The Journal of Research ANGRAU - Acharya N.G.Ranga ...1)_2014.pdf · Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Warangal - 506007 ABSTRACT Four restorer lines were crossed with five

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Heterosis for yield and quality traits in rice (Oryza sativa L.)K. Rukmini Devi, K. Parimala and C. Cheralu 1

Influence of production environments, seed age and seed treatment on seed storability andquality of rice cv. IR 36P. Usha Rani, I.V. Subba Rao, M. S. Prasad, U.Chaitanya and K.Keshavulu 12

Screening of new fungicides against location specific diseases of rice occurring in Southern TelanganaZone of Andhra PradeshR. Jagadeeshwar, N. Rama Gopala Varma, P. Raghu Rami Reddy, Ch. Surender Raju,S. Vanisree, B.Gopal Reddy and S. Dayakar 18

PART II : SOCIAL SCIENCE

Identification of un-reached farmersP.V.Satya Gopal, Pochaiah Maraty and B.Vijayabhinandana 22

A study on direct and indirect consequences of crop holiday in East Godavari district ofAndhra Pradesh as perceived by the farmers, agricultural scientists and extension personnelV. Deepthi, I.Sreenivasa Rao and R.Vasantha 28

PART III : HOME SCIENCE

Retention and dropout status at secondary level of schooling in urban and rural areas ofAndhra Pradesh: An overviewL.Umadevi and M. Uma 33

PART IV : AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING

Storage of tamarind in commonly available packaging materialsA. K. Agrawal, Archana Khare and Geetesh Sinha 40

PART V : HORTICULTURE

Effect of vermiwash on yield attributing characters, yield and economics in okra (Abelmoschusesculentus (L.) Moench)P. Madhavi Latha, Veena Joshi, K. Sireesha, M.Vijaya , B.K.M. Lakshmi and B. Somraj 47

PART VI : RESEARCH NOTE

Effect of different growth regulators (NAA, GA, cycocel and ethrel) and pinching on growth &flowering of African Marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) cv pusa narangi gainda under different dates of plantingR. Rajyalakshmi and M. Rajasekhar 52

Impact of ‘MGNREGS’ on financial inclusion of the rural poor: A case studyD. Kumara Swamy and C.V. Hanumanthaiah 55

Studies on effect of sewage waters on production and quality of various forage crops underdifferent nitrogen levelsD.Srinivas, M.Shanti, V. Chandrika and P.Surendra Babu 58

CONTENTSPART I : PLANT SCIENCE

A study on factors influencing the extent of participation by respondents in feedbackmechanism in agricultural technology managementCh. Lakshmi Prasanna, V. Sudha Rani and R. Vasantha 63

Costs, returns and marketing of coriander in Kota district of RajasthanBhim Singh, Seema and Aldas Janaiah 66

Information acquisition, processing and storing and retrieval behaviour of the sugarcane farmersin Kolhapur district of MaharashtraPriya N Patil and V. Sudha Rani 75

Association studies of grain iron and zinc concentrations with yield and other agronomic traitsusing F2 populations of two crosses in sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)K.T. Ravi Kiran, K. Radhika, A. Ashok Kumar and V. Padma 77

HETEROSIS FOR YIELD AND QUALITY TRAITS IN RICE (Oryza sativa L.)

K. RUKMINI DEVI, K. PARIMALA AND C. CHERALURegional Agricultural Research Station,

Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Warangal - 506007

ABSTRACT

Four restorer lines were crossed with five testers in line x tester mating design in rice. The resultant 20 F1s wasevaluated along with their parents and check variety (BPT-5204) to estimate mid parental heterosis, heterobeltiosisand standard heterosis for yield and quality traits. The high values of 21.9 percent over mid parent, 13.93 percent overbetter parent and 40.7 percent over standard variety were recorded for panicle length. Number of grains per paniclerecorded 91.74 percent over mid parent, 82.25 percent and 93.3 percent over better parent and standard check. Thehighest values of heterosis 245.83 percent over mid parent, 197.6 percent over better parent and 224.85 percent overstandard check were recorded for grain yield per plant. Highly significant positive average heterosis, heterobeltiosisand standard heterosis for grain yield per plant was expressed due to manifestation of additive heterotic effect of oneor more yield contributing traits. For the traits kernel length after cooking, 12 crosses exhibited mid parental heterosis,seven crosses showed heterobeltiosis and 18 crosses recorded standard heterosis. The crosses EPLT-109 X IR-55838-B2-2 and DR 714-IR x 1005 recorded high volume expansion ratio for heterosis and heterobeltiosis andstandard heterosis. High degree of heterosis was observed for days to 50% flowering, panicle length, number ofgrains per panicle, grain yield per plant, kernel length after cooking and kernel elongation ratio, whereas in case of testweight, number of productive tillers per plant, milling recovery, head rice recovery and length / breadth ratio was low.On the basis of high mean, high heterosis for yield and quality traits with earliness, the crosses DR-714-IR x 1005,EPLT-109 x IR-55838-B2-2 and SN415R x 1005 were found to be superior.

Date of Receipt : 18.01.2013 Date of Acceptance : 27.11.2013

email: [email protected]

The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 1-11, 2014

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is a staple food cropfor more than 40% of the world population. Hybridrice technology was identified as one of the potentialtools for increasing the yield potential of rice bybreaking yield ceilings. Utilization of heterosis hastremendously increased productivity of many cropsglobally. In development of good, acceptable hybrids,nature of restorer lines plays an important role.Improvement of parental lines results in further steadyincrease in hybrid yield (Ikeshashi et al., 1994). Themagnitude of heterosis depends on the degree ofgenetic distinctiveness of the parental lines used(Akhter et al., 2003) while, both positive and negativeheterosis is useful for crop improvement, dependingon objectives of the breeding. Even though, severalof the research publications reported heterosis in ricefor yield and component traits, the information onheterosis for grain shape and size which are ultimatelyimportant for commercial success of a variety is verylimited. The present study was undertaken to identifythe restorer lines both for quantitative and qualitativetraits.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experimental material comprised of fourelite restorer lines (BR-827-35R, EPLT-109, DR-714-1R and SN415R) and five testers (1005, IR 60819-34, IR 62036-222, IR-63870-123 and IR-55838-B-2)were crossed in Line x Tester design during rabi,2009. The 20 F1s along with their parents and checkvariety (BPT-5204) were evaluated for yieldcomponents and grain quality traits at RegionalAgricultural Research Station, Warangal during kharif,2010. The trial was conducted in a randomized blockdesign with two replications. Each entry consistedof two rows of 3 m length with a spacing of 20 cmbetween the rows and 15 cm between the plants in arow. A standard package of practices was followedfor raising the crop. Data was recorded on 10 plantsselected randomly from each cross for all metric traitsin each replication. Observations were recorded on17 agronomical and quality traits viz., days to 50%flowering, plant height (cm), number of productivetillers per plant, panicle length (cm), number of grainsper panicle, 1000-grain weight (g), grain yield per plant,

1

hulling (%), milling (%), head rice recovery (%),kernel length (mm), kernel breath (mm), kernel L/Bratio, kernel length after cooking (mm), kernel breadthafter cooking (mm), kernel elongation ratio and volumeexpansion ratio. Days to 50% flowering was recordedon plot basis. Heterosis (Liang etal., 1972) wasestimated as the superiority of F1 over mid parent(average heterosis) better parent (heterobeltiosis) andstandard check (standard heterosis). Hulling andmilling were done by using the satake laboratoryhuller and polisher and head rice recovery wasrecorded. Kernel length and kernel breadth of 20whole milled rice were measured by means of dialcaliper and kernel L/B ratio was computed (Murthyand Govindaswamy,1967). Kernel elongation wasdetermined by soaking 5 g of whole milled rice in 12ml distilled water for 10 minutes and later cooked for15 minutes in water bath. Observations on lengthand breadth of cooked kernels and elongation ratiowere recorded to quantify cooking traits.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The analysis of variance indicated significantdifferences among the genotypes for grain yield andother yield components (Table1). Among the yieldcomponents, No. of productive tillers / plant exhibitedhighest significant difference. All the quality traitsshowed significant differences between the genotypesexcept for hulling percentage (Table 2).

The estimates of mid parental heterosis (H1)heterobeltiosis (H2) and standard heterosis (H3) foryield and its component traits were present in Table3.In the present investigation considerable heterosisexisted both in positive and negative direction. Earlyflowering is desirable and all the twenty crossesrecorded significant negative standard heterosis indesired direction. The cross SN 415R x 1005 recordedhigh significant negative mid parental heterosis andheterobeltiosis for days to 50% flowering. Tilleringability of the genotype is closely associated with highproduction. Eight crosses for mid parental heterosis,five crosses for heterobeltiosis and nine crosses forstandard heterosis exhibited significant positiveheterosis for number of productive tillers plant. Thecross BR-827-35R x IR 63870-123 exhibited high midparental heterosis, heterobeltiosis and standard

heterosis. Similar results were observed by Raju etal., (2005). The heterotic crosses with high per seinvolved at least one parent with moderate to hightillering habit. Medium plant height also a desirablecharacter and two crosses exhibited significantnegative heterobeltiosis in desired direction.

For panicle length significant positiveheterosis over check was exhibited by nine crossesand 18 crosses over mid parent and standard parentrespectively. The crosses EPLT-109 x IR-60819-34followed by EPLT-109 x IR-63870-123 and SN415 Rx IR 60819-34 manifested high standard heterosis.Number of grains per panicle is one of the importantcomponents of yield and probably in future thischaracter will help in breaking the yield ceiling.Heterosis for number of grains per panicle wasexhibited by seven crosses over standard parent,six crosses over better parent and 14 crosses overmid parent. Crosses involving SN415R, EPLT-109and 1005 as one of the parent had higher number ofgrains per panicle. Significant positive heterosis forthis character was also reported by Pandey et al.,(1995) and Singh et al., (2007). The cross BR-827-35R x IR 60819-34 exhibited maximum value for midparent and better parental heterosis while SN 415 Rx 1005 showed highest value for standard heterosis.Test weight of a genotype served as indicator to theend product i.e. grain yield. Heterosis for thousand

seed weight ranged from -7.3 to 23.3 percent over

mid parent, -30.3 to 11.2 percent over better parentand 21.5 to 107.9 percent over standard variety.

Similar results were reported by Shanthalae et al.,(2006) and Gouri Shankar et al., (2010). Grain yield

is a complex trait that is multiplicative and productof several attributes of yield components, out of 20

crosses tested, all the crosses showed significant

positive average heterosis and standard heterosiswhile 17 crosses over their respective better parent.

The highest significant heterobeltiosis was exhibitedby DR 714-IR x 1005 with a range of -0.88 to 197.6

percent and standard heterosis ranged from 38.8

percent to 224.8 percent. The crosses DR 714-IR x1005, EPLT-109 x IR55838-B2-2 and BR-827-35R x1005 recorded high significant heterosis over midparent, better parent and standard check.

RUKMINI et al.

2

Tabl

e 1.

Ana

lysi

s of

var

ianc

e fo

r yie

ld a

nd it

s co

mpo

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trai

ts in

rice

hyb

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**

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ifica

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t p=

0.01

Tabl

e 2.

Ana

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var

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e fo

r ten

qua

lity

trai

ts in

rice

hyb

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sign

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t p=

0.01


3

* si

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at p

= 0.

05, *

* si

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01

Tabl

e 2A

. Ext

ent

of M

id P

aren

tal

Het

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is (

H1),

Het

erob

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sis

(H2)

and

Sta

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d H

eter

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(H3)

in tw

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cro

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its

com

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Con

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RUKMINI et al.

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RUKMINI et al.

6

Tabl

e 3.

Ext

ent o

f Mid

Par

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l Het

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is (H

1), H

eter

obel

tiosi

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2) an

d St

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9

Though yield is a prime objective, grainquality determines the market value and consumeracceptance. None of the crosses recorded significantheterosis for hulling recovery while for milling recoverythe ranges from -7.8 to 8.9 percent for heteobeltiosisand for standard heterosis it was -6.5 to 3.4 percent.The cross BR-827-35R x IR-63870-123 recordedhighest values for mid parental heterosis andheterobeltiosis while none of the cross registeredsignificant positive heterosis. Heterosis is mostly innegative direction for kernel L/B ratio, three crossesshowed significant positive heterosis and ninecrosses exhibited standard heterosis. Similar resultswere observed by Subramanian and Rathinam (1984),Reddy et al., (1991) and Raju et al., (2005). One ofthe most important quality traits is kernel length aftercooking. Twelve crosses exhibited mid parentalheterosis, seven crosses showed heterobeltiosis andeighteen crosses recorded standard heterosis. Thecrosses DR 714-IR x IR 62036-222 and DR-714-1RXIR-63870-123 registered highest standard heterosis.

The heterosis for kernel elongation ratio wasnegative in most of the crosses and ranged from 13.8to 17.4 percent. Heterobeltiosis for this trait ranged

from -19.9 to 10.7 percent while standard heterosisranged from -13.2 to 12.0 percent. Choudhary (1974)reported that volume expansion ratio is good by theworking class who don’t care whether the expansionis length or breadth wise though urban people on theother hand prefer varieties that expand more in lengththan breadth. Among 20 crosses studied, significantpositive heterosis was found in three crosses for midparental heterosis, two crosses recordedheterobeltiosis and 11 crosses exhibited standardheterosis for volume expansion ratio. The crossesEPLT-109 X IR-55838-B2-2 and DR 714-IR x 1005recorded high volume expansion ratio for heterosis.

The study indicated that heterosis for grainyield of crosses were due to increased heterosis inpanicle length, number of grains per panicle, testweight and number of productive tillers per plant. Thecrosses DR714-IR x 1005, EPLT-109 x IR 55838-B2-2 and SN415R x 1005 manifested high heterosisfor grain yield per plant as well as desirable qualitativetraits viz., kernel length after cooking, kernelelongation ratio and volume expansion ratio inaddition to other quantitative traits.

REFERENCES

Akhter, Z., Shamsuddin, A.K.M., Rohman, M.M.,Shalim Uddin, M., Mohi-Ud-din, M and Alam,A.K.M.M. 2003. Studies on heterosis for yieldand yield components in wheat. Journal ofBiological Sciences, 3: 892-897.

Choudhary, N.H. 1974. Studies on quality of rice inBangladesh in proceedings of the workshopon chemical aspects of rice grain quality; IRRILosbanos Philippines PP. 123-127.

Gouri Shankar, V., Ansari, N.A., Ilyas Ahmed, M andVenkata Ramana Rao, P.V. 2010. Heterosisstudies using thermo sensitive genetic malesterile lines in rice. Oryza. 47(2): 100-105.

Ikeshashi, H., Zou, J.S., Moon, H.P and Maruyanak.1994. Wide compatibility genes and Indica-Japonica heterosis in rice for temperatecountries. In virmani SS (ed) Hybrid rice

Technology: New developments and futureprospects. PP. 21-31. Int. Rice ResearchInstitute, Manila, Philippines.

Liang, G.H., Reddy, C.R and Dayton, A.D. 1972.Heterosis, inbreeding depression andheritability estimates in a systematic seriesof grain sorghum genotypes. Crop Sci., 12:409-411.

Murthy, P.S.N and Govindaswamy, S. 1967.Inheritance of grain size and its correlation withthe hulling and cooking qualities. Oryza 4(1):12-21.

Pandey, M.P., Singh, J.P and Singh, H. 1995.Heterosis breeding for grain yield and otheragronomic characters in rice (Oryza sativa L).Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding.55(4) :438-445.

RUKMINI et al.

10

Paramasivam, K., Giridharan, S., Soundararaj,A.P.M.K and Parthasarathy, P.1996.Heterosis and combining ability for graincharacters in rice. Madras Agricultural Journal.83(2): 110-114.

Raju, C.H.S., Rao, M.V.B., Sudarshanam, A andReddy, G.L.K. 2005. Heterosis and inbreedingdepression for yield and kernel characters inrice. Oryza. 42 (1):14-19

Reddy, C.D.R., Nerker, Y.S and Dhanalaxmi, G.1991. Heterosis and inbreeding depression forgrain size and yield in rice (Oryza sativa) under

direct seedling. Indian Journal of AgriculturalScience. 61(6): 416-419.

Shanthalae, J., Latha, J and Hillalmani, S. 2006.Heterosis of rice (Oryza sativa L) hybrids forgrowth and yield components. Research oncrops. 7(1):143-146.

Singh, N.H., Singh, S., Singh, A.K., Sharma, C.L.,Singh, P.K and Singh, O.N. 2007. Study ofheterosis in rice (Oryza sativa L) using line xtester mating system. Oryza. 44(3):260-263.

Subramanian, S and Rathinam, M. 1984. Heterosisin rice. Madras Agricultural Journal. 71 :402-405


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The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 12-17, 2014

INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTS, SEED AGE AND SEEDTREATMENT ON SEED STORABILITY AND QUALITY OF RICE Cv. IR 36

P. USHA RANI, L.V. SUBBA RAO, M. S. PRASAD, U.CHAITANYA AND K.KESHAVULUDepartment of Seed Science and Technology,

Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad -500030

ABSTRACT

An experiment conducted to study the influence of production environments on seed storability and quality of ricegenotypes (Oryza sativa L.) revealed that though seeds produced in humid environment maintained significantlyhigher germination at the end of storage, but failed to maintain the seedling vigour. Whereas, seeds produced in aridenvironment recorded significantly high values for certain seed quality parameters viz., germination per cent, speedof germination, seedling vigour index, seedling length and biochemical parameters viz., alpha amylase activity,dehydrogenase activity and lower values for electrical conductivity and seed infection (%). Freshly harvested seedalso exhibited relatively higher values for all the seed quality traits except electrical conductivity, seed infection (%)and moisture content fluctuations. Seed treated with carbendazim @ 2 g/kg showed significantly higher seed qualitycoupled with relevant biochemical parameters and the seed infection, electrical conductivity and moisture contentwere at lower levels. Seeds of rice genotype i.e. IR 36 produced in arid environment, freshly harvested and one yearold seed but treated with chemicals (carbendazim @ 2 g/kg of seed and mancozeb @ 2.5 g/kg of seed) retainedgood germination (more than MSCS) and seedling vigour more than 9 months of storage period.

Rice (Oryza sativa L.) is the most importantstaple food for more than 60 per cent of the world’spopulation and over 90% of rice is produced andconsumed in Asia. Among the rice growing countries,India ranks second in production after China(www.irri.org). It is cultivated over an area of 42.6million hectares with production of 95.3 million tonnes(www.indiabudget.nic.in). It has been emphaticallyshown that 10-20 per cent increased yield could beattained by the use of good quality seeds alone. Theproduction and supply of good quality seeds therefore,is one of the most important requirements to achievehigher production and productivity in any crop. Theseed quality is governed by various factors viz.,edaphic, environmental and biotic, etc.

The production of good quality seed dependson complex condition evoking the most favourableinteractions between the genetic makeup of the seedand the environment, under which it is produced,harvested, processed and stored.


Laboratory experiment was conducted inDepartment of Seed Science and Technology, Collegeof Agriculture, ANGRAU, Hyderabad and Directorateof Rice Research (DRR), Hyderabad with seed

email : keshava_72@ yahoo.com

material of rice genotype i.e. IR 36 collected fromCRRI, Cuttack and DRR, Hyderabad. Two seedsamples have been taken viz.,one year old seed(kharif, 2011) and freshly harvested seed (rabi, 2012).All the seed samples were treated with carbendazim,2 g /kg of seed (T1) and mancozeb, 2.5 g/kg of seed(T2) along with control (T3, untreated) and kept understorage ambient conditions for 9 months during 2012-13 at DRR, Hyderabad.The experiment wasconducted in completely randomized block designwith factorial concept (FCRD) replicated thrice. Theobservations were recorded on tri-monthly basis onseed quality parameters such as germination (%),root and shoot length (cm), seedling vigour index Iand II, seedling dry weight and electrical conductivity(ISTA rules, 1999) besides á-amylase activity,dehydrogenase activity (Kittock and Law, 1968) andseed infection (%) during storage period.


Seed quality parameters except electricalconductivity, seed infection (%) exhibited significantlydecreasing trend throughout nine months period ofstorage irrespective of production environment, seedage and seed treatments and their interaction effect.

The moisture content of the seed was foundto vary in concomitant with fluctuation of ambient

12

atmosphere (shown increasing trend in all varieties).Production environment of the seed has shownsignificant influence on almost all the parameters.

At 9th month of storage, seeds collected from aridenvironment significantly recorded maximumgermination percentage (90.83%), speed of

Treatments Moisture content (%) Germination (%) Months of storage

0 3 6 9 0 3 6 9 Production environment (Q)

Q1 10.67 11.24 11.63 11.98 94.11

(76.65) 90.75

(77.87) 83.44

(66.71) 77.17 (61.97)

Q2 10.46 10.79 11.09 11.33 95.78

(78.21) 94.11

(76.11) 92.39

(74.13) 90.83 (72.55)

SEd+ 0.030 0.034 0.037 0.058 0.868 0.486 1.112 0.442 C.D at 5 % 0.061 0.070 0.077 0.119 NS 1.005 2.295 0.914

Seed age (P)

P1 10.60 11.06 11.40 11.68 95.17

(77.58) 91.36

(73.28) 86.89

(69.42) 82.67 (66.09)

P2 10.53 10.97 11.31 11.62 94.72

(77.28) 93.50

(75.70) 88.94

(71.42) 85.33 (68.43)

SEd+ 0.030 0.034 0.037 0.058 0.868 0.486 1.112 0.442

C.D at 5 % 0.061 0.070 0.077 0.119 NS 1.005 NS 0.914

Seed treatments (T)

T1 10.17 10.52 10.85 11.06 96.50

(79.41) 95.08

(77.43) 92.29

(74.02) 89.58 (71.46)

T2 10.53 11.01 11.32 11.61 95.33

(77.67) 93.38

(75.20) 90.29

(72.35) 86.79 (69.02)

T3 11.00 11.52 11.90 12.29 93.00

(75.22) 88.83

(70.86) 80.83

(64.89) 75.63 (61.29)

SEd+ 0.036 0.042 0.046 0.071 1.062 0.596 1.362 0.542

C.D at 5 % 0.075 0.085 0.094 0146 2.194 1.230 2.810 1.119

QxP Interaction

Q1P1 10.69 11.28 11.68 12.05 95.11

(77.75) 89.50

(71.57) 82.67

(66.10) 76.00 (61.13)

Q1P2 10.65 11.20 11.58 11.90 93.11

(75.56) 92.00

(74.19) 84.22

(67.320 78.33 (62.83)

Q2P1 10.50 10.84 11.12 11.32 95.22

(77.42) 93.22

(75.00) 91.11

972.73) 89.33 (71.05)

Q2P2 10.42 10.75 11.05 11.34 96.33

(79.01) 95.00

(77.22) 93.67

(75.52) 92.33 (74.05)

Mean 10.57 11.02 11.36 11.65 94.94

(77.43) 92.43

(74.49) 87.92

(70.42) 84.00 (67.26)

SEd+ 0.0420 0.048 0.053 0.081 1.227 0.688 1.572 0.626

C.D at 5 % NS NS 0.109 0.168 NS NS 3.245 1.292

Q1: Seed produced in humid environment T1: Seed treated with carbendazim Q2: Seed produced in arid environment T2: Seed treated with mancozeb P1: One year old seed after harvest (Kharif 2011) T3: Untreated (control) P2: Freshly harvested seed (Rabi 2012)

Table 1. Influence of production environment, seed age and seed treatment on moisture content (%)and germination (%) of rice variety IR 36 during storage

INFLUENCE OF PRODUCTION ENVIRONMENTS, SEED AGE AND SEED TREATMENT

13

Table 2. Influence of production environment, seed age and seed treatment on dry matter (mg) andseedling vigour index in rice variety IR 36 during storage

Treatments Dry matter (mg) Seedling vigour index Months of storage


Q1 148.78 141.43 133.61 128.37 2216 1958 1649 1368 Q2 227.14 211.28 200.00 192.87 2170 1955 1781 1589

SEd+ 0.736 1.320 1.733 2.251 40.09 34.23 23.86 21.76 C.D at 5 % 1.521 2.725 3.578 4.646 NS NS 49.26 44.91

Seed age (P) P1 183.97 174.42 165.51 159.15 2083 1790 1568 1351 P2 191.95 178.28 168.11 162.09 2303 2124 1861 1606

SEd+ 0.736 1.320 1.733 2.251 40.09 34.23 23.86 21.76 C.D at 5% 1.521 2.725 NS 4.646 NS NS 49.26 44.91

Seed treatments (T) T1 195.06 184.41 171.95 164.91 2408 2165 1956 1695

T2 187.93 175.19 166.39 159.94 2195 1971 1761 1526 T3 180.89 169.46 162.08 157.02 1976 1734 1428 1215

SEd+ 0.903 1.617 2.123 2.757 49.10 41.92 29.23 26.65 C.D at 5 % 1.863 3.337 4.383 5.690 101.33 86.52 60.32 55.00

QxP Interaction Q1P1 147.06 138.56 132.00 126.44 2099 1751 1454 1216 Q1P2 150.50 144.30 135.22 130.30 2332 2166 1843 1520 Q2P1 120.88 210.29 199.01 199.86 2066 1828 1682 1487 Q2P2 123.40 212.27 201.00 193.89 2274 2082 1879 1691 Mean 187.96 176.35 166.81 160.62 2193 1957 1715 1479 SEd+ 1.042 1.867 2.452 3.183 56.69 48.40 33.75 30.77

C.D at 5 % 2.151 NS NS 6.570 NS 99.90 69.66 63.51


germination (30.11), coefficient of velocity ofgermination (31.99), shoot length (7.76 cm), rootlength (9.80 cm), seedling dry weight (192.87 mg),fresh weight of seedlings (714.17 mg), seedling vigorindex I (1589), seedling vigor index II (17523) andalso recorded high á- amylase enzyme activity (8.56mm) and dehydrogenase activity (0.244 OD value)in IR 36 compared to humid environment. Seeds fromarid region recorded low electrical conductivity (1.589dSm-1), moisture content (11.33 %) and seed infection(7.56 %) in IR 36. As per minimum certificationstandard, seed germination for paddy is 80 per cent.Seeds from arid environment maintained satisfactorygermination upto nine months of storage, but seedsfrom humid environment maintained germination uptosix months of storage period. Similar results were

observed by Rao et al. (1993) in rice cv. Swarna andRamanadane et al. (2005) in rice hybrid ADTRH 1.

Among the two seed ages, freshly harvestedseed showed better performance at the end of storageperiod by recording higher germination percentage(85.33 %), speed of germination (28.50), coefficientof velocity of germination (32.69) shoot length (8.27cm), root length (10.45 cm), seedling length (18.72cm), seedling dry weight (162.09 mg), fresh weightof seedlings ( 708.56 mg) seedling vigor index I(1606), seedling vigor index II (14070) and alsorecorded high alpha- amylase enzyme activity (8.34mm) and Dehydrogenase activity (0.230 OD value)in IR 36 compared to one year old seed. Low electricalconductivity (1.603dSm-1), moisture content (11.62%) and seed infection (7.16 %) was observed in

USHA RANI et al.

14

Treatments α-amylase activity (mm) Dehydrogenase activity (OD values) Months of storage


Q1 11.50 10.56 8.78 7.55 0.224 0.211 0.199 0.191

Q2 12.69 11.78 9.89 8.56 0.275 0.263 0.251 0.244

SEd+ 0.096 0.11 0.167 0.130 0.004 0.003 0.0025 0.002 C.D at 5 % 0.198 2.063 0.344 0.268 0.0082 0.005 0.005 0.004

Seed age (P) P1 11.78 10.83 9.06 7.76 0.237 0.225 0.212 0.205 P2 12.42 11.52 9.61 8.34 0.262 0.249 0.238 0.230

SEd+ 0.096 0.11 0.167 0.130 0.004 0.003 0.0025 0.002 C.D at 5 % 0.198 2.063 0.344 0.268 0.0082 0.005 0.005 0.004

Seed treatments (T) T1 13.02 11.69 9.94 8.55 0.459 0.447 0.436 0.426 T2 12.05 11.32 9.69 8.22 0.240 0.228 0.215 0.208

T3 11.22 10.52 8.38 7.38 0.048 0.036 0.025 0.017

SEd+ 0.117 0.172 0.204 0.160 0.0041 0.0035 0.003 0.003 C.D at 5 % 0.242 2.063 0.421 0.329 0.008 0.007 0.006 0.006

QxP Interaction Q1P1 11.18 10.20 8.54 7.30 0.214 0.200 0.188 0.180

Q1P2 11.82 10.92 9.02 7.81 0.236 0.224 0.213 0.204

Q2P1 12.38 11.45 9.58 8.22 0.264 0.250 0.237 0.230

Q2P2 13.01 12.12 10.20 8.87 0.286 0.274 0.262 0.255 Mean 12.10 11.17 9.34 8.05 0.250 0.237 0.225 0.217

SEd+ 0.135 0.199 0.235 0.184 0.005 0.004 0.0042 0.004

C.D at 5 % NS 2.063 0.486 NS NS NS 0.008 0.007

Table 3. Influence of production environment, seed age and seed treatment on α-amylase activity anddehydrogenase activity (OD values) in rice variety IR 36 during storage


freshly harvested seed. Freshly harvested seedmaintained satisfactory germination(above 80 %) uptonine months of storage, but one year old seedmaintained germination upto six months only. (JiangLing et al., 2007).

Among various seed treatments, seedstreated with carbendazim @ 2.0 g/ kg recordedsignificantly highest germination speed (89.58 %),coefficient of velocity of germination (32.72) shootlength (8.45 cm), root length (10.46 cm), seedling

length (18.91 cm), seedling dry weight (164.91 mg),fresh weight of seedlings (722.25 mg) seedling vigorindex I (1695), seedling vigor index II (14878) andalso recorded high alpha- amylase enzyme activity(8.55 mm) and dehydrogenase activity (0.426 ODvalue) and low electrical conductivity (1.619 dSm-1),moisture content (11.06 %) and seed infection (5.75%) at the end of the storage period. This was followedby mancozeb @ 2.5 g/ kg over control in IR 36. Seeds

treated with carbendazim @ 2.0 g/ kg also recorded


15

satisfactory germination per cent at the end of storage

period. Similar results were reported by Das et al.

(1975), Mandal et al. (2008) and Butt et al. (2011).

Among the interaction of Q x P combinations,the seed from arid environment and freshly harvested

Treatments EC of seed leachates (dSm-1) Seed infection (%) Months of storage


Q1 1.416 1.494 1.618 1.709 6.61

(13.77) 7.62

(15.15) 9.63

(17.48) 11.62

(19.49)

Q2 1.298 1.375 1.498 1.589 3.10

(9.63) 4.11

(11.12) 5.83

(13.34) 7.56

(15.26)

SEd+ 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.458 0.468 0.471 0.472 C.D at 5 % 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.946 0.966 0.973 0.974

Seed age (P)

P1 1.389 1.494 1.617 1.695 7.00

(14.37) 8.01

(15.67) 10.02

(17.91) 12.02

(19.88)

P2 1.326 1.375 1.499 1.603 2.72

(9.03) 3.73

(10.60) 5.44

(12.91) 7.16

(14.87)

SEd+ 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.458 0.468 0.471 0.472 C.D at 5 % 0.006 0.004 0.004 0.003 0.946 0.966 0.973 0.974

Seed treatments (T) T1

1.324 1.407 1.532 1.619 1.83 (7.48)

2.59 (8.88)

4.17 (11.20)

5.75 (13.12)

T2 1.362 1.417 1.542 1.646 4.25

(11.38) 5.26

(12.87) 7.25

9.26 (17.55)

T3 1.386 1.479 1.600 1.682 8.50

(16.24) 9.76

(17.65) 11.75

(19.64) 13.76

(21.45)

SEd+ 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.002 0.561 0.573 0.577 0.576 C.D at 5 % 0.007 0.005 0.005 0.004 1.158 1.183 1.192 1.191

QxP Interaction

Q1P1 1.447 1.554 1.677 1.755 10.11

(17.89) 11.12

(18.92) 13.13

(20.81) 15.12

(22.55)

Q1P2 1.386 1.435 1.559 1.663 3.10 (9.66)

4.11 (11.38)

6.12 (14.14)

8.11 (16.43)

Q2P1 1.330 1.435 1.557 1.635 3.89 (10.84)

4.90 (12.42)

6.89 (15.01)

8.90 (17.21)

Q2P2 1.266 1.315 1.439 1.543 2.33

(8.41) 3.34

(9.82) 4.78

(11.68) 6.22

(13.31)

Mean 1.357 1.435 1.558 1.649 4.86 5.87 7.73 9.59 SEd+ 0.004 0.003 0.003 0.002 0.648 0.609 0.667 0.666

C.D at 5 % NS 0.006 0.006 0.005 1.337 1.256 1.376 1.375

Table 4. Influence of production environment, seed age and seed treatment on EC of seed leachates(dSm-1) and Seed infection (%) in rice variety IR 36 during storage


stored (Q2P2) recorded higher germination, speed ofgermination, co-efficient of velocity of germination,shoot length, root length, seedling length, seedlingdry weight, fresh weight, seedling vigour index I,seedling vigour index II, á-amylase activity,dehydrogenase activity and lower seed moisture, EC

USHA RANI et al.

16

REFERENCES

Butt, A.R., Yaseen, S.I and Javaid, A. 2011. Seed-borne mycoflora of stored rice grains and itschemical control. Journal of Animal and PlantSciences. 21 (2): 193-196.

Das, N.D., Babu, V.N and Setty, P.T. 1975. Seedtreatment and its effect on storage,germination and seedling height. Pesticides.January, pp.47-49.

International Seed Testing Association, 1999.International rules for seed testing. SeedScience Technology (Supplement) 27:1-333

Jiang Ling., Wang, S. F., Liux, X., Chen, L. M., Liu,S., Zhai, H. Q and Wan J. M. 2007. Storabilityof high quality rice variety W.017 (Chinese)Journal of Nanjing Agricultural University.30(2): 133-135

Kittock, D. L and Law, A. G. 1968. Relationship ofseedling vigour to respiration and tetrazolium

chloride reduction by germinating wheat seeds.Agronomy Journal. 60 : 268-288.

Mandal, S. K and Jha, V. B. 2008. Management of

foliar disease of rice through fungicides.

Annals of Plant Protection Sciences. 16 (2):523-525.

Ramanadane, T., Ponnuswamy, A. S and Raja, K.

2005. Influence of production environment onseed quality. Madras Agricultural Journal. 92(4-

6): 200-207.

Rao, D. V. S. R., Reddy, B. M and Ankaiah, R. 1993.

The effect of location of production and seedquality on storability of rice.The Journal ofResearch, ANGRAU, 22(4): 241-242.


17

of seed leachate values and seed infection (%)compared to the seeds produced in humidenvironment and of one year old ( Q1P1).

From the present investigation it could be

concluded that the freshly harvested seed, which is

produced in arid environment and treated with

carbendazim @ 2.0 g/ kg showed high qualitystandards and improved storability.

SCREENING OF NEW FUNGICIDES AGAINST LOCATION SPECIFIC DISEASESOF RICE OCCURRING IN SOUTHERN TELANGANA ZONE OF

ANDHRA PRADESHR. JAGADEESHWAR, N. RAMA GOPALA VARMA, P. RAGHU RAMI REDDY,CH. SURENDER RAJU, S. VANISREE, B.GOPAL REDDY AND S. DAYAKAR

Rice Section, Agricultural Research Institute, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad - 500 030

ABSTRACT

The four major fungal diseases of rice prevailing in Southern Telangana Zone of Andhra Pardesh are leaf blast, neckblast (Pyricularia oryzae Cav.), sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani) and sheath rot (Sarocladium oryzae). The loss ingrain yield due to these diseases ranges from 15-35%. Five fungicides viz., metaminostrobin 20 SC, metiram70WDG, captan70% + heaxaconazole (5%) 75 WP, hexaconazole 5 SC and tricyclazole 75 WP were evaluatedduring kharif 2008, using rice cultivar HR 12. Three sprays of metaminostrobin 20 SC (0.5, 1.5 and 2.0 ml/l) not onlygave an effective control of leaf and neck blast but also improved grain yield consistently. Similarly, captan 70% +heaxaconazole (5%) 5 WP @1.5g/l significantly decreased sheath blight and sheath rot by 3.96% and 6.52%respectively, compared to untreated control with corresponding increase in rice grain yield.

Rice is the most economically importantstaple food crop in India. Global rice acreage is 161million hectares, with an annual production of about721.0 million tons of paddy (FAO, 2012). To meetthe global rice demand, it is estimated that about114 million tons of additional milled rice needs to beproduced by 2035 with an increase of 26% in next 25years. Worldwide, the annual losses due to ricediseases are estimated to be 10-15%. The major ricediseases that often lead to economic losses indifferent parts of Andhra Pradesh are leaf and neckblast, sheath blight and sheath rot. In SouthernTelangana Zone as against normal rice area of 4.74lakh ha a total of 5.21 lakh ha was transplanted during2011-12. Nalgonda occupies first place in rice areacovering 3.27 lakh ha followed by Mahaboobnagar(1.54 lakh ha) and Ranga Reddy (0.4 lakh ha). Amongthe diseases neck blast (30-35%) and sheath rot (15-25%) resulted in epidemic form coinciding duringNorth-East monsoon in all the surveyed districts. Theincidence of sheath blight (10-12%) was noticed inNalgonda effecting majorly fine grain varieties viz.,BPT-5204, WGL-14, JGL-384 and other privatehybrids. Similarly, severe incidence of BLB (5-10%)in Nalgonda affected the yields of fine grain varieties.

Foot rot incidence (2-5%) was confined toTellahamsa variety only in Telangana districts (POSreport, 2008). In Southern Telanagana Zone of

Andhra Pradesh an average loss of 15-35% wasreported due to these diseases. Keeping in view theseriousness of foliar and soil borne diseases in rice,the present study was contemplated under naturaland epiphytotic conditions with newer fungicides tomanage these diseases effectively.


A field experiment was conducted at the RiceSection, Agricultural Research Institute, Acharya N.G.Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar,Hyderabad (17019’N,78023’E, 542m above sea level)during kharif, 2008 with rice variety, HR-12 to studythe bio- efficacy of fungicides against location specificdiseases in transplanted crop. The HR 12 comes tomaturity in 135 days and highly susceptible to anumber of diseases. The experiment was laid out inrandomized block design (RBD) with four replicationsmaintaining plot size of 5x2 m. The recommendedpackages of practices were followed during the cropgrowth period. Fertiliser dose N, P2O5 and K2O @120-60-40 kg/ha was followed. Five fungicides viz.,metaminostrobin 20SC, metiram 70WDG, captan70% +hexaconazole 5% (75 WP), hexaconazole 5SC and tricyclazole 75 WP were tested at theirrespective doses along with untreated control.Metaminostrobin 20SC was tested at three differentdoses viz., 0.5,1.0 and 2.0 ml/l of water, while


The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 18 - 21, 2014


18

metiram 70 WDG @ 0.4g/l, Captan70% +hexaconazole 5% 5WP @1.5g/l of water wereevaluated with two check fungicides hexaconazole5 SC @ 2.0ml/l and tricyclazole 75 WP @ 0.6g/l ofwater using a total spray fluid 500 litre per hectare.First fungicidal spray was given just after the initialappearance of the disease. Second spray was doneat 15 days after first spray and third spray was made25 days after the second spray. The untreated controlplot was sprayed only with water. Care was taken toavoid drift of spray particles, during spraying. The

disease incidence was recorded 15 days after thelast spray of fungicides from twenty five randomlyaffected plants in each treatment. The plants wereassessed individually using SES 0-9 scale for thetargeted diseases and disease severity wascalculated as described by Bag (2011). Observationson grain yield was recorded on plot basis andconverted to kg/ha and analysed statistically. Thepercentage disease incidence data were square roottransformed prior to statistical analysis and all thedata were subjected to analysis of variance usingRBD (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).

Treatments Trade name Manufacturing Company

Metaminostrobin 20 SC Rringo L

Sumitomo corporation, Japonia, Japan

Metiram Sanit 70 WDG Insecticides India Ltd, New Delhi

Captan + Hexaconazole Taqat 75 WP Rallis India Ltd, Mumbai

Hexaconazole Contaf 5 SC Rallis India Ltd, Mumbai Tricyclazole Dhanteam 75 WP Dhanuka Agritech Ltd, New Delhi

Table 1.List of fungicides along with trade names and manufacturing companies


The incidence of leaf blast incidence prior tofirst spraying was in the range from 16.37 to 17.33per cent. The results revealed that the leaf blastincidence varied from 10.71 to 18.00 per cent infungicidal treatments compared to untreated control(66.31%) after first spraying (Table 1). Among thefungicides tested, metaminostrobin 20SC at thedosages ( 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 ml/l ) was found to besuperior in reducing the leaf blast incidence to anextent of 10.71 to 13.69% as compared to untreatedcontrol (66.31%). Metaminostrobin 20 SC at the sameconcentration was also found effective to inhibitingneck blast (11.52 – 12.99%) and was followed bycaptan+ hexaconazole (15.50%), metiram (16.00%)when compared to common check tricylazole(17.44%) and untreated control (35.22%).

The better efficacy of metaminostrobin maybe due to broad spectrum activity of this systemicfungicide with preventive and curative activity (Ichibaet al., 2000). Metaminostrobin acts as otherstrobilurins, by blocking mitochondrial respiration via

inhibition of electron flux through cytochrome bc1complex (Dave et al, 2001). Bag (2011) demonstratedthat the fungicide metaminostrobin 20SC @ 200 g a.i ha-1 (2 ml l/1 water) not only gave effective controlof the sheath blight disease, but also improved thegrain yield considerably, when compared with anuntreated crop and a crop treated with a comparativefungicide groups (triazole and strobilurins).

Application of metaminostrobin was foundmuch effective in reducing other rice diseases suchas leaf blast, neck blast brown spot, sheath blight,sheath rot etc., in comparison to the same set offungicides. Hexaconazole and combination of captan+ hexaconazole registered significantly lower sheathblight incidence (3.89 and 3.96%, respectively) thanuntreated control (18.81%) and other fungicidesevaluated. The fungicides, metaminostrobin 20 SCat all the three doses, tricyclazole were the next besttreatments.

Combination of captan+ hexaconzole andhexaconazole alone at the same concentration wasfound to be most effective in arresting the sheath rot

19

SCREENING OF NEW FUNGICIDES AGAINST LOCATION SPECIFIC DISEASES OF RICE

JAGADEESHWAR et al.

incidence to the tune of 4.52 and 5.99 per cent,respectively over untreated control.

The results obtained from the presentstudy were in conformity with the earlier reports.Chattannavar et al. (2010) reported that Taqat at 750g a.i ha-1 and 500 g a.i ha-1 were effective and foundon par with Propiconazole against many ofdeuteromycetous fungi including Magnaporthe,Rhizoctonia and Alternaria etc. Captan+ hexaconzole75 WP proved most effective against multiplediseases which might be due to its triazolecomponent, hexaconazole. The efficacy of triazolesagainst foliar fungal diseases in different crops waswell documented by Adinarayana (2013). A newformulation captan 70% + hexaconazole 5% WP @0.2% was significantly effective in reducing the brownspot of rice (Kiran Kumar and Prasanna Kumar,2011). According to Sunder et al. (2010), strobulirinsand triazoles proved most effective among andreduced the brown spot with significant yieldincrease.

Maximum grain yield was obtained withtricyclazole 75 WP (4085 kg ha-1) followed bymetiram 70 WDG @ 0.4 g/l. Hexaconazole followedby metaminostrobin @2ml/l of water were the next

best treatments recording grain yields of 3671 and3439 kg ha-1, respectively. However, the yields werenon- significant for T1,T5 and T8. The differences inleaf and neck blast levels detected among thetreatments influenced the yield levels. The values ofdisease levels for both types of symptoms were foundto be consistently higher in the treatments(T1,T5,T6,T8 ) and lower in other treatments. Thepositive correlation detected between leaf blast andneck blast probably suggests that a high level of leafblast achieved by early inoculation resulted in severeneck blast during the later stages of plantdevelopment there by reducing the grain yields.

Based on the overall results, it can beconcluded that metaminostrobin 20SC at all the doses@ 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0ml/l was effective against bothleaf and neck blast. Investigations on tolerance oftricyclazole to rice blast (Magnaporthe grisea), frommajor rice cultivation regions of Andhra Pradeshshowed that in some areas particularly in Nalgonda(NSP commands) and Mahabubnagar (Juralacommands) the resistant isolates were found and insuch areas, metaminostrobin 20SC could be analternative.

Similarly, captan + hexaconazole showedsignificant inhibitory effect in reducing the disease

Table 2. Efficacy of different fungicidal molecules against location specific diseases of rice

Treatments Dosage g or ml/l of water

Disease severity (%) Grain Yield

(kg/ha) Leaf blast Neck

blast Sheath blight

Sheath rot

T1 Metaminostrobin 20 SC 0.5 ml 11.42 a (3.45)

10.49 b (3.32)

6.75 bc (2.69)

7.75 c (2.87) 3028 cd

T2 Metaminostrobin 20 SC 1.0 ml 10.71 a (3.35)

9.21 a (3.09)

6.37 b (2.62)

6.56 bc (2.65) 3259 c

T3 Metaminostrobin 20 SC 2.0 ml 13.69 b (3.77)

11.89 c (3.52)

7.59 bc (2.84)

9.81 d (3.21) 3439 bc

T4 Sanit 70 WDG (Metiram)

4.0 g 16.13 d (4.08)

12.71 c (3.64)

7.84 c (2.89)

10.18 d (3.26) 3800 ab

T5 Taqat 75 WP (Captan + Hexaconazole)

1.5 g 14.77 c (3.91)

12.00 c (3.54)

3.96 a (2.10)

4.52 a (2.24) 2894 d

T6 Contaf 5 SC (Hexaconazole)

2.0 ml 17.62 e (4.26)

21.62 e (4.70)

3.89 a (2.09)

5.99 b (2.53) 3671 b

T7 Dhanteam 75 WP (Tricyclazole)

0.6 g 18.00 e (4.30)

14.56 d (3.88)

6.81 bc (2.70)

6.77 bc (2.69) 4085 a

T8 Check (Untreated Control) - 66.31 f (8.17)

31.68 f (5.67)

18.81 d (4.39)

37.44 e (6.16) 2645 d

C.D @ 5 % significance level 0.11 0.16 0.24 0.26 291 C.V (%) 1.72 2.86 5.85 5.61 7.39

Figures in parenthesis are angular transformed values

20

severity of sheath blight and sheath rot as comparedto hexaconazole alone and untreated control. Thekey change in fungicide use has usually beenassociated with changes in the spectra of pathogensas well as in crop intensities, practices or prices.Shift in pathogen spectra could not be predicted andwill continue to occur in the future due to increase in

free trade. Thus the present study ensures that newfungicidal molecules namely metaminostrobin 20 SCand combination product captan + hexaconazole willpave the way for management of multiple diseasesbesides reducing the cost of cultivation expensesagainst management of location specific ricediseases.

REFERENCES

Adinarayana,M., Maha Lakshmi M.S and KoteswaraRao, Y.2013. Field efficacy of new fungicide,Taqat 75 WP against foliar fungal diseases ofBlackgram. Journal of Bio Pesticides, 6 (1):46-48.

Bag, M. K. 2011. Performance of a new generationfungicide Metaminostrobin 20SC againstSheath Blight disease of rice in West Bengal.Journal of Mycopathological Research 49(1 ):167-169.

Chattannavar, S. N. Hosagoudar, G. N andAshtaputre, S. A.2010. Chemical andbiological management of major foliar diseasesof cotton. Karnataka Journal of AgriculturalSciences. 23(4) :599-601.

Dave W. Bartlett, John M. Clough, Chris R. A.Godfrey, Jeremy R. Godwin, Alison A. Hall,Steve P. Heaney and Steve J. Maund 2001.Understanding the strobilurin fungicidesPesticide. Outlook – August issue, pp143-148

Food and Agricultural Organization, 2012. http://business.inquirer.net/42733/global-rice-production-set-to-hit-record-in-2011-2012.

Gomez, K. A and Gomez, A. A., 1984. Statisticalprocedures for agricultural research. 2 nd Edn,John Wiley And Sons, New York. p.680.

Ichiba,T., Kumano, K., Kashino, H., Nanba,

K., Mizutani, A and Miki, N. 2000. Effect of

metaminostrobin on respiratory activity

of Rhizoctonia solani and its efficacy for

controlling rice sheath blight. Journal of

Pesticide Science. 25 (4): 398-401.

Kiran Kumar, N and Prasanna Kumar, M.K., 2011.

Potentiality of new fungicide formulation,

captan 70% + hexaconazole 5% WP against

sheath blight and brown leaf spot of rice. In:

Proceedings of National Symposium on

Integrated disease management strategies in

relation to climate change in South India, held

on 14-15 October, University of Agricultural

Sciences , Dharwad, Karnataka,India. p. 27

(Abstract).

Production Oriented Survey Report, 2008. POS

Report, Directorate of Rice Research,

Rajendranagar, Hyderabad.

Sundar, S., Ram Singh and Dodan, D.S., 2010.

Evaluation of fungicides, botanicals and non

conventional chemicals against brown spot of

rice. Indian Phyto Pathology 63(2): 192-194.

21

SCREENING OF NEW FUNGICIDES AGAINST LOCATION SPECIFIC DISEASES OF RICE

Agriculture is a way of life, a tradition, whichis for centuries, has shaped the thought, the outlook,the culture and economic life of people. Agricultureis and will continue to be central to all strategies forplanned socio-economic development of the nation.To meet the food requirement of growing populationin India, the food grain production should reach 246million tonnes by 2020 (Shreenivasa et al, 2005).Since independence, rapid strides were made in Indianagriculture in taking the agriculture food grainproduction from 51 million tones in fifties to 206 milliontones at the turn of the century. (Tripathy and Jain,2007). Several developmental programmes wereinitiated by the state and central governments forthe welfare of the farming community. Theseprogrammes targeted only the progressive, resourcerich and literate farmers. The left out farmingcommunity comprises not only small farmers,marginal farmers, agricultural labourers but also theinnocent, illiterate resource poor farmers. Keeping inview of these facts, the present study wasundertaken to identify the un-reached farmers in aneffort to concentrate on that target group of people.

METHODOLOGY

Ex-post-facto research design was followedas the variables under study have already been

IDENTIFICATION OF UN-REACHED FARMERSP.V.SATYA GOPAL, POCHAIAH MARATY AND B.VIJAYABHINANDANA

Department of Extension Education, S.V. Agricultural College,Acharya NGRanga Agricultural University, Tirupati - 517502



ABSTRACT

In order to achieve sustainable increase in agricultural production, much focus is required to develop strategies insuch a way that all sectors of farmers should be effectively covered. The study coins those farmers as un-reachedfarmers. To identify these un-reached farmers, an index was developed with two components by giving equalweightage. They were ‘Un-reachedness in terms of information source utilization pattern’ and ‘Un-reachedness interms of awareness, knowledge and adoption of modern production technologies’. The index was administered toall the available farmers in the village at the time of investigation. Lesser the index score, greater was the un-reachedness of the respondent and vice versa. After calculating the index score for all the available farmers in thevillage at the time of investigation, they were arranged in descending order as per the scores obtained for the index.The farmers with lowest ten scores for the index from each village were identified as the un-reached farmers.

occurred. The study was conducted in AndhraPradesh, since the researcher belongs to this stateand was familiar with the local language and culture

which facilitated the researcher to do in-depth

study.A.P has three regions having distinct

geographical differences. Hence, all the three regions

of Andhra Pradesh namely Telangana, Coastal and

Rayalaseema regions were selected to represent

entire Andhra Pradesh. Adilabad from Telangana,

Srikakulam from Coastal and Anantapur from

Rayalaseema regions were selected randomly (by

using lottery method) to represent one district from

each region. Three mandals from each district were

selected at random thus making a total of nine

mandals from three districts. From each of the

selected mandals, two villages were selected

randomly thus making a total of six villages from

each district and eighteen villages from entire Andhra

Pradesh for the study. From each of the selected

village, ten un-reached farmers were identified on the

basis of un-reachedness and selected as respondents

for the present investigation thus making a total of

sixty respondents from each district and one hundred

and eighty respondents to represent entire Andhra

Pradesh. (Table1)

The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 22-27, 2014

22

Operational definition of Un-reached farmer

Un-reached farmer is a farmer who has notbeen reached and/or not received the services andbenefits of developmental organizations and theirmodern technologies such as utilization of informationsources, extension services, imparting knowledge,increasing rate of adoption etc. in agriculture.

Identification of Un-reached farmer

As the respondents for the presentinvestigation were Un-reached farmers, the selectionof un-reached farmers was done with the help of anindex developed for the study.

Development of an Index to identify un-reachedfarmer

To identify the un-reached farmers, two componentswere included in the index developed for the studyby giving equal weightage. Those were

i) Un-reachedness in terms of information sourceutilization pattern

ii) Un-reachedness in terms of awareness,knowledge and adoption of modern productiontechnologies

The first component consists of 23 differentinformation sources categorized under personal,

group and mass contact methods measured on threepoint continuum viz., regularly utilized, rarely utilizedand never utilized with scoring of 2, 1 and 0

respectively. The score range for this component

should be 0 to 46.

The second component consists of 32

general package of practices measured in terms of

latest production technologies by considering the

three items as follows:

1) Awareness on two point continuum Viz., ‘Aware’

and ‘Not aware’ with a score of 1 and 0

respectively,

2) Knowledge on three point continuum Viz.,

‘Known’, ‘Partially known’ and ‘unknown’ with a

score of 2, 1 and 0 respectively.

3) Adoption on three point continuum Viz.,

‘Adopted’, ‘Partially adopted’ and ‘Not adopted’

with a score of 2, 1 and 0 respectively.

The score range for this component should be 0 to160.

Both the components were given equalweightage and the pooled scores of both thecomponents were converted to 100 by using theformula

Second componentFirst component

100 X Obtained scoreMaximum possible score

2

100 X Obtained score

Maximum possible score

2

+index

score of therespondent

=

SATYA GOPAL et al.

23

The index was administered to all theavailable farmers in the village at the time ofinvestigation. The obtained score for 100 for each ofthe respondent was his/her index score. Lesser theindex score more was the un-reachedness of therespondent and vice versa.

After calculating the index score for all theavailable farmers in the village at the time ofinvestigation, they were arranged in descending orderas per the scores obtained for the index. The farmerswith lowest 10 scores for the index from each villagewere identified as the un-reached farmers.

The Table1 presents the details about list ofselected villages, mandals, districts along with totalnumber of available farmers at the time ofinvestigation in each village and the number of un-reached farmers selected from each village. The un-reached farmers were selected by taking their scoresfrom the “un-reached farmers identification index”developed for the study.

For the present investigation, 10 farmerswere selected from each village by taking their lowestindex scores. Accordingly, starting from the lowestvalue, ten farmers were selected and the score at

SATYA GOPAL et al.

S. No.

Information source Regularly utilized

2

Rarely utilized

1

Never utilized

0 A Personal contact

1. Dept. of Agriculture and other line dept. staff

2. University scientists (KVK, DAATTC, etc..)

3. NGO personnel

4. Bank and cooperative society personnel

5. Private organization personnel

6. Input dealers

7. Money lenders

8. Neighboring farmers and friends

9. Progressive farmers and local leaders

10. Any others (specify)

B. Group contact

1. Demonstrations

2. Farmers training programmes

3 Group discussions

4. Field trips

5. Field trials

6. Rythu Sadassu

7. Farmer field schools


C Mass Contact

1. Exhibitions

2. Radio

3. Television

4. Agril. Information materials (leaflet, folder, bulletin etc..)

5. News paper

6. Farm Magazines

7. Computer and other digital media


PROFORMA USED FOR IDENTIFICATION OF UN-REACHED FARMER

I. Unreached In Terms of Their Information Source Utilization Pattern

24

Score of 2 Score of 1 Score of 0

that 10th farmer was the cut off mark for the selectionof un-reached farmers. The range between the lowestscore and the score of the 10th farmer of the village

was the score range for un-reached farmers of theconcerned village. The score range of 10 un-reachedfarmers of all the selected villages were depicted in

S. No

Improved practices Awareness Knowledge Adoption TOTAL

A NA K PK UK Ad PAd NAd 1 Soil testing

2 Deep ploughing

3 Land preparation

4 Selection of crop

5 Selection of variety

6 Selection & procurement of seed

7 Seed rate

8 Seed treatment

9 Spacing/ plant population

10 Time of fertilizer application

11 Method of fertilizer application

12 dosage of fertilizers

13 Number of dosages

14 Micronutrient usage

15 Use of organic manures

16 Number of irrigations

17 Critical stages of irrigation

18 Time and method of weeding

19 Chemical weed control

20 Identification of pests and diseases

21 Selection of correct chemical

22 Use of correct dosage

23 Method of spray fluid preparation

24 Method of spraying

25 Intercultural operations

26 Time of harvesting

27 Grading of produce

28 Post harvest processing

II. UNREACHED IN TERMS OF AWARENESS, KNOWLEDGE AND ADOPTION OF IMPROVEDPRACTICES

A: Aware, NA: Not Aware, K: Known, PK: Partially Known, NK: Not Known, Ad: Adopted, PAd: Partiallyadopted, NAd: Not adopted

25

IDENTIFICATION OF UN-REACHED FARMERS

Tabl

e1.

Iden

tific

atio

n of

un-

reac

hed

farm

ersf

rom

the

sele

cted

vill

ages

26

SATYA GOPAL et al.

Low

est

scor

e

REFERENCES

Tripathy, K. K and Jain, S. K . 2007. Agriculture inthe post reform era: issues, challenges andpolicy options. Kurukshetra, July issue,pp 3-5

Shreenivasa, K .R., Umesh, M .R and AnjaneyaReddy, B. 2005. Indian Agriculture inretrospect and prospect- vision for transitionto sustainability. Agribios IV(4):16

27

Table 1.The Table revealed that the lowest scoresfor the index of selected villages under investigationvary from 3.80 to 4.42 and the highest scores varyfrom 66.30 to 82.20. Further, the average scores varyfrom 32.80 to 41.10.Table 1 also clearly indicatesthat un-reached farmers score ranges from 3.80 to7.60 in Telangana region, followed by 3.15 to 7.51 inCoastal region and ranges from 3.80 to 7.60 inRayalaseema region.

The score range of un-reached farmersclearly indicates their miserable position in terms oftheir information source utilization pattern and alsotheir awareness, knowledge and adoption of improvedpractices in agriculture. A special focus and attentionshall be given these farmers to support them in all

the possible dimensions for their upliftment throughdifferent developmental programmes.

Other important observation could be madefrom Table 1 is that there was large differencebetween the lowest score and highest score on theindex (3.15 and 82.10 respectively). This is anindication to the extension system to narrow theexisting gap and to bring the entire farming communityunder extension services.

This index developed to identify the un-reached farmers would be useful to take up the needbased activities for the welfare of the farmingcommunity in general and the un-reached farmers inparticular for improving their standard of living.

IDENTIFICATION OF UN-REACHED FARMERS

ABSTRACT

The research study was conducted to know the direct and indirect consequences of crop holiday in East Godavaridistrict of Andhra Pradesh. Among the selected ninety respondents, the prime direct consequence expressed by therice farmers was no work for agriculture (97.40%). In case of indirect consequences “heavy infestation of weeds inthe fallow lands” was ranked first. Scientists ranked the consequence “nearly Rs. 530 crore revenue loss to thekonaseema region and the loss to states economy Rs. 3000 crores” as first important direct consequence. In case ofExtension personnel the important direct consequence was “state government increase subsidy to agricultureinputs”. In terms of prime indirect consequence low crop yields due to early rabi sowing ranked first.

DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONSEQUENCES OF CROP HOLIDAY IN EASTGODAVARI DISTRICT OF ANDHRA PRADESH AS PERCEIVED BY THE

FARMERS, AGRICULTURAL SCIENTISTS AND EXTENSION PERSONNELV.DEEPTHI, I.SREENIVASA RAO AND R.VASANTHA

Department of Agricultural Extension, College of AgricultureAcharya N G Ranga Agricultural University,Rajendranagar,Hyderabad-500030


Andhra Pradesh is known as the” Rice bowl ofIndia”, stands 6th in the area, 3rd in production and 2nd

in productivity of rice in the country. A.P alonecontributes nearly 12 per cent of the national riceproduction. In A.P., rice is grown in an area of 3.98mil lion hectares across 22 districtsannually(Ramanamurthy et al., 2012). East Godavaridistrict alone contribute 3.1 million tonnes of rice inwhich the share of Amalapuram division is about 0.5million tones every year. During 2011, the ricefarmers of East Godavari, West Godavari and partsof Khammam district have declared crop holiday i.e.,they did not go for rice cultivation and the fields wereleft fallow, as they felt that rice cultivation will landthem in more pathetic situation because of negativereturns and instead they can maintain no profit andno loss situation by keeping their fields fallow (Vamsiet al., 2011). The present study was taken up withthe intention of understanding the direct and indirectconsequences of crop holiday according to thefarmers, scientists and officials of Department ofAgriculture.

Descriptive research design was adopted forthe study. The study was conducted in East Godavaridistrict of Andhra Pradesh as rice farmers of thisdistrict had declared crop holiday in about 2 lakhacres(KumaraSwamy et al., 2012), which was thehighest acreage under the crop holiday districts. Fromthis district 60 farmers who declared crop holiday,15 scientists and 15 officials of Department of


Agriculture were selected. A total of 90 respondentsconstituted the sample of the study. The data wascollected through structured interview schedule andanalyzed using the rank based quotient test. Afterprocessing the data results were interpreted andappropriate conclusions were drawn.

The Direct and Indirect consequences of cropholiday on rice was presented under 3 sub headingsbased on the opinion of the respondents.

1.ACCORDING TO FARMERS The direct and indirectconsequences of crop holiday as reported by farmerswere given below and the consequences were rankedbased on RBQ test.

As reported by the farmers and their ranking basedon Rank Based Quotients (RBQs) are presented inTable 1.

A. Direct consequences

The prime direct consequence expressed bythe majority of rice farmers was “no work foragriculture” which was ranked I i.e. they opined thatdue to crop holiday most of the farmers and farmlabour lost their means of livelihood.

While “farmers avoid losses” was ranked II, italready showed that rice farmers usually spend upabout Rs 51000/ha as cost of cultivation, but in turnthe MSP is not matching the cost of cultivation.Farmers opined that if they declare crop holiday theycan avoid losses due to rice cultivation. Hence, low

The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 28-32, 2014

28

cost rice production technologies need to bepopularised in these areas.

According to farmers, the loss to thegovernment was ranked as III, because due to cropholiday the government through various departmentsmight have lost an amount of Rs 3000 crores.

B. Indirect consequences

The important indirect consequence felt bythe majority of rice farmers was “heavy infestation ofweeds in the fallow lands”. The second most indirectconsequence according to the study was “increaseof the insect pest and disease problem”. This mightbe due to favourable conditions for weed growth, pestand disease.

“Field bunds damaged by cattle” was assignedIII rank by the majority of respondents. Freemovement of cattle in the fallow lands and grazingled to damage of the field bunds”.

“Farmers migrated to cities” ranked IV i.e. Farmlabourers turned into building construction workers

as well as fishermen and in case of marginal farmersmajority have migrated to urban areas for livelihood.

Further, “no grass for livestock” was ranked Vwhile “water logging and salinity problem” was rankedas VI indirect consequence.

2. ACCORDING TO AGRICULTURAL SCIENTISTS

The Direct and Indirect consequences for cropholiday on rice as reported by the scientists wereranked are presented based on RBQs are presentedin Table 2.

A. Direct consequences

The direct consequence ranked as 1st bymajority of scientists was “nearly Rs.530 crorerevenue loss to the Konaseema region and the lossto state’s economy about Rs. 3000 crores”.

Indirect consequences

The major indirect consequence expressed bythe majority of scientists was “crop yields were low

S. No Consequences for crop holiday I II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

RBQ (%)

RANK

Direct consequences

1 Farmers avoided losses 39 21 96.11 II 2 No work for agricultural

labour 46 14 97.40 I

3 Loss to the Government 13 18 11 9 9 36.48 III Indirect

consequences

5 Heavy infestation of weeds in the fallow lands.

56 4 99.25 I

6 Pest and disease problem was increased in rabi season

49 11 88.85 II

7 Field bunds damaged by the cattle.

21 30 9 68.88 III

8 No grass for livestock 25 21 14 46.48 V

9 Farmers migrated to cities.

21 22 17 67.40 IV

10 Waterlogging and salinity problem.

5 15 17 16 7 32.40 VI

Table1. Direct and Indirect consequences of crop holiday as reported by the farmers: RBQ EstimationN=60

29

A STUDY ON DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONSEQUENCES OF CROP HOLIDAY IN EAST GODAVARI

DEEPTHI et al.

due to early sowings in rabi”. It was followed by “earlyraising of nurseries in the next rabi season” and“much emphasis for research to develop high yieldingand suitable rice cultivars and on farm machinery” .


III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

X

RBQ (%)

RANK

Direct consequences

1 Nearly Rs.530 crore revenue loss to the konaseema region and the loss to state’s economy Rs. 3000 crores.

11 4 97.33 I

2 Lack of production of 2.62 lakh tonnes of paddy worth of Rs.283/- crores. Reduction in paddy area upto 20 percent.

9 2 4 93.33 II

3 No employment wastage of 75 lakh man days

8 4 3 83.33 III

4 Seed companies,fertilizer industry lost sales upto 7.5 crores

6 3 2 4 34.66 VI

5 80000 farm labourer and tenant farmer have lost their means of livelihood.

7 4 4 82.00 IV

6 Government paid special attention and constituted different committees to assess the situation.

9 3 3 84.00 V


7 Early raising of nurseries in the next rabi season

10 3 2

95.33 II

8 Crop yields were low due to early sowings in rabi.

13 2 98.66 I

9 Much emphasis for research on breeding suitable of paddy varieties and farm machinery.

6 4 5 80.66 III

Table 2. Direct and Indirect consequences for crop holiday as reported by the scientists: RBQ Estimation

N=15

3.ACCORDING TO THE EXTENSION PERSONNEL.

The Direct and Indirect consequences for cropholiday on rice as reported by the Extension personnelare presented in Table 3.

30

A.Direct consequences

The main consequence expressed by themajority of Extension personnel was “State

government provided subsidy on agricultural inputsupto70 percent due to crop holiday”, followed by “Stategovernment directly procured huge quantity of rice”

Table 3. Direct and Indirect consequences for crop holiday as reported by the Extension personnel:RBQ Estimation N=15


III

IV

V

VI

V

VIII

IX

X

XI

RBQ (%)

RANK

Direct consequences

1 State government supplied farm machinery at 70 % subsidy and established 100 agricultural service centers in konaseema region.

9 3 2 1 93.93 III

2 Government effectively implemented the crop insurance scheme

7 3 2 3 77.57 V

3 State government directly procured huge quantities of paddy on the lines of Punjab and Haryana

10 3 2 95.75 II

4 Increase the scale of finance for the paddy

7 2 3 3 89.69 IV

5 State government increased Subsidy on agricultural inputs

12 2 1 97.57 I

6 MSP was increased up to 80 rupees per quintal.

4 2 3 4 2 64.84 VI


7 Paddy fields converted into aquaculture ponds

11 2 2 96.36 II

8 Crop holiday created indebtness among the farming community

9 3 1 2 36.96 V

9 40000 farmers have defaulted on repayment to the SBI bank

8 2 3 2 91.51 III

10 Paddy production decreased

7 2 4 2 90.30 IV

11 low crop yields due to early rabi sowings

12 3 98.18 I

31

A STUDY ON DIRECT AND INDIRECT CONSEQUENCES OF CROP HOLIDAY IN EAST GODAVARI

(upto 90 percent) in the similar lines as followed inPunjab and Haryana states was assigned rank II,“State government supplied farm machinery at 70percent subsidy and established 100 Agriculturalservice centers in Konaseema region of AndhraPradesh” was assigned rank III.

B. Indirect consequences

The major indirect consequence expressed bythe majority of Extension personnel was “low cropyields due to early rabi sowings”. Crop holiday isdeclared in the beginning of kharif season i.e juneand this movement was ended in the month ofSeptember. Farmers have sown rice crop in earlyrabi, hence, because of early sowings crop yieldswere reduced. This is followed by “rice fields convertedinto aquaculture ponds” was assigned rank II, While“40000 farmers have defaulted on repayment of theloans to the SBI bank” was ranked III, “Decrease inthe rice production upto 10 percent in East Godavaridistrict of Andhra Pradesh” was ranked IV and “cropholiday created indebtness among the farming

REFERENCES

KumaraSwamy,D., Hanumanthaiah,C.V andVasudev,N. 2012. An empirical study onvarious causes of crop holiday declaration byrice farmers of Andhra Pradesh: a case studyin East Godavari district of A.P. The Journalof Research, ANGRAU. 40(1):53-57.

Ramanamurthy, R.V.,Satyannarayana,T andNaveenkumar,E.2012.Declining profitability ofRice in Andhra Pradesh: An Inter Regional

community” was ranked V. This might be due to thefact that several people who are directly and indirectlydependent on agriculture could not found jobs duringcrop holiday period.

Possible direct consequences due to the cropholiday according to the majority of the farmers was‘no work for agricultural labour’ and indirectconsequence was ‘heavy infestation of weeds in thefallow lands’. Whereas, according to scientists themajor direct consequence was ‘about Rs.530 crorerevenue loss to the konaseema region and the lossto state’s economy’ (nearly about Rs. 3000 crores).The indirect consequences may be ‘crop yields werelow due to early sowings in rabi’. According to theofficials of Department of Agriculture the major directconsequence was ‘State government’s increasedsubsidy on agricultural inputs’ and at the same timeindirect consequence was ‘farming failed to attractthe youth’. Hence, the Government should implementbetter policies in agriculture to stop this unwantedtradition and to minimize the losses due to cropholiday.

32

Study of Costs and Returns. Agrarian Crisisin India: The Way Out. pp:05-07.

Vamsi, V.P., Laxminarayana, N.P and Sudheer,K.2011.Understanding the Andhra Crop holidaymovement. Economic and political weekly.46(50): 13-16.

DEEPTHI et al.

RETENTION AND DROPOUT STATUS AT SECONDARY LEVEL OF SCHOOLINGIN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS OF ANDHRA PRADESH: AN OVERVIEW

L. UMADEVI AND M. UMADepartment of Human Development & Family Studies, College of Home Science,

Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad - 500 004

ABSTRACT

The present study was under taken to study the reasons for dropout at secondary level of schooling in AndhraPradesh. The sample comprises of 1500 children (750 boys & 750 girls), 300 teachers, 60 Head masters and 78dropouts from selected rural and urban schools of 6 districts (12 Mandals) in three regions of Andhra Pradesh. Fromthe results it is found that the main reasons for dropouts were poor interest, no proper understanding of subjects,poor economic conditions and support from families. Dropout children were involved in labor work boys & girls havehousehold work and job courses like stitching, welding etc. Retention percentage is more in higher secondary levelschooling compared to lower secondary level schooling.

Universal elementary education has beenone of the major goals of educational policy eversince independence. Provision of free andcompulsory education for children up to 14 years isone of the directive principle of state policy, becausethe primary school education is important ineducational ladder as foundations for future growthof the child are laid during primary school educationperiod. It is the most valuable time which influencechild constructively and creatively. The educationalattainment of a population, particularly of the youngpopulation, is an important indicator of the society’sstock of human capital and its level of socio economicdevelopment. and reflects the achievement of theeducational sector in the past 20 years .

It is generally said that the utility of educationsystem should be viewed not only in terms ofenrollment but also in terms of retention rate becauseof heavy dropout. Dropout is an evil existing ineducational system and it is nothing but prematurewithdrawal of child from school at any stage beforethe completion of the primary course (Rawath &Gupta, 1970). Large sum of money, lot of energy ofparents and teachers and a good many years ofpupils are wasted. Due to that it makes all the effortsof the society useless.

According to Census data of2011(www.censusindia.gov.in), literacy rate hassurged forward from 64.83 percent in 2001 to 74.04percent in 2011 showing an increase of 9.21

percentage points. The literacy for males and femalesworks out to 82.14 percent and 65.46 percentrespectively. It is encouraging to note that the numberof female illiterates has gone down by 17,122,197during 2001-2011. However, the number of femaleilliterates has increased in some states of India andin Andhra Pradesh the increase is 5.41%.

The target laid down by the MDG to eliminatethe gender disparity in primary education by 2005was already becoming problematic within the first fewyears of the MDG project. The UN also noted thatthe gender disparity in secondary education remainedlarge in these regions with an average of 79 girlsenrolled per 100 boys and that the gender disparitycontinued into third level education in all developingregions. Reducing the gender disparity in enrollmentfigures is likely to remain a major challenge fordeveloping regions and will remain on thedevelopment agenda for many years ahead.

This research is planned to study the statusof retention & dropouts at secondary level ofschooling in urban and rural areas.


Locale of the study

The project work was carried out in threeregions of Andhra Pradesh. Two districts from eachregion were selected and form each district 2 mandalswere covered and from two mandals 10 rural, 10 urbanschools were selected.


The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 33-39, 2014


33

UMADEVI AND UMA

Selection of the sample

1500 no. of secondary school children whowere studying 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th and 10th Class, 60 HeadMasters and 300 Teachers were selected from 60secondary schools for the study.

The list of the Secondary schools located indifferent areas of selected mandals was obtained fromthe District Educational Officers of selected districts.From that list 30 Secondary schools located in ruralareas and 30 in urban areas were selected from theselected twelve mandals.

Tools and Techniques used

Prior to data collection sufficient rapport wasestablished with the respondents, after obtainingnecessary permission from District Education Officeof the selected districts. The information pertainingto admission, retention and drop out details was

collected from the school Head Masters. Drop outchildren were contacted personally and reasons fordrop out and their existing status was collected byinterview method.

Interview schedule The interview scheduleswere developed for sample i.e.

Head Master schedule includes general profile ofthe school, admission and drop out details of thechildren.

Dropout schedule includes general profile of thechild and reasons for their dropout and their existingstatus.

The schedules were pre tested and used fordata collection.

Statistical Tools Frequencies and percentages wereused for analyzing the data.


Table 1. General profile of the schools studied

S.NO Type of school Rural Urban Total

N % N % N %

1. Govt. ZP High schools 29 97 23 77 37 62

2. Govt. Municipal High school 0 0 7 23 12 40

3. Kasturba Gandhi Govt. high school 1 3 0 0 1 3

Total 30 30 60

Data on General profile of the schoolsindicated that out of 60 schools selected, 30 wereselected in rural areas and 30 were from urban areasof selected Mandals of three regions of AndhraPradesh. Majority of the schools selected in bothrural and urban areas were government ZP Highschools and more urban schools were governmentMunicipal High schools meant for boys and girls.

Table 2 explains the retention status ofsecondary schools studied in 60 schools distributedin 3 regions of Andhra Pradesh. Results on retentionindicate that the percentage of children retained inthe class is more in higher classes compared to lowerclasses in all regions and in both rural and urbanschools. Interestingly the retention percentage for

total classes reveals that for boys retention

percentage is 98 in rural schools of all three regions

and for girls it was 97. It is surprising to note that the

retention percentage is less in urban schools

compared to rural schools for both boys and girls in

all three regions. Less retention percentage was

observed in urban Telangana boys and girls. This

might be due to migration, child labour and gender

discrimination. Hence, measures should be taken to

motivate children especially girls to attend schools

and also by providing safe and protective school

environment at school level and sensitizing people

towards gender equality and women empowerment

at community level.

34

Tabl

e 2.

Ret

entio

n de

tails

in th

e se

lect

ed s

econ

dary

sch

ools

35

RETENTION AND DROPOUT STATUS AT SECONDARY LEVEL OF SCHOOLING

UMADEVI AND UMA

Region Classes

Rural secondary schools Urban secondary schools Boys Girls Boys Girls

Dropout No.

% Dropout No.

% Dropout No.

% Dropout No.

%

Coastal Andhra

6th 6 3 8 4 15 3 17 6 7th 5 3 7 3 13 2 15 5 8th 3 1 5 2 10 2 12 3 9th 2 1 4 2 5 1 7 2

10th 2 1 4 2 4 1 6 2 Total 18 2 28 2 47 2 57 3

Rayalaseema 6th 7 2 9 3 16 4 18 7 7th 6 2 8 3 14 3 16 5 8th 4 1 6 2 11 2 13 3 9th 3 1 5 1 6 1 8 2

10th 3 1 5 1 5 1 7 1 Total 23 1 33 2 52 2 62 3

Telangana 6th 8 3 10 5 17 5 19 7 7th 7 3 9 4 15 4 17 6 8th 5 1 7 2 12 3 14 4 9th 4 1 6 2 7 2 9 3

10th 4 1 6 2 6 2 8 2 Total 28 2 38 3 57 3 67 5

Table 3. Dropout details in the selected secondary schools

It is very interesting to note from the results(Table 3) that the dropouts were more in lowersecondary classes i.e. 6th, 7th compared to 8th, 9th

and 10th class in rural and urban schools studied inthree regions of Andhra Pradesh. Interestingly,dropouts were more in urban schools compared to

rural schools. Region wise data revealed thatdropouts were more in Telangana secondary schools

followed by Rayalaseema and Andhra secondaryschools. It is interesting to note that dropouts weremore in girls compared to boys in all schools studied.

S.No Class Dropout Total Boys &girls Boys Girls

1 6th 6 12 18 2 7th 14 11 25 3 8th 6 16 22 4 9th 2 11 13

TOTAL 28 50 78

Table 4. Details about selected school dropouts in selected schools

Due to migration and early marriage of girlsand also joining in other schools where most of thediscontinued students were not found in places wherethey were studied. Hence, only 78 dropouts werecontacted to collect information on reasons for theirdropping out and also to know about their present

status. It is surprising to note that the girlsoutnumbered boys in dropping out from schools inurban areas. Region wise data on dropouts insecondary schools indicated that total dropouts weremore in Telangana followed by Rayalaseema and

Classes

36

Andhra regions. Interestingly more number of boyswere dropped out from schools in rural secondaryschools in Rayalaseema region and the trend wasreverse in case of urban secondary schools where

more number of urban Telangana girls were droppedout from schools compared to boys and also girls ofother two regions i.e. Rayalaseema and Andhraregions.

Table 5. Class wise distribution of dropout- area wise

S.no Class Dropouts Total Boys & girls Rural Urban

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total 1 6th 4 9 13 2 3 5 18 2 7th 8 5 13 6 6 12 25 3 8th 3 8 11 3 8 11 22 4 9th 1 8 9 1 3 4 13

Total 16 30 46 12 20 32 78

Table 6. Class wise distribution of dropout-region wise

Region Class Dropouts Total Boys and Girls

Rural Urban

Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total

Coastal Andhra

6th 2 3 5 0 0 0 5

7th 6 1 7 5 5 10 17 8th 1 3 4 1 5 6 10 9th 0 6 6 0 1 1 7

Total 9 13 22 6 11 17 39 Rayalaseema 6th 2 3 5 1 2 3 8

7th 1 1 2 0 0 0 2 8th 1 2 3 2 3 5 8 9th 0 0 0 1 2 3 3

Total 4 6 10 4 7 11 21 Telangana

6th 0 3 3 1 1 2 5

7th 1 3 4 1 1 2 6 8th 1 3 4 0 0 0 4 9th 1 2 3 0 0 0 3

Total 3 11 14 2 2 4 18

It is evident from the results that the mainreasons for their discontinuation of education wereself related (not interested in studies), along withparents dislike towards their education as they needthem to be involved in labour to earn money for theirfamily support. Children also had fear of education,because they felt that they are unable to clear theexaminations as they found it very difficult tounderstand subjects such as mathematics, English

and Hindi. Compared to boys, parents wereresponsible for girls dropping out from school.Interestingly, fear of education is responsible for boysdiscontinuation compared to girls. NIPCCD report(2010) also revealed similar reasons for dropouts inrural and urban schools which includes education notconsidered necessary, required for house hold work,marriages (girls only), not interested in studies(bothboys& girls) and cost too much.

37


Region Reasons for dropout Boys % Girls %

Andhra Total =39

Parents 3 13.6 4 23.5 Self 7 31.8 5 29.4

Fear of education 5 22.7 3 17.6 Self, parents 3 13.6 3 17.6

Self, fear of education 3 13.6 2 11.7 Other reason 1 4.5 0 0

Total dropouts 22 17 Rayalaseema

Total=21 Parents 3 23 2 25

Self 4 30.7 1 12.5 Fear of education 2 15.3 2 9

Self, parents 2 15.3 2 25 Self, fear of education 2 15.3 1 12.5

Other reason 0 0 0 0 Total dropouts 13 8

Telangana Total =18

Parents 0 0 2 15.3 Self 2 33.3 3 23

Fear of education 3 50 2 15.3 Self, parents 0 0 3 23

Self, fear of education 1 16.6 3 23 Other reason 0 0 0 0

Total dropouts 6 13

Table 7. Reasons for dropout

Region Status Rural Urban

Boys Girls Boys Girls

Costal Andhra

Daily wages job 9 8 6 7 Marriage 0 4 0 3 Free 0 1 0 1 Going to trainings (stitching, Xerox, welding etc.)

0 0 0 0

Total 9 13 6 11

Rayalaseema Daily wages job 4 3 3 5 Marriage 0 1 0 1 Free 0 2 0 0 Going to trainings (stitching, Xerox, welding etc.)

0 0 1 1

Total 4 6 4 7

Telangana Daily wages job 3 8 1 0 Marriage 0 1 0 0 Free 0 2 0 1 Going to trainings (stitching, Xerox, welding etc.)

0 0 1 1

Total 3 11 2 2

Table 8. Existing status of dropout children

38

UMADEVI AND UMA

It is very interesting to note from the results(Table 8) on existing status of dropout children thatmajority of rural boys and girls were engaged in laborwork to support their families. Compared to urbanchildren (both boys and girls) more number of ruralchildren (both boys and girls) were financiallysupporting their families and compared to boys moregirls were involved in wage earnings. Ten dropoutgirls six from rural and four from urban areas gotmarried hence were forced to discontinue theirstudies. It is also evident that seven girls (5 ruraland 2 urban) were staying at home after discontinuingtheir studies helping their parents by doing householdwork and taking care of younger siblings. Interestinglynone of the dropout boys were involved in householdactivities. Very few that too dropouts of urban school(2 boys and 2 girls) have joined in job training classeslike welding and tailoring for their future incomegeneration activities. This finding is in conformity withthe study of Uma Devi and Venkataramaiah

(1997),who reported that dropouts were supporting

their families financially by engaging in economic

activities like coolies, beedi makers and cattle caring.

From the results of the study it can be

concluded that the retention percentage was more in

higher classes compared to lower classes. Dropouts

were more in 6th, 7th and 8th class compared to 9th and

10th class. Dropout percentage was more in both rural

and urban areas and the reasons for student dropout

were poor interest, poverty and lack of understanding

of subjects. Hence, measures should be taken to

motivate children to attend school regularly like

paying individual attention to needy students,

providing child friendly environment at school and

also by efficient implementat ion of Central

Government through awareness programmes and bymotivating parents to send their children to schools.

REFERENCES

Rawat, D.S and Gupta, S.L (1970). EducationalWastage of the Primary Level: A Handbookfor Teachers, Department of Pre - Primary andPrimary Education, NIE, National Council ofEducational Research and Training, New Delhi.

NIPCCD Report, 2010. Statistics on Women in India.National Institute of Public Cooperation andChild Development: New Delhi, pp 198.

Uma Devi and Venkataramaiah 1997. Reasons forschool dropout in rural Telangana. IndianPsychological Review 48(2):108-112.

39


Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is veryimportant spice crop from the therapeutic andnutritional point of view. The product of tamarindleaves, fruits, seed, flowers, roots have beenextensively used in the traditional medicines in Indiaand Africa (Ravindran et al., 2002). The fruit is havingpotential to standby all its important properties if it issuitably processed into various food products. Manyphysico-chemical changes take place during ripeningand storage of tamarind fruits. These changes maybe either enzymatic or non-enzymatic. The mostcommon type of non-enzymatic oxidation is a resultof reaction between reducing sugar and amines i.e.the Maillard reaction during storage of tamarind(Kotecha and Kadam, 2003).

Storage of tamarind, thus for a long periodis a problem. The firm golden brown pulp turns darkduring storage. I t becomes soft , pectolyticdegradation takes place and moisture is absorbed(Nagalakshmi and Cheziyan, 2003). Various methodsof prolonging the storage life of tamarind fruit in highdensity polythene (HDPE) bags was discussed byShankaracharya (1998). The colour of tamarind pulpturns from golden brown to dark due to storage. Theproducts prepared from this pulp are also dark incolour which is less preferred by consumers. If thepulp could be stored without any deterioration in its

STORAGE OF TAMARIND IN COMMONLY AVAILABLE PACKAGING MATERIALSA. K. AGRAWAL, ARCHANA KHARE AND GEETESH SINHA

College of Dairy Technology, Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya,Raipur, Chhattisgarh - 492 012



ABSTRACT

Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is a socially and economically important fruit of India as well as Chhattisgarh.It is very important from the therapeutic and nutritional value. But storage of tamarind, for a long period is a problemas many physico-chemical changes take place during storage. Ripe tamarind pulp was analysed for variousphysiological characteristics. The pulp was stored in various commonly available packaging materials likepolyethylene, polypropylene, porcelain pot and aluminium foil box at room temperature (35oC) and low temperature(5oC). Changes in various physicochemical characteristics like moisture content, titratable acidity, pH and reducingsugar were recorded at 15 days interval during 45 days of storage. During storage at room temperature it was foundthat the moisture content, titratable acidity and reducing sugar increased in all packaging materials while pH decreased.In aluminium foil box and polyethylene the extent of increase was found less. The same trend of these parameterswas found at low temperature but the extent of increase was less as compared to room temperature (35oC). Storageof tamarind at low temperature was found favorable to preserve its contents. Aluminium foil box and polyethylenewas found suitable for storage of tamarind.

content consumer acceptance can be improved. Thegood quality of tamarind will fetch higher prices.Therefore, it was felt necessary to investigate theeffect of storage on tamarind in low cost commonlyavailable packaging material.


For studies on storage of tamarind fourdifferent packaging materials were used i.e.polypropylene, polyethylene, porcelain pot andaluminium foil. About 500 g of sample was stored ineach packaging material in triplicate at three differentplaces. The packages containing tamarind werestored at room temperature (35oC) and at lowtemperature (5oC). Changes in physicochemicalparameters were recorded at 15 days interval.

Physicochemical characteristics

Different physicochemical characteristicslike pH, acidity, moisture and reducing sugar wereanalyzed during storage of tamarind.

Moisture content

The moisture content of each sample wascarried out by same method as for total solids, byoven drying method at 70oC for 16-18 hrs.

The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 40-46, 2014

40

W-wPercentage moisture content x 100 (1) W

Table 1. Physico-chemical composition of tamarind

41

Titrable acidity

The titrable acidity of tamarind pulp wasdetermined as per the procedure of Ranganna (1986).The pulp (10 g) was diluted with 200 ml of lukewarmdistilled water and titrated against 0.1 N sodiumhydroxide using phenolphthalein as a indicator.Titrable acidity in term of tartaric acid was calculatedas follows:

(Ranganna, 1986). In this method, invert sugarreduces the copper in Fehling solution to red insolublecuprous oxide. The sugar content in the food sampleis estimated by determining the volume of unknownsugar solution required to completely reduce ameasured volume if Fehling’s solution.

Fehling solution A was prepared bydissolving 69.28 g of copper sulphate in distill waterand volume was made up to 1000 ml. Fehling solutionB was prepared by dissolving 346 g of potassiumsodium tartarate and 100 g sodium hydroxide in distillwater and volume was made to 1000 ml.

Statistical analysis

The data obtained for different constituents of storedtamarind were subjected to statistical analysis, totest the response of different types of packagingmaterials on the physico-chemical characteristics ofstored tamarind. The split–split plot design was usedfor data analysis.


Physico-chemical composition of tamarind

Tamarind was analyzed for selected physico-chemical properties and the results are presented inthe Table 1.

Percentage moisture content TxNxVxEx100

vxWx1000

Where,

T = Titre value (ml)

N = Normality of alkali

V = Volume made up (ml)

E = Equivalent weight of acid (g)

v = Volume of sample (ml)

W = Weight of sample taken (g)

pH

The pH of each sample of tamarind wasrecorded by µ-365 pH meter.

Reducing Sugar

The reducing sugar content was determinedby the volumetric method of Lane and Eynon method

(2)

Avg. Seed Content, Seeds/Pod

Pulp peel ratio

Length/breadth ratio

Moisture Content, Percent (wb)

Reducing Sugar, Per cent

Titratable acidity, Per cent

pH

5.0

0.7

3.33

15.1

18.7

6.1

2.91

Effect of storage period on physico-chemicalcharacteristics of tamarind storage at roomtemperature and at low temperature

Moisture is an important parameter of fruitsas moisture changes the nutritional value of any foodmaterial. In tamarind, storage period causes increasein moisture content of fruit. Pecteolytic degradationtakes place in tamarind especially in humid weatherwhich also caused stickiness of tamarind pulp onstorage. In the present investigation, tamarind wasstored from the month of June during which

atmospheric humidity remained very high.Nagalakshmi and Chezhyan (2003) also reported thatupon storage, firm tamarind became soft withabsorption of moisture.

From Table 2, it was clearly observed thatthe moisture content of tamarind increases in storageperiod. The extent of increase was found low inaluminum foil box which was increased from 15.0 to16.9 per cent only. Aluminium foil allowed lessdiffusion of water as compared to other packagingmaterials. At low temperature storage also aluminium

STORAGE OF TAMARIND IN COMMONLY AVAILABLE PACKAGING MATERIALS

AGRAWAL et al.

Table 2. Mean value of moisture content (per cent wet basis) of stored tamarind

*Significant at 5% Level

42

foil box did not allow much gain of moisture (from 15to 15.5) during storage of 45 days as compared toother packaging materials. In general, the extent of

increase in moisture content was found less at lowtemperature during storage of tamarind.

From Table 2, the maximum mean wasfound for porcelain pot (18.1) followed bypolypropylene (16.9) whereas lower mean value wasfound for polyethylene (16.8) followed by minimumattained by aluminium foil box (15.7). The meanmoisture contents were compared in the light of leastsignificant difference and it was found that thealuminium foil box was having at par effect than thatof polyethylene and polypropylene on the moisture

(Note: RT represents room temperature storage and LT represents low temperature storage)

content of tamarind. But porcelain pot was havinghigher mean moisture compared to other packagingmaterials.

From the analysis of variance of moisturecontent (Table 3) of tamarind during storage it wasfound that all main effects namely packagingmaterials, temperature and storage period andinteraction of temperature and storage period wasfound to be significant from the F-test.

Source of variation Degree of freedom

Sum of square Mean Square Fcal Ftab 5%

Replication 2 0.0031 0.0015 15.17 - A (Package) 3 0.0019 0.0642 6.33* 4.76 Error (A) 6 0.0603 0.0102 - - B (Temperature) 1 0.0003 0.0003 105.9* 5.32 AB 3 0.0065 0.0028 8.78* 4.07 Error (B) 8 0.0020 0.0247 - - C (Storage period) 3 0.0001 0.0045 24.48* 2.80 AC 9 0.0051 0.0565 3.09* 2.08 BC 3 0.0001 0.0035 18.91* 2.80 ABC 9 0.0061 0.0672 3.67* 2.08 Error (C) 48 0.0088 0.0183 Total 95 0.0008

Packaging Materials Days 0 15 30 45 Mean Temperature

Polypropylene RT 15.0 15.5 19.0 22.2 17.9

LT 15.0 15.3 15.7 17.6 15.9

Mean 15.0 15.4 17.4 19.9 16.9

Polyethylene RT 15.0 15.2 19.3 21.7 17.8

LT 15.0 15.4 15.6 17.0 15.8

Mean 15.0 15.3 17.4 19.4 16.8

Porcelain pot RT 15.0 18.9 21.6 23.3 19.7

LT 15.0 15.9 16.6 18.1 16.4

Mean 15.0 17.4 19.1 20.7 18.1

Aluminium foil box RT 15.0 16.3 16.6 16.9 16.2

LT 15.0 15.1 15.2 15.5 15.2

Mean 15.0 15.7 15.9 16.2 15.7

Table 3. Analysis of variance of moisture content of stored tamarind

43


Effect of storage period on titratable acidity oftamarind during storage at room temperature andat low temperature

From Table 4, it was found that except 15days observations, generally the titratable acidity oftamarind increases with increase in storage at roomtemperature. The conversion of sugars into acidsmay be the possible reason for this. The titratableacidity was found to be increased in all packagingmaterials. The extent of increase in titratable aciditywas found more in polypropylene (10.76-6.10= 4.66per cent) followed by porcelain pot (8.79-6.10= 2.69

per cent). Polypropylene is the lightest polymer whosemoisture resistance is less as compared to otherpackaging materials like polyethylene and aluminiumfoil box. The extent of increase in acidity was foundlowest (8.26-6.10=2.16 per cent) in aluminium foilbox. At low temperature, it was found that thetitratable acidity of tamarind increased during storage.The extent of increase of titratable acidity in tamarindwas found smaller at low temperature storage ascompared to room temperature storage. Among allpackaging materials, the extent of increase in thetitratable acidity was found lowest in tamarind storedin aluminium foil box.

Table 4. Mean value of titratable acidity (per cent tartaric acid) of stored tamarind

Packaging Materials Days 0 15 30 45 Mean Temperature


LT 6.10 6.34 8.16 8.79 7.35

Mean 6.10 6.16 8.08 9.78 7.53

Polyethylene RT 6.10 5.73 7.03 8.54 6.85

LT 6.10 6.40 7.72 8.10 7.08

Mean 6.10 6.06 7.38 8.32 6.96

Porcelain pot RT 6.10 6.78 7.69 8.70 7.32 LT 6.10 6.53 7.80 8.34 7.19

Mean 6.10 6.66 7.74 8.52 7.26


LT 6.10 6.33 6.62 7.41 6.62

Mean 6.10 6.28 6.88 7.84 6.77

The main effect of package on titratable

acidity of tamarind was found to be significant. The

maximum mean (7.53% tartaric acid) was found for

polypropylene followed by porcelain pot (7.26%

tartaric acid) polyethylene (6.96% tartaric acid) and

aluminium foil box (6.77% tartaric acid). The mean

titratable acidity of tamarind was compared in the

light of least significant difference and it was found

that the aluminium foil box was having at par effect

than that of polyethylene and porcelain pot on the

titratable acidity of tamarind. But polypropylene was

having higher mean titratable acidity compared to

other packaging materials.

From the analysis of variance for titratable

acidity (Table 5) of tamarind during storage the effects

of packaging materials and storage period were found

to be significant from F-test. However, temperature

of storage did not show appreciable influence on

titratable acidity, although its interaction with storage

period produced significant effect.

Naik et al. (2004) investigated variation of

titratable acidity of fresh commercially available

tamarind pulps packaged in flexible pouches under

different conditions. They reported that titratable acid

value did not show significant differences in

respective of variation in packaging and storage

conditions.

44

Table 5. Analysis of variance of titratable acidity of stored tamarind


Effect of storage period on pH of tamarind duringstorage at room temperature and at lowtemperature

From Table 6, at room temperature, for 45days of storage it was found that in polypropylene,the mean pH value decreased from the initial valueof 2.91 to 2.73. Similar trend were found inpolyethylene (2.91 to 2.72), porcelain pot (2.91 to2.72) and in aluminium foil box (2.91 to 2.70). Overall,it was observed that the pH of tamarind stored in allpackaging materials was found decreasing. This maybe due to advance of ripening, thereby this results indecreasing pH.

From Table 6, it was found that similar tostorage of tamarind at room temperature, the pH oftamarind stored in all four packaging materials at lowtemperature decreased with increase in storageperiod. However, at low temperature the extent ofdecrease in pH was less as compared to roomtemperature.

Considering the variation of packagingmaterial, the maximum mean (2.83) was found forpolypropylene followed by polyethylene (2.82) andporcelain pot (2.81). Minimum mean was found foraluminium foil box (2.79).

Packaging Materials Days 0 15 30 45 Mean

Temperature


LT 2.91 2.86 2.84 2.83 2.86

Mean 2.91 2.86 2.82 2.78 2.84

Polyethylene RT 2.91 2.84 2.77 2.72 2.81

LT 2.91 2.86 2.79 2.76 2.83

Mean 2.91 2.85 2.78 2.74 2.82

Porcelain pot RT 2.91 2.83 2.74 2.72 2.80 LT 2.91 2.85 2.77 2.75 2.82

Mean 2.91 2.84 2.76 2.74 2.81


LT 2.91 2.83 2.75 2.73 2.81

Mean 2.91 2.82 2.74 2.72 2.79

Table 6. Mean value of pH of stored tamarind

AGRAWAL et al.



Replication 2 0.0189 0.9460 3.33 - A (Package) 3 0.0795 0.0265 9.33* 4.76 Error (A) 6 0.0170 0.2840 - - B (Temperature) 1 0.0498 0.4980 1.62 5.32 AB 3 0.0132 0.4410 1.44 4.07 Error (B) 8 0.0245 0.3070 - - C (Storage Period) 3 0.0099 0.0033 137.77* 2.80 AC 9 0.0010 0.0115 4.83* 2.08 BC 3 0.0480 0.0160 6.68* 2.80 ABC 9 0.0300 0.3250 1.36 2.08 Error (C) 48 0.0012 0.2400 Total 95 0.0001

45

Table 7. Analysis of variance of pH of stored tamarind



Replication 2 0.0 0.0 0.00 - A (Package) 3 0.0273 90.90 95.71* 4.76 Error (A) 6 567.0 9490.0 - - B (Temperature) 1 1.27 1.27 70.31* 5.32 AB 3 13.0 434.0 2.40 4.07 Error (B) 8 14.40 185.0 - - C (Storage period) 3 0.401 0.133 605.48* 2.80 AC 9 13.40 14.9 6.67* 2.08 BC 3 82.20 27.40 12.41* 2.80 ABC 9 45.60 506.00 2.29 2.08 Error (C) 48 6.0 220.00 Total 95 0.481


From the analysis of variance for pH oftamarind (Table 7) during storage all main effectnamely packaging material, temperature and storageperiod and interaction of temperature and storageperiod were found to be significant from the F-test.

Effect of storage period on reducing sugar oftamarind during storage at room temperature andat low temperature

From Table 8, at room temperature for the45 days of storage of tamarind, the reducing sugar

was found to increase from an initial value of 18.7 to22.6 in polypropylene, 18.7 to 20.1 in polyethylene,

18.7 to 24.0 per cent in porcelain pot and from 18.7

to 19.1 in aluminium foil box. Similarly at low

temperature the reducing sugar was found to increase

from an initial value of 18.7 to 19.9 in polypropylene,

18.7 to 19.0 in polyethylene and 18.7 to 23.3 per

cent in porcelain pot while the reducing sugar

decreased in aluminium foil box from 18.7 to 17.8.

Packaging Materials Days 0 15 30 45 Mean

Temperature

Polypropylene RT 18.7 21.2 22 22.6 21.13

LT 18.7 19.1 19.2 19.9 19.23

Mean 18.7 20.15 20.6 21.25 20.18

Polyethylene RT 18.7 19.4 19.7 20.1 19.48 LT 18.7 18.3 18.5 19.0 18.63

Mean 18.7 18.85 19.1 19.55 19.05

Porcelain pot RT 18.7 22.0 23.2 24.0 21.98

LT 18.7 22.0 22.6 23.3 21.65

Mean 18.7 22.0 22.9 23.65 21.81


LT 18.7 17.2 17.6 17.8 17.83

Mean 18.7 17.45 17.95 18.45 18.14

Table 8. Mean value of reducing sugar (per cent) of stored tamarind

In analysis of variance for reducing sugarcontent of tamarind (Table 9) during storage all maineffect namely packaging materials, temperature and

storage period and their interactions with each otherwere found to be significant from the F test. Themaximum mean (21.81) was found for porcelain pot


46

followed by polypropylene (20.18) and polyethylene(19.05). Minimum mean was found for aluminium foilbox (18.14).

The effect of storage period on the reducingsugar of tamarind was found to be significant in all

packaging materials. On comparing the mean valueof reducing sugar of tamarind in the light of leastcritical difference it was found that in packagepolypropylene the effect of storage period from 0 to15 days was having significant difference on reducingsugar of tamarind.



Replication 2 0.3010 0.1500 1.35 -

A (Package) 3 0.0002 0.0061 542.59* 4.76

Error (A) 6 0.6710 0.1120 - -

B (Temperature) 1 0.0021 0.0021 108.98* 5.32

AB 3 0. 0788 0.0263 13.63* 4.07

Error (B) 8 0.0154 0.1930 - -

C (Storage Period) 3 0.0549 0.0180 281.66* 2.80

AC 9 0.0062 0.0690 106.21* 2.08

BC 3 0.0788 0.0263 40.4* 2.80

ABC 9 0.0306 0.0341 5.24* 2.08

Error (C) 48 0.0312 0.0312

Total 95 0.0003

Table 9. Analysis of variance of reducing sugar of stored tamarind

REFERENCES

Kotecha, P. M and Kadam, S. S. 2003. Studies onbrowning in tamarind pulp during storage.Journal of Food Sciences Technology.40: 398-399.

Naglakshmi, S and Cheziyan, N. 2003. Packaginginfluences the colour of tamarind pulp duringstorage. South Indian Journal of Horticulture.50: 481-495.

Naik, P. J., Nagalaksmi, S., Balasubramanyam, Nand Shankaracharaya, N. B. 2004. Packagingand storage studies on tamarind (Tamarindus

The moisture content of tamarind pulp atroom temperature was found increasing. Similarly,at low temperature storage, moisture was found tobe increased in almost all packaging materials. Thetitratable acidity and reducing sugar of tamarind pulpwas found to be increased in all packaging materialat both low and room temperatures. However, extentof increase was smaller when stored at low

temperature. The pH of tamarind pulp decreased inall packaging material at room temperature. Thedecreasing rate of pH was low at low temperaturestorage as compared to room temperature storage.Aluminium foil box was found to be most suitablefollowed by polyethylene for storage of tamarind atboth condition. Storage of tamarind at low temperaturecan control its quality.

indica L.) pulp. Journal of Food ScienceTechnology 41( 3): 348-351.

Ravindran, P. N., Johny, A and Nirmal Babu, K. 2002.Tamarind- A tree of untapped potential. Indianspices 39( 3): 4-7.

Ranganna, S. 1986. Handbook of analysis and qualitycontrol for fruits and vegetable products. II Ed.Tata McGraw-Hill publishing company Ltd.,New Delhi.

Shankaracharya, N. B. 1998. Tamarind-Chemistry,Technology and Uses- A critical appraisal.Indian Spices. 35 (3):193-208.

AGRAWAL et al.

EFFECT OF VERMIWASH ON YIELD ATTRIBUTING CHARACTERS, YIELD ANDECONOMICS IN OKRA (Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) MOENCH)

P. MADHAVI LATHA, VEENA JOSHI, K. SIREESHA, M.VIJAYA , B.K.M. LAKSHMI AND B. SOMARAJ

Vegetable Research Station, Agricultural Research Institute,Dr. YSR Horticultural University, Hyderabad- 500030

Okra (Abelmoschus esculantus L.) is one of themost popular vegetable grown in almost all parts ofthe country. Okra (Bhendi) is an annual fast growingvegetable crop grown from seed in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Okra is rich in vitamins,calcium, potassium and other minerals, hence it is apreferred vegetable generally in fresh fruit state. Indiais the leading okra growing country among the world.In India, Andhra Pradesh stand first in area andproduction with a productivity of 15 t ha-1. Sowingtime and number of crops in a year depends onclimatic conditions. Okra comes up well in warm,moist season, it grows finely well in hottest summers.Being a warm season crop, it is susceptible to frost.In present day conditions increased use of chemicalfertilizers over a period has resulted in poor soil health,reduction in production and increase in incidences ofpest, diseases and environmental pollution asindicated by Ansari and Ismail (2001).Research hasshown that adding organics along with fertilizers willresult in increased crop yields, but incorporationof bulky organic manures for improving crop yieldand Soil health is a common practice. Applicationof organic manures become more complicate due toits bulky nature that requires high cost fortransportation and also for spreading with manuallabor. Hence, liquid extract of some organic manureslike vermiwash are now a days in use widely for crop

ABSTRACT

A field experiment was conducted in okra at Vegetable Research Station, Agricultural Research Institute,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad for three years during Kharif 2009 to 2012 to study the effect of foliar application ofvermiwash on Okra. The results from the pooled data of three years revealed that significantly highest number offruits per plant (12.5) and average fruit weight (24.0 gm) was recorded with 100% RDF + 5 sprays of vermiwash atweekly intervals after 30 days of sowing. Yield of okra was recorded significantly highest 105.66 q ha-1 with applicationof Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + 5 sprays of vermiwash at weekly intervals after 30 days of sowing, but it has recordedon par yield with 100% RDF + 5 sprays of vermiwash at weekly intervals after 30 days of sowing and vermicompostapplied @ 5 t ha-1 + 4 sprays of vermiwash at weekly intervals after 30 days of sowing treatments . The highest Costbenefit ratio of 1:1.02 was registered in the treatment applied with 100% RDF + 5 Sprays of vermiwash at weeklyintervals after 30 days of sowing.


production (Ganesh, 2004). Vermiwash is a liquidthat is collected after the passage of water throughcolumn of work action. It is a collection of excretoryand secretary products of earthworms, along withmajor and micro nutrients of the soil and soil organicmolecules that are useful for plants. Vermiwashseems to possess an inherent property of acting notonly as a fertilizer but also as a mild biocide activity(Karuna et al., 1999).


Field investigations were carried out forthree consecutive Kharif seasons (2009-12) in Okraat Vegetable Research Station, ARI, Rajendranagar(170. 33N latitude, 78.400 E longitude and 536 Maltitude) in a randomized block design (RBD)replicated thrice with thirteen treatments. T1 - Rec.NPK+ vermiwash 1 spray at 30 DAS, T2- Rec. NPK+vermiwash 2 sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS,T3- Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 3 sprays @ weekly intervalat 30 DAS , T4- Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 4 sprays @weekly interval at 30 DAS, T5- Rec. NPK+ vermiwash5 sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS, T6 -Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 1 spray at 30DAS, T7- Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 2sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS, T8-Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 3 sprays @weekly interval at 30 DAS, T9- Vermicompost @ 5 tha-1 + vermiwash 4 sprays @ weekly interval at 30

The J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 47-51, 2014


47

MADHAVI et al.

DAS, T10- Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 5sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS, T11- Rec. NPK+vermiwash soil application + 3 foliar sprays @ weeklyintervals at 30 DAS, T12- Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 +vermiwash soil application+ 3 foliar sprays @ weeklyintervals at 30 DAS, T13- Rec. dose of NPK . Thesoils of the experimental site was clay loam with PH

7.8, E.C 0.32 dSm-1, low in organic carbon 0.3% ,low in available nitrogen 260 kg ha-1, high in availablephosphorous 32 kg ha-1 and available potassium 510kg ha-1. Okra seeds were sown at 60 x 30 cm spacing,applied with recommended fertilizer dose of 150 kgN, 80 kg P2O5 and 80 kg k20 ha-1. Crop was irrigatedat weekly intervals based on moisture in the soil. Forplant protection 1500 ppm Neem oil was sprayed(5ml/liter) at 20 days after sowing and second spraywas given based on pest complex with chemicalpesticide. Harvestings were done at 3 to 4 daysintervals. Vermiwash was sprayed in 1:1 ratio of waterand vermiwash per one hectare that is 250 liters of

vermiwash mixed with 250 liters of water and sprayedevenly on the crop. For soil application sameconcentration and quantity of spray fluid wasdrenched at the root zone.


Among the yield attr ibuting characters,significantly highest number of fruits per plant (12.5)was recorded with application of recommended NPKfertilizer + 5 sprays of Vermiwash at weekly intervalsat 30 DAS (T5) to the control treatment (T13) , but ithas recorded on par results with the treatments,application of recommended NPK fertilizer + 4 spraysof vermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS (T4),application of vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + 4 sprays ofvermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS (T9) andapplication of vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + 5 sprays ofvermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS (T10). Allthe remaining treatments have not recorded significantincrease in fruit number per plant as compared tothe 100% recommended NPK application treatment

Treatments No. of fruits plant-1

Fruit length (cm)

Fruit girth (cm)

Fruit weight

(g) T1 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 1 spray at 30 DAS 7.8 17.0 1.6 13.0 T2 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 2 sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS

8.2 16.1 1.4 15.6

T3 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 3 sprays @ weekly interval 30 DAS

9.1 16.0 1.5 18.0


11.0 16.5 1.5 21.6


12.5 17.6 1.6 24.0

T6 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 1 spray @ weekly interval 30 DAS

7.8 18.2 1.3 11.2

T7 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 2 sprays @ weekly interval at weekly interval 30 DAS

8.6 19.0 1.7 14.6

T8 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 3 sprays @ weekly interval 30 DAS

9.3 17.3 1.7 18.3


10.2 17.0 1.6 21.0


11.4 16.8 1.6 24.0

T11 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash soil application + 3 foliar sprays @ weekly intervals

9.3 17.2 1.6 14.4

T12 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash soil application+ 3 foliar sprays @ weekly intervals

9.7 15.9 1.5 18.3

T13 Rec. dose of NPK 7.5 17.7 1.6 13.0 SEm± 0.93 0.96 0.40 1.18 C.D @5% 2.71 NS NS 3.45 CV% 17.1 9.7 11.5 11.7

Table 1. Effect of vermiwash on yield attributing characters of Okra (Pooled data of 2009-11)

48

(T13).Fruit length and fruit girth of okra was notinfluenced by vermiwash sprays given to the cropalong with vermicompost or with recommendedfertilizer dose. Both the treatments applied withrecommendation NPK fertilizer + 5 sprays ofVermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS (T5) andapplication of vermicompost @5 t ha-1 + 5 sprays ofVermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS (T10))recorded significantly highest fruit weight (24 g) andthese two treatments recorded on par fruit weightwith application of recommended NPK fertilizer + 4sprays of Vermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS(T4) and application of vermicompost @5 t ha-1 + 4sprays of Vermiwash at weekly intervals at 30 DAS(T10) treatments (Table 1).

Among the three years of study, in year 2010highest yield of okra was recorded but the influenceof treatments was non significant. This might be due

to heavy rains occurred during this year by whichfoliar sprays might have not effective for increasingyield.

In 2009 yield of okra was recorded significantlyhighest (100.9 q ha-1) with application of vermicompst@ 5 t ha-1 + 5 sprays of vermiwash @ weekly intervalat 30 DAS(T10) treatment which was recorded onpar with application of vermicompost @ 4 t ha-1 + 5vermiwash sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS(T9)and application of Rec.NPK + 5 vermiwash spraysof at weekly interval at 30 DAS(T5) treatments. In2011, application of Rec.NPK + 5 vermiwash spraysat weekly interval at 30 DAS(T5) treatment recordedsignificantly highest yield of 98.10 q ha-1 and it wasrecorded on par yield of 92.11 q ha-1 with thetreatment applied with Rec.NPK + 5 vermiwashsprays at weekly interval at 30 DAS(T10) treatments.The pooled yield data showed that significantlyhighest yield of 105.66 q ha-1 was recorded in the

Table 2. Yield of okra (q ha-1) as influenced by vermiwash (Pooled data of 2009-11)

Treatments 2009 2010 2011 Pooled T1 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 1 spray @ of 30 DAS

62.30 93.59 72.46 76.16

T2 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 2 sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS

71.39 97.42 74.25 80.91


79.19 105.54 76.33 86.98


83.19 100.16 83.48 88.94


100.20 115.47 98.10 104.53

T6 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash 1 spray @ weekly interval 30 DAS

65.39 112.43 76.54 84.76


74.00 113.84 78.38 88.72


73.50 115.22 84.27 91.65


99.80 116.95 87.97 101.54


100.90 124.07 92.11 105.66


75.40 119.31 80.46 91.73

T12 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash soil application + 3 foliar sprays @ weekly intervals

81.00 113.35 79.95 88.26

T13 Rec. dose of NPK 62.00 103.05 71.24 78.82 SEm± 6.00 12.27 2.92 6.61 C.D @5% 17.60 NS 8.54 12.97 CV% 13.20 19.00 62.20 14.00

49

EFFECT OF VERMIWASH ON YIELD ATTRIBUTING CHARACTERS, YIELD AND ECONOMICS

Treatments Cost of

cultivation Rs ha-1

Gross returns Rs

ha-1

Net returns Rs ha-1

Cost Benefit Ratio

T1 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 1 spray @ of 30 DAS

46617 76160 29543 1:0.63

T2 Rec. NPK+ vermiwash 2 sprays @ weekly interval at 30 DAS

47867 80910 33043 1:0.69


49117 86980 37863 1:0.77


50367 88940 38573 1:0.76


51617 104530 52913 1:1.02

T6 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha -1 + vermiwash 1 spray @ weekly interval 30 DAS 53750

84760 31010 1:0.57


55000 88720 33720 1:0.61


56250 91650 35400 1:0.62


57500 101540 44040 1:0.76


58750 105660 46970 1:0.79


5067 91730 41363 1:0.82

T12 Vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + vermiwash soil application + 3 foliar sprays @ weekly intervals

58750 88260 29510 1:0.50

T13 Rec. dose of NPK 45367 78820 33453 1:0.73

Table 3. Economics of Okra as influenced by vermiwash sprays (Pooled returns of 2009-11)

Vermi compost @Rs.3kg-1 , Vermi wash @Rs.4 kg-1, Fresh Fruit @ Rs.10 kg-1

treatment applied with vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 + 5vermiwash sprays at weekly interval at 30 DAS(T10)which was recorded on par fruit yield with treatmentsapplication of Rec.NPK + 5 vermiwash sprays atweekly interval at 30 DAS(T5). All the remainingtreatments recorded on par yield with controltreatment that is application of recommended doseof chemical fertilizer alone (T13). Among all thetreatments Rec.NPK treatment with 1 spray ofvermiwash (T1) recorded significantly lowest okra fruityield (Table 2). These research findings are inagreement with Vennila and Jayanthi (2010),Gorakhnath and Kesav Singh (2009) and Ansari etal. (2010).

Among the treatments studied with applicationof vermiwash as foliar spray, benefit cost ratio varieswith the number of sprays. Application ofrecommended NPK fertilizer + 5 vermiwash sprays@ weekly intervals at 30 DAS (T5) recorded highest

cost benefit ratio of 1:1.02 followed by 1:0.82 withthe treatment applied with vermicompost @ 5 t ha-1

+ 5 sprays of vermiwash @ weekly intervals at 30DAS. The treatments where recommended fertilizerdose application with 3 sprays of vermiwash in T3

treatment and 4 sprays of vermiwash application inT4 treatment recorded 1:0.77 and 1:0.76 Cost Benefitratio which was superior to control treatment that isrecommended dose of NPK fertilizer application alone.While the treatments applied with vermicompost @5 t ha-1 with four sprays of vermiwash T9 treatmentand five sprays of vermiwash in T10 treatment recorded1:0.76 and 1:0.79 Cost Benefit ratios which aregreater to control treatment, that is T13. Applicationof vermiwash sprays @ 1 spray or 2 sprays alongwith recommended NPK fertil izer dose orvermicompost application @ 5 t ha-1 with 1 to 3 spraysof vermiwash @ weekly intervals at 30 DAStreatments recorded lowest Cost Benefit Ratio to

50

MADHAVI et al.

control treatment i.e., application of recommendeddose of NPK fertilizer alone.

Application of vermiwash at 3 to 4 sprays at 30days af ter sowing at weekly intervals withrecommended dose of chemical fertilizers (NPK) orvermicompost @ 5 t ha-1 recorded highest yieldattributing characters and yield with highest economic

returns, as vermiwash can be absorbed directly by

leaves, which contribute effective micro organisms

and humic acid that are known to promote yield. It

could be concluded that vermiwash can be used

effectively for okra as an economical liquid biofertilizer.

REFERENCES

Ansari, A. A and Ismail, S. A. 2001. A case study onorganic farming in Uttar Pradesh. Journal ofSoil Biology and Ecology. 27:25-27.

Ansari, A. A., 2008. Effect of vermin compost andvermiwash on the productivity of spianch,onion and potato. Journal of Agriculturalsciences 4 (5) : 554-557.

Ansari, A. A and Kumar Sukhraj, 2010. Effect ofvermiwash and vermicompost on soilparameters and product ivity of okra(Abelmoschus esculentus) in Guyana. AfricanJournal of Agricultural Research 5 (14): 1794-1798.

Ganesh, R. 2004. Effect of bio stimulants onmaximizing the yield of Paprica. M.Sc. thesissubmitted to Tamil Nadu AgriculturalUniversity, Coimbatore.

Gorakhnath and Keshav Singh 2009. Utilization ofvermiwash potential on certain summervegetable crops. Journal of Central EuropeanAgriculture. 10 (4): 417-426.

Karuna, K., Patil C.R., Narayan Swamy, P and Kale,R.D. 1999. Stimulating effect of earthwormbody fluid (vermiwash) on crinkled red varietyof Anthurium Andreanum Lind. Crop Research.17(2) 253-257.

Meghvansi, M.K., Mohammed Haneef Khan, RajeevGupta, Gogai, M. K and Lokendra Singh(2012). Vegetative and yield attributes of okraand Naga chilli as affected by foliar sprays ofvermiwash on acidic soils. Journal of CropImprovement. 26 (4): 520-531.

Siva Subramanian, K and Ganesh Kumar, M. 2004.Influence of vermin wash on the biologicalproductivity of marigold. Madras AgriculturalJournal. 61 (4-6): 221-225.

Vennila, C and Jayanthi, C. 2008. Response of okrato integrated nutrient management. Journal ofSoils and Crops. 18 (1): 36-40.

Vennila, C and Jayanthi, C. 2010. Effect of inorganicnutrients and organic foliar spray on growthand yield of okra. Progressive Horticulture. 24(1):94-96.

51

EFFECT OF VERMIWASH ON YIELD ATTRIBUTING CHARACTERS, YIELD AND ECONOMICS

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT GROWTH REGULATORS (NAA, GA, CYCOCEL ANDETHREL) AND PINCHING ON GROWTH & FLOWERING OF AFRICAN MARIGOLD

(Tagetes erecta L.) CV PUSA NARANGI GAINDA IN DIFFERENTDATES OF PLANTING

R. RAJYALAKSHMI AND M. RAJASEKHARHorticultural Research Station, Dr. Y.S.R. Horticultural University,

Venkataramannagudem, West Godavari District – 534101


African marigold (Tagetes erecta L.) is apopular flower crop grown throughout India. It is hardyand quick growing plant. In the recent past, forcultivation of shrubs and annuals, use of growthregulating chemicals gained importance for variouspurposes. The chemicals help in controlling the plantheight, time of flowering & size of flower etc whenapplied at right time in proper concentration. The sizeof plant can be regulated with use of growthregulators, which are known as growth retardants.The reason for use of growth retardants is quiteobvious, as they play an important role in reducingthe inter nodal length by blocking synthesis ofgibberellins. The plant remains small, compact withdeeper green foliage and yields bigger size flowers.Time of planting also plays an important role forgetting higher yields and ensuring regular supply tothe market. Therefore, the present study wasundertaken to know the effect of different growthregulators (NAA, GA, Cycocel and Ethrel) andpinching on growth & flowering of African marigold(Tagetes erecta L.) Cv Pusa Narangi Gainda ondifferent dates of planting.

The experiment was carried out atHorticultural Research station, Dr. Y. S. R.Horticulture University, Venkataramannagudem,West Godavari district during the year 2010 and 2011.The experiment was laid out in Factorial RandomizedBlock Design with 18 treatments replicated thrice anduniform level of 100Kg N, 75 Kg P and 75Kg K/hawas applied.

Foliar application of NAA (100ppm), GA(300ppm), Ethrel (500ppm) & CCC (500ppm) spray& manual Pinching (cultural) were compared withcontrol under three dates in August, September and


October months. Other cultural practices viz.spraying, irrigation, weeding and hoeing were attendeduniformly. The unit plot size was 13.5sq.m. The plantswere spaced at 45 cm between the rows and 30 cmbetween the plants. There were a total of 100 plantsper plot. The treatments were imposed randomly toa unit plot in each replication and observations wererecorded on 5 plants randomly in each plot. 32 daysold seedlings of marigold (var:Pusa Naringi Gainda)were transplanted in the main field. Data was recordedon plant height, number of side shoots per plant,number of flowers per plant, flower diameter, flowerweight and yield per plant.

The growth and yield is measured in termsof plant height, number of side shoots per plant,number of flowers per plant, flower diameter, flowerweight and yield per plant. The observations recordedare given in Table 1&2 . The highest plant heightwas observed with GA 300ppm spray in all the threedates of planting, viz., 87 cm in August, 76.67 cm inSeptember and 55.33cm in October. The highestreduction in plant height was observed with 500 ppmCycocel spray (70.67 cm, 63.33cm & 40.93cmrespectively in August, September and October datesof planting) followed by ethrel spray at 500ppm (73.33cm, 69.57cm & 42.80 cm respectively) in all thethree dates of planting. Different growth retardantssuccessfully reduce the plant height as compared tocontrol since they act as growth regulators in a varietyof ways on natural growth mechanism of plant. Theyeither inhibit cell division or cell elongation and reduceplant height by acting in sub-apical system andconsequently the plant becomes dwarf as theinternodes fail to elongate. Similar findings were alsorecorded by Aswath et al. (1994) in China aster andKandelwal et al. (2003) in African marigold.

Research NotesThe J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 52-54, 2014

52

Dates of planting

Plant height (cm)

Side shoots

No. of flowers

Flower diameter

(cm)

Flower weight

(g) Yield per plant (kg)

Yield q/ha

August 76.94 13.80 34.17 4.00 2.15 71.68 59.49

September 71.11 11.88 36.03 3.98 2.13 78.42 65.09

October 46.23 10.60 13.72 3.65 3.16 42.01 34.87

F1 S Ed 2.50 0.36 1.01 0.12 0.08 2.84 2.36

CD at 5% 5.06 0.74 2.05 0.25 0.16 5.76 4.78

Table 1. Effect of different dates of planting on growth and yield of marigold

Table 2. Effect of growth regulators on growth and yield of marigold

Treatements

Plant height (cm)

Side shoots

No. of flowers

Flower diameter

Flower weight

(g)

Yield per plant (kg)

Yield q/ha

Control 65.38 10.36 23.55 3.95 2.07 53.85 44.70

Pinching 61.02 12.96 28.25 3.89 2.59 65.20 54.12

NAA 100 PPM 68.93 11.71 27.29 4.12 2.36 61.19 50.79

GA 300 PPM 73.00 11.36 26.60 4.01 2.31 59.42 49.32

Ethrel 500PPM 61.93 12.56 29.94 3.80 2.88 66.25 54.99

CCC 500PPM 58.31 13.62 32.20 3.50 2.67 78.30 64.99

F2 S Ed 3.53 0.52 1.43 0.17 0.11 4.02 3.34

CD at 5% 7.16 1.04 2.90 0.35 0.23 8.15 6.77

Significant increase in number of side shoots

was recorded due to application of growth retardantcycocel@500ppm (viz.,16.53, 12.67 & 11.67respectively in August, September and October datesof planting) which cuts of the basic petal flow of auxinand induce the sprouting of vegetative buds andenhance the production of more number of sideshoots thus in each plant. Similar results wereobtained by Gowda et al. (1990), Muradi et al. (2003)and Dutta et al. (1998).

The number of flowers, flower size and yieldwas also influenced by the application of growth

retardants. The maximum number of flowers per plantwas recorded with the application of 500 ppm Cycocelviz., 39.86, 41.30 & 15.45 flowers in August,September & October dates of planting respectively.The apparent reason for more number of flowers mightbe due to more number of branches. As the apicaldominance of the plant was suppressed, it allowedmore no.of branches to grow & result in increasednumber of flowers per plant. Similar results wereobtained by Narayana and Jayanti (1991) in Africanmarigold. The size of the flower in terms of diameterwas more with application of NAA 100ppm (4.22cm)

53

EFFECT OF DIFFERENT GROWTH REGULATORS (NAA, GA, CYCOCEL

REFERENCES

Aswath, S., Gowda, J.V.N and Murthy, G.M.A. 1994.Effect of growth retardants on growth,floweringand nutrient contents in China aster,(Callistephus chinesis L. Ness). Journal ofOrnamental Horticulture. 2(12):9-13

Dutta, J.I., Seemanthini Ramadas and Ramadas, S.1998. Growth and flowering response ofchrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora) togrowth regulator treatments. Orissa Journal ofHorticulture. 26(1):70-75.

Gowda, J.V.N., Kumar, K.P and Gowda, V.N. 1990.Effect of Cycocel and maleic hydrazine sprayon flowering and seasonal pattern of field inGundumalle (Jasmunum sanbac Ait). IndianPerfumer. 34(4):243-246.

Kandelwal, R.S., Jain, N.K and Singh, P.2003. Effectof growth retardants and pinching on growthand yield of African marigold (Tagetes erectaL.) Journal of Ornamental Horticulture.6(3):271-273.

Muradi, B.M., Kawarthe, V.J., Jave, R.N and Lall,S.R. 2003. Effect of plant growth regulatorson growth and flowering and flower quality ofMogra (Jasmunum sanbac Ait). OrissaJournal of Horticulture. 31(2):33-36.

Narayana, J.V and Jayanthi, R. 1991. Effect ofcycocel and maleic hydrazide on growth andflowering of African marigold (Tagetes erectaL.) Progressive Horticulture. 23(1&4):114-118.

in September date of planting, but the weight of theflower was more with application of ethrel 500ppm inOctober date of planting.

In all the dates of planting, maximum yieldswere recorded with spraying of cycocel 500ppm whichwas on par with ethrel 500ppm spray and significantlyhigher than the control (44.7 q/ha) due to productionof more no. of side shoots (16.53, 12.67 & 11.67)

and flowers per plant (39.86, 41.30 & 15.45) inAugust, September& October dates of plantingrespectively.

Based on the present study, it may beinferred that Cycocel spray at 500ppm,30 days aftertransplanting during the month of September in themain field, ultimately helps to get higher flower yieldwith quality flowers.

54

RAJYALAKSHMI AND RAJASEKHAR

As financial inclusion and poverty hasclose relation, particularly in rural areas, it is verycrucial to cover more people under financialinclusion as a first step towards eradicating poverty.Recently major advances in the area of financialinclusion in any typical Indian village was broughtby the world’s largest employment programme goingon in India i.e. Mahatma Gandhi National RuralEmployment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS). Itwas also considered as world’s largest financialinclusion programme as the beneficiaries of thisscheme were conditioned to open bank/post officeaccount to get their wages under the scheme.Hence, to ascertain its impact on financial inclusiona field study was carried out in Karimnagar andMedak district to estimate the extent of financialinclusion of small farmers and agricultural labourersand to study the levels of savings of sample farmersand agricultural labourers after financial inclusion.

For the present study two districtsKarimnagar and Medak in Andhra Pradesh wereselected purposively. From each district two areas

IMPACT OF ‘MGNREGS’ ON FINANCIAL INCLUSION OF THE RURAL POOR:A CASE STUDY

D. KUMARA SWAMY AND C.V.HANUMANTHAIAHDepartment of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture,

Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030


viz., two highest expenditure mandals and two lowestexpenditure mandals were identified based on theamount of money spent by the government onMGNREGS. From each selected district, 64 smallfarmers who own less than 5 acres of land and 64landless agricultural labourers were identified. Outof these, 32 were beneficiaries and 32 were nonbeneficiaries of MGNREGS. Thus, a total samplesize of 256 from two districts is selected.

Data regarding financial inclusion and savingsthereafter was collected from sample farmers andlabourers through interview method. This primarydata pertains to 2010-11 year. The data collectedthus was analyzed with the help of tabular analysis.

The post office and bank account holdingsof MGNREGS beneficiaries have been compared priorand post MGNREGS programme of the respondents(Table 1) and for non beneficiaries account holdingand non holding was estimated and analyzed(Table 2).

In highest expenditure mandals ofKarimnagar, 81.25 percent of farmers were holdingbank / post office accounts and also 62.5 per cent of

S.No

Group

Karimnagar Medak Highest

expenditure mandals

Lowest expenditure

mandals

Highest expenditure

mandals

Lowest expenditure

mandals Farmer Labour Farmer Labour Farmer Labour Farmer Labour

1 Before NREGS

13 (81.25)

10 (62.5)

15 (93.75)

7 (43.75)

15 (93.75)

9 (56.25)

14 (87.5)

8 (50)

2 After NREGS

3 (18.75)

6 (37.5)

1 (6.25)

9 (56.25)

1 (6.25)

7 (43.75)

2 (12.5)

8 (50)

Note: Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage to the total



55

Table 1. Bank/post office account holding details of MGNREGS Beneficiaries in Karimnagar andMedak districts

o

The nonbeneficiaries account holdingpattern (Table 2) indicated that in highest expendituremandals of Karimnagar 100 per cent of samplefarmers were holding accounts and in labourers 93.75per cent were holding bank or post office accountswhereas in lowest expenditure mandals 100 per centof farmers and 100 per cent of labourers were holdingeither bank or post office accounts. In Medak, 100per cent of farmers and 93.75 per cent of laborers inboth highest and lowest expenditure mandals werealready holding accounts. On an average more than94 per cent of the sample people availed account

holding facilities in the public institution. This maybe due to the reason that non beneficiaries may notbe depending on MGNREGS programme sources fortheir income.

The amount of savings with the beneficiariesas per the financial year ending statements of theaccount holders was presented in Table 3 which willbe useful to know the average saving levels of allthe beneficiaries in public financial institutes. Thisdata gives information about the savings made usingthe accounts maintained at public institutes.

labourers were already holding accounts whereas inlowest expenditure mandals 93.75 per cent of farmersand 43.75 per cent of labourers were already holdingbank / post office accounts before registering toMGNREGS. In Medak district, in highest expendituremandals 93.75 per cent of farmers and 56.25 percent of labourers were holding accounts prior toMGNREGS subscription and lowest expendituremandals 87.5 per cent of farmers and 50 per cent ofsample labourers were holding bank / post officeaccounts (Table 1). The data indicated that as thebeneficiaries were made to open either bank or postoffice accounts for the purpose of transfer of funds,after registering with MGNREGS 100 per cent ofbeneficiaries were holding either bank or post officeaccounts (Pattanaik and Lal 2011). The interestingfeature was that the agricultural labourers were more

in number who have opened the accounts postMGNREGS implementation. One can understandthat awareness might have been increased andaccess to public institutions was provided byMGNREGS. Thus, it can be concluded that theMGNREGS programme have provided an opportunityto the respondents (in particularly to the agriculturallabourers) to access to the organized publicinstitutions and driven them towards thrift habits(Akthar 2009), in addition to the financial benefits tothe MGNREGS beneficiaries.

When it comes to non beneficiaries, the totalper cent of people who were holding accountsvoluntarily in any public financial institute also revealsthe impact of MGNREGS on financial inclusion bycomparing beneficiaries and non beneficiaries.

Table 2. Bank/post office account holding details of Non-Beneficiaries in Karimnagar and Medakdistricts

S.No

Karimnagar Medak Highest

expenditure mandals

Lowest expenditure

mandals

Highest expenditure

mandals

Lowest expenditure

mandals Farmer Labour Farmer Labour Farmer Labour Farmer Labour

1 Bank/Post office account holder

16 (100)

15 (93.75)

16 (100)

16 (100)

16 (100)

15 (93.75)

16 (100)

15 (93.75)

2 Bank/Post office account non-holder

0 (0)

1 (6.25)

0 (0)

0 (0)

0 (0)

1 (6.25)

0 (0)

1 (6.25)

Note: Figures in parenthesis indicates percentage to the total

KUMARA SWAMY AND HANUMANTHAIAH

56

Table 3. Amount of savings (Rs as on 31.3.2011) in the savings bank account of MGNREGS beneficiaryaccount holders

From Table 3 it could be concluded that theextent of savings of MGNREGS beneficiaries wasvery high in case of farmers in highest expendituremandals of Medak district and very low levels ofsavings was seen with the labourers of highestexpenditure mandals of Medak district. Hence, it wasclear that, because of implementation of the scheme,there was a huge positive effect on financial inclusionparticularly on agricultural labourers. On an averagethe extent of savings using the accounts maintainedin public institutions was Rs. 4808.54 and 2221.48for farmers and labourers respectively during the year2010-11.

From the present study it was observed thatthere was a clear distinctive effect of MGNREGS onbeneficiaries and non beneficiaries in holding of bankaccounts. Though majority of beneficiaries were

holding accounts before registering with MGNREGS,again considerable amount of people openedaccounts only after subscribing to MGNREGSparticularly the agricultural labourers. When it comesto holding or non holding of accounts majority of thenon beneficiary farmers are holding bank/post officeaccounts voluntarily and few labourers were alsoholding accounts voluntarily but in a less proportionthan farmers. Saving money using the accountsmaintained at public institutes varied from place toplace and district to district, however it was confirmedthat farmers savings money is almost double thanthe agricultural labourers. From the present study itwas concluded that spreading the scheme vigorouslyto the land less agricultural labourers will help inincreasing financial inclusion and increasing savinglevels.

IMPACT OF ‘MGNREGS’ ON FINANCIAL INCLUSION OF THE RURAL POOR: A CASE STUDY

57

S.No

Group

Karimnagar Medak Highest expenditure mandals

Lowest expenditure mandals

Highest expenditure mandals

Lowest expenditure mandals

Farmer Labour Farmer Labour Farmer Labour Farmer Labour 1 Out

standing account balance as on 1.4.2010

2431.67 3211.69 8567.94 3194.68 7778.12 5928.07 5913.77 182.69

2 Out standing account balance as on 31.3.2011

8756.33 6490.12 8799.14 5632.8 17432.88 4664.64 8937.34 4615.5

3 Net saving 6324.66 3278.43 231.2 2438.12 9654.76 1263.43 3023.57 4432.81

REFERENCES

Akthar, Y. 2009. NREGA – case study. Kurukshetra.58(1):20.

Pattanaik, B.K and Lal, H. 2011. Mahatma GandhiNREGA and social audit system of villagepanchayats. Kurukshetra. 59(3):23-25.

Rapid and uncontrolled urbanization andexodus of human population from rural areas intocities is often associated with several anthropogenicproblems. Sewage is one of the important by productof such urbanization.The quantum of sewage wateris also so enormous that it cannot be ignored, butput to use for some purpose. Budwel is a small hamletin Hyderabad which is now in heart of city due totremendous growth of city in last decade. A sewagechannel (open) flows from the Budwel village carryingmostly domestic and partial industrial sewage. Thesewaste waters are used for crop production in andaround the village especially for production ofvegetable, rice and largely fodder crops. Informationis however lacking on crop suitability under the wastewater and fertilizer recommendation of crops whengrown under sewage. A field experiment wasconducted at Livestock Research Institute,Rajendranagar during kharif and rabi 2010-11 to studythe effect of waste waters on yield and quality ofvarious forage crops and uptake of micronutrientsand heavy metals. Mean data revealed that pH, EC,SAR, RSC, magnitude of ions, composition of heavymetals of Budwel sewage water was found within thesafe limits for irrigation while only Cr, Co, Ni and Cdwere found crossing the toxicity limits for irrigation.Textural class of soil was sandy loam, pH8.22, EC0.38dS m-1while available N, P and K were 117, 96and 458 kg ha-1, respectively. The micronutrients andheavy metal contents were 0.88, 3.39, 2.90, 14.63,1.09, 0.60, 0.15, 3.28 and 0.45 mg kg-1 with respectto available Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb and Cr.

The experiment was laid out in split-plotdesign with four forage crops as main treatments C1-Bajra Napier hybrid- (hybrid APBN-1), C2- Guinea

STUDIES ON EFFECT OF SEWAGE WATERS ON PRODUCTION ANDQUALITY OF VARIOUS FORAGE CROPS UNDER DIFFERENT NITROGEN

LEVELS

B.SRINIVAS, M.SHANTI, V. CHANDRIKA AND P.SURENDRABABUAICRP on Forage Crops, ARI, Acharya NGR Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad -500 030



grass (var.COGG-3), C3- Para grass (localcollection), C4- Perennial lucerne (var.CO-1)and fivenutrient levels (N1- Control ( No NPK), N2- 25% ofRDF, N3- 50% of RDF, N4- 75% of RDF and N5- 100% RDF) as sub treatments.

Two budded stem cuttings (slips) of APBN-1 and rooted slips of guinea grass (COGG-3) andpara grass were planted at 50 x 50 cm distance duringAugust. Lucerne (CO-1) seed was sown duringOctober at 30 x 10 cm. Entire P2O5 and K2O wasgiven as basal application and nitrogen was appliedin two splits i.e., 50% basal and the remaining 50%as topdressing 30 days after planting/sowing. Topdressing of 20 kg N ha-1 was given through urea afterevery cut as per the treatments. Soil samples werecollected initially before the experiment and after oneyear study, while plant samples were collected ateach cut. During the experimental period, four cuttingswere taken and the green fodder yield was recordedand expressed as t ha-1.

The plant samples collected for theestimation of dry matter percentage and other qualityparameters. Plant samples were dried in the oven at70O C and ground in a willy mill using 1 mm screen.The crude protein content was estimated by microkjeldhal method (Piper, 1966), crude fibre by AOAC(1990) method, micro nutrients viz., Fe, Cu, Mn andZn by using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer(AAS) (Lindsay and Norwell, 1978).

The study indicated that paragrass recordedhighest total yield of 149.4 t ha-1 followed by COGG-3(100.4 t ha-1), APBN-1 (99.53 t ha-1) and lucerne(45.4 t ha-1). The performance of APBN-1, COGG-3was similar. The variation in the biomass yield


58

potential of the fodder crops indicates that para grasshas highest potential and lucerne, the least. Differentlevels of N, P and K supplied to fodder crops indicatedthat the green fodder yield (GFY) was found toincrease in each cut with increasing levels offertilizers. In general the fodder yield obtained in eachcut at 75% NPK was found to on par with that of100% NPK. However, when total GFY was analysed,it was found that the supply of 100% recommendeddose of NPK was best to obtain highest GFY yieldsof 109.92 t ha-1, which was significantly higher thanthat of 75% NPK treatment.

The selected perennial fodder crops beinghighly productive in nature, might require respectiverecommended doses of NPK on a continuous basisthough sewage water used in the investigation couldsupply small quantities of N, P and K. Nanjundappaet al.,(2002) also reported highest GFY in bajra napierhybrids over that of guinea grass under sewageirrigation. These increases in GFY are in conformitywith the results reported by Amir et al., (2011) andEl-Sawaf (2003), Guerra (2006). Al-Karaki (2011) alsoinvestigated the effect of irrigation with tertiarysewage treated water on barley and showed effectiveincrease in the yields of green fodder.

The dry fodder yields (total of all cuts) indicatethe superiority of para with 23.12 t ha-1 of dry fodderyields (DFY) followed by APBN-1 and guinea whichwere on par with each other (Table 1). Lucerne hadproduced 5.45 t ha-1, which is significantly lowestamong all crops. A close perusal of data indicatethat dry matter conversion was highest in APBN-1i.e., 20% while it decreased to 18, 15 and 12 % in

guinea, para and lucerne, respectively. Thus, the dry

matter obtained from all crops reflected its moisture

content in conversion from green fodder yield. The

different doses of NPK expressed significant

differences with 100% NPK recording highest DFY.

The DFY obtained at N0 and N1 and similarly N2 and

N3 were on par with each other, respectively.

The fodder quality is primarily determined by

the crude protein (CP) content. The crude protein

content of the four forage crops varied significantly

due to their genetic variation and remained consistent.The crude protein content of lucerne was significantlyhighest recording 27.22 % (Table1). Lucerne has thepotential to accumulate high protein in all parts ofplant viz; leaves/stems and seed. The CP% of APBN-1 stands next to lucerne with 9.60 %. Guinea grasshas exhibited almost consistent CP of 7.36% overthe four cuts studied. The average crude protein ofthe grasses was in the following order, bajra napierhybrid > para grass > guinea grass. These resultsare in conformity with those reported by Guerra (2006)and Amir et al., (2011). The effect of different dosesof NPK on all the crops was however found notsignificant.

The crude fiber (CF) content is anotherimportant quality parameter of fodder crops. Amonggrasses the crude fiber content of para grass wasfound to be lowest (20.38%). Lucerne recorded verylow fiber i.e. 9.22 to 10.93% only. The mean crudefiber per cent of bajra napier hybrid and guinea grassis significantly higher than that of para grass andlucerne. The effects of varied nutrient doses of NPKhowever did not show any significant effect on CF%in any of the crops/cuts. Nevertheless the effect ofsewage irrigation was not observed on CF content.Earlier studies also proved that using tertiary treatedsewage water for irrigating barley did not affect thecrude fiber , NDF, ADF, or fat of the fodder (Ajmi etal., 2009).

The total uptake of Zn over all the cuts variedsignificantly with crops. The high Zn uptake by paragrass during the one year of study though the Znconcentration was only 1.20 mg kg-1 could be due toits higher GFY. The crop APBN-1 which had recordedhighest Zn content in its tissues had eventuallyrecorded highest Zn uptake. The Fe uptake by paragrass was significantly higher over all other cropsrecording 1956.6 g ha -1 during the one year of study.The order of Fe uptake was as follows: para > APBN-1 > guinea > lucerne and they were all significantlydifferent from each other. The Fe uptake was highestin 75% recommended dose, while this was also onpar with 100% recommended dose of NPK, while allother treatments were on par with each other.

59

STUDIES ON EFFECT OF SEWAGE WATERS

Table1 .Green fodder, dry fodder yields and protein and fibre percent of four forage crops as influencedby sewage waters and N levels (Pooled data over four cuts)

Treatment

GFY (t ha-1) DMY(t ha-1) CP(%) CF (%)

Main plots-Forage crops C1 (APBN-1) 99.53 19.91 9.60 26.39 C2 (GG-3) 100.4 18.00 7.36 28.17 C3 (Para) 149.4 23.12 9.11 20.38 C4(Lucerne) 45.4 5.45 27.22 9.90 S E m + 97.68 15.87 1.02 21.21 CD(0.05) 2.88 1.08 3.46 0.88 CV % 9.96 3.24 18.90 2.20 Sub plots- nutrient levels N1(0% of N, P,K) 87.82 14.27 13.64 20.85 N1(25% of N, P,K) 92.92 15.10 13.26 21.02 N2(50% of N, P,K) 97.75 15.88 13.17 21.33 N3(75% of N, P,K) 100.1 16.27 12.97 21.86 N4(100% of N, P,K) 109.92 17.86 13.56 20.98 Mean 97.70 15.88 13.3 20.21 S E m + 2.63 0.43 0.88 0.92 CD at 5 % 7.56 1.23 NS NS CV % 6.6 10.4 20.82 12.6 C x N NS NS NS NS

Table 2. Uptake of micronutrients (g ha-1) as influenced by sewage water irrigation and graded levelsof fertilizer

Treatment Zn Fe Cu Mn

Main plots- forage crops C1 (APBN-1) 29.67 1512.2 77.45 383.27

C2(GG-3) 19.26 1415.7 86.76 402.12

C3(Para) 27.74 1956.6 122.3 1104.9

C4(Lucerne) 6.81 512.5 26.54 131.24

Mean 20.87 1349.2 78.26 505.38

SEM 0.8 18.72 3.0 5.6

CD at 5 % 2.96 59.61 10.2 17.8

CV 14.45 14.52 17.51 8.10

Sub plots nutrient levels N0(0% of N, P,K) 18.69 1153.6 68.64 404.84

N1(25% of N, P,K) 18.72 1336.2 70.52 425.97

N2(50% of N, P,K) 20.64 1248.0 72.73 438.76

N3(75% of N, P,K) 20.34 1554.6 76.96 472.81

N4(100% of N, P,K) 24.29 1539.7 84.84 509.90

SEM 0.96 83 2.7 11.8

CD at 5 % 3.42 305 8.8 34.6

CV 10.64 14.98 12.21 12.13

CXN NS NS NS NS

SRINIVAS et.al

60

at 5%

Table 3. Uptake of heavy metals (g ha -1) as influenced by sewage water and graded levels of fertilizer

Treatment Co Ni Cd Pb Cr Main plots- forage crops C1 (APBN-1) 13.94 9.76 24.29 61.52 59.33 C2(GG-3) 12.60 27.36 12.42 47.88 129.24 C3(Para) 20.11 35.37 10.87 63.58 114.44 C4(Lucerne) 3.98 9.32 4.25 12.81 23.76 Mean 12.66 20.45 12.96 46.45 77.29 SEM 0.40 1.32 1.74 0.82 3.11 CD at 5 % 1.41 4.68 3.73 2.64 9.70 CV 14.80 15.42 15.87 13.65 13.05 Sub plots nutrient levels N0(0% of N, P,K) 10.70 20.55 12.70 39.96 70.35 N1(25% of N, P,K) 11.48 22.65 13.44 40.92 72.48 N2(50% of N, P,K) 11.75 22.64 13.97 42.56 77.49 N3(75% of N, P,K) 12.37 21.64 14.48 45.39 76.47 N4(100% of N, P,K) 13.57 24.11 15.90 49.29 89.12 SEM 0.40 1.14 0.62 0.96 2.46 CD at 5 % 1.22 3.20 1.82 NS 7.92 CV 12.85 19.22 15.03 21.8 14.38 CXN NS NS NS NS NS

STUDIES ON EFFECT OF SEWAGE WATERS

61

Highest crop removal of Cu was observed inpara grass (122.3 g ha-1) which is 57.9 % more thanthat of APBN-1, 40.9 %, more than guinea and 360%that of lucerne. Supply of 25%, 50% and 75% ofrecommended doses and absolute control differedsignificantly. The 100% recommended dose of NPKrecorded significantly highest (84.84 g ha-1) Cuuptake. The Mn uptake by para was 1104.9 g ha-1

which is 2 times more than that of APBN-1 and guineagrass. This implies that Mn concentration of parawas significantly highest among all the crops. Thedifferent doses of NPK viz; 0%, 25% and 50% wereall on par with each other while the 100 % RDFrecorded highest Mn uptake of 509.9 kg ha-1 yr-1

(Table 2).

Experimental crops differed significantly witheach other regarding the cobalt (Co) uptake. The Couptake of para (20.11 g ha-1) was significantlysuperior to all the crops, while bajranapier and guineawere on par in this regard. It was observed that theCo uptake of para grass was 405 % more than thatof the lucerne. This also indicates the affinity of thecrop towards Co. Highest Ni uptake of 35.37 g ha-1

was observed in para grass; guinea grass ranked 2nd

(27.36 g ha-1). Significantly highest total Cd uptakeof 24.29 g ha-1 was observed in APBN-1 which also

showed highest Cd concentration in its tissue (1.22mg kg-1). Other grass crops viz; guinea, para andlucerne recorded 12.42, 10.87 and 4.25 g ha-1 of Cauptake. The Cd uptake in APBN-1 is almost doubleto that of para. High uptake values of Cd in APBN-1which could be due to its inherent geneticcharacteristic. The total Pb uptake ranged between12.81 g ha-1 (lucerne) to 63.58 g ha-1 (para grass).The total Cr uptake in crops studied varied between23.76 and 129.24 g ha-1 over all the cuts. However,guinea recorded significantly highest Cr uptake of129.24 g ha-1. The 100% recommended dose of NPKrecorded highest Co, Ni, Pb and Cr uptake, whilerest of all the sub treatments were on par.

In general, the micronutrient and heavymetals uptake indicate significant differences withinthe crops and among NPK levels. However, the uptakeof Fe and Mn alone crossed more than 1 kg ha-1 ofcrop removal in all the grass species. Amongmicronutrients the total uptake values followed theorder Fe > Mn > Cu > Zn and heavy metals followedthe order Cr > Pb > Ni > Cd = Co.

The micronutrients and heavy metal uptake donot seem to pose any immediate threat, owing tosafer concentrations of the respective nutrients inplant tissue. However, the concentration and uptake

SRINIVAS et.al

62

of nutrients may tend to vary with continuous sewageirrigation. El-Sawaf (2003), Datta et al., (2000),Malarvizhi and Rajmannar (2001), Galavi (2003) andLone et al., (2003) also expressed similar opinion.

Para grass can be profitably grown withwaste water irrigation with 100% RDF, as crop

REFERENCES

AOAC.1990.Official Method of analysis.15 th Edition.Association of Official Analytical Chemists,Washington DC, USA.

Ajmi, A., Salih, Kadim, A. A and Othman, Y. 2009.Yield and water use efficiency of barley fodderproduced under hydroponic system in GCCcountries using tertiary treated sewageeffluents. Journal of Phytology.1(5):342-348.

Al-Karaki, G. N. 2011. Utilization of treated sewagewaste water for green forage production in ahydroponic system. Emirates Journal of Foodand Agriculture.23(1):80-94.

Amir, A. Salih and Kadim, A. A. 2011. Quantitaveand Qualitative characteristics of foxtail milletusing sewage water. Journal ofPhytology.1(5):372-381.

Datta, S.P., Biswas D.R., Saharan, N., Ghosh S.Kand Rattan,R.K.2000. Effect of Long – termapplication of sewage effluents on organiccarbon, bioavailable phosphorus, potassiumand heavy metal status of soils and contentof heavy metals in crops grown thereon.Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science.48(4): 836-839.

El-Sawaf, N.2003.Response of Sorghum speciesto sewage waste-water irrigation. InternationalJournal of Agriculture and Biology 7(6):869-874.

removal of NPK will be very high due to theirperennial nature. The forages grown under Budwelsewage water do not pose any immediate problembut eventually may lead to heavy metal accumulationup to toxic concentration in crops if irrigated for fewyears.

Galavi, M.2003.Effects of treated municipalwastewater on Soil chemical Properties andheavy metal uptake by Sorghum.Journal ofAgricultural Science 2&3:693-699.

Guerra, J.P.2006. Forage and seed yield and qualityof blue grama under biosolids application in asemiarid rangeland in Jalisco. Technical cattlein Mexico.44( 3): 289-300.

Lindsay, W.L and Norwell, W.A. (1978). Soil ScienceSociety of America Journal.42:421.

Lone, M. I., Saleem, S., Mahmood, T., Saifullah, Kand Hussain, G.2003.Heavy metal contentsof vegetables irrigated by sewage/ tube wellwater. International Journal of Agriculture andBiology 24(2): 187-192.

Malarvizhi, P and Rajamannar, A.2001.Efficientutilization of sewage water for improving theforage yield and quality of bajra – naper hybridgrass. Madras Agricultural Journal. 88 (7-9):477 – 482.

Nanjudappa,G., Reddy, V.C and Yogananda,S.B.2002.Performance of Fodder grassesgrown on sewage water. Mysore Journal ofAgricultural Sciences 36: 254-256.

Piper, C. S. 1966. Soil and Plant Analysis.Interscience Publishers. pp: 147-152.



Feedback is an integral part of effectiveagricultural communication. Without proper feedbackfrom the end users of the technologies the agriculturaltechnology management becomes incomplete. InAndhra Pradesh, cooperation between theDepartment of Agriculture (DOA) and the StateAgricultural University(SAU) was enforced throughthe operation of a District Agricultural AdvisoryTechnology Centre (DAATTC) in all districts besidescollaborating through ATMA. These centres weresupposed to refine technology, make diagnostic visits,and organize field programs The feedbackmechanism should be used at all levels in researchand extension organizations to rethink on the issuesraised by the clientele (the farmer) through extensionpersonnel. The possible refinement and modificationscould be done by the research scientist leading tohigher adopt ion and faster diffusion of thetechnologies. Thus the feedback through effectivefeedback mechanism increases the functional linkagebetween the clientele, technologies and thedevelopment agencies.

Ex-post facto research design was adoptedfor conducting the study. The study was conductedin Krishna Zone of Andhra Pradesh. The zone andthe districts were selected randomly. The respondentsselected were research scientists, extensionpersonnel of Krishna Zone (comprising of Krishna,Guntur and Prakasam districts), and farmers (of oneof the districts of Krishna Zone) forty eachrespectively and thus a total of 120 respondentsconstituted the sample for the study.

The relationship between the scores ofdependent and independent variables wasadministered using the suitable statistical tools andformula is

A STUDY ON FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EXTENT OF PARTICIPATION BYRESPONDENTS IN FEEDBACK MECHANISM IN AGRICULTURAL

TECHNOLOGY MANAGEMENTCh. LAKSHMI PRASANNA, V. SUDHA RANI AND R. VASANTHA

Department of Agricultural Extension, Acharya N G. Ranga Agricultural University,College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500030


63

∑xy – (∑x) (∑y) n

r = ∑x2¬(∑x)2∑y2-(∑y)2 n

Where r = Co-efficient of correlation between

x and y

∑x = Sum of scores of variable x

∑y = Sum of scores of variable

∑x2 = Sum of squares of variable x

∑y2 = Sum of squares of scores of variable y

(∑x)2 = Square of sum of variable x

(∑y)2 = Square of sum of variable y

∑xy = Sum of product of variable x and y

n = Size of sample

The computed correlation coefficientsbetween factors influencing the extent of participationand utilisation were presented in Table 1. Thecorrelation coefficients of 21 variables for researchscientists and extension personnel and 22 variablesfor farmers with dependent variable were presented.

Results of correlation analysis revealed thatthe variables such as education, extension teachingmethods, communication media used, level ofinteraction in which education is negatively significantand extension teaching methods, communicationmedia used, level of interaction were positively,significantly related at 0.01 level of probability withextent of participation in feedback mechanism byresearch scientists and variables like socio-politicalparticipation, reporting, extension service orientation

Table 1. Relationship between the selected independent variables and participation in feedbackmechanism by research scientists, extension personnel and farmers.

n=120

*-Significant at 5% level of probability. **-Significant at 1% level of probability

LAKSHM et al.

64

were significant at 0.05 level of probability were

positively significant with extent of participation in

feedback mechanism by research scientists. Theresult regarding variable level of interaction was in

accordance to Sarada (2004).

Whereas for extension personnel theanalysis revealed that the variables like extension

teaching methods was significant at 0.01 level of

probability and reporting was significant at 0.05 levelof probability with extent of participation by extension

personnel in feedback mechanism. The results were

not in accordance to Sarada (2004) and Jahagirdharand Balasubramanyam (2008).

While for farmers, the variables viz.,education, experience, training received, reporting,participation behavior in group, extension teachingmethods, communication media used were positivelysignificant at 0.01 level of probability. And farm size,ability to give feedback, level of interactionwerepositively significant at 0.05 level of probability withextent of participation in feedback mechanism byfarmers. The results regarding variable i.e. level ofinteraction was in accordance to Sarada (2004).

S.No. Profile characteristics Extent of participation in feedback mechanism

Research scientist (n=40)

Extension personnel (n=40)

Farmer (n=40)

1 Age -0.115 -0.032 -0.295

2 Education -0.427** -0.100 0.499**

3 Experience -0.194 -0.02 0.430**

4 Training received -0.200 0.020 0.4800**

5 Extension contact 0.185 0.230 0.146

6 Farm size - - 0.353*

7 Sociopolitical 0.316* 0.097 -0.023

8 Time -0.090 0.139 0.209

9 Access to get/give 0.212 0.128 0.225

10 Feedback during crisis 0.046 0.140 0.252

11 Reporting 0.331* 0.331* 0.440**

12 Transporting facilities -0.070 -0.057 0.071

13 Job commitment 0.013 0.077 0.020

14 Role awareness 0.210 0.039 0.281

15 Motivation -0.0005 0.169 -0.098

16 Personality type -0.009 -0.182 0.221

17 Extension service 0.352* 0.109 0.186

18 Participation behavior in group 0.071 0.011 0.670**

19 Extension teaching 0.653** 0.573** 0.969**

20 Communication media 0.401** 0.073 0.602**

21 Ability to give feedback -0.109 0.017 0.371**

22 Level of interaction 0.531* 0.276 0.331*

A STUDY ON FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EXTENT OF PARTICIPATION BY RESPONDENTS

65

With regard to research scientists educationis negatively significant and extension teachingmethods, communication media used, level ofinteraction, socio-political participation, reporting,extension service orientation were positivelysignificant with their extent of participation infeedback mechanism. For negative and significantrelation of education the reason might be that thoughalmost all the scientist possessed doctoral degreesthey might be indulging in conducting research, trailsat the research station rather than participating inactivities related to giving/getting feedback. Withincreased levels of extension teaching methods,communication media used, level of interaction,socio-political participation, reporting, extensionservice orientation the extent of their participationwould be definitely improved.

There was positive significant relationobserved between reporting and participation infeedback mechanism of research scientist, extensionpersonnel and farmer. The reason for this might bethe ultimate aim of reporting is feedback getting/giving i.e. reporting is a form of feedback mechanism.

In case of extension scientists only‘reporting and use of extension teaching methods’had shown the positive significant association. Thereason for this might be that main job of extension

personnel is to act like a bridge or link betweenresearcher and farmer through reporting andconstantly using different extension teachingmethods. While for farmers, the variables namelyeducation, experience, training received, reporting,participation behavior in group, extension teachingmethods, communication media used, farm size,ability to give feedback, level of interaction werepositively and significantly associated with theirextent of participation in feedback mechanism. Theprobable reason for this might be with increase intheir age, experience, big farm size, goodcommunication skills they get exposed and getopportunity participate in different extension activitieswhich they can also use as platform to give andreceive feedback thus their extent of participation infeedback mechanism will be more.

From the study it was evident that variables‘reporting and use of extension teaching methods’were having significant association with the extentof participation and this can further be improved byoffering trainings on giving feedback and byinvolvement of the stakeholders in different extensionactivities.The present study is useful to policy makersand administrators in bringing about desirable changesin the existing Agricultural Technology Managementfor effective utilization of feedback and transfer oftechnology to the ultimate users..

REFERENCES

Jahagirdhar, K.A and Balasubramanya, A.S. 2008.A study on feedback behavior of extensionpersonnel of Karnataka State Department ofAgriculture, Karnataka Journal of AgriculturalSciences. 21(1):89-91.

Sarada, O. 2004. Perception on communication andfeedback effectiveness among Researchers,Extensionists and Farmers. Ph.D Thesis,submitted to Acharya N.G. Ranga AgriculturalUniversity, Hyderabad, India.



COSTS, RETURNS AND MARKETING OF CORIANDER IN KOTA DISTRICT OFRAJASTHAN

BHIM SINGH, SEEMA AND ALDAS JANAIAHSchool of Agri-Business Management, College of Agriculture,

Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad – 500 030

In India coriander is cultivated over an areaof 5.30 lakh hectares with the production of 5.62 lakhtones and productivity of 943 kg/ha. The main statescultivating coriander are Rajasthan, Gujarat, AndhraPradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu andKarnataka. Rajasthan contributes around 62.15 percent of the national production. The area undercoriander in Rajasthan was 262.83 thousand hectares(46.76 percent) with the production of 329.40 (62.15per cent) tonnes in 2011-12. Kota district aloneaccounted for 57.75 (21.91 per cent) thousand hectareof area and a production of 83.38 thousand tonnes(25.31 per cent) in 2011-12. The average yield ofcoriander per hectare in Kota district was 14.44quintals per hectare. The cost of cultivation and thereturns from it will help in knowing about theprofitability of the enterprise. The involvement oflarge number of marketing intermediaries increasethe marketing cost and producer’s get less share inconsumer rupee. The study examined variouseconomic aspects of coriander such as cost ofcultivation, returns, price spread, producer’s sharein consumer’s rupee, marketing cost and margins,marketing channel involved.

Purposive sampling based on the highestarea was adopted in selection of the district, tehsilsand villages. Random sampling was adopted inselecting the farmers and market intermediaries. Thethree tehsils selected were Ladpura, Ramgangmandiand Sangod. From each tehsil, four villages and fromeach village, 10 farmers were selected making a totalsample of 120 farmers. Similarly 10 commissionagents, 10 wholesalers and 10 retailers wererandomly selected. The data was collected with the

help of pretested interview schedules for theagriculture year 2011-12. Simple tabular analysis wasdone for analysis of data collected to draw theinferences in accordance with the objectives.

Cost A1 included value of hired human labour,value of owned and hired machine labour., value ofseeds, value of manures, fertilizers, insecticides andpesticides, irrigation charges, depreciation, landrevenue, interest on working capital, miscellaneousexpenses.

Cost A2: Cost A1 + rent paid for leased in-land.

Cost B1: Cost A1 + interest on fixed capital assets(excluding land)

Cost B2: Cost B1 + rental value of owned land +rent paid for leased-in land.

Cost C1: Cost B1 + imputed value of family labour.

Cost C2: Cost B2 + imputed value of family labour.

Cost C3: Cost C2 + 10 per cent of cost C2 asmanagement cost.

Cost of cultivation/haCost of Production = —————————————

Quantity of main product/ha

Following income measures were used towork out the profitability of coriander cultivation inthe study area.

1. Gross income: Value of output (both main andby product) evaluated at harvest prices.

GI = QM x Pm + Qb x Pb


66

QM = Quantity of main product

Pm = Price of main product

Qb = Quantity of by-product

Pb = Price of by-product

2. Farm Business income: Gross income – CostA1

3. Family labour income: Gross income – Cost B2

4. Net income: Gross income – Cost C2

The total cost incurred on marketing, in cashor in kind, by the producer-seller and by variousintermediaries involved in the sale and purchase ofthe commodity till the commodity reaches the ultimateconsumer was computed as follows.

C = Cf + Cm1 + Cm2 + Cm3 + …………………Cmn

Where,

C = Total cost of marketing of the commodity

Cf = Cost paid by the producer from the time, theproduce leaves the farm till sale.

Cmn = Cost incurred by the nth middleman in theprocess of buying and selling the product.

It is the price received by the producer as apercentage in the consumer’s price.

If (Pc) is a consumer’s price and (Pf) is the producer’sprice then the producer’s share in consumer’s rupee(PS) may be expressed as follows.

PS = (Pf/PC) X 100

This is the difference between the totalpayments (cost + purchase price) and receipts (saleprice) of the middleman (ith agency).

a) Absolute margin of the ith middleman (Ami)

(Ami) = PRi – (Ppi + Cmi)

b) Percentage margin of the ith middlemen (Pmi)

Pri – (Ppi + Cmi)

Pmi = ———————————— x 100

Pri

Where,

Pri = Total value of receipts per unit table (saleprice)

Ppi = Purchase value of goods per unit (purchaseprice)

Cmi = Cost incurred on marketing per unit

It is the difference between the price paid bythe consumer and the price received by the producer.The price spread was worked out by using followingmethod

Price Spread = Pp – Pf

Where,

Pp = Price paid by the consumer

Pf = Price received by the farmer

The cost of cultivation is worked out basedon the cost concepts. It is clearly seen from the Table1 & 2 that the cost C3 i.e., the total cost of cultivationof marginal, small, large and overall farms are in theorder of Rs 45,652, Rs 50,624, Rs 52,664 and Rs49,646 respectively indicating increase in the costwith increase in the size of the farm. The cost A1

which includes the values of variable inputs like seed,fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, human labour etcalso showed direct proportionality with farm size with36.19%, 38.85%, and 45.38% of the total cost. Higherinvestment on hired human labour, machinery labour,irrigation etc has contributed to increased cost A1 forlarge farms. Since all the sampled farmers werecultivating their own land, therefore cost A1 and costA2 remained the same. Cost B1 which includes theinterest on fixed capital assets excluding land wassimilar on all the farm sizes with Rs 901.95 on overallfarms. The cost B1 for marginal, small and large farmswas Rs 17,419, Rs 20,568 and Rs 24,799respectively. Cost B2 was Rs 39,295 for marginalfarms, Rs 42443 for small and Rs 46,674 for largefarms. The imputed value of family labour was higheston small farms (Rs 3,578) followed by marginal farms(Rs 2207) and large farms (Rs 1202). The cost C1

accounted to Rs 19,626, Rs 24,146 and Rs 26,001respectively for marginal, small and large farms.Similarly, cost C2 was Rs 41,502, Rs 46,021 and Rs47,876 in the same order. The cost C3 was in the

67

COSTS, RETURNS AND MARKETING OF CORIANDER IN KOTA DISTRICT OF RAJASTHAN

BHIM SINGH et al.

order of Rs 45,652, Rs 50,624 and Rs 52,604indicating a direct relationship with increase in thefarm size.

It is evident from Table 3 that the overallcost of production per quintal of coriander was Rs.4193. The cost of production per quintal was higheston large farms i.e. Rs. 4579.51 per quintal followedby small and marginal farms i.e. Rs. 3717.61 andRs. 4319.46 per quintal respectively. This indicatesthat marginal farms are efficient as compared to smalland large farms.

Table 3 also reveals that on the overall basis,average productivity of coriander was 11.84 quintalsper hectare. The yield was highest (12.28 quintals)in the case of marginal farms, followed by small farms(11.72 quintals) and large farms (11.50 quintals) whichindicated that as the size of holding increased, theproductivity of coriander decreased. ( Hasan etal.,2010 )

It is also evident from Table 3 that overallaverage gross income per hectare of coriandercultivation was Rs. 75266 on overall sample farms.Among different size of farms, it was Rs. 77182,Rs. 74669 and Rs. 73316.52 on marginal, small andlarge farms, respectively. The gross income washighest on marginal farms as compared to small andlarge farms. For overall farms the net income fromcoriander cultivation was Rs. 25619 per hectare.Among different size groups, it ranged between Rs.20652 per hectare on large farms to Rs. 31529.94per hectare on marginal farms.

The average CB ratio in coriander cultivationwas 1:1.66. It is 1:1.59 in the case of marginalfarmers, and 1:1.68 for small and 1:1.72 for largefarmers. ( Bera and Moktan, 2006 )

On an average, the farm business incomefrom coriander cultivation was Rs. 55238.81. In thecase of marginal farmers, farm business income washighest (Rs. 60662.70) followed by small and largefarmers with Rs. 55003 and Rs. 49420.79respectively. The family labour income per hectareof coriander cultivation varied from Rs. 26641.91 onlarge farms to Rs. 37887 on small farms. On an overall

basis, family labour income worked out to be Rs.32461.66 per hectare.

Four channels were identified in coriander marketingin the study area

Channel I Producer – Commission agent –Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer

Channel II Producer – Commission agent cum

wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer

Channel III Producer – Retailer – Consumer

Channel IV Producer – Consumer

Among these channels, 80 per cent quantity

of coriander moved through channel- I, 18.62 per centthrough channel – II, 1.25 per cent through channel –

III and 0.13 per cent quantity moved through channel– IV. ( Singh and Singh, 1999)

Marketing Costs, Margins and PriceSpread in Channel – I Table 4 indicates that the

producer received the price of Rs. 6343.88 per quintalwhich is 83.28 percent of the consumer’s rupee. The

cost incurred by the producer includes, transportation,

loading, unloading, weighment, cost of gunny bag,value of quantity lost and miscellaneous charges.

All these costs together accounted to Rs. 141.28per quintal which is 1.85 per cent of consumer’s

rupee. The price at which the producer sold to thewholesaler is Rs. 6485. The cost incurred by the

wholesaler is Rs. 574 which accounted for 7.53 per

cent of consumer rupee. This included transportation,VAT, commission charges, loading, unloading,

weighment, cost of gunny bag, value of quantity lost,cleaning, grading and miscellaneous charges. The

produce is sold to the retailer at Rs. 7363 per quintal

leaving a profit margin of Rs. 303 which is 3.98 percent of consumer’s rupee. The retailer expenditure

accounted to Rs. 95.85 per quintal which includestransportation, loading, unloading, weighment, value

of quantity lost, cleaning and miscellaneous charges.The retailer sold to the consumer at Rs. 7616.72 and

received a margin of Rs. 157.56 which is 2.068 percent of the consumer’s rupee. The price spread in

68

Sl. No.

Particulars Size of Farms Marginal Small Large Overall

1 Value of Hired Human Labour 2320.50 (5.08)

3863.85 (7.63)

6847.95 (13.0)

4344.10 (8.75)

2 Value of Owned/Hired Machine Labour 4756.60 (10.42)

5027.80 (9.93)

5527.81 (10.50)

5104.07 (10.28)

3 Value of Seeds 1557.50 (3.41)

1652.40 (3.26)

1672.80 (3.18)

1627.60 (3.28)

4 Value of Manures and Fertilizers 2543.70 (5.57)

2662.50 (5.26)

2786.20 (5.29)

2664.13 (5.36)

5 Value of Pesticides 1968.75 (4.31)

2250.60 (4.45)

2343.75 (4.45)

2187.70 (4.40)

6 Irrigation Charges 1281.25 (2.81)

1540.16 (3.04)

1625.72 (3.08)

1482.38 (2.99)

7 Land Revenue 21.57 (0.05)

23.05 (0.05)

23.75(0.05) 22.79 (0.05)

8 Depreciation 537.50 (1.18)

579.40 (1.15)

621.52 (1.18)

579.47 (1.17)

9 Miscellaneous 463.50 (1.02)

734.60 (1.45)

982.50 (1.87)

726.87 (1.46)

10 Interest on Working Capital 1068.68 (2.34)

1331.89 (2.63)

1463.73 (2.78)

1288.10 (2.60)

Cost A1 (Item 1 to 10) 16519.55 (36.19)

19666.25 (38.85)

23895.73 (45.38)

20027.21 (40.34)

11 Rent paid for Leased in Land - - - - Cost A2 (Cost A1 + Item 11) 16519.55

(36.19) 19666.25 (38.85)

23895.73 (45.38)

20027.21 (40.34)

12 Interest on Fixed Capital assets excluding land

900.25 (1.97)

901.93 (1.78)

903.68 (1.72)

901.95 (1.82)

Cost B1 (Cost A1 + Item 12) 17419.80 (38.16)

20568.18 (40.63)

24799.41 (47.09)

20929.16 (42.16)

13 Rental Value of owned Land 21875.20 (47.92)

21875.20 (43.21)

21875.20 (41.54)

21875.20 (44.06)

Cost B2 (Cost B1 + Item 13) 39295.00 (86.07)

42443.38 (83.84)

46674.61 (88.63)

42804.36 (86.22)

14 Imputed value of Family Labour 2207.10 (4.83)

3578.55 (7.07)

1202.10 (2.28)

2329.25 (4.69)

Cost C1 (Cost B1 + Item 14) 19626.90 (42.99)

24146.73 (47.70)

26001.51 (49.37)

23258.41 (46.85)

Cost C2 (Cost B2 + Item 14) 41502.10 (90.91)

46021.93 (90.91)

47876.71 (90.91)

45133.61 (90.91)

15 Management cost (10% of C2) 4150.21 (9.09)

4602.19 (9.09)

4787.67 (9.08)

4513.36 (9.09)

Cost C3 (Cost C2 + Item 15) 45652.31 (100.00)

50624.12 (100.00)

52664.38 (100.00)

49646.97 (100.00)

Table1. Particulars of Cost of Cultivation of Coriander (Rs. /ha)

this channel was Rs. 1272.84. ( Indra and Velan,2004 )

Marketing Costs, Margins and PriceSpread in Channel – II The producer received theprice of Rs. 6343.88 per quintal which is 84.37 percent of consumer’s rupee as indicated in Table 5.The major costs incurred by the producer are

transportation, loading, unloading, weighment, costof gunny bag, value of quantity lost and miscellaneouscharges. All these costs accounted to Rs. 141 perquintal which is 1.87 per cent of consumer’s rupee.The price at which the producer had sold to thecommission agent cum wholesaler is Rs. 6485 whichis 86.26 per cent of consumer rupee. The cost

69


Cost Size of the farms Overall Marginal Small Large

Cost A1 1345.24 1678.00 2077.89 1691.49 Cost A2 1345.24 1678.00 2077.89 1691.49 Cost B1 1418.55 1754.96 2156.47 1767.67 Cost B2 3199.92 3621.45 4058.66 3615.23 Cost C1 1598.28 2060.30 2261.00 1964.39 Cost C2 3379.65 3926.79 4163.19 3811.96 Cost C3 3717.61 4319.46 4579.51 4193.16

Table2. Cost of Production of Coriander on Different Size Holdings (Rs. /qtl)

Sl. No.

Particulars Unit Farm Size Overall Marginal Small Large

1 Coriander production (per ha)

Qtl. 12.28 11.72 11.50 11.84

2 Price of coriander (per qtl)

Rs. 6285.20 6371.10 6375.35 6343.88

3 Total cost per ha Rs. 45652.31 50624.12 52664.38 49646.97 4 Gross returns per ha Rs. 77182.25 74669.29 73316.52 75266.02 5 Net returns per ha Rs. 31529.94 24045.17 20652.14 25619.05 6 CB Ratio - 1:1.59 1:1.68 1:1.72 1:1.66 7 Farm Business Income

per ha Rs. 60662.70 55003.04 49420.79 55238.81

8 Family Labour Income per ha

Rs. 37887.25 32225.90 26641.91 32461.66

Table3. Cost and Return Structure of Coriander Production

incurred by the commission agent cum wholesaler isRs. 486.75 per quintal. The commission agent cumwholesaler’s selling price to the retailer was Rs.8297.53 per quintal with a profit margin of Rs. 293.25which is 3.90 per cent of consumer’s rupee. The costincurred by the retailer was Rs. 95.85 of which variouscost items were transportation, loading, unloading,weighment, cleaning, value of quantity lost andmiscellaneous charges. The margin that retailerreceived is Rs. 157.56 per quintal which is 2.09 percent of consumer’s rupee. The price that the ultimateconsumer pays is Rs. 7518.57 per quintal. The pricespread worked out to Rs. 1174.69 per quintal.

Marketing Costs, Margins and PriceSpread in Channel –III The Table 6 showed thatthe net share of the producer in the consumer’s rupeewas 83.53 per cent. The cost incurred by produceron transportation, loading, unloading, weighment, costof gunny bag, value of quantity lost and miscellaneouscharges etc. was Rs. 134.38 per quintal which is1.769 per cent of consumer’s rupee. Producer sold

the produce to the retailer at Rs. 6478.26 which is85.308 per cent of consumer’s rupee. The retailersold directly to the consumer at Rs. 7593.99 perquintal. The cost incurred by retailer ontransportation, loading, unloading, weighment, costof gunny bag, value of quantity lost andmiscellaneous charges was Rs. 91.75 per quintalwhich is 1.208 per cent of consumer’s rupee. Thus,the margin retained by the retailer amounted to Rs.1024 per quintal which is 13.45 per cent of consumer’srupee. The price spread was Rs. 1250 per quintal.

Marketing Costs and Price Spread inChannel – IV The net share of the producer in theconsumer’s rupee was 97.89 per cent. The costincurred by producer Rs. 136.38 per quintal which is2.10 per cent of consumer’s rupee. The price spreadwas Rs. 136 per quintal. (Table 7) ( Verma,2004 )

The marketing efficiency for channels I, II,III and IV were 4.98, 5.40, 5.074 and 46.51

70

BHIM SINGH et al.

Table 4. Marketing Costs, Margins and Price spread of Coriander in Channel-1 in Kota District ofRajasthan (Producer – Commission agent – Wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer)

*Farmer purchases bag @ Rs. 80/qtl and sold to the wholesaler @ Rs. 60 i.e. the net cost of gunny bag atfarmer level was Rs 20/qtl of coriander produce.** Miscellaneous charges include food, tea electricity and telephone charges etc.

1 Net price received by the producer 6343.88 83.28

Cost incurred by producer 141.28 1.85

Transportation 64.13 0.84

Loading 5.00 0.06

Unloading 3.75 0.05

Weighment 2.50 0.03

Net cost of gunny bag* 20.00 0.26

Value of the quantity lost 20.40 0.27

Miscellaneous charges** 25.50 0.33

2 Wholesaler purchase price 6485.16 85.15

Cost incurred by wholesaler 574.25 7.53


VAT 180.00 0.02

Commission charges 45.00 0.57

Mandi fee 72.00 0.94

Loading 5.00 0.06

Unloading 3.75 0.05

Weighment 2.50 0.03

Net cost of gunny bag* 60.00 0.78

Value of the quantity lost 97.00 1.27

Cleaning 5.00 0.06

Grading 30.00 0.39


Wholesaler margin 303.90 3.98

3 Retailer purchase price 7363.31 96.67

Cost incurred by retailer 95.85 1.25


Loading 5.00 0.07

Unloading 3.75 0.05

Weighment 2.50 0.03

Cleaning 30.50 0.40


Retailer margins 157.56 2.07

Retailer sale price 7616.72 100.00

Producer share in consumer’s rupee 83.28

PRICE SPREAD 1272.84

71


Sl. No. Particulars Rs./quintal Per cent share of producer in consumer’s rupee

1 Net price received by producer 6343.88 84.37 Cost incurred by producer 141.28 1.87 Transportation 64.13 0.85 Loading 5.00 0.06 Unloading 3.75 0.04 Weighment 2.50 0.03 Net cost of gunny bag* 20.00 0.20 Value of quantity lost 20.40 0.27 Miscellaneous charges** 25.50 0.34 2 Commission agent cum –wholesaler

purchase price 6485.16 86.26

Cost incurred by wholesaler 486.75 6.43 VAT 180.00 2.39 Commission charges 45.00 0.59 Mandi fee 72.00 0.95 Loading 5.00 0.06 Unloading 3.75 0.05 Weighment 2.50 0.03 Net cost of gunny bag* 60.00 0.79 Value of quantity lost 84.00 1.11 Cleaning 5.00 0.06 Miscellaneous charges** 28.50 0.38 Commission agent cum-wholesaler

margin 293.25 3.90

3 Retailer purchase price 7265.16 96.62 Cost incurred by retailer 95.85 1.27 Transportation 25.50 0.33 Loading 5.00 0.07 Unloading 3.25 0.04 Weighment 2.50 0.03 Cleaning 5.00 0.07 Value of quantity lost 30.50 0.40 Miscellaneous charges** 28.60 0.38 Retailer margins 157.56 2.09 Retailer sale price/Consumer purchase

price 7518.57 100.00

Price spread 1174.69

Table 5. Marketing Costs, Margins and Price Spread of Coriander in Channel-II in Kota District ofRajasthan [Producer – Commission agent cum wholesaler – Retailer – Consumer]

*Farmer purchases bag @ Rs. 80/qtl and sold to the wholesaler @ Rs. 60 i.e. cost of gunny bag at farmerlevel was Rs 20/qtl of coriander produce.** Miscellaneous charges include food, tea and telephone charges.

72

BHIM SINGH et al.

respectively. It is observed that channel IV was themost efficient one. This is because of the fact thatchannel-IV does not involve any intermediary andhence, this channel was more efficient than channel

I, channel II and channel III. The channel I is seenas the least efficient as it is the lengthier marketingchannel and mult iplic ity of margins to theintermediaries.

Sl. No.

Particulars Rs./quintal Per cent share of producer in consumer’s rupee

1 Net price received by producer 6343.88 83.53 Cost incurred by producer 134.38 1.77 Transportation 64.13 0.84 Loading 5.00 0.07 Unloading 3.75 0.04 Weighment 2.50 0.03 Net cost of gunny bag* 20.00 0.26 Value of quantity lost 16.50 0.22 Miscellaneous charges 25.50 0.33 2 Retailer purchase price 6478.26 85.31 Cost incurred by retailer 91.75 1.20 Transportation 25.50 0.33 Loading 5.00 0.07 Unloading 3.25 0.04 Weighment 2.50 0.03 Net cost of gunny bag* 14.00 0.18 Value of quantity lost 17.50 0.23 Miscellaneous charges** 23.50 0.31 Retailer margins 1023.95 13.45 Retailer sale price 7593.99 100.00 PRICE SPREAD 1250.11

Table 6. Marketing Costs, Margins and Price Spread of Coriander in Channel-III in Kota District ofRajasthan (Producer – Retailer – Consumer)

*Farmer purchases bag @ Rs. 80/qtl and sold to the wholesaler @ Rs. 60 i.e. cost of gunny bag at farmerlevel was Rs. 20/qtl and retailer also sale in market @ 46/qtl i.e. cost of gunny bag at retailer level was Rs.14/qtl of coriander produce.** Miscellaneous charges include food, tea and telephone charges.

Table 7. Marketing Costs, Margins and Price Spread of Coriander in Channel-IV in Kota District ofRajasthan (Producer – Consumer)

Sl. No. Particulars Rs./quintal Per cent share of producer in consumer’s rupee

1 Net price received by producer 6343.88 97.89 Cost incurred by producer 136.38 2.10 Transportation 64.13 0.99 Loading 5.00 0.08 Unloading 3.75 0.06 Weighment 2.50 0.04 Net cost of gunny bag* 20.00 0.30 Value of quantity lost 20.50 0.32 Miscellaneous charges** 25.50 0.39 Consumer purchase price 6480.26 100.00 Price spread 136.38

*Farmer purchases bag @ Rs. 80/qtl and sold to the wholesaler @ Rs. 60 i.e. cost of gunny bag at farmerlevel was Rs. 20/qtl of coriander produce.** Miscellaneous charges include food, tea and telephone charges.

73


Table 8. Marketing Efficiency of Coriander in Different Channels (Rs/qtl)

Particulars Channel I Channel II Channel III Channel IV Value of marketing output 7616.72 7518.57 7593.99 6480.26 Total marketing cost* 1272.84 1174.69 1250.11 136.38 Marketing efficiency 4.98 5.40 5.074 46.51

Note : * Total marketing cost includes marketing cost and profit margin of intermediaries

REFERENCES

Bera, B.K and Moktan, M.W.2006. Economics ofginger cultivation in the hill region of WestBengal. Journal of Crop and Weed. 2(2): 11-13.

Hasan, M. K., Islam, M.S and Mahmud, M. A. A.2010. Present status profi tabil ity andpotentiality of garlic production in Bangladesh.International Journal of Sustainable AgriculturalTechnology. 8(7): 1-7.

Indra, T.P and Velan, M.S. 2004. A study onmarketing of onion in Dindigul district ofTamilnadu. Indian Journal of AgriculturalMarketing. 18 (2): 98-104.

Singh, A.K and Singh, K. 1999. An economic analysisof Production and marketing of vegetablecrops in Varanasi district, Uttar Pradesh.Agricultural Marketing. 49 (3): 34-47.

Verma, A.R. 2004. Economic analysis of production,resource use efficiency, marketing andconstraints of garlic in Indore district of MadhyaPradesh. Agriculture Marketing. 47 (2): 37-48.

74

BHIM SINGH et al.

It is necessary to understand how the farmersacquire, process, store and retrieve the informationfor effective utilization. Hence, the present study wastaken up with the the sugarcane farmers ofMaharashtra.

Kolhapur district was selected purposively asthe district ranks first both in the production and areaunder sugarcane. Three talukas were selectedrandomly. Twelve villages were selected randomlyfor the research study. Ten farmers were selected ineach selected village randomly thus making 120respondents for the research study. The data wascollected through interview schedules.

Majority (36.67%) of the respondents hadmedium Information Acquisition Behaviour (IAB),followed by low (28.33%) and high (24.17%) level ofIAB.

Among the personal cosmopolite channels forIAB, discussion with computer operator at kiosk wasranked the first (mean score 3.82). Discussion withprogressive farmers of neighbouring villages (2.68),cane development officer (2.67), plant manager (2.42),discussion with representatives of private inputagencies (2.36) were the other best channels foracquiring information. Farmers frequently visit theVillage Information Kiosks (VIK) for enquiring aboutthe harvest dates, payment and borrowing chemicalsand fertilizers and could have developed rapport withthe computer operator. The accessibility of VIKs alsomight be the reason.

Among the personal localite channels, fieldman of sugar factory from the same village receivedthe first rank (mean score 3.77), closely followed byneighbours & fellow farmers (3.76), Village ExtensionWorker (3.48), friends & relatives (3.38), discussionwith family members (3.11) and progressive and

INFORMATION ACQUISITION, PROCESSING AND STORING AND RETRIEVALBEHAVIOUR OF THE SUGARCANE FARMERS OF KOLHAPUR DISTRICT IN

MAHARASHTRAPRIYA N PATIL AND V. SUDHARANI

Department of Agricultural Extension, Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University,Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh- 500030



experienced farmers (3.09). Among the impersonal-cosmopolite channels, participating in Kisan melasgot the first rank (mean score 3.18), the second andthird ranks were received by listening farm broadcasts(2.90) and participating in agricultural exhibitions(2.78) respectively. The finding was in conformity withfindings of Sampath (1994).

Regarding Information Processing Behaviour(IPB) majority (47.50%) of the respondents had veryhigh level of IPB, followed by high (31.67%) andmedium (20.83%) level of IPB. The informationevaluation and information treatment are quite normalafter information acquisition by a farmer to decidewhether to accept or to reject technology. Moreoverinformation evaluation and information treatment aremainly mental processes also with some physicalaspects in them which farmers prefer to evaluate ortreat any information they get.

Under the information evaluation aspect ofIPB weighing in the light of past experience (meanscore 3.93) was ranked first (Table 2), economicfeasibility was placed next to it (3.89). Among theinformation treatment, cross checking with pastexperience received first rank (mean score 3.94), thenext best being, discussing with friends andneighbours (3.70). It is the natural tendency of humanbeings to cross check any new information with theirpast experience and frequent interactions, informalrelationships with friends and neighbours. The findingswere in support of the findings of Shinde et al (1997).

Majority (40.83%) of the respondents hadmedium level of Information Storing and RetrievalBehaviour (ISRB), and others were grouped into low(25.83%), very low (21.67%) and high (11.67%) levelsof ISRB. No respondent was found under very highlevel of ISRB.


75

Regarding the information storage, writing fieldnotebook/ diary/ calendar received first rank (meanscore 3.03), storing information materials viz.,leaflets, brochures, handouts, pamphlets, booklets,etc. received second rank (mean score 2.07).Regarding information retrieval, memorising receivedthe first rank (mean score 3.97), followed by, fieldnotebook/ diary/ calendar (2.95).

Storing and retrieval helps to get the

information as and when needed without approaching

the source. Farmers are still not using the new

technologies viz., pen drives, compact disks,

computers etc. They store information by simplymemorising or record keeping.

REFERENCES

Sampath, S. P. 1994. Information managementbehaviour of extension personnel. M.Sc.Thesis submitted to Tamil Nadu AgriculturalUniversity, Madurai.

Shinde, G. G, Walke, P. K and Ingale, U. M. 1997.Communication behaviour of VEWs andcontact farmers under T and V System.Maharashtra Journal of Extension Education16: 269-275.

PRIYA AND SUDHARANI

76

ASSOCIATION STUDIES OF GRAIN IRON AND ZINC CONCENTRATIONS WITHYIELD AND OTHER AGRONOMIC TRAITS USING F2 POPULATIONS OF TWO

CROSSES IN SORGHUM (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench)K.T. RAVI KIRAN, K. RADHIKA, A. ASHOK KUMAR AND V. PADMA

Department of Genetics and Plant breeding, College of Agriculture,Acharya N.G Ranga Agricultural University, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad-500 030


Research NoteThe J.Res. ANGRAU 42(1) 77- 80, 2014

Micronutrient malnutrition affects more thanone-half of the world’s population, especially womenand pre-school children (Nestel et al., 2006). WorldHealth Organization (WHO) of the United Nationsestimated that mal nutrition is an underlying causeof 53% of all deaths in children under five years ofage and recognized that the two micronutrients ironand zinc and pro-vitamin A (â-carotene) are limiting(Ma et al., 2008). Sorghum [Sorghum bicolour (L.)Moench], being the staple food and fodder crop inparts of semi-arid region of the world and the secondcheapest source of energy (63.4 - 72.5 % starch)and micronutrients such as iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn)after pearl millet, if enriched with iron and zincconcentrations, can address the micronutrientrequirements of the undernourished populations.Moreover, the poor and vulnerable groups in thesociety, particularly in India depend upon sorghumfor their calorie and micronutrient requirement in theabsence of access and affordability to nutrient-richfoods like vegetables, fruits and animal products. Astudy on association of grain iron and zincconcentrations with agronomic traits is needed to helpthe breeder in devising a suitable breeding strategyfor the enhancement of micronutrient density insorghum. Hence, this study was undertaken atICRISAT, Patancheru with an aim to analyze therelationships of grain iron and zinc concentrationswith grain yield and other agronomic traits in sorghum.

The experimental material consisted of F2

populations of two crosses IS13205 x SPV1359 andIS13205 x IS23464, which were selected based ondiallel analysis carried out previously involvingparents with diverse levels of grain iron and zincconcentrations. The two populations were evaluatedduring post rainy season, 2012-13 at ICRISAT,Patancheru. Each population was grown in eight rowsof 2 m length with a spacing of 75 cm between rows

and 10 cm between the plants making the plot sizeof 1.5 m2. Two seeds were planted/hill and thinnedlater to single seedling/hill to obtain a population standof nearly 120 plants in each population. Thepopulations were control pollinated by selfing (bybagging the panicles before they shed the pollen/stigmas come out).

The crop was supplied with a fertilizer doseof 80 kg N and 40 kg P2O5 per hectare and nitrogenwas applied in three split doses. Recommended andusual cultural practices were adopted to raise a goodcrop. Data were recorded on plant height, paniclelength, panicle width, grain yield plant-1 and 100 grainweight on 50 randomly selected plants in eachpopulation. Micronutrient analysis was done usingthe selfed seed of 50 panicles of each population byICP-OES method. Precautions were taken at eachstep to avoid contamination of grain with dustparticles and any other extraneous matter. Simplecorrelation coefficients were calculated using theformulae given by Falconer (1981).

In the present study, the segregatingpopulation i.e., F2 of two crosses was utilized forcalculation of correlation coefficients between thetraits for each cross separately. The correlation matrixof various agronomic traits with grain iron and zincconcentrations is presented in the Table 1. In thecross IS13205 x SPV1359, panicle length showedsignificant positive correlation with panicle width (r =0.651), grain yield plant-1 (r = 0.425) and grain zincconcentration (r = 0.328). However, the correlationwas strong with panicle width and weaker with grainzinc concentration as indicated by the correlationcoefficient estimates. Grain iron concentrationshowed highly significant positive correlation withgrain zinc concentration (r = 0.538).


77

Tabl

e 1.

Sim

ple

corr

elat

ion

mat

rix

of g

rain

iron

and

zin

c co

ncen

trat

ions

with

oth

er a

gron

omic

trai

ts in

F2 p

roge

nies

of t

wo

cros

ses

of s

orgh

umdu

ring

rabi

, 201

2 at

ICR

ISA

T.

** –

sig

nific

ant a

t 1 %

leve

l of p

roba

bilit

y i.e

., r=

0.4

0262

* –

sign

ifica

nt a

t 5 %

leve

l of p

roba

bilit

y i.e

., r=

0.3

1198

RAVI KIRAN et al.

78

In the cross IS13205 x IS23464, grain yieldplant-1 showed significant negative correlation with100 grain weight (r = -0.390) whose magnitude wasless. As in the previous cross, grain ironconcentration showed highly significant positivecorrelation with grain zinc concentration (r = 0.753).

Similar results of significant positive correlation

coefficient between grain iron and zinc concentrations

was also obtained by Graham and Welch (1996) in

general, Kumar et al. (2010) and Gayathri et al. (2012)

in sorghum, Nagesh et al. (2012) in rice, Feng et al.

(2011) in wheat, Govindraj et al. (2013) in pearl millet,

Chakraborthi et al. (2011) in maize. Highly significant

positive correlation between grain iron and zinc

concentrations indicated the possibi lity of

simultaneous improvement of both the traits. This

might be due to co-segregation of tightly linked genetic

stocks governing the physiology of these

micronutrients or might be due to the pleiotropic effectof genes.

No correlation of 100 grain weight and grain

yield plant-1 with grain iron and zinc concentrations

indicated that there would be no penalty on grain yield

and seed size while breeding for grains rich in these

micronutrients. Absence of association of grain iron

and zinc concentrations with grain yield plant-1 was

also observed by Nagesh et al. (2012) in rice,

Chakraborthi et al. (2011) in maize and Gupta et al.

(2009) in pearl millet. Similarly, no correlation of test

weight with grain iron and zinc concentrations was

also recorded by Gupta et al. (2009) in pearl millet

and Wang et al. (2011) in wheat. However, negative

correlation between grain yield plant-1 and grain iron

and zinc concentrations was earlier reported by Wang

et al. (2011) in wheat, Anandan et al. (2011) in rice

and Kumar et al. (2009) in sorghum. Hence there is a

need to further confirm the results of present study

by using various types of populations such as

inbreds, hybrids and OPVs.

REFERENCES

Anandan, A., Rajiv, G., Eswaran, R and Prakash,M. 2011. Genotypic variation and relationshipsbetween quality traits and trace elements intraditional and improved rice (Oryza sativa L.)genotypes. Journal of Food Science. 76 (4):122-130.

Chakraborthi, M., Prasanna, B.M., Hossain, F andAnju M.S. 2011. Evaluation of single crossQuality Protein Maize (QPM) hybrids forkernel iron and zinc concentrations. IndianJournal of Genetics and Plant Breeding. 71(4): 312-319.

Falconer, D.C. 1981. An introduction to quantitativegenetics. Longman, New York. 67-68.

Feng, X.Y., Xing, X.H and Guo, A.D. 2011.Identification of germplasm with enrichedmicronutrients of wild emmer and progeny ofwild emmer × common wheat. ChineseJournal of Eco-Agriculture. 19 (5): 1205-1209.

Gayathri, S.P.V.L., Radhika, K., Kumar, A.A andJanila, P. 2012. Association of grain iron andzinc content with grain yield and other traits

in sorghum (Sorghum bicolour L. Moench).The Journal of Research, ANGRAU. 40 (3):105-107.

Govindaraj, M., Rai, K.N., Shanmugasundaram, P.,Dwivedi, S.L., Sharawat, K.L., Muthaiah, A.Rand Rao, A.S. 2013. Combining ability andheterosis for grain iron and zinc densities inpearl millet. Crop Science. 53: 507-517.

Graham, R.D and Welch, R.M. 1996. Breeding forstaple food crops with high micronutrientdensity. Agricultural strategies formicronutrients. Working paper 3. InternationalFood Policy Research Institute, Washington,D.C., USA.

Gupta, S.K., Velu, G., Rai, K.N and Sumalini, K.2009. Association of grain iron and zinccontent with grain yield and other traits in pearlmillet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.). CropImprovement. 36 (2): 4-7.

Kumar, A.A., Reddy, B.V.S., Ramaiah, B., Reddy,P.S., Sahrawat, K.L and Upadhyaya, H.D.2009. Genetic variability and plant trait

ASSOCIATION STUDIES OF GRAIN IRON AND ZINC CONCENTRATIONS

79

association of grain Fe and Zn in selected corecollection accessions of sorghum germplasmand breeding lines. Journal of SAT AgriculturalResearch. 7: 1-4.

Kumar, A.A., Reddy, B.V.S., Sahrawat, K.L andRamaiah, B. 2010. Combating micronutrientmalformation: Identification of commercialsorghum cultivars with high grain iron and zinc.SAT e Journal. 8: 1-5.

Ma, G., Jin, Y., Li, Y., Zhai, F., Kok, F.J., Jacobsen,E and Yang, X. 2008. I ron and zincdeficiencies in China: what is a feasible andcost-effective strategy?. Public HealthNutrition. 11 (6): 632-637.

RAVI KIRAN et al.

Nagesh, Ravindrababu,V., Usharani, G and Reddy,T.D. 2012. Grain iron and zinc associationstudies in rice (Oryza sativa L.) F1 progenies.Archives of Applied Science Research. 4 (1):696-702.

Nestel, P., Bouis, H.E., Meenakshi, J.V and Pfeiffer,W. 2006. Biofortification of staple food crops.The Journal of Nutrition. 136: 1064-1067.

Wang, S., Yin, L., Tanaka, H., Tanaka, K andTsujimoto, H. 2011. Wheat-Aegilopschromosome addition lines showing high ironand zinc contents in grains. Breeding Science.61: 189-195.

80

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Journals and Bulletins

Abdul Salam, M and Mazrooe, S.A. 2007. Water requirement of maize (Zea mays L.) as influenced byplanting dates in Kuwait. Journal of Agrometeorology. 9 (1) : 34-41

Hu, J., Yue, B and Vick, B.A. 2007. Integration of trap makers onto a sunflower SSR marker linkage mapconstructed from 92 recombinant inbred lines. Helia. 30 (46) :25-36.

Books

AOAC. 1990. Official methods of analysis. Association of official analytical chemists. 15th Ed. WashingtonDC. USA. pp. 256

Federer, W.T. 1993. Statistical design and analysis for intercropping experiments. Volume I: two crops.Springer – Verlag, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA. pp. 298-305

Thesis

Ibrahim, F. 2007. Genetic variability for resistance to sorghum aphid (Melanaphis sacchari, Zentner) insorghum. Ph.D. Thesis submitted to Acharya N.G. Ranga Agricultural University, Hyderabad.

Seminars / Symposia / Workshops

Naveen Kumar, P.G and Shaik Mohammad 2007. Farming Systems approach – A way towards organicfarming. Paper presented at the National symposium on integrated farming systems and its roletowards livelihood improvement. Jaipur, 26 – 28 October 2007. pp.43-46

Proceedings of Seminars / Symposia

Bind, M and Howden, M. 2004. Challenges and opportunities for cropping systems in a changing climate.Proceedings of International crop science congress. Brisbane –Australia. 26 September – 1 October2004. pp. 52-54

(www.cropscience 2004.com 03-11-2004)

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The Journal of Research ANGRAU - Acharya N.G.Ranga ...1)_2014.pdf · Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, Warangal - 506007 ABSTRACT Four restorer lines were crossed with five