THE MAPUTO BAY ECOSYSTEM

Editors Salomão Bandeira | José Paula

THE MAPUTO BAYECOSYSTEMEditors Salomão Bandeira | José Paula

Book title:The Maputo Bay Ecosystem.

Editors:Salomão BandeiraJosé Paula

Assistant Editor:Célia Macamo

Book citation:Bandeira, S. and Paula, J. (eds.). 2014. The Maputo Bay Ecosystem. WIOMSA, Zanzibar Town, 427 pp.

Chapter citation example:Schleyer, M. and Pereira, M., 2014. Coral Reefs of Maputo Bay. In: Bandeira, S. and Paula, J. (eds.), The Maputo Bay Ecosystem. WIOMSA, Zanzibar Town, pp. 187-206.

ISBN: 978-9987-9559-3-0© 2014 by Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA)Mizingani Street, House No. 13644/10P.O. Box 3298, Zanzibar, Tanzania.Website: www.wiomsa.orgE-mail: [email protected]

All rights of this publication are reserved to WIOMSA, editors and authors of the respective chapters. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the editors and WIOMSA. The material can be used for scientific, educational and informational purposes with the previous permission of the editors and WIOMSA.

This publication is made possible by the generous support of Sida (Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency) through the Western Indian Ocean Marine Science Association (WIOMSA). The contents do not necessarily reflect the views of Sida.

Design: Marco Nunes Correia | designer of comunication and scientific illustrator | [email protected]: credits referred in respective legends.Printed by: Guide – Artes Gráficas, Lda. (www.guide.pt)Printed in Portugal

T h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m XVII

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword by the Rector of UEM

Foreword by the President of WIOMSA

Acknowledgements

List of contributors

PART I ENVIRONMENTAL AND HUMAN SETTING

Chapter 1. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE MAPUTO BAY

José Paula and Salomão Bandeira

Chapter 2. GEOGRAPHICAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC SETTING OF MAPUTO BAY

Armindo da Silva and José Rafael

Case Study 2.1. Maputo Bay’s coastal habitats

Maria Adelaide Ferreira and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 2.2. Main economic evaluation of Maputo Bay

Simião Nhabinde, Vera Julien and Carlos Bento

Chapter 3. GEOMORPHOLOGY AND EVOLUTION OF MAPUTO BAY

Mussa Achimo, João Alberto Mugabe, Fátima Momade and Sylvi Haldorsen

Case Study 3.1. Erosion in Maputo Bay

Elidio A. Massuanganhe

Chapter 4. HYDROLOGY AND CIRCULATION OF MAPUTO BAY

Sinibaldo Canhanga and João Miguel Dias

Case Study 4.1. Maputo Bay offshore circulation

Johan R.E. Lutjeharms† and Michael Roberts

Case Study 4.2. Ground water flow in/into Maputo Bay

Dinis Juízo

Chapter 5. HUMAN SETTINGS IN MAPUTO BAY

Yussuf Adam, Júlio Machele and Omar Saranga

1

3

11

21

25

31

39

45

55

61

67

XVIII T h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m

Chapter 6. INHACA ISLAND: THE CRADLE OF MARINE RESEARCH IN MAPUTO BAY

AND MOZAMBIQUE

Salomão Bandeira, Lars Hernroth and Vando da Silva

Case Study 6.1. The role of SIDA/SAREC on research development in Maputo Bay during the

period 1983-2010

Almeida Guissamulo and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 6.2. Inhaca and Portuguese islands reserves and their history

Salomão Bandeira, Tomás Muacanhia, Olavo Deniasse and Gabriel Albano

PART IIMAIN HABITATS AND ECOLOGICAL FUNCTIONING

Chapter 7. MANGROVES OF MAPUTO BAY

José Paula, Célia Macamo and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 7.1. Incomati mangrove deforestation

Celia Macamo, Henriques Baliddy and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 7.2. Saco da Inhaca mangrove vegetation mapping and change detection using very

high resolution satellite imagery and historic aerial photography

Griet Neukermans and Nico Koedam

Case Study 7.3. The mud crab Scylla serrata (Forskål) in Maputo Bay, Mozambique

Adriano Macia, Paula Santana Afonso, José Paula and Rui Paula e Silva

Case Study 7.4. Crab recruitment in mangroves of Maputo Bay

José Paula and Henrique Queiroga

Chapter 8. SEAGRASS MEADOWS IN MAPUTO BAY

Salomão Bandeira, Martin Gullström, Henriques Balidy, Davide Samussone and Damboia Cossa

Case Study 8.1. Zostera capensis – a vulnerable seagrass species

Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 8.2. Thalassodendron leptocaule – a new species of seagrass from rocky habitats

Maria Cristina Duarte, Salomão Bandeira and Maria Romeiras

Case Study 8.3. Morphological and physiological plasticity of the seagrass Halodule uninervis at

Inhaca Island, Mozambique

Meredith Muth and Salomão Bandeira

Chapter 9. CORAL REEFS OF MAPUTO BAY

Michael Schleyer and Marcos Pereira

87

99

101

107

109

127

131

135

141

147

171

175

181

187

XIXT h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m

Table of Contents

Case Study 9.1. Shrimps in coral reefs and other habitats in the surrounding waters of Inhaca Island

Matz Berggren

Chapter 10. MARINE MAMMALS AND OTHER MARINE MEGAFAUNA OF MAPUTO BAY

Almeida Guissamulo

Case Study 10.1. Seagrass grazing by dugongs: Can habitat conservation help protect the dugong?

Stela Fernando, Salomão Bandeira and Almeida Guissamulo

Chapter 11. MARINE TURTLES IN MAPUTO BAY AND SURROUNDINGS

Cristina Louro

Chapter 12. THE TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT ADJACENT TO MAPUTO BAY

Salomão Bandeira, Annae Senkoro, Filomena Barbosa, Dalmiro Mualassace and Estrela Figueiredo

Case Study 12.1. Inhaca Island within Maputaland centre of endemism

Annae Senkoro, Filomena Barbosa and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 12.2. Uses of plant species from Inhaca Island

Filomena Barbosa, Annae Senkoro and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 12.3. The avifauna of Maputo Bay

Carlos Bento

PART IIIFISHERIES OF MAPUTO BAY

Chapter 13. SHALLOW-WATER SHRIMP FISHERIES IN MAPUTO BAY

Rui Paula e Silva and Zainabo Masquine

Case Study 13.1. Influence of the precipitation and river runoff on the semi-industrial shrimp

catches in Maputo Bay

Carlos Bacaimane and Rui Paula e Silva

Case Study 13.2. Influence of estuarine flow rates on the artisanal shrimp catches in Maputo Bay

Sónia Nordez

Case Study 13.3. Distribution and abundance of the shrimp Fanneropenaeus indicus in Maputo Bay

António Pegado and Zainabo Masquine

Case Study 13.4. By-catch in the artisanal and semi-industrial shrimp trawl fisheries in Maputo Bay

Vanda Machava, Adriano Macia and Daniela de Abreu

207

215

223

229

239

255

259

265

275

277

285

287

289

291

XX T h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m

Chapter 14. THE MAGUMBA FISHERY OF MAPUTO BAY

Paula Santana Afonso and Zainabo Masquine

Chapter 15. ARTISANAL FISHERIES IN MAPUTO BAY

Alice Inácio, Eunice Leong, Kélvin Samucidine, Zainabo Masquine and José Paula

Case Study 15.1. Biology and current status of the Otolithes ruber population in Maputo Bay

Alice Inácio

Case Study 15.2. Aspects of the reproductive biology of saddle grunt (Pomadasys maculatus) and

silver sillago (Sillago sihama) in Maputo Bay

Isabel Chaúca

Case Study 15.3. Socio-economic aspects of gastropod and bivalve harvest from seagrass beds –

comparison between urban (disturbed) and rural (undisturbed) areas

Elisa Inguane Vicente and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 15.4. The sea urchin Tripneustes gratilla: insight to an important food resource at Inhaca

Island

Stela Fernando and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 15.5. Recreational and sport fishing in Maputo Bay

Marcos Pereira and Rudy Van der Elst

PART IV

CROSS CUTTING ISSUES

Chapter 16. POLLUTION IN MAPUTO BAY

Maria Perpétua Scarlet and Salomão Bandeira

Case Study 16.1. Aerosols in Maputo Bay

António Queface

Case Study 16.2. Heavy metal contamination of penaeid shrimps from the artisanal and semi-

industrial fisheries in Maputo Bay

Daniela de Abreu, David Samussone and Maria Perpétua Scarlet

Chapter 17. POTENCIAL CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON MAPUTO BAY

Alberto Mavume, Izidine Pinto and Elídio Massuanganhe

Chapter 18. MANAGEMENT OF MAPUTO BAY

Sérgio Rosendo, Louis Celiers and Micas Mechisso

297

303

321

325

329

335

341

345

347

373

377

383

399

XXIT h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m

Table of Contents

Chapter 19. MAPUTO BAY: THE WAY FORWARD

José Paula and Salomão Bandeira

419

T h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m 229

Marine Turtlesin Maputo Bay

and SurroundingsCristina Louro

11

IntroductionFor more than 100 million years, marine turtles have

roamed the world’s oceans. These impressive ocean

navigators, although possessing biological character-

istics inherent to terrestrial reptiles, have developed

a number of morphological and physiological adapta-

tions for living in the sea, such as flat and paddle-

shaped like flippers, streamlined body, enlarged

lacrimal glands (Limpus, 1997; Meylan and Meylan,

1999; Wyneken, 2000a) and elastic lungs (Lutz, 1988).

The life cycle of a marine turtle begins on the

shores of sandy beaches when hatchlings emerge

from nests (Meylan and Meylan, 1999). In the sea,

they swim in a frenzy towards the open ocean devel-

opment habitat (Carr, 1986; Luschi et al., 2003; Wyn-

eken, 2000b). After approximately 5 to 20 years, and

having reached the juvenile phase (Limpus, 1997),

marine turtles make long-distance migrations and

take residence in shallow inshore coastal waters,

commonly known as foraging habitats (Carr, 1986,

1987; Lohman et al., 2008). At an estimated age of

about 30-50 years (or less for some species) (Limpus,

1997), both adult males and females make periodical

migrations from their foraging habitats to the breed-

ing and nesting grounds, often hundreds or thou-

sands of kilometres apart (Carr, 1987; Limpus, 1989;

Bentivegna, 2002). An interesting aspect is that mat-

ing and nesting takes place within the geographic

region of their natal beach (Bowen et al., 1989; Bass et

al., 2004) or on the way to the nesting beach, showing

a great sense of homing ability and fidelity (Addison,

2002; Lohman et al., 2008). In a nesting season, a

female will lay multiple clutches of eggs (Owens et

al., 1989). After this, females begin the return migra-

tion to the foraging grounds (Limpus, 1989) and will

not breed for at least two to four years (Owens et al.,

1989) depending on the species. Some individuals,

however, do return to breed at one year intervals as

well (such are the cases of olive ridley and leather-

backs turtles). Thus, the fact that marine turtles are

long-lived, slow growing and of late maturity makes

them highly vulnerable to the slightest increase in

human-induced mortality in any of the different

stages of their life cycle (Dobbs, 2001).

The role of marine turtles in the evolution and

maintenance of coastal and marine ecosystems has

been largely unrecognized and is still poorly known,

due to the severe decline of marine turtles worldwide

(Allen, 2007). In general, marine turtles affect both

the structure and composition of the coastal shallow

230 T h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m

II . Main Habitats and Ecological Functioning

ecosystems and contribute to the equilibrium of the

food chain by acting as both predators and prey. By

grazing on coral competitors, for example, marine tur-

tles have an indirect role of keeping a balanced popu-

lation structure and dynamic in coral reefs (Leon and

Bjorndal, 2002). They also act as nutrient and energy

transporters within and between ecosystems (Bjorn-

dal, 2000; Bouchard and Bjorndal, 2000; Allen, 2007).

Other ecological functions of marine turtles include

hosting parasites and pathogens, providing a sub-

strate for epibionts and being modifiers of landscape.

The significance of all these functions to the environ-

ment has been greatly affected by the reduction of

the global marine turtle populations (Bjorndal and

Jackson, 2003). Marine turtles are also excellent envi-

ronmental health indicators because they occupy dif-

ferent habitats at different stages of their complex

life cycle, and are extremely sensitive to anthropo-

genic environmental degradation, such as increased

water temperature, infectious agents and pollutants

(Aguirre and Lutz, 2004).

The conservation status of marine turtles varies

according to each country. At a global level, the Inter-

national Union for the Conservation of Nature

(IUCN), the Convention of Migratory Species of

Wild Animals (CMS) and the Convention on Interna-

tional Trade in endangered Species of Wild Fauna

and Flora (CITES) have determined the conserva-

tion status of marine turtles (Table 1).

Of the seven species of marine turtles that occur

worldwide, five occur and nest along the Mozam-

bique coast, namely the hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys

imbricata), the olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea),

green turtle (Chelonia mydas), the leatherback turtle

(Dermochelys coriacea) and the loggerhead turtle

(Caretta caretta) (Hughes, 1971). However, the last

two species only nest in southern Mozambique

(Hughes, 1971).

In Maputo Bay and surroundings, only four spe-

cies of marine turtles occur, namely the green, hawks-

bill, leatherback and loggerhead (Macnae and Kalk,

1969; Hughes, 1971; Kalk, 1995). The first marine tur-

tle survey which encompassed the whole Mozambican

coastline and allowed some insight on the occurrence,

distribution and conservation of marine turtles within

the Bay and surroundings was conducted by Hughes

in 1971. Documented sporadic sightings of marine tur-

tles in the sheltered waters of Inhaca Island by Macnae

and Kalk (1969) and Kalk (1995) also provided further

understanding. At Macaneta, from 2003 to 2005 a tag-

ging programme of accidentally captured marine turtle

in fishing nets was implemented. Extensive marine

turtle nest monitoring carried out since 1988/89 nest-

ing season by the Estação de Biologia Maritima da Ilha

da Inhaca (EBMI) has also offered some interesting

knowledge on the nesting patterns of loggerhead and

leatherback turtles in Portuguese and Inhaca Islands.

Data generated by these monitoring programmes and

by many first degree thesis were compiled by Tarn-

lund (1999), Videira et al. (2008; 2010) and Pereira et al.

(2009). Currently, a marine turtle nest monitoring pro-

gramme is being carried out at Macaneta. Apart from

this, two graduate thesis studies were completed by

Ng (2001) and Isidoro (2006). The first comprised the

Table 1. Global conservation status of marine turtles species that occur in Mozambique.

Common Name Scientific Name IUCN Red List CMS Appendix CITES

Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta Endangered I & II I

Green turtle Chelonia mydas Endangered I & II I

Hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata Critically Endangered I & II I

Olive ridley Lepidochelys olivacea Endangered I & II I

Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea Critically Endangered I & II I

231T h e M a p u t o B a y E c o s y s t e m

11. Marine Turtles in Maputo Bay and Surroundings

characterization of the nesting sites of both C. caretta

and D. coriacea, while the last involved the description

of the nesting population at Inhaca Island. The main

nesting areas of marine turtles in Maputo Bay are pre-

sented in Figure 1.

The present chapter aims at providing an insight

into the occurrence and distribution and the conserva-

tion status of these four species of marine turtles

around Maputo Bay, as well as to provide some infor-

mation on the research and monitoring activities

developed thus far.

Occurrence and distributionThe green turtle is the most common marine turtle in

Mozambican waters, being more abundant in the cen-

tral and northern sections of the country (Hughes,

1971; 1974). In Maputo Bay, green turtles can be found

in the surrounding waters of Inhaca, Portuguese

Islands and Macaneta (Hughes, 1971; Gove and

Magane, 1996; Kalk, 1995). At Inhaca Island, they have

been found at the mouth of the southern bay, possibly

feeding on the seagrass beds of Zostera capensis. They

have also been spotted feeding on macroalgae, Caul-

erpa spp. and Gelidium spp., anchored to the rocks

(Kalk, 1995). In Macaneta, 13 green turtles have been

accidentally caught in fishing nets and tagged from

2003 to 2005 (Table 2), supporting the theory that

these waters are possible foraging and developmental

grounds for green turtles.

The hawksbill turtle was considered by Hughes

(1974) as the second most common species in

Mozambique, occurring mainly in shallow water coral

reefs. Hawksbills have also been spotted at Inhaca´s

coral reefs. However, it is uncertain if they still occur

in these waters (Kalk, 1995), as no quantitative data

exists so far for this region. This species does not nest

in Maputo Bay.

The loggerhead turtle is found throughout the

waters of the entire coastline of Mozambique, being

most common from south of Beira in central Mozam-

bique (Hughes, 1971), and recent sightings confirm

that the leatherback is not only found in the waters of

southern Mozambique, but also in the northern sec-

tions of the country. In Maputo Bay, loggerhead and

leatherback turtles are commonly found in the waters

of the eastern shores of Inhaca Island (Kalk, 1995).

Both species have been accidentally caught in fishing

nets, tagged and released in Macaneta (Table 2) and

they nest in Maputo Bay.

Loggerhead and leatherback turtles share the

same nesting grounds in southern Mozambique,

more precisely from Ponta do Ouro to Bazaruto

Archipelago, covering basically the whole region of

southern Mozambique (Hughes, 1971; Costa et al.,

2007). Between 1988-1989 and 2009-2010 nesting

seasons, 555 marine turtle crawls were observed at

Inhaca Island, of which 69.01% were from loggerhead

turtle and 30.99% from leatherback turtle. A total of

515 nests were observed in the area, of which 349 are

from loggerhead turtle and 172 from leatherback tur-

tle. An average of 15.86 ± 9.90 Loggerhead turtle

Figure 1. Marine turtle main nesting areas in Maputo Bay.

MAPUTO BAY

InhacaIsland

Delagoa Bight

MaputoCity

Macaneta

PortugueseIsland

km

0 5 10

N



nests were laid annually at Inhaca east coast with an

average of 1.55 ± 1.76 failed nesting attempts (false

crawls). According to Impacto (1997), Inhaca Island’s

12 km east coast nesting season is more intense

between November and January and the two species

(Caretta caretta and Dermochelys coriacea) laid together

40 nests per annum on average. On Barreira Ver-

melha, on the western coast of Inhaca Island, during

the 2007-2008 season, five loggerhead turtle “crawls”

were recorded, of which four resulted in successful

nesting. On the other hand, an average of 7.55 ± 7.54

leatherback nests were laid annually at Inhaca Island,

with 0.86 ± 0.69 failed nesting attempts (Figure 2).

For Inhaca Island, it is still difficult to determine if

nesting by loggerhead and leatherback is increasing,

as results did not show any significant increase

(ANOVA, F(1,20) = 1.857, p = 0.188; ANOVA, F(1,20)

= 0.691, p = 0.416, respectively). Around Portuguese

Island, four nests have been laid over the above men-

tioned 20 year period, of which two are from logger-

head and the remaining two from leatherback. At

Macaneta, for the 2007–2008 season only, a total of

nine nesting crawls have been observed, of which

only three have resulted in nesting: one undeter-

mined (2007-2008), one loggerhead and one leather-

back (2009 - 2010).

Nesting activity for both species occurred from

October to February, but for loggerhead turtle was

greatest from November to January, when 92.83% of

the nests were laid, whereas for leatherbacks it was

greatest from October to January, when 93.59% of

nests were laid (Figure 3). For Macaneta, both nests

were laid during the month of November.

Conservation status All five species of marine turtles are protected by law

in Mozambique, through the following Laws and

Regulations: the Forestry and Wildlife Law (Law

10/1999), the Forestry and Wildlife Regulation

(Decree 12/2002), the Prevention of Pollution and

Protection of the Coastal and Marine Environment

Regulation (Decree 45/2006), the General Maritime

Fisheries Regulation (Decree 43/2003), and the Rec-

reational and Sports Fishing Regulation (Decree

51/1999).

The necessary legal arrangements have been in

place since 1965 (Hughes, 1971) for the effective

conservation of marine turtles, not only by acts and

regulations but also through the declaration of marine

protected areas and respective management plans.

The most recently declared was in 2009, and of which

Inhaca Island is part of the Ponta do Ouro Partial

Marine Reserve. There is an urgent need to improve

and strengthen control by effectively implementing

the law whenever necessary, as currently this is

almost non-existent, especially in non-protected

areas such as Macaneta.

Some 15-20 years ago 4% of eggs laid on Inhaca

Island’s east coast were reported stolen, an indication

of the effectiveness of control of marine turtle nests

at this site (Impacto, 1997). It appears however that

Inhaca marine turtles continue to face a constant

threat, as almost every nesting season egg collection

and incidents of poaching of nesting females contin-

Table 2. Number of green, loggerhead and leatherback turtles tagged at Macaneta (2003-2005).

Year Green Loggerhead Leatherback

2003 1 - 1

2004 4 - 1

2005 8 3 1



ues to occur. Marine turtle mortality at Inhaca Island

is of concern because this is an area of the coastline

that is protected since 1951 (Inhaca Reserves) and

where a marine turtle monitoring programme has

been implemented by University Eduardo Mond-

lane (UEM) for more than 20 years. On the other

hand, Macaneta faces the issue of incidental capture

of green turtles and leatherbacks in nets of artisanal

fisheries (Table 3). However, the fact that there are

no data on accidental captures in fishing nets at

Inhaca Island does not reduce the concern.

Data provided in Table 3 is not fully indicative of

the current conservation status of marine turtles

Figure 2. Total number of marine turtle nests and false crawls by Caretta caretta and Dermochelys coriacea from 1988-1989 to 2009-2010 season at Inhaca Island.

Figure 3. Distribution of nests by month, Inhaca and Portuguese Islands, 1988-1989 through 2009 – 2010 (C. caretta n = 351; D. coriacea n = 168).

Nest False Crawl

1988/89

1989/90

1990/91

1991/92

1992/93

1993/94

1994/95

1995/96

1996/97

1997/98

1998/99

1999/00

2000/01

2001/02

2002/03

2003/04

2004/05

2005/06

2006/07

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

1988/89

1989/90

1990/91

1991/92

1992/93

1993/94

1994/95

1995/96

1996/97

1997/98

1998/99

1999/00

2000/01

2001/02

2002/03

2003/04

2004/05

2005/06

2006/07

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10

Nesting Season

Nes

ts a

nd fa

lse

craw

ls

C. caretta D. coriacea

Month

Num

ber o

f nes

ts

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun



within Maputo Bay and surroundings, since monitor-

ing was deficient in many cases and thus the quanti-

tative data provided might not reflect real current

status. However, observations in the environment

and talks with local fishing communities, and hap-

pens all along the Mozambican coastline, with

Maputo Bay no exception, indicate with some confi-

dence that marine turtle populations are possibly

undergoing a steady and significant decline. It can be

assumed that it is due either to unknown natural

causes, or most probably due to uncontrolled anthro-

pogenic impacts such as pollution (e.g. water pollu-

tion as result of sewage discharge, accidental oil spills,

solid waste, etc.; see also chapter 16 - Pollution in

Maputo Bay), increased accidental or intentional cap-

ture in gill and trawling nets by semi-industrial and

artisanal fisheries and also exploitation of nests and

females on the beach. Other possible explanations

for the reduction of the marine turtle’s population in

Maputo Bay include destruction of their natural hab-

itats such as seagrass beds (e.g. disturbance as a con-

sequence of invertebrate harvesting) and coastal

dunes (nesting areas). The growing tourism industry

might also pose a threat by increase human presence

in Macaneta and Inhaca Island.

Perspectives on future monitoring and research In terms of perspectives on future monitoring and

research there is a need for the following: (1) Improve

the existent marine turtle monitoring and protection

activities and programs, by guaranteeing that these

are consistent and long-term run, to detect popula-

tion trends; (2) Promote research on aspects related

to the occurrence, distribution, size and status of the

populations of the marine turtle species found in

Maputo Bay and surroundings; (3) Promote research

to assess the causes and impacts of marine turtle mor-

tality, especially mortality of marine turtles as by-

catch in semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries; (4)

Identify the different marine turtle habitats (e.g.

nesting beach, inter-nesting and pelagic areas) that

are critical for the survival of Maputo Bay popula-

tions. It is also important to work with coastal com-

munities on conservation issues, since their support

is crucial for the success of any conservation plan.

Nonetheless, and due to the lack of much needed

information, is important to urgently develop and

implement a threat-based national marine turtle

recovery plan that clearly sets out its objectives, spe-

cific actions and recovery criteria. This plan should

also be regularly assessed in order to determine and

improve (if necessary) its effectiveness.

Table 3. Marine turtle mortality at Inhaca Island season 1988-1989 to 2009-2010 and Macaneta season 1991-1992 to 2009 – 2010. Unidentified cause includes stranded animals with no signs of injury and situations where only part of the animal was found, and thus cause of death was difficult to determine.

Note: Data provided here are not indicative of the current conservation status of marine turtles within Maputo Bay and surroundings.

Cause Loggerhead Leatherback Green

Inhaca Macaneta Inhaca Macaneta Inhaca Macaneta

Nests

Robbed 19 - 8 - - -

Destroyed by natural causes 5 - 3 - - -

Adults

Unidentified cause 7 - 3 - - -

Fishing nets - - - 4 - 9



Figure 4. The main areas of nesting of marine turtles in the Maputo Bay region are (A) the east Inhaca Island 12 km beach, (B) the Portuguese Island, and (C) the Macaneta Peninsula in the mouth of the Incomati estuary. The Inhaca Island Marine Biological Station technician controls a track of a large female of leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea (D), and later monitors the nests (E), hatchlings (F) and successful return migration to the sea. Photographs by José Paula.

A

C

E

F G

B

D



Addison, D.S., Gore, J.A., Ryder, J., Worley, K., 2002.

Tracking post-nesting movements of loggerhead

turtles (Caretta caretta) with sonic and radio

telemetry on the southwest coast of Florida, USA.

Marine Biology 141, 201-205.

Aguirre, A.A., Lutz, P.L., 2004. Marine turtles as sen-

tinels of ecosystem health: is fibropapillomatosis

an indicator? EcoHealth 1, 275-283.

Allen, M.S., 2007. Three millennia of human and sea

turtle interactions in Remote Oceania. Coral Reefs

56, 959-970.

Bass, A.L., Epperly, S.P. Braun-McNeill, J., 2004.

Multi-year analysis of stock composition of a log-

gerhead turtle (Caretta caretta) foraging habitat

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