THE METHODOLOGY OF COMPARATIVE POLITICAL …mishler/Miki.Kittilson-chap47.pdfEVS explicitly limits its activities to Europe the WVS has a global interest. The eVects of the EVS/WVS

p a r t v i i i

...................................................................................................................................................

T H E

M E T H O D O LO G Y

O F C O M PA R AT I V E

P O L I T I C A L

B E H AV I O R

R E S E A RC H...................................................................................................................................................

Dalton & Klingemann: The Oxford Handbook of Political Behaviour 47-DaltonandKlingemann-chap47 Page Proof page 863 12.1.2007 12:47pm Compositor Name: SSivasankaran


c h a p t e r 4 7

....................................................................................................................................................

R E S E A RC H

R E S O U RC E S I N

C O M PA R AT I V E

P O L I T I C A L

B E H AV I O R...................................................................................................................................................

miki caul kittilson

Comparative survey research projects provide the empirical tools for the systematic

study of the political values, attitudes, orientations, skills, and activities of ordinary

people living under diVerent political contexts. Indeed, this Handbook would not

have been possible without the development of an international network of public

opinion surveys and the public sharing of these data. Those scholars who have

initiated, coordinated, and sustained these projects are invaluable to the Welds of

political behavior and comparative politics.

This chapter guides readers to major cross-national survey research projects that

address political themes. The Wrst section compares both global and regional surveys

along a common set of dimensions. The second section brieXy overviews the most

extensive national election study series from nations around the world, and gives

speciWc years and data sources. The third section covers some of the major national

archives, which store and disseminate these survey data, and displays the contact

information. I conclude with a discussion of the importance of standardizing

procedures for sharing survey data, and comment on the future of cross-national

survey projects.


1 Cross-National Survey

Research Projects

.........................................................................................................................................................................................

Cross-national survey research is key to developing and testing theories of how

individuals perceive and navigate the political world. Rooted in the pioneering

cross-national surveys by Almond and Verba (1963) and by Barnes, Kaase et al.

(1979), scholars draw upon simultaneous and coordinated surveys of citizens across

a variety of political contexts to better understand the most fundamental factors

underlying democratic transitions and processes. With a standardized set of ques-

tions, general theories can be developed and tested under very diVerent institutional

and political contexts. And where scholars Wnd ‘‘outliers’’ in national comparisons,

we learn more about the contingencies of our theories.

However, from its inception cross-national survey research encountered many

obstacles—both theoretical and practical. Concepts derived from the American

context are not always automatically ‘‘transportable’’ across national boundaries.

For example, tapping a functionally equivalent conceptualization of party identiWca-

tion requires changes in operationalization in the Netherlands, the Canada context,

and in other nations (Thomassen 1976; Clarke and Stewart 1998; Blais et al. 2001; and

see Scotto and Singer 2004).

In recent decades, comparative survey research expanded from a limited subset of

nations (primarily the US and western Europe) to include new democracies, devel-

oping nations, and authoritarian systems (Heath, Fisher, and Smith 2005). The

increasingly panoramic lens of survey research largely parallels the expansion of

democracy, as scholars struggle to understand the role of citizens in the democratic

process. The Wrst waves of cross-national studies were pioneered in advanced indus-

trial nations, for the most part. As many countries shed the research limitations of

authoritarian rule, researchers have undertaken surveys in a greater number of new

democracies and developing nations. Yet even today established industrial democra-

cies remain over-represented due to the higher start up costs in conducting surveys in

remote areas. For example, in rural areas where basic transportation infrastructure

and household telephones are lacking, representative samples can be diYcult and

extremely expensive. At the same time, survey research methods generally grew more

sophisticated. Hence, survey projects can be based on very diVerent fundamental

procedures, such as sampling methods. As the shape of cross-national projects

changed, so have the design and methods.

In this chapter, I compare cross-national survey projects along several key dimen-

sions—origins of the project, research generated, nature of the data collection,

substantive themes, scope, potential for cross-national and longitudinal analysis,

and accessibility. Table 47.1 summarizes the seventeen large-scale multiple-nation

surveys analyzed in this section, and provides contact information for each.

I begin by outlining the global surveys, and move on to the regional survey projects.


866 miki caul kittilson

Tab

le4

7.1

Cro

ss-N

atio

nal

Surv

eyP

roje

cts

Titl

eC

oord

inat

orSc

ope

Fundi

ng

Them

es#

Nat

ionsa

Tim

ese

ries

Ava

ilabi

lity

Info

rmat

ion:

htt

p://

Wor

ldVal

ues

Surv

ey(W

VS)

Ron

ald

Ingl

ehar

t,IS

SR,U

niv

ersi

tyof

Mic

hig

an

Glo

bal

Aca

dem

icV

alues

,mor

alis

sues

,po

litic

alan

dso

cial

trust

,pro

test

acti

v-it

y

80

1981;

1990;

1995;

2000

ICPS

R—

mem

ber

inst

i-tu

tion

sw

ww

.wor

ldva

lues

surv

ey.o

rg

Inte

rnat

ional

Soci

alSu

rvey

Prog

ram

me

(ISS

P)

Dat

am

erge

dby

ZA,C

olog

ne

Glo

bal

Aca

dem

icSo

cial

,pol

itic

al,a

nd

econ

omic

atti

tude

item

s,ro

tati

ng

them

es.

39

1983–pr

e-se

nt

(annual

)ZA

,Col

ogne—

mem

ber

inst

ituti

ons

ww

w.is

sp.o

rg

Com

para

tive

Study

ofEl

ect-

oral

Syst

ems

(CSE

S)

Rot

atin

gPl

annin

gC

omm

itte

eG

loba

lA

cade

mic

Vot

ing

behav

ior

and

aggr

egat

eco

nte

xt-

ual

data

33

in1996–2001

1996–2001;

2001–2005

Dat

aav

aila

ble

for

free

dow

nlo

adfr

ompr

o-je

ctw

ebsi

te.

ww

w.c

ses.

org

Pew

Glo

balA

tti-

tude

sSu

rvey

Mad

elin

eA

lbri

ght,

Chai

rA

ndr

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Pew

Res

earc

hC

ente

rPe

ople

and

the

Pres

s

Glo

bal

Com

mer

cial

mar

ket

rese

arch

com

panie

s

Vie

ws

onot

her

nat

ions

arou

nd

the

wor

ld,c

urr

ent

issu

esin

wor

ldpo

litic

s

49

2002,2

003,

2004,2

005

Dat

aav

aila

ble

onw

ebsi

te6

mon

ths

afte

rth

ere

port

sis

sued

.

peop

lepr

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org/

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Gal

lup

Inte

r-nat

ional

Gal

lup

Inte

r-nat

ional

Ass

oci-

atio

n,Z

uri

ch

Glo

bal

Com

mer

cial

mar

ket

rese

arch

com

pany

Mile

nniu

man

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oice

ofth

ePe

ople

Surv

eys,

Hea

lth

ofth

ePl

anet

,Hum

anN

eeds

and

Sati

sfac

-ti

ons

60

2002,2

003,

2004

Elec

tron

icda

taon

lyav

aila

ble

for

purc

has

efr

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allu

p.

ww

w.g

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p-in

ter-

nat

ional

.com

,w

ww

.voi

ce-o

f-th

e-pe

ople

.net

(Con

tinu

ed)


Tab

le4

7.1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Titl

eC

oord

inat

orSc

ope

Fundi

ng

Them

es#

Nat

ionsa

Tim

ese

ries

Ava

ilabi

lity

Info

rmat

ion:

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USI

AW

orld

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gency

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Reg

iona

lU

SIA

Exam

ples

incl

ude

nat

ional

conce

rns,

prob

lem

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eC

old

War

,med

iaco

n-

sum

ptio

n

vari

esIn

term

itte

nt,

Mos

tfr

om1960s

to1992

Surv

eys

from

1960s

and

1970s

avai

labl

efr

omR

oper

arch

ives

,ot

her

sth

rough

US

Nat

ional

Arc

hiv

es,

Elec

tron

ican

dSp

ecia

lM

edia

Rec

ords

Serv

ice

Div

isio

n

ww

w.r

oper

cente

r.uco

nn.e

duan

dw

ww

.arc

hiv

es.g

ov/

rese

arch

_ro

om

Euro

pean

Val

ues

Study

Coo

rdin

atio

nC

en-

ter,

Tilb

urg

Uni-

vers

ity,

Net

her

-la

nds

Reg

i-on

alA

cade

mic

Mor

alan

dso

cial

valu

esunde

rlyi

ng

Euro

pean

soci

alan

dpo

litic

alin

stit

uti

ons

and

gove

rnm

ent

33

1981,1

990,

1999/2

000

ZA,U

niv

ersi

tyof

Col

ogne

ww

w.e

uro

pean

-va

lues

.nl

Euro

baro

met

erEu

rope

anC

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mis

sion

,Publ

icO

pinio

nA

nal

ysis

Sect

or

Reg

i-on

alA

cade

mic

Supp

ort

for

Euro

-pe

anin

tegr

atio

n,

plus

rota

ting

them

es

25

(EU

mem

ber

stat

es)

1973–pr

e-se

nt.

Bia

n-

nual

ICPS

R;

ZAw

ww

.ges

is.o

rg/e

n/

data

_se

rvic

e/eu

roba

rom

eter

Euro

pean

Soci

alSu

rvey

(ESS

)R

oger

Jow

ell,

Na-

tion

alC

ente

rfo

rSo

cial

Res

earc

h

Reg

i-on

alA

cade

mic

Cor

eit

ems—

atti

-tu

des

tow

ard

Eur-

ope’

sch

angi

ng

inst

ituti

ons,

rota

ting

them

es.

23

2002;

2004

(bie

nnia

l)N

SD(h

ttp:

//es

s.nsd

.uib

.no)

ww

w.e

urop

eans

ocia

lsu

rvey

.org

Euro

pean

Elec

-ti

onSt

udi

es(E

ES)

Her

man

nSc

hm

itt,

Univ

ersi

tyof

Man

nhei

m

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i-on

alA

cade

mic

EUpa

rtic

ipat

ion

and

voti

ng

behav

ior,

supp

ort

for

inte

gra-

tion

and

enla

rge-

men

t,pe

rfor

man

ce.

25

1979,1

989,

1994,1

999,

2004

(pos

t-EU

Parl

ia-

men

tEl

ec-

tion

s)

Stei

nm

etz

Am

ster

-da

m.1

999,2

004

SPSS

port

able

data

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free

lyav

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onw

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re-1

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-ba

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eter

s,IC

PSR

,ZA

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gne.

ww

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pean

elec

tion

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esBar

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zars

feld

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ety

ofV

ienna,

wit

hC

hri

stia

nH

aerp

fer

and

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har

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advi

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alA

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mic

Focu

son

them

esof

dem

ocra

tic

tran

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tion

ince

ntr

alan

dea

ster

nEu

rope

14

1991

topr

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nt

Univ

ersi

tyof

Stra

th-

clyd

e’s

Cen

ter

for

the

Study

inPu

blic

Polic

y;not

publ

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avai

labl

e

ww

w.c

spp.

stra

th.

ac.u

k

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Euro

peBar

-om

eter

Ric

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dR

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Reg

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cade

mic

Focu

son

dem

ocra

tic

tran

siti

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centr

alan

dea

ster

nEu

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16

1991–pr

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nt

(7to

tal)

Univ

ersi

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clyd

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Cen

ter

fpr

the

Study

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Bar

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alA

cade

mic

Focu

son

dem

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siti

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tic

regi

on

31993–pr

e-se

nt

(6to

tal)

Univ

ersi

tyof

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th-

clyd

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ter

for

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ww

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spp.

stra

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ac.u

k

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nob

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taLa

gos

(MO

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ago)

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alPr

ivat

epr

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tSo

cial

,pol

itic

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econ

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atti

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them

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17

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(annual

)Ta

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avai

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ppor

t,po

litic

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lera

nce

,au

thor

itar

ianis

m,

part

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atio

n,l

ocal

gove

rnm

ent,

cor-

rupt

ion.

14

1994–pr

e-se

nt

Som

eda

tafi

les

avai

l-ab

lefo

rfe

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epar

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ofPo

litic

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derb

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niv

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ther

sfr

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Dem

ocra

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Dat

abas

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ww

w.v

ande

rbilt

.-ed

u/

amer

icas

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glis

h/L

APO

P.ph

p

Afr

obar

omet

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ike

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tton

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Mat

tes,

E.G

yim

ah-B

oadi

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cade

mic

Dem

ocra

tic

supp

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gove

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co-

nom

icev

aluat

ions,

soci

alca

pita

l,id

en-

tity

,par

tici

pati

on.

15

1999–pr

e-se

nt

(annual

)IC

PSR

and

Afr

oba-

rom

eter

web

site

.Sur-

vey

data

file

sav

aila

ble

2ye

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afte

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rele

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ofsu

r-ve

y’s

resu

lts.

ww

w.a

frob

arom

e-te

r.or

g

(Con

tinu

ed)


Tab

le4

7.1

(Con

tin

ued

)

Titl

eC

oord

inat

orSc

ope

Fundi

ng

Them

es#

Nat

ionsa

Tim

ese

ries

Ava

ilabi

lity

Info

rmat

ion:

htt

p://

Asi

anBar

omet

erTa

kash

iIn

oguch

i,co

ordi

nat

orR

egi-

onal

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dem

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wor

k-pl

ace

issu

esin

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uth

east

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than

dC

entr

alA

sia

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Asi

anco

untr

ies

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003,

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(an-

nual

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tor,

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repa

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Single-nation studies are not included in the table: there are simply too many for one

chapter.1

1.1 Global Surveys

In addition to expanding their geographical scope, many cross-national surveys substan-

tially increased the number of countries in the project. The path-breaking Civic Culture

and Political Action studies began with Wve nations each, and most ‘‘global’’ surveys now

boast Wfty or more countries. These ‘‘large-n’’ studies oVer researchers the potential to

examine attitudes and behaviors in very diVerent economic and political contexts.

1.1.1 European Values Study/World Values Surveys

The World Values Survey (WVS) has grown to capture public opinion and value

preferences in sixty countries around the world—comparing a diverse array of

societies from wealthy to developing. The WVS and European Values Study (EVS)

share a substantive interest in values research, and have in the past coordinated

questionnaire development, yet remain organizationally independent.2 While the

EVS explicitly limits its activities to Europe the WVS has a global interest. The eVects

of the EVS/WVS on scholarship have been profound: 81 books, 157 book sections, and

300 journal articles to date.3 Major reference works by Ronald Inglehart and his

colleagues (2004), and an earlier version covers the 1990–93 surveys (Inglehart et al.

1998). Reference works for the EVS include Halman, Luijkx, and van Zunder 2005.

Each national team in the project aims for representative national samples. In

most countries, survey teams employ a form of stratiWed multi-stage random

probability sampling. However, in remote areas where this proves diYcult, survey

teams may employ cluster or quota sampling. In-person interviews last one hour, and

the response rate and sampling methodology ranges considerably. Similarly, the

number of cases in each country varies greatly, yet the minimum is 1,000.

The core questions center on basic values, religion, attitudes towards political,

social, and economic institutions, membership in a variety of formal and informal

organizations, and participation in new forms of political activity. Individuals are

asked about new issues such as the environment and human rights, their personal

happiness, and trust in others.

The number and list of nations surveyed in the project varies from one round

to the next. In order to clearly present changes to the slate, Table 47.2 details the list

1 For a thorough review of the voluminous body of national polls around the world (most bycommercial Wrms), see the edited handbook by John Geer (2004), and the annual volumes in the seriesby Hastings and Hastings (1989).

2 In this chapter we often refer to the ‘‘European Values Study/World Values Survey’’ (EVS/WVS) tobe more explicit about what is often referred to as the ‘‘World Values Survey.’’ The reader should note thatthat EVS and WVS are now two independent organizations, with separate coordination centers andfunding sources. The EVS and WVS contact information are separately listed in Table 47.1.

3 The number of publications generated by the WVS as reported by the ICPSR website search engine(www.icpsr.umich.edu) in May 2005.


research resources 871

Tab

le4

7.2

Lis

to

fN

atio

ns

Incl

ud

edin

Glo

bal

Surv

eys

Cou

ntr

yW

VS/

EVS

1981–3

(N¼

22)

WV

S/EV

S1990

(N¼

41)

WV

S1995

(N¼

43)

WV

S/EV

S1999–01

(N¼

60)

ISSP

2004

(N¼

39)

CSE

S1996–2001

(N¼

33)

CSE

S2001–5

(N¼

35)

Gal

lup

2004

(N¼

69)

Pew

2004

(N¼

50)

Alb

ania

XX

Alg

eria

X

Ango

laX

Arg

enti

na

XX

XX

X

Arm

enia

X

Aust

ralia

XX

XX

XX

Aust

ria

XX

XX

Aze

rbai

jan

X

Ban

glad

esh

XX

Bel

arus

XX

XX

Bel

gium

XX

XX

XX

Bol

ivia

XX

Bos

nia

-H

erce

govi

na

XX

Bra

zil

XX

XX

X

Bri

tain

XX

XX

XX

X

Bulg

aria

XX

XX

XX

X

Cam

eroo

nX

Can

ada

XX

XX

XX

XX

Chile

XX

XX

XX

Chin

aX

XX

X


Col

ombi

aX

X

Cro

atia

XX

Cze

chos

lo-

vaki

aX

Cze

chR

ep.

XX

XX

X

Den

mar

kX

XX

XX

XX

Dom

inic

anR

epX

Ecuad

orX

Egyp

tX

XX

ElSa

lvad

orX

Esto

nia

XX

X

Finla

nd

XX

XX

XX

X

Fran

ceX

XX

XX

XX

Geo

rgia

XX

Ger

man

yX

XX

XX

XX

X

Ger

man

y(W

)X

Ghan

aX

X

Gre

ece

XX

Guat

emal

aX

X

Hon

dura

sX

Hon

gK

ong

XX

Hunga

ryX

XX

XX

X

Icel

and

XX

XX

XX

(Con

tinu

ed)


Tab

le4

7.2

(Con

tin

ued

)

Cou

ntr

yW

VS/

EVS

1981–3

(N¼

22)

WV

S/EV

S1990

(N¼

41)

WV

S1995

(N¼

43)

WV

S/EV

S1999–01

(N¼

60)

ISSP

2004

(N¼

39)

CSE

S1996–2001

(N¼

33)

CSE

S2001–5

(N¼

35)

Gal

lup

2004

(N¼

69)

Pew

2004

(N¼

50)

Indi

aX

XX

XX

Indo

nes

iaX

X

Iran

X

Irel

and

XX

XX

XX

Isra

elX

XX

XX

X

Ital

yX

XX

XX

X

Ivor

yC

oast

X

Japa

nX

XX

XX

XX

X

Jord

anX

X

Ken

yaX

X

Kos

ovo

X

Kuw

ait

XX

Latv

iaX

XX

XX

Leba

non

X

Lith

uan

iaX

XX

XX

Luxe

mbo

urg

XX

Mac

edon

iaX

X

Mal

iX

Mal

taX

Mex

ico

XX

XX

XX

XX

X

Mol

dova

XX


Mon

teneg

roX

X

Mor

occo

XX

X

Net

her

lands

XX

XX

XX

X

New

Zeal

and

XX

XX

Nig

eria

XX

XX

X

N.I

rela

nd

X

Nor

way

XX

XX

XX

X

Paki

stan

XX

Pale

stin

ian

Auth

orit

yX

Panam

aX

Para

guay

X

Peru

XX

XX

X

Phili

ppin

esX

XX

X

Pola

nd

XX

XX

XX

XX

Port

uga

lX

XX

XX

X

Puer

toR

ico

X

Rom

ania

XX

XX

XX

Russ

iaX

XX

XX

XX

X

Saudi

Ara

bia

X

Seneg

alX

Serb

iaX

XX

Singa

pore

X

Slov

akia

XX

XX

Slov

enia

XX

XX

XX

(Con

tinu

ed)


Tab

le4

7.2

(Con

tin

ued

)

Cou

ntr

yW

VS/

EVS

1981–3

(N¼

22)

WV

S/EV

S1990

(N¼

41)

WV

S1995

(N¼

43)

WV

S/EV

S1999–01

(N¼

60)

ISSP

2004

(N¼

39)

CSE

S1996–2001

(N¼

33)

CSE

S2001–5

(N¼

35)

Gal

lup

2004

(N¼

69)

Pew

2004

(N¼

50)

South

Afr

ica

XX

XX

XX

X

South

Kor

eaX

XX

XX

XX

X

Sovi

etU

nio

nX

Spai

nX

XX

XX

XX

XX

Swed

enX

XX

XX

XX

Swit

zerl

and

XX

XX

XX

Taiw

anX

XX

X

Tanza

nia

XX

Thai

land

X

Tunis

iaX

Turk

eyX

XX

XX

X

Uga

nda

XX

Ukr

aine

XX

XX

X

Unit

edA

rab

Emir

ates

X

Unit

edSt

ates

XX

XX

XX

XX

X

Uru

guay

XX

X

Uzb

ekis

tan

X

Ven

ezuel

aX

XX

XX

Vie

tnam

XX

Zim

babw

eX


of nations included in each wave. The Wrst wave (1981–3) began with surveys in

twenty-two nations, and was dominated by post-industrial nations. The second wave

of the larger project (1990) expanded to forty-one countries, building upon the initial

core nations to add several new democracies and developing nations from a diverse

array of regions including Latin America, Asia, Africa, and central and eastern

Europe. The third wave (1995) consisted of forty-three nations. The fourth wave

(1999–2002) oVers the greatest geographical coverage to date–sixty nations. A Wfth

wave entered the Weld in 2005.

Surveys replicate several items over subsequent waves, making this series ideal for

both cross-national and cross-temporal analysis. However, some questions and

coding categories change substantially over the course of the waves of the survey.

These changes complicate time-series analysis in certain instances, and the researcher

must be careful to consult the individual codebooks and surveys for some questions.

The WVS team compiled an integrated Wle covering 1980–95. This cumulative Wle is

freely available to the public at the WVS website, and users can browse the integrated

codebook, and run a variety of statistical analyses online.4

1.1.2 The International Social Survey Programme

Formed in 1983, the founding member organizations of the annual International

Social Survey Programme (ISSP) included four established annual national survey

projects: the General Social Survey (GSS) of the National Opinion Research Center

(NORC) in the United States, the Allgemeine Bevolkerungsumfrage der Sozialwis-

senschaften (ALLBUS) studies of the Zentrum fur Umfragen, Methoden, und Ana-

lysen (ZUMA) of Germany, and the British Social Attitudes Survey (BSA) of the

Social and Community Planning Research in London, and Research School of Social

Sciences, Australian National University. The Central Archive for Empirical Research,

Cologne (ZA) merges the data into cross-national Wles.

Similar to the inXuential role of the WVS, the ISSP series data generated a

considerable amount of scholarly research—the ISSP webpage holds 1,600 listings

total in its bibliography.5 Of these, there are at least seven major collections of ISSP

research (Jowell et al. 1989, 1993, 1998; Becker et al. 1990; Frizell and Pammett 1997;

Tos et al. 1999). The ISSP collects its data as a ten-minute supplement to pre-existing

national survey projects, and as a result the data collection follows rigorous methods

derived from national samples. Interviews are conducted in person, by telephone, or

mail back.

Sociological themes represent the strength of the ISSP surveys. The core questions

focus on attitudes towards the economy, gender, legal system, and a standardized

set of demographic variables. In addition, successive waves address special topics:

the role of government (1985, 1990, 1996, 2006); the environment (1993 and 2000);

social inequality (1987, 1992, 1999); work orientations (1989, 1997, 2005); family and

changing gender roles (1988, 1994 and 2002); religion (1991 and 1998); social networks

4 www.worldvaluessurvey.org 5 www.issp.org



(1986); social relations and support systems (2001); national identity (1995, 2003);

citizenship (2004); leisure and sports (2007).

As of the latest survey, thirty-nine countries are members of the ISSP, and they are

listed in Table 47.2. Each research organization funds its own data collection. By

design, the ISSP facilitates both cross-national and cross-temporal research. The

Central Archive for Empirical Social Research (ZA), Cologne, compiled the surveys

from 1985 to 2000 to create an integrated data Wle, and the ZA makes the ISSP data

available to all member institutions. Scholars can freely access the Wles six months

after they are archived.

1.1.3 Comparative Study of Electoral Systems

Although national election studies often employ some of the highest methodological

standards, they are generally not easily compared cross-nationally. To remedy this

disadvantage, the Comparative Study of Electoral Systems (CSES) matches up

the reliability and rigor of national election studies with a set of standardized

cross-national variables. Individual election study teams collaborate on the

CSES, adding a standard set of public opinion survey questions in their own national

post-election study. The CSES Planning Committee, composed of leading scholars

of political behavior from around the world, meets regularly at each stage of

the project to coordinate the research agenda, study design, and questionnaire. As

supplements to national election studies, CSES data are collected through in-person,

telephone, and mail back surveys. The CSES data have already provided the eviden-

tial basis for six books, sixteen book chapters, twenty journal articles, and several

working papers, as currently indicated on the CSES website.6 The major reference

works for this series include books by Norris (2004) and Klingemann et al. (forth-

coming).

The CSES is also distinguished by its potentially powerful marriage of individual-

level voting behavior and national institutional context. At the micro-level, the CSES

data Wles oVer common core variables concerning demographics, vote choice, eco-

nomic, candidate, party, and electoral system evaluations. At the macro-level, the

CSES compiles district-level data and macro-level data on electoral returns, electoral

rules and formulas, and regime characteristics.

The CSES has organized its data collection in three ‘‘modules’’—1996–2000; 2001–

5; and 2006–10 (see Table 47.2). The Wrst module encompasses thirty-three countries

and focused on the impact of electoral institutions on citizens’ political cognition

and behavior; the nature of political alignments; and the evaluation of democratic

institutions and processes. The second module includes at least thirty-Wve nations

and centers on the impact of political institutions on attitudes towards government

accountability, satisfaction with democracy, and representation in the political pro-

cess. At present, the third module remains in its planning stages, and the rotating

theme will focus on perceptions of meaningful choices in elections. The project is an

6 www.cses.org



exemplar in accessibility: CSES data Wles can be downloaded freely at the project’s

website (see Table 47.1).7

1.1.4 Pew Global Attitudes Survey

Rooted in the 1991 benchmark survey, ‘‘The Pulse of Europe,’’ which provides data on

thirteen European countries, Pew’s series of Global Attitude Surveys began with an

elite survey of twenty-four countries in 2001. Since then, the annual Global Attitudes

Survey measures public opinion among ordinary citizens, and the most recent release

is the 2005 study. To date, the Global Attitudes data have generated several Pew

Center reports, and they are available at the project website, and contact information

is provided in Table 47.1.

Interviews are conducted in person in some countries, and via the telephone in

most. The national samples range from 500 in Canada to over 2000 in China and

India. Most samples are representative, with the exception of oversampling of urban

populations in China, India, and Pakistan. Further, not all questions were asked in all

participating countries simply because they were too sensitive politically (e.g. China).

The Pew Global Attitudes project provides data to compare the viewpoints of

people from nations around the world toward a common set of issues: globalization,

trade, democracy, current issues in world politics, terrorism and the US response to

it, and respondents’ assessments of their own lives. The data oVer a wide lens on

public opinion—surveying 49 countries plus the Palestinian Authority in 2003 (listed

in Table 47.2), 44 countries in 2002, and 16 in 2005. The Pew Center oVers the Global

Attitudes Survey on its website free of charge six months after the reports are issued.8

1.1.5 Gallup International

Gallup International has conducted several global survey projects. These surveys

diverge from academic surveys by describing national and regional patterns in public

opinion on global issues. Country or region is the implicit explanatory variable, and

few questions are designed to examine the sources of variation in attitudes. In

contrast with the academic surveys, global surveys carried out by Gallup Inter-

national, are commercial public opinion polls. In-depth information on the survey

methodology is not published, and so it is not possible to fully evaluate the quality of

the sampling and Weldwork. Based upon the limited description of the surveys’

methodologies reported on the Gallup International website, I calculate that 42 of

the 69 national surveys are conducted in person, and the remaining 27 over the

telephone. Of the 69 total national surveys, 46 draw national samples, and the

remainder focus on urban centers. Sample sizes range from 250 in countries such

as Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to 1,000 in Austria, and to 5,012 in Nigeria.

Gallup aYliates have a long series of end of the year polls. They are described

in Hastings and Hastings (1989). In 1974 Gallup commissioned the Human Needs

and Satisfactions survey, investigating the fears, aspirations, and life satisfaction of

individuals in forty nations. This study was published by Kettering and Gallup

7 www.cses.org 8 www.peoplepress.org/pgap



International in 1977, and these data have been utilized by the Pew Center Global

Attitudes project for some trend analyses. In 1992 Gallup conducted a twenty-Wve-

nation Health of the Planet survey, in conjunction with the Wrst World Forum on the

Global Environment held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in January of the same year. Topics

include attitudes towards the environment and its relationship with economic

development. In addition, Gallup conducted the Survey of Nine Islamic Nations in

2001, immediately after the events of 9/11 in the United States. The project tapped

citizen attitudes toward the West.

Gallup International’s most recent global series began with sixty countries in 1999

with the Millennium Survey, and the topics include democracy, the environment,

human rights, women’s rights, religion, crime, the performance of the United

Nations, and ‘‘What matters most in life.’’

Following on the success of its Wrst global survey, Gallup International commis-

sioned ‘‘Voice of the People’’ surveys in 2002, 2003, and 2004 in sixty-nine countries

from a variety of regions: western Europe; east and central Europe; Mid East; the

Americas; and Africa. The countries in the 2004 round are listed in Table 47.2.

Designed as an annual survey, the 2002 Voice of the People questionnaire asked

respondents to identify the most important problem facing the world today, and to

register their attitudes towards elections, government legitimacy, terrorism, global-

ization, American foreign policy, foreign aid, democracy, and the environment. In

addition, the 2002 survey examines both interpersonal trust and trust in political,

economic, and social institutions.

Because the survey data are commissioned by a commercial Wrm, the electronic

data are available for purchase from Gallup International. However, a small note on

the Millennium Survey internet webpage states that the data are ‘‘available pro bono

to universities and other relevant institutions for further investigation and study.’’9

1.1.6 United States Information Agency and Department of State

The United States Information Agency sponsors multinational surveys. Survey data

from the over 1,100 USIA funded projects from 1975 to 1992 (updates continuously)

are held at the National Archives, and the inventory can be consulted through the

Electronic and Special Media Records Service Division. Although available, these

surveys are often scattered, intermittent, and access procedures through the National

Archives remain complicated. Assembling questions for longitudinal analysis may

prove diYcult, yet much of the USIA data remain largely unexplored by academics.

Some of the richest collections of USIA surveys are from Latin America, and one

thematic example is the Attitude Surveys of National Concerns/Problems. This

survey was also administered in western Europe and Australia, India, the Philippines,

and Japan at various points throughout the 1970s and early 1980s. The survey

methods vary, and many surveys of developing nations are conducted only in the

large cities.

9 www.gallup-international.com/ContentFiles/millennium18.asp May 9, 2005.



The Wrst in a series ‘‘World Surveys’’ were conducted by USIA in the 1960s. They

have continued intermittently, and the data from the 1963, 1964, 1965, 1969, 1972

surveys are catalogued at the Roper Center archives (contact information is provided

in Table 47.4). These World Surveys include varying combinations of the following

nations: Argentina, Brazil, Britain, Chile, France, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, the

Philippines, Mexico, Thailand, and Venezuela. Other examples include a Latin

American Image Study undertaken by USIA in 1971 in Brazil, and Mexico. USIA

also did some comparative European surveys from 1954 on, and some of these data

are at Roper, and others at the ZA. Further, the Roper Center archives surveys by the

USIA from 1992 for several Middle Eastern nations.

1.2 Regional Surveys

Survey research projects comparing a set of nations within a region were the pioneers

of multi-nation studies and continue today. A potential disadvantage to regional

surveys is observations from fewer nations, but a potential advantage is a substantive

focus on issues particularly relevant to the region. Rather than the ‘‘most diVerent

systems’’ research design oVered by the global surveys, regional surveys support a

‘‘most similar systems’’ research design, where researchers can hold constant many

potentially confounding explanatory variables.

1.2.1 Eurobarometers

Among cross-national surveys, the Eurobarometers are the best known, and oVer the

longest comparable time series. With the Eurobarometer series the European Com-

mission initiated a simultaneously survey of public opinion towards a common

market in the European Union (EU) in all member countries. The Eurobarometers

are the ideal resource for mapping long-term changes in post-industrial European

societies. As a consequence, the Eurobarometer series has provided the evidence for

numerous standard and special topic reports and at least 22 books, 20 book sections,

and 228 journal articles.10 Three of the major reference volumes include those by Reif

and Inglehart (1991), Niedermayer and Sinnott (1995), and Saris and Kaase (1997).

Carried out biennially, the Eurobarometer draws national multi-stage probability

samples of at least 1,000 residents in each member state.11 Interviews are conducted

face-to-face in respondents’ home languages. The surveys are carried out in each

member state by commercial polling Wrms.

The 1974 Eurobarometer began with Belgium, Britain, Denmark, France, Ireland,

Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, West Germany, and subsequently added Greece

(1980), Portugal and Spain (1985), the former East Germany (1990), Norway (1991),

10 The number of publications generated by the WVS as reported by the ICPSR website search engine(www.icpsr.umich.edu). A search of the ZA bibliography for the term Eurobarometer returns 2023

entries, some reports and working papers.11 Due to its small population size, Luxembourg only has a sample size of 600. Post-reuniWcation

Germany draws a sample of 2000.



Finland (1993), Sweden and Austria (1994), and Iceland (2003). In addition, the

Commission launched the smaller-scale Flash Eurobarometers, and the Central and

Eastern Eurobarometers (1990–8)—subsequently replaced by the Candidate Coun-

tries Eurobarometer in 2001, which compares publics of candidate countries with the

publics of the candidate states that then became part of the EU after accession.

In addition to expanding its geographical coverage, the Eurobarometers have also

widened in substantive focus. The core questions concentrate on attitudes towards

European integration, the institutions of the EU, and respondents’ perceived quality

of life. In addition, each survey in the series gives attention to a special topic. While

the breadth of questions and number of surveys may seem overwhelming, the

question database integrated text retrieval across all surveys makes cross-national

time-series analysis quite manageable. In addition, an integrated Wle, called the

Mannheim Eurobarometer Trend File 1970–2002, is available through ZA, and

contact information is provided in Table 47.1.12

1.2.2 European Social Survey

Only recently initiated in 2002, the European Social Survey (ESS) may soon form the

bases for the rich body of literature associated with its peer survey series. The ESS

stands apart from many cross-national surveys for its strict methodological rigor.

The ESS aims to translate questionnaires in functionally equivalent ways. The central

committee imposes consistent methods of Weldwork, including contacting and

coding. For example, the survey standardizes the left-right continuum across all

participating nations. The design calls for random sampling design of residents

Wfteen years and older (no quota sampling), one hour in-person interviews, and a

minimum 2,000 respondents per nation. Project coordinators set the target response

rate at 70 percent, and most countries achieved this response rate, although some still

fought to reach a 60 percent rate. The ability of the ESS to achieve high methodo-

logical standards is due in part to its generous funding and large-scale design.

Although each national team funds its own Weldwork and operations, the central

committee still exerts control at each step in the survey process.

The core questions are repeated in each successive wave: they tap attitudes on

Europe’s changing institutions, political trust, party aYliation, voting behavior,

media consumption, value orientations, social exclusion, and demographics. In

addition, each wave includes a rotating theme. In the Wrst wave those supplementary

questions included citizenship, immigration, basic value orientations, and additional

questions for testing questionnaire reliability and validity (consistent with the

project’s emphasis on methodological rigor). The second round directed its supple-

mentary focus at ‘‘family, work and well-being,’’ ‘‘opinions on health and care

seeking,’’ and ‘‘economic morality.’’

Conducted in 2001, the Wrst wave of interviews covered twenty-two countries,

including Wfteen EU member states: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, Denmark,

Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Italy, Luxembourg,

12 www.gesis.org/za



Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, UK.

In the second wave in 2003, all twenty-two countries recommitted resources, and

Estonia and the Slovak Republic joined the line-up. A third wave of interviews is

slated for January 2005.

In addition to optimal methodology, the ESS is also highly accessible to the public.

The data for all countries participating in the Wrst wave of interviews are freely

available online, and details are given in Table 47.1. The data for the second wave of

interviews are slated for public release in August 2005. In addition, the ESS is to be

commended for its transparency. Planning documents, technical notes, and response

rate reports are all readily available on the project’s website. Further, the theme of the

rotating supplementary questions is open to competition among European scholars.

1.2.3 European Election Studies

Prior to 1999, the European Elections Studies (EES) composed part of the Euro-

barometer series, and since then works as an independent project. Organized by the

EES workgroup, an international group of scholars, the EES website lists twenty

books and edited volumes and sixty-seven articles that have emanated from the

survey project, including works by Cees van der Eijk and Mark N. Franklin (1996),

and more recent reference work for the 1999 study by Brug and van der Eijk

(forthcoming). As an independent project, the EES surveys of the voting age popu-

lation are conducted by telephone, with sample sizes in 2004 that range from 500 in

the Czech Republic to 2,100 in Sweden.

Carried out after each EU parliamentary election (every Wve years), the themes of

the surveys include participation in EU elections and voting behavior, support for

European integration and enlargement, and performance of EU political institutions.

The 2004 EES covers twenty-four European member states: Austria, Belgium,

Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece,

Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Poland,

Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.

The EES not only facilitates regional research, but longitudinal analysis as well.

Researchers can compare surveys from 1979, 1989, 1994, 1999, and 2004. Data are

freely available at Steinmetz Amsterdam (see Table 47.4 for contact information), and

as a portable SPSS Wle on the project’s website.13

1.2.4 New Democracies Barometer (NDB), New Europe Barometer

(NEB), New Baltic Barometer (NBB)

The New Democracies, New Europe, and New Baltic Barometers constitute a series of

barometers conducted by the Center for the Study of Public Policy, and Richard Rose

coordinates.14 Table 47.1 provides information on each of these surveys independ-

ently. Taken together, these barometer series have generated 211 books and reports, as

13 www.europeanelectionstudies.net14 This Barometer series also includes the New Russia Barometer (1992 to present) and the Korea

Barometer, which are not included here because of their single-nation focus.



referenced on the CSPP website, including several reference works by Rose, and Rose

and Munro (2003).15 A similar methodology underpins the three projects: in-person

interviews conducted in several languages, and stratiWed national representative

samples of 1,000 respondents.

These surveys of post-communist countries are designed to support research on

democratization, development, privatization, parties and elections, social protection,

and social capital. The major items common to all three barometers include:

attitudes towards the economy, corruption, support for democracy and alternative

regimes, enlarging Europe, political trust, and participation in social groups and

organizations.

The 1991 NDB included Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania,

Slovenia, Austria. The 1992, 1993/4, 1995 studies include Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia,

Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Poland, Romania, Slovenia, Ukraine. The 1998

study added Yugoslavia and Austria to that core set of countries.

During the 1990s the New Europe Barometer was part of the New Democracies

Barometer. The NEB covers seventeen countries including new EU member states

and applicants, and key comparisons in the former Soviet Union and western

Europe. The slate consists of: Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Hungary, Estonia, Latvia,

Lithuania, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Belarus, Ukraine, surveys in

Moldova, Croatia, Serbia, and Bosnia-Hercegovina, and for comparison, Austria and

Germany.

Initiated in 1993, the New Baltic Barometer surveys Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.

The 2001 and 2004 New Baltic Barometers joined the New Europe Barometer,

allowing for comparison with other transitional democracies in the region.

The data Wles are not publicly available, and reports utilizing the data are presented

to policy making and academic bodies.

1.2.5 Latinobarometer

Since 1995, the Latinobarometer surveys individuals regarding their political behav-

iors and attitudes on political, social, and economic conditions in Latin America. The

Latinobarometer was initially funded by the European Commission, and the UNDP.

This tie to the Eurobarometer laid the structure for the Latinobarometer, which

advertises its comparability with other barometer surveys.

Although the series aims for representative random samples, the Latinobarometer

has encountered challenges in its Weldwork. Remote rural have proved especially

diYcult to sample. Nationwide samples are feasible only in some surveys. Random

sampling is utilized in Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras,

Nicaragua, and Panama. In contrast, the survey team resorts to quota samples in

Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, and

Venezuela. The smallest sample size is Paraguay’s 600 cases. The remaining nations

sample about 1,200 cases, and in Spain the survey samples nearly 2,500.

15 www.cspp.strath.ac.uk



The core questions concern the economy, trade, democracy, politics and institu-

tions, social policies, civic culture and social capital, the environment, and current

issues. In addition to the standard battery, each wave concentrates on a new theme.

For example, the 1996 survey examined trade, foreign investment, and politics. The

1997 surveys added a focus on political parties, the economy, and conWdence between

countries. The 1998 wave queried respondents on social capital and corruption. The

1999/2000 survey theme was poverty.

Beginning with eight countries, the Latinobarometer series soon expanded to

cover seventeen nations: Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica,

Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay,

Peru, Uruguay, and Venezuela. In addition, Spain has been added in certain years.

Like the Barometers of the former communist nations, the Latinobarometer is

restrictive–the data are available for purchase.

1.2.6 Latin American Public Opinion Project

From 1994 to 2004, the Latin American Public Opinion Project (LAPOP) commis-

sioned forty-one diVerent surveys to assess citizens’ support for the political system,

political tolerance, perceptions of local government, corruption, and political activity.

The common framework enables comparative analysis. For instance, one set of the

most recent surveys contains a common core of questions and provides the evidence

for one major reference project, The Political Culture of Democracy in Central America,

Mexico, and Colombia, 2004, by the LAPOP founder and director, Mitchell A. Seligson.

In the collection of these data, survey teams aimed for the highest standards of

academic survey research. Teams constructed multi-stage, stratiWed, area probability

samples with target of 1,500 respondents in each country. LAPOP involves surveys of

fourteen countries: Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Ecua-

dor, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru,

and surveys of Madagascar as well.

The tabular results of surveys funded by USAID are freely available.16 Other data

Wles are available for a fee from LAPOP at the Department of Political Science at

Vanderbilt University, and contact information is provided in Table 47.1.17

1.2.7 Afrobarometer

The Afrobarometer series began in 1993, and has been repeated in subsets of nations

in subsequent waves. This relatively new survey data series has already generated six

journal articles, and a book by the project coordinators (Bratton et al. 2004).18 The

Afrobarometer website advertises several recent reports of the results for purchase,

and holds nearly Wfty downloadable working papers.19 The surveys are carried out by

independent research institutes in each nation, and reXect representative cross-

sections of the voting age population, drawn from multi-stage area probability

16 www.millennium-int.com/newdsd 17 www.vanderbilt.edu/americas/English/LAPOP.php18 The number of publications generated by the Afrobarometer as reported by the ICPSR website

search engine (www.icpsr.umich.edu) in May 2005.19 www.afrobarometer.org



samples. The standard sample size in the second wave of surveys was 1,200 cases, with

larger samples in more socially heterogeneous countries. Interviews are conducted

face to face.

The Afrobarometer asks a series of standard questions regarding attitudes towards

political, economic, and social conditions in Africa. Topics focus on democracy,

governance, livelihoods, economic conditions, participation, trust, crime, national

identity, and other issues confronting developing nations.

The Wrst round began with twelve countries: Botswana, Ghana, Lesotho, Mali,

Namibia, Nigeria, Malawi, South Africa, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

The second round added Cape Verde, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, and Senegal to

the line-up. The third round in 2005 was expected to add Benin and Madagascar to

that list.

In contrast to many other regional barometers in transition areas, the Afrobarom-

eter data are made freely available to the public two years after the Wrst release of any

survey’s results, through the ICPSR, and on the Afrobarometer website.20

1.2.8 Asian Barometer

Large-scale global surveys have often given short shrift to several regions within Asia.

Set to fulWll this need, the recent Asian Barometer (oYcial title: Japan-ASEAN

Barometer) is a comparative survey of public opinion in East, Southeast, South,

and Central Asia. These data provide the basis for a major reference book, Values and

Life Styles in Urban Asia: A Cross-Cultural Analysis and Sourcebook Based on the

AsiaBarometer Survey of 2003, by Inoguchi et al. (2005).21

Although the ideal research methodology is nationwide samples in each country,

some rural areas are excluded. Sample sizes average 800 per country, and are drawn

from individuals 15–59 years old, based on multi-stage stratiWed random sampling.

Interviewers meet face to face with respondents.

The Asian Barometer covers multiple themes: values, identity, life satisfaction,

health, family, work, political activity and evaluations of political, economic, and

social institutions. In 2004 the study surveyed Brunei, Cambodia, China, Indonesia,

Japan, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, South Korea, Thailand, and

Vietnam. The data are slated to be accessible through the ICPSR and the Social

Science Japan Archive.

1.2.9 East Asian Barometer

A recent project, the East Asian Barometer has already generated two articles and a

book, and several working papers, according to the project website.22 Interviews are

conducted in person, drawing upon national samples. The sample sizes vary from 811

in Hong Kong to over 3,100 in mainland China.

Administered in 2001–2, the East Asian Barometer covers China, Hong Kong,

Indonesia, Japan, Mongolia, the Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, Thailand. The

20 www.afrobarometer.org 21 www.avatoli.ioc.u-tokyo.ac.jp-�asiabarometer22 Eacsurvey.law.ntu.edu.tw



survey is designed to tap support for democracy and democratic reform, evaluations

of the economy, assess the levels of trust in institutions, degree of membership in

associations, and political activity. The survey questions and socioeconomic status

variables are standardized across all nine nations. The East Asian Barometer data are

slated to be publicly available in August 2005.

1.3 National Election Study Series

Election studies within individual nations are conducted by an independent national

research team before and/or after a country’s election. The most common questions

center on voting behavior in present and past elections, expectations about and

interest in the election, party identiWcation, attitudes on current issues and evalu-

ations of political leaders, parties, government performance, and democratic insti-

tutions.

Although national election studies lack cross-national comparability in most

instances, they often comprise the most methodologically sound surveys available.

Generally, sampling procedures are rigorous and interviews are conducted in person

as well as some by telephone and mail-back. Certain series can be assembled to

examine political behavior over three or more decades. For example, the American

National Election Study dates back to 1952, and the cumulative Wle allows researchers

to quickly track trends in Americans’ political behavior over nearly six decades.

Not only do questions and coding categories vary across election studies, but they

can also vary dramatically within a national series. Yet where similar forms of the

same questions are repeated over time within the same series, national election study

series are unique in their ability to support powerful longitudinal analyses of citizen

attitudes and behaviors. Exemplars in employing several national election study

series include the works of Dalton (2004, 2006) and Franklin (2004).

An additional diYculty with national election studies is that the data documen-

tation and codebooks are often written in the study’s native language—English

translations are only sometimes available. To remedy this barrier, in 1989 the Inter-

national Committee for Research into Elections and Representative Democracy

(ICORE) was founded to promote cross-national research in electoral behavior.

One of their major goals is to fund the translations of original questionnaires and

documentation into English (Mochmann et al. 1998, 1–2), but this process has been

delayed for some series. In addition, to facilitate longitudinal research, many study

series have been compiled to produce cumulative Wles. Still others remain as indi-

vidual data sets, and assembling trends in the series can be a complex process. The

Council of European Social Science Data Archives (CESSDA) represents a step

toward holding many European national election studies at a central location.

In this section I cover some of the longest series of national election studies: those

from Britain, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Israel, the Netherlands, Norway,

Sweden, United States. Table 47.3 provides an overview of these studies: the years in

the series, the number of studies, and contact information for the data source or



archive. Given that cross-national studies are the focus of this chapter, I have limited

coverage to series with twenty-Wve or more years of continuous surveys.23 For a more

detailed listing of European series see the Inventory of National Election Studies in

Europe 1945–1995, by Mochmann et al. (1998).

The election study series are most extensive in established industrial democracies,

and thus these countries form the basis for Table 47.3. From the table, it is apparent

that most of these studies began in the 1950s or 1960s and continue through present

elections. Although the ICPSR holds some election studies from countries other than

23 For example, the Australian National Election Study was not included here because it dates backto 1987.

Table 47.3 National Election Study Series

Country Title Years # Surveys Source/Archives

Britain British ElectionStudy

1963–2001 11 Data Archive, University of Essex,dawww.essex.ac.uk, and ICPSRpre-1983

Canada Canadian NationalElection Study

1965–2004 10 University of Montreal www.fas.montreal.ca/pol/ces-eec/ces.html,and ICPSR pre-1997

Denmark Danish ElectionStudy

1959–2002 17 Danish Data Archives (DDA)www.sa.dk/dda

France French ElectionStudy

1958–2002 7 Banque de Donnees Socio-Politiques (BDSP), solcidsp.upmf-grenoble.fr ICPSR 1958, 68

Germany German ElectionStudy

1949–1994 13 Zentralarchiv fur EmpirischeSozialforschung (ZA),www.za.uni-koeln.de

Israel Israeli ElectionStudy

1969–2001 9 Inter-University Consortium forPolitical and Social Research(ICPSR), www.icpsr.umich.edu

Netherlands Dutch ParliamentaryElection Study

1967–2003 11 NIWI Steinmetz Archive (STAR),www.swidoc.nl, and ICPSRpre-1982

Norway Norwegian ElectionStudy

1957–2001 11 Norwegian Social Science DataServices (NSD), www.nsd.uib.no,and ICPSR for 1957, 65

Sweden Swedish ElectionStudy

1956–2002 15 Swedish Social Science Data Ser-vice (SSD), www.ssd.gu.se

United States American ElectionStudy

1952–2004 14 Inter-University Consortium forPolitical and Social Research(ICPSR), www.icpsr.umich.edu



the US, the trend is toward national archives holding their own national studies

(where they have the resources). The accessibility of these studies varies from one

nation (or even principle investigator) to another. Regulations regarding access can

be obtained by contacting the relevant archive. Some series are conducted at regular

intervals, while others are more intermittent, such as the French election studies.

Some of the most extensive series have been compiled into cumulative Wles, which

facilitate longitudinal analysis based upon particular questions or variables. For

example, the American, British, Dutch, and German series have released these

cumulative Wles.

2 Making Surveys Accessible: The Role

of the Major Archives

.........................................................................................................................................................................................

Without data archives, many surveys that are so vital to our empirical knowledge of

political behavior would be less easily accessed, remaining scattered in the hands of a

multitude of principle investigators. Data archives fuel research on comparative

political behavior by centralizing, storing, maintaining, and disseminating both

cross-national and individual nation surveys. Without archives, many early surveys

may be lost, undermining scholars’ ability to analyze political behavior over the long

term. The following discussion reviews the major survey data archives, and Table 47.4

details the contact information (see also Mochmann 2002).

Established in 1962, the Inter-University Consortium for Political and Social

Research (ICPSR) stands out as one of the most prominent data archives in the

world. Housed within the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan,

researchers at ICPSR member institutions can access a diverse range of survey data—

from the American national election studies, to various election studies from several

national series such as the Canadian, French, German, and Dutch series, to the World

Values Survey, to the Afrobarometers and Eurobarometers.

Similarly, the Central Archive for Empirical Social Research (Zentralarchiv fur

Empirische Sozialforschung, ZA) is a leader among data archives. A major store-

house for a voluminous data collection, the ZA headquarters at the University of

Cologne. Examples of the ZA’s holdings include the ISSP series, and German election

study series. The codebooks of this series are available in English language also by the

ICPSR which has made them to one of the most frequently used European election

surveys in the US and around the world.

Founded just after the Second World War, the Roper Center for Public Opinion

Research pioneered survey data archives, and blends both academic and commercial

polls. Roper Center data are accessible for a fee, or through paid membership by

individuals or institutions. The Center compiled a Catalogue of Holdings, providing



Table 47.4 Major Survey Data Archives around the World

Name Institution Headquarters Contact http://

Inter-University Consortiumfor Political and SocialResearch (ICPSR)

Institute for SocialResearch, University ofMichigan

www.icpsr.umich.edu

Central Archive for EmpiricalSocial Research (ZA)(Zentralarchiv fur EmpirischeSozialforschung)

University of Cologne www.gesis.org/za

The Roper Center University of Connecticut www.ropercenter.uconn.edu

UK Data Archive University of Essex. Dataarchive for Economic andSocial Research Council(ESRC)

www.data-archive.ac.uk

Spanish Social ScienceArchive (ARCES) Archivo deEstudios Sociales

Center for Sociological In-vestigations (CIS), Spain

www.cis.es/

Steinmetz Archive (DutchSocial Science Data Archive)

Netherlands Institute ofScientific InformationServices

www2.niwi.knaw.nl/en/maatschappijwetenschappen/steinmetzarchief/

Norwegian Social ScienceData Services (NSSD)

University of Bergen www.uib.no/nsd

Council of European SocialScience Data Archive(CESSDA)

Online, headquarters Nor-wegian Social Science DataService

www.nsd.uib.no/cessda/europe.html

Australian Social ScienceData Archive (ASSDA)

Australian Consortium forSocial and Political Re-search, Australian NationalUniversity

aasda.anu.edu.au

Democracy Survey Database USAID, Vanderbilt Univer-sity Center for the Amer-icas

www.millennium-int.com/newdsd

Center for the Study of PublicOpinion (CESOP)

University of Campinhas,Brazil

www.cesop.unicamp.br

South African Data Archive(SADA)

National Research Founda-tion, Pretoria, South Africa

www.nrf.ac.za/sada

Social Science on Japan DataArchive (SSJDA)

Institute of Social Science,University of Tokyo

ssjda.iss.u-tokyo.ac.jp/en

International Federation ofData Organizations (IFDO)

Umbrella organization, 30members

www.ifdo.org



a searchable description of its 10,000 data sets. While many of its holdings sample the

American public, such as the General Social Survey and the Social Capital Commu-

nity Benchmark Surveys, others poll residents of nations around the world. For

example, the Roper Center holds over 1,000 diVerent data sets from Great Britain. In

response to the proliferation of independent national data archives in other nations,

the Center recently shifted its focus to multinational surveys. In addition, since 1989

the Roper Center oVers the Latin American Databank. The databank partners with

Latin American regional databanks, institutes, universities, and commercial polling

Wrms to acquire and distribute its 1,000 surveys from sixteen Latin American

countries.

Moving down Table 47.4 toward some of the more focused regional archives, the

UK Data Archive is located in the University of Essex, and houses over 7,000 social

science data sets. The UK Data Archive stores and disseminates data for the Eco-

nomic and Social Research Council, such as the British National Election Studies,

British Census data, and Eurobarometer series. Similar to the ICPSR, the UK Data

Archive is a membership-based organization.

Another national organization, ARCES is a social science archive in Spain, spon-

sored by Spain’s Center for Sociological Investigations (CIS). With over 1,600 sur-

veys, ARCES provides access to the Spanish Election Studies, surveys of Spanish

youth, and monthly barometer polls. Most of the data are available for a fee three

months after the processing is completed. In a similar fashion, since 1962 the

Steinmetz Archive houses Dutch social science data, such as the Dutch National

Election Study, and multi-nation surveys such as the European Election Study.

The Norwegian Social Science Data Services (NSSD), University of Bergen, stores

and disseminates survey data dating back to 1964, surveys such as the Norwegian

Election Studies, and census data. The NSSD also sponsors the homepage for the

organization of European data archives, the Council of European Social Science Data

Archive (CESSDA).

The Australian Social Science Data Archive (ASSDA) works as a unit of the

Australian Consortium for Social and Political Research, Research School of Social

Sciences at the Australian National University. Since 1981, the ASSDA archives

Australian National Election Studies, Australian population and census data and

data from other nations in the Asia PaciWc Region.

The Democracy Survey Database, supported by the USAID and Vanderbilt Uni-

versity Center for the Americas, provides a web-accessible, centralized source for a

series of surveys of Latin and Central American countries, including many of the

LAPOP studies described in the previous section. Because many of the surveys were

centrally coordinated and have a common framework, the website oVers a tool for an

organized search of cross-survey topics, and even key question selection.

One of the largest and most accessible archives in Latin America is located at the

University of Campinhas in Brazil. The Center for the Study of Public Opinion

(CESOP) holds over 2,300 surveys, including a large collection of electoral surveys,

publishes a journal about Brazilian public opinion, and is a partner of the ICPSR and

Roper Center.



An electronic storehouse for multiple studies of the South African populations,

and some comparative surveys, the South African Data Archive (SADA), based in

Pretoria, holds academic, government, and commercial surveys. The data catalogue

lists a diverse array of surveys—from the annual General Household Surveys, to

surveys of political attitudes. Currently there are no costs in ordering data and

documentation from SADA.

The Social Science Research of Japan Data Archive (SSJDA) collects, stores, and

distributes Japanese survey data. While the collection of such studies as the Japanese

Election studies is extensive, and the data freely accessible pending application, the

SSJDA website cautions that data sets are provided only in Japanese. The SSJDA, a

partner of the ICPSR, is a unit within the Information Center for Social Research on

Japan, Institute of Social Science, University of Tokyo, and is sponsored by several

other funding agencies. Because the SSJDA is one of the only major Japanese

archives, and was only recently established in 1998, many previous empirical data

disappeared after its primary analysis. The loss of these data underscores the need for

archives to preserve data.

In an eVort to centralize information and facilitate the exchange of data across

borders, umbrella organizations have been created to connect these national archives.

The prominent umbrella organizations include the worldwide International Feder-

ation of Data Organizations (IFDO) and the more European-based Council of

European Social Science Data Archive (CESSDA). Founded in 1976/7, both organ-

izations compile information on a diverse array of data sets from national social

science archives such as ZA in Germany and ARCES in Spain. In addition, these

organizations work to achieve common standards for documenting and sharing data

sets (Mochmann 2002).

3 Conclusions

.........................................................................................................................................................................................

Cross-national survey data projects have proliferated in recent years, oVering

researchers the empirical base to study a variety of diVerent themes and regions.

Despite the major advances in survey projects, the opportunity remains to design

future surveys with an eye toward teasing out the causal mechanisms behind many of

the established relationships. Comparative surveys would be enhanced by the add-

ition of more panel studies like the Political Action Study (1973/6, 1979/81), and

perhaps even experimental survey designs.

In addition, rather than limiting respondents’ options to a predetermined set of

responses, greater funding is necessary to allow for more open-ended questions that

might allow individuals to more clearly convey the basis for their evaluations of the

political world. Likewise, the smaller sample sizes that make contemporary surveys

more aVordable also limit our ability to draw suYcient cases for in-depth analysis of



subsets of the population. The limited number of cases circumscribes our under-

standing of what shapes the attitudes and behaviors of groups such as the young, and

racial and ethnic minority groups.

Most of the major cross-national surveys primarily tap perceptions, values, and

attitudes. Questions addressing actual political behavior are most often found in the

national election studies, and CSES is a Wrst step in making these election studies

comparable across nations. As it stands, it takes a great deal of eVort and time to Wnd

questions comparable over time within the same election study series, let alone

comparable across nations.

Surveys funded by government organizations are public domain, and accessible to

the public. By tradition, most survey data are restricted for a few years after

collection. The American National Science Foundation stipulates that investigators

share the data they collect ‘‘at no more than incremental cost and within a reasonable

time’’ (NSF, GC-1 (07/01/02). However, the ‘‘norm’’ for that interim period of

exclusive rights varies across projects, and around the world. Further, many regional

surveys are increasingly funded by private sources, and if they provide data to the

general public at all, may charge considerable fees. These fees may prove prohibitive

for many researchers with limited resources, especially graduate students and junior

scholars.

Normatively speaking, what should be the obligations to share data? On the one

hand, from the perspective of those who invested their eVorts in collecting and

preparing the data, a brief period is often necessary for in-house analysis. By releasing

the data too early, a ‘‘free-rider’’ may achieve the Wrst publication. Usurping the

researcher who invested the capital may weaken the future collection of data,

reducing the incentive of Principal Investigators to gather the data in the Wrst

place. The logic underpinning a brief period of exclusive rights operates much like

the market-based logic of research and development for products such as prescrip-

tion medications.

On the other hand, some academic surveys remain diYcult or expensive to obtain,

and/or suVer from an extended delay from collection to public release. The largely

pervasive norm of archiving and sharing data within a year or two is essential to the

advancement of science. With older data, researchers are often unable to address the

most pressing current political issues. Further, survey data that are not shared leave

behind gaps in the literature, and a new team must reinvent the wheel. Surveys that

merely re-create unreleased data waste precious resources. Limited accessibility to

cross-national surveys can impede scholarship in certain areas, especially where there

are relatively few surveys conducted at all.

In general, the ‘‘large-n’’ academic studies and surveys of western Europe have

been most easily accessed, adding to their visibility, and to the extensive study of

individuals in western nations. SpeciWc to emerging democracies and developing

nations, the timely release of survey data is especially important, and it is often

lacking. Transitions are, by deWnition, time sensitive. The proliferation of projects in

previously undersurveyed regions and countries is only the Wrst step in evening our

knowledge of political behavior in a diverse array of political settings. In order to



truly step up research, survey data must be widely shared through established

archives, or online, and advertised to young scholars.

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THE METHODOLOGY OF COMPARATIVE POLITICAL …mishler/Miki.Kittilson-chap47.pdfEVS explicitly limits its activities to Europe the WVS has a global interest. The eVects of the EVS/WVS