l , m u c h softer a n d a l m o s t s t r i n g - l i k e . H o w e v e r , th is is t rue o n l y w h e n p l a y e d w i t h o r i g i n a l m o u t h p i e c e s .

T h u s , it is poss ib le to get a general idea of the s o u n d o f the mus ic of the M i d d l e A g e s a n d the Renaissance, even t h o u g h t h i s can c e r t a i n l y n o t be ident i ca l to the actual s o u n d s of that p e r i o d , w h i c h are i r r e v o c a b l y lost and f o r g o t t e n . N o t m u c h r e m a i n s of the sharp a n d p e n e t r a t i n g s o u n d w h i c h m a n y m u s i c i a n s a n d music lovers t h i n k o f i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h M e d i e v a l mus ic . I n any case, a large p r o p o r t i o n of the m o s t f r e q u e n t l y used c o m b i n a t i o n s of i n s t r u m e n t s , such as f i d d l e , h a r p , and r e c o r d e r ; fiddle, p o r t a t i v e , psa l tery ; a n d others, r u l e o u t th is i n c i s i v e tone . T h e use of re la t ive ly inc i s ive i n s t r u m e n t s , such as s h a w m s , is p r o b a b l y res tr ic ted to v e r y p a r t i c u l a r k i n d s of mus ic a n d s h o u l d n o t be t h o u g h t of as stan­d a r d pract ice

F u r t h e r m o r e , e v e n those i n s t r u m e n t s th e m se lves w e r e b y n o means as h a r d a n d r o u g h i n tone as is w i d e l y assumed today. A n d w h a t about the m u c h - d e b a t e d cornet t or Z i n k ? The quie t cornet t s , w h i c h w e r e most

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l i k e l y p r i m a r i l y used f o r this early mus ic , have a tone that is just as m e l l o w as a n d no l o u d e r t h a n that of the recorders . Th e fact t h e y u s u a l l y s o u n d m u c h l o u d e r t o d a y is d u e to i m p e r f e c t copies a n d t o p layers w h o have yet to master the i n s t r u m e n t . W h e n b e g i n n e r s p l a y w i n d i n s t r u ­m e n t s , t h e i r attack is harsher a n d their s o u n d l o u d e r a n d r o u g h e r than tha t of e x p e r i e n c e d players . M o r e o v e r , the p r e s e n t - d a y renaissance of corne t t p l a y i n g is so o r i e n t e d to the c u r v e d c o r n e t t that the quie t corne t t is e i ther c o m p l e t e l y d i s r e g a r d e d or is p l a y e d l ike a c u r v e d one, w i t h a m o u t h p i e c e , i n the m a n n e r of a t r u m p e t . A n d the c u r v e d and l o u d cornetts b e l o n g i n the ' same category w i t h the s h a w m s .

A f e w q u o t e s to substant iate m y c o n v i c t i o n that the s o u n d of m e d i e v a l music was sweet a n d o f the h i g h e s t q u a l i t y : i n the 9 t h c e n t u r y W a l a f r i e d Strabo w r i t e s of t h e o r g a n i n the C a t h e d r a l at A a c h e n : " T h e melos was sweet, a n d so affected the senses that one w o m a n , o v e r w h e l m e d b y the magical tones, lost consciousness a n d even her very l i f e . " I n the 14th century , A d a m v o n S a l i m b e n e w r i t e s : " I n Pisa I e n c o u n t e r e d g i r l s and boys w h o h a d vie l les , z i t h e r s and o ther musica l i n s t r u m e n t s , o n w h i c h they p l a y e d the sweetest tunes, w h i c h enchanted the heart b e y o n d measure . " O f L a n d i n i , G i o v a n n i da Prato w r i t e s : " W h e n s i n g i n g his o w n love songs, the b l i n d master Francesco L a n d i n i a c c o m p a n i e d h i m s e l f on the p o r t a t i v e , so s w e e t l y that there was no one a m o n g h is l isteners w h o d i d no t feel as if h i s hear t w o u l d burs t f o r t h f r o m h is breast t h r o u g h an excess of j o y o u s e x c i t e m e n t caused b y the lovel iness of t h i s m a r v e l o u s h a r m o n y . "

These a n d m a n y o t h e r descr ip t ions indicate n o t o n l y that mus ic at that t i m e was able to e n c h a n t a n d d e l i g h t its l i s teners as m u c h as i t does today,, b u t also, a n d this is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t and w o r t h r e m e m ­b e r i n g , that m u s i c i a n s of those days w e r e p e o p l e jus t as w e are today, T h e style of the i r p e r f o r m a n c e conta ined e v e r y t h i n g i n t e r m s of expres­s ion a n d s e n s i t i v i t y of w h i c h a h u m a n b e i n g is capable, b u t it c e r ta in ly d i d no t e m b r a c e tha t o b j e c t i v i t y w h i c h is o f ten d e m a n d e d t o d a y as b e i n g p a r t i c u l a r l y s ty l i sh , i n w r o n g - h e a d e d reverence f o r a n d fa i th fu lne ss to the w o r k . T h i s " o b j e c t i v i t y " can result o n l y i n a w o o d e n , m u s e u m - l i k e s o u n d , b u t n e v e r i n f u l l - b l o o d e d , l i v i n g music .

N o w that w e have r e v i e w e d the M e d i e v a l i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n a n d its p r o b a b l e s o u n d , I w o u l d l ike once again to cons ider the great t r a n s i t i o n that o c c u r r e d a r o u n d 1500. T h i s p e r i o d w i t n e s s e d d r a m a t i c changes i n the i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n a n d i n the s o u n d ideal . T i l l that t i m e , c o m b i n a ­t ions of s o u n d s f r o m v e r y d i f f e r e n t k i n d s of i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e p r e f e r r e d . These c o r r e s p o n d e d i n idea l fash ion to the B u r g u n d i a n a n d the c o m ­plex p o l y p h o n i c F l e m i s h music , the s t ruc ture of w h i c h c o u l d t h e r e b y be m o s t b e a u t i f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d . I n k e e p i n g w i t h the i n c r e a s i n g p o l i s h of the t e c h n i q u e of c o m p o s i t i o n that character ized the p e r i o d after Josquin, a t r a n s i t i o n t o o k place to m o r e h o m o g e n e o u s s o u n d s w h i c h w e r e better able to express the m o r e h a r m o n i c a l l y o r i e n t e d s o n o r i t y of this music .

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A n d so i t came a b o u t that the fami l ies of i n s t r u m e n t s ( the r e c o r d e r s , gambas, t r o m b o n e s etc.) w e r e b u i l t i n a l l sizes, f r o m t h e bass t o t reb le or discant . Th i s pract ice became s tandard f o r i n s t r u m e n t a l m u s i c of t h e 16th c e n t u r y a n d is d e f i n i t i v e l y s u m m e d u p b y Prae tor ius . A r o u n d 1500,, several of the G o t h i c i n s t r u m e n t s — t h e rebec, psal tery, p o r t a t i v e o r g a n , bagpipes a n d m a r i n e t r u m p e t — d i s a p p e a r f r o m art m u s i c . T h e f i d d l e is reshaped i n t o the l i ra da braccio w h i l e the gambas a n d v i o l s assume t h e shapes f a m i l i a r to us today. M a n y w i n d i n s t r u m e n t s also b e g i n at t h i s t i m e to ga in acceptance; the c r u m h o r n s a n d ranket ts , the c u r v e d cornet ts , the bass s h a w m s and recorders . I t is i m p o r t a n t for us to k e e p i n m i n d that these i n s t r u m e n t s n o w enter i n t o m u s i c a l pract ice and so to a v o i d us ing t h e m for earl ier music . O f course , th is is t r u e o n l y for t h o s e i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h have n o d i rec t a n d s i m i l a r l y d e s i g n e d p r e c u r s o r s , but w h i c h are t rue i n n o v a t i o n s .

W h a t poss ib i l i t i es d o w e have to p e r f o r m t o d a y the m u s i c of t h e G o t h i c a n d of the Renaissance? Does it m a k e anv sense to t r y to recreate the o r i g i n a l sounds? W h a t has a lready been d o n e i n th is f i e l d , and w i t h w h a t success? I am f i r m l y c o n v i n c e d that w e s h o u l d d o e v e r y t h i n g i n our p o w e r to p e r f o r m this music i n a w a y that keeps as c losely as p o s ­sible to the o r i g i n a l . I am qui te certain that every f o r m of art creates t h e perfect means that i t requires . By this I m e a n tha t the poss ib i l i t i e s of c o m p o s i t i o n , of n o t a t i o n a n d also of r e n d i t i o n (i.e. the i n s t r u m e n t a r i u r n a n d t h e t e c h n i q u e of p l a y i n g ) w e r e a b s o l u t e l y idea l i n each p e r i o d f o r the mus ic i n q u e s t i o n . A i l of the h y p o t h e s e s c i t i n g inadequate i n s t r u ­m e n t s , p o o r i n t o n a t i o n , faul ty t e c h n i q u e , can be r e f u t e d , i t is v e r y l i k e l y that t h e y are based o n the fact that most p r e s e n t - d a y m u s i c i a n s o v e r e s t i ­mate the i r o w n talents I have a lready discussed the t o n a l qual i t ies of ear ly i n s t r u m e n t s , a n d , t echnica l ly s p e a k i n g , i t has been poss ib le u s i n g these i n s t r u m e n t s to p r o d u c e perfec t ly a n y effects w h i c h w e r e r e q u i r e d . I n s t r u m e n t a l i s t s of o u r o w n t imes, w h o are v e r y sel f -assured, are c o n ­s tant ly s u r p r i s e d w h e n t h e y hear f o l k m u s i c i a n s w h o , u s i n g v e r y s i m p l e i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h o f t e n closely resemble e a r l y i n s t r u m e n t s , e f f o r t ­lessly master the m o s t unbe l i evab le t echnica l d i f f i c u l t i e s . I t is o n l y p o s ­sible to evaluate w h a t music can be p r o d u c e d o n M e d i e v a l i n s t r u m e n t s after the p l a y i n g t e c h n i q u e .of these i n s t r u m e n t s h a s : b e e n t h o r o u g h l y s t u d i e d , w i t h the same conscient iousness tha t is necessary f o r m a s t e r i n g a c o n t e m p o r a r y i n s t r u m e n t . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , th is is a l m o s t . n e v e r the case.

A w o r k s u c h as the f l u t e m e t h o d of Silvestr 'o Ganass i (1535) p r o v e s that mus ic ians of that p e r i o d w e r e f a m i l i a r w i t h a i l the poss ib i l i t ies o f th is i n s t r u m e n t a n d w e r e able to i m p l e m e n t these i n w a y s tha t appear i n c r e d i b l y sophis t i ca ted , f r o m today 's p e r s p e c t i v e . H i s t o r i c a l w i n d i n s t r u m e n t s w h i c h have been p r e s e r v e d , especial ly recorders , r e v e a l h o w s u p e r b l y early music ians w e r e able to t u n e or t e m p e r t h e i r i n s t r u ­m e n t s . The f r e q u e n t c o m p l a i n t s about b a d i n t o n a t i o n are p r o b a b l y a n i n d i c a t i o n that one s t rove for and a u r a l l y u n d e r s t o o d g o o d i n t o n a t i o n . I f

tg

w e w a n t e d to descr ibe the m us i ca l pract ice of today, w e w o u l d have to d e p l o r e the p o o r i n t o n a t i o n of m a n y music ians , i n d e e d , o f ent i re ensembles . For p u r p o s e s o f c o m p a r i s o n , o n l y the best m u s i c i a n s of each p e r i o d s h o u l d , of course, be used. I t seems to m e that o n e t e l l i n g a r g u ­m e n t against the s u p p o s i t i o n that mus ic ians i n ear l ier t i m e s p l a y e d b a d l y a n d o u t of t u n e can be f o u n d i n the w o r k s themse lves . I cannot i m a g i n e that b r i l l i a n t composers , w h o themselves w e r e p r a c t i c i n g m u s i ­cians a n d w h o s e w o r k s w e r e d o u b t l e s s l y i n t e n d e d f o r t h e i r o w n p e r i o d , c o m p o s e d t h e i r w o r k s i n m a g n i f i c e n t fash ion , o n l y to d e s t r o y t h e m t h r o u g h subs tandard pe r form ance s . To m e , such a n o t i o n is inconce ivab le .

T u n i n g is a f i e l d that has rece ived v e r y l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n . A m o d e r n equal t e m p e r a m e n t is n o t des i rable for m u s i c of the M i d d l e A g e s a n d the Renaissance. T h i s type of t e m p e r a m e n t appears h a r s h a n d a m b i g u o u s w h e n used f o r such music . I n the ear ly stages of p o l y p h o n i c m u s i c , and i n some areas p r o b a b l y w e l l i n t o the 16th century , i n t o n a t i o n a n d t u n i n g w e r e based o n the P y t h a g o r e a n system. This system resul ts i n a v e r y b e a u t i f u l m e l o d i c s t ruc ture a n d a b s o l u t e l y p u r e , r e laxed f i f t h s , f o u r t h s a n d octaves. O n l y the t h i r d s are too large and are r e g a r d e d a n d u s e d as dissonance. The sensuous beauty of the t h i r d was d i s c o v e r e d a r o u n d the e n d of the 14 th century . P y t h a g o r e a n t u n i n g was g r a d u a l l y d i s ­carded i n favor of p u r e t h i r d t u n i n g s , w h i c h w e r e d e s c r i b e d b y H e n r i c u s A r n a u t o f Z w o l l e (c. 1440) a n d A r n o l t Schi ick (1511) . The m e l o d i c q u a l i t y as a consequence appears s o m e w h a t b r i t t l e , f o r the f i f t h s a n d f o u r t h s w e r e n o l o n g e r p u r e . But this was the pr i ce that h a d to be p a i d f o r a b s o l u t e l y p u r e t h i r d s a n d a p r e v i o u s l y - u n i m a g i n e d e u p h o n y . T h e t o n a l d i f ferences that emerge w h e n w e c o m p a r e v a r i o u s t e m p e r a m e n t s — e . g . the P y t h a g o r e a n , the Schiick, the m o d e r n t e m p e r a m e n t — a r e v e r y great, a n d a n y m u s i c a l l y sensit ive p e r s o n w h o hears th is k i n d of c o m p a r i s o n m u s t r e c o g n i z e that the mus ic of e v e r y style a n d e v ery e p o c h s o u n d s far a n d a w a y best a n d most c o n v i n c i n g w h e n p l a y e d i n the t e m p e r a m e n t for w h i c h i t was w r i t t e n .

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