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Undergraduate Review Undergraduate Review
Volume 3 Issue 1 Article 8
1989
The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli
Krista Stearns '89 Illinois Wesleyan University
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Recommended Citation Stearns '89, Krista (1989) "The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli," Undergraduate Review: Vol. 3 : Iss. 1 , Article 8. Available at: https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol3/iss1/8
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!X8J\der Lumber closing." The Daily
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>per battle, Kankakee loses its own ,farch 1988, 77-78.
wnty Assessment. Chicago: The Fan-
The IS and OUGHT of lr. Chicago Tribune, 9 April 1988, 10. Niccolo Machiavelli
1(ristaSteams
53 1
Stearns '89: The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli
Published by Digital Commons @ IWU, 1989
I
View of Florence. Photo by Susanna Woodard.
Niccolo Machiavell
Notorious for his treatise .
human
historyasa ruthless power and
oppression. Ho
the republican government
greatest work,
The Discour5t
rule by the people in order tc
style of republican govemn
paradox? Only through can
history of renaissance Italy i
twentieth century audience
The politicsof15th j
general, were tumultous. ~
witnessing a crumbling rep
figure Savonarola.
F1orenc~
nornical problems, the resc
regaining Pisa. Pisa was a
1
French occupation. The Fre
to Florentine liberty. Vario
other
cities in the northerr
seemed determined to spli kept in
mind that Europe
..
were just beginning to gair
confusion, Machiavelli, a f1
vation of Florence and It
instrumental in establishin
2
Undergraduate Review, Vol. 3, Iss. 1 [1989], Art. 8
https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol3/iss1/8
View of Florence. Photo by Susanna Woodard.
Niccolo Machiavelli has long been termed the teacher of evil.
Notorious for his treatise The Prince, he has earned a reputation in
human
history
asa ruthless individualconsumed with the intricaciesof
power and
oppression. However, most overlook his contributions to
the republican government in Florence, as well as,
what is perhaps his
greatest work, The Discourses. In The Discourses he extolled the value of
rule by the peoplein order to attain liberty. He also revered the Roman
style of republican government. How does one reconcile the apparent
paradox? Only through careful evaluation of the nationalistic political
history of renaissance Italy is one able to expose the true Machiavelli to
twentieth century audiences.
The politicsof 15thand 16thcentury Florence,and of Europe in
general, were tumultous. While only in his twenties Machiavelli was
witnessing a crumbling republic under the leadership of the religiOUS
figure Savonarola. Florence was facing other grave political and eco
nomical problems, the resolution of which depended upon Florence
regaining Pisa. Pisa was a valued trading post, as well as a target for
French occupation. The French and other powers were seen as a threat
to Florentine liberty. Various European powers had already captured
other
cities in the northern
part of the peninsula and all the powers
seemed determined to split Italy among themselves. Here, it must be
kept in mind that Europe was still in a feudal state of affairs. Nations
were just beginning to gain a sense of nationality. In the midst of such
confusion, Machiavelli, a Florentine nationalist interested in the preser
vation of Florence and Italy, became active. For example, he was
instrumental in establishing the rural citizen militia. This militia was a
55 3
Stearns '89: The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli
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56
key
factor
in the eventual regaining of Pisa in 1509 after thirteen years
of
warfare.
1
The political upheaval that the people of renaissance Italy
witnessed helps to explain the fascination with war and power for
which
Machiavelli is
so well known. He, in fact, became particularly
interestedin the practical aspectofwinning warsand wrotebooks such
as the Arle della Guerra on the subject. This demonstrates two things:
one, that Machiavelli's infatuation with war was a natural reaction to
his world as disarmament is to the peopleof today, and two, that he was
particularly interested in the practical world. J. H. Whitfield in his book
Discourses em Machiavelli, in
support, states
that "before the time of The
Prince.. Machiavelli had never written a treatise without some practical
purpose, and some
special contexl."2
The Prince is no exception. In
writing this treatiseit is clear that Machiavellihad in mind the establish
ment of
a strong leadership
in Florence. This leadership would now
hold
Florence together,
but, eventually, the leadership would gain
considerable strength so as to unify Italyin order for her to reassert her
greatness. Furthermore, The Discourses are a natural progression from
The Prince. In both works he professes many of the same techniques of
rule and
retains his observations
on human nature. He regards these
observations as underlying constants that must be considered in any
regime, autocratic or republican.
The
practical
side of Machiavelli may be best explained by
today's term
realpolitik. This concept
is demonstrated in Machiavelli's
famous phrase from The Prince, "the end justifies the means."3 As Max
Lerner states, Machiavelli distinguishes between what is and what
ought
to
be.'
Machiavelli primarilyconcernshimselfwith empiricalrealm, view
ing
accurate appraisal
of existing conditions as the only way to rule
successfully. He reservesan:
Discourses.
But, despite the
i
republican forms of govenu
to the empirical remains. In
strong military, stresses the
controlling the people, reil
Periclean leader, and, finall,
consent for the longevity II
commonalities will be exp8J
realism and nationalism in I
Nationalism,altholl
that helps
to reconcile the
examination. Not only
was
Italian nation, but, hisbelief
tionary for his time. In lac:
religiOUS, for he placesit as
in The Prince as we see M
preferences which are so pr
was also practiced in Machi
government in Florenceand
despite the formof govemn:
The Discourses
when
he stat;
any
means.
For where upon then
justiceor iJ
ofshame,! allothercc
should
be, of
the cour
.,·,,,iiotr
4
Undergraduate Review, Vol. 3, Iss. 1 [1989], Art. 8
https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol3/iss1/8
g of Pisa in 1509 after thirteen years
at the people of renaissance Italy
scination with war and power for
m. He, in fact, became particularly
winningwarsand wrotebookssuch
ject This demonstrates two things:
with war was a natural reaction to
IOOpleof
today,
and two,thathe was
cal
world.
J. H. Whitfield in hisbook
1, states that "before the time of The
en
a treatise
without some practical
d."2 The Prince is no exception. In
achiavellihadinmind the establish
lrenee.
This leadership
would now
,tually, the leadership would gain
'Italyinorder forher to reasserther
trses are
a natural progression from
ses many of the
same techniques of
In
human nature.
He regards these
nts that must be considered in any
IUavelli may be best
explained
by
pt
isdemonstrated
in Machiavelli's
eend justifies the means."3 As Max
:J.ishes
between
what is and what
himselfwithempirical realm, view
:onditions as the only way to rule
successfully. He reservesany normativediscussion for the themeofThe
Discourses.
But, despite the idealized
theme applauding the virtues of
republican forms of government, the importance he fonnerly attached
to the empirical remains. In The Discourses he retains an emphasis of a
strong military, stresses the roleof religion as a means of unifying and
controlling the people, reiterates the necessity of a strong, almost
Periclean leader,and, finally, Machiavelli emphasizes the need of mass
consent for the longevity and security of any regime. Many of these
commonalities will be expanded upon more as I discuss Machiavelli's
realism and nationalism in specifics.
Nationalism,although referred to earlier, is an important ideal
that helps
to reconcile
the two texts, and requires a more detailed
examination. Not only was Machiavelli a proponent of a sovereign
Italian nation, but, his belief in the importance of the state was revolu
tionary for his time. In fact his conception of the state was almost
religious, for he places it as the highest good. This is blatantly the case
in The Prince as we
see Machiavelli
wavering from his democratic
preferences which are so prevalent in The Discourses. This nationalism
was
also practiced
in Machiavelli's own life by serving the republican
governmentin florenceand by
resolving to
partidpate in publicservice
despite the fonnof
government. Machiavelli
best delineateshis viewin
The Discourses when he
states
that the country should be preserved by
any
means. For where
the
very safety of the country depends upon the
resolution to be taken, no considerations of
justice or injustice, humanity or cruelty, nor glory or of
shame, should be allowed to prevail. But putting
all other considerations aside, the only question should be, What course will save the life and liberty
of the country75
57 5
Stearns '89: The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli
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Here, as in The Prince, Machiavelli is willing to forego morality
and
his convictions
of the superiority of republican rule in order to
assure
the
higher good of the preservation of the state. Government is
not about
preserving individual liberties,
but rather preserving the
existence of the state.
Additionally, it is reasonable to conjecture that these national
istic ideals were an offspring of his realism. In Machiavelli's world
European powers were
consolidating, particularly France
and Spain
which were at
their zenith
at this time. In the interests of protecting
Florence, its citizenry, Italian culture, and the liberty of the future,
Machiavellisaw an Italian nationas theonlymeansof recourse. But this
would
call for order,
and an order that could only be realized through
the leadership of
a prince. A prince
was needed for the people were
weak. Thenew, unified nationsemergingin Europe were the force with
which
to
be reckoned. To survive, the Italians, too, must unify and
practice the ruthless, superficial politics that the rest had already
adopted.
Machiavelli
was not the progenitor of the practice, he just
happened to be among
the first to
put it in writing.
An
analysis
of Machiavelli's reallsmbest explainswhy Machia
velli wrote his little treatise illuminating the immorality of effective,
princely rule. Aside from the bellicose nature of government that
Machiavellicontinuouslywitnessed, perhaps theone thing that had the
most profound
influence
upon him was the diplomatic missions for the
republican government that Machiavelli participated in during the
early 1500s. These missions helped him to view the strife in the penin
sula from an international perspective. He watched the cold, deliberate
machinations of foreign leaders anxious to wield their influence upon
the weak
Italian states.
His visit to the court of Cesare Borgia was
especially enlightening. It was there where his strong beliefs on fortuna
58
and virtu
fully developed.
Under Borgia, Mad
things, is beyond
the conm
ruinous
effects. ButMachia' made
to prevent the winds (
This is best exemplified
in
fortune to a river thatcanbe
and
dykes. For Machiavelli,
Florence.
The series of conJ
power
of the Church had ( citizenry which was only
under
the
hand of strong Ie
could
Florence be saved.
1
needed for the success of a
present. Machiavelli's assUI
was
restored
in Florencein .
years until the ousted Medi
The austere measul
Machiavelli'sgoalofrestom
which
would subsequently of
government.
This isa sim
Lerner. Langton, somewha
The Discourses
as a follow
stabilized
by following dir
then tum
to
The Discourses I
handbook
for a
return to re
be used
most effectively
w
role as a consultant to the I
6
Undergraduate Review, Vol. 3, Iss. 1 [1989], Art. 8
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·chiavelli is willing to forego morality
iority of republican rule in order to
!lel'Vation
of the state. Government
is
liberties, but rather preserving the
Ible
to conjecture that these national
his realism. In Machiavelli's world
lting, particularly France and Spain
5 time. In the interests of protecting
lture, and the liberty of the future,
IS theonlymeansof recourse. Butthis
rthat could only be realized through
lCe
was needed for the people
were
terginginEuropewere the force with
>e, the Italians, too, must unify and
. politics that the rest had already
e progenitor of the practice, he just
)put it in writing.
i'srealismbestexplainswhy Machia
linating the immorality of effective,
ellicose nature of government that
ed,
perhapstheone thing that
had the
nwasthediplomatic missions for the
:hiavelli participated in during the
d him to view the strife in the penin
tive. He watched the cold, deliberate
:lXious
to wield their influence
upon
to the court of Cesare Borgia was
re
where his strong beliefs
on fortUnJl
and virtu fully developed.
Under Borgia, Machiavelli observed that illness, among other
things, is beyond the control of man; yet, these uncontrollables have
ruinous effects. But Machiavelli also witnessed how preparation canbe
made
to prevent the
winds of fortune from being without redemption.6
This is best exemplified in the passage in The Prince which equates
fortune toa river that canbe tamedwithhurnan ingenuity suchas darns
and
dykes. For Machiavelli,
it was fortune that blew an ill wind upon
Florence. The series of conflicts, of weak leaders, and the continued
power
of the Church
had corrupted the people. These ills created a
citizenry which was only interested in self-aggrandizement. Only
under
the
hand of strong leadership (Lorenzo de Medici in this case)
could Florence be saved. The people were so corrupt that the virtu
needed for the success of a republican form of government was not
present. Machiavelli's assumption proved to be accurate when liberty
was
restored in Florence in 1527.
The new regime only lasted for three
years until the ousted Medici were able to resume power.
The austere measures in The Prince were necessary to achieve
Machiavelli'sgoalofrestoringorderand buildinga basic infrastructure
which would subsequently work to realizehis ideal: a republican form
of
government. This is a similar view to those
of John Langtonand Max
Lerner. Langton, somewhat convincingly, extends his view to include
The Discourses as
a follow
up to The Prince. Once Florence became
stabilized by follOWing directives delineated in The Prince, one could
then tum to The Discourses for guidance. He regards The Discourses as a
handbook for a return to republican rule. This book would, of course,
be used
most effectively with
the assistance of Machiavelli playing a
role as a consultant to the prince?
59 7
Stearns '89: The IS and OUGHT of Niccolo Machiavelli
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--
60
Machiavelli's view of leadership in both texts pronounces the
need
for ruthless,
sometimes unjust measures. He first stresses the
ability to adapt to changing circumstances. This is consistent with his
views on fortuna,
for
it is fortuna that necessitates these characteristics.
Chance can bring good luck or bad
luck.
And, when chance knocks at
the door, the leader must be prepared
to
take action and adapt to
changing conditions. The
ability to act
with the cleverness a fox and to
speak with the
force
of a lion is also vital. To do otherwise, that is to be
neutral,
to
refuse to act or act quickly and with confidence, would be
cruel. It would put the state at risk to aggression or subject it to undue
hazards of
fortune. It is
also
the responsibilityof the leader to establish institutions
and laws that
will
outlive the leader. Machiavelli was counting on this
inboth works. He implores
Lorenzo
to adopt new "laws and measures"
that
will liberate Italy
and immortalize Lorenzoas her savior.8Thus, for
Machiavelli, a leadermust possessflexibility, sagacity, physical strength
(especially in the form of an organized military), and foresight- all
qualities that seem
to
add up to Machiavelli's ideas on virtu. For ifvirtu
truly means
to
do one's duty well, these assets are what it takes to
succeed in
a
principality or a republic. A leader who possesses these
qualities will be able to act as the situation requires yet he will still
maintainappearances that appease the
people.
This ishighly important
in maintaining
the civil
peace and the unity of the people.
Those who criticize Machiavelli for extreme ruthlessness, evi
dence of which can be found in both
texts,
mistakenly evaluate his
thoughts from
a post-Lockeian framework.
What people of today find
problematic is that the state which
Machiavelli
desires to build seems
to ignore that the construction of such a nation may ruin the things that
are beautiful within
it. But,
from a sixteenth century perspective, when
there was no
conception
01
seems
excessive. Ideas
sud
processes, and beliefs of nol
not widely held nor
even
in
to absolute
rulers
who coule
rulers governed
only
in om
What does seem pal
deceit and trickery. A ruler I
appear so; he need notbejust
can do what
a situation
det'l
concern
for humanity. But, sumption that
running a
gal
what separates him from til
knowledge a separation of t:
This position regare
and
Machiavelli
himself, ne:
solely as a response to the UI
upon florence. Rather, Mad
ism, are
viewed
as the onlyE
the time. Dietz's arguments.
example,
she
harps on his
historical data contradictor
smart
politician
or realist,
evidence most
appropriate t as
a
complete historical acee
historian but
a politician
tUI
Discourses, too, are filled wi
Theformer
work, then, isno. ignored or
misconstrued. A 8
Undergraduate Review, Vol. 3, Iss. 1 [1989], Art. 8
https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol3/iss1/8
ship in both texts pronounces the
1 measures. He first stresses the
tances. This is consistent with his
necessitates these characteristics.
lick.
And,
when chance knocks at
il"ed
to take action
and adapt to
ct
with the cleverness a fox
and to
rita!.
To
do otherwise, that is to be
yand with
confidence,
would be
)aggression or subject it to undue
the leaderto establish institutions
Machiavelli was counting on this
o adoptnew '1awsand measures"
roe
Lorenzo
asher savior.8 Thus, for
xibility, sagacity, physical strength
red
military),
and foresight- all
riavelli'sideason virtu. For ifvirtu
these assets are what it takes to
lic. A leader who possesses these
.ituation requires yet he will still
!le
people.This
ishighly important
le
unity of
the people.
relli for extreme ruthlessness, evi
th texts, mistakenly evaluate his
~work. What people of today find
lachiavelli desires to
build seems
1a nation may ruin the things that
teenth century perspective,when
there was no conception of inalienable or natural
rights,
he hardly
seems
excessive.
Ideas such as freedom of speech, access to judicial
processes, and beliefs of non-interference from the government were
not widely held nor even in
existence.
People were commonly subject
to absolute rulers who could do as they pleased. Often these absolute
rulers governed only in order to advantage
themselves.
What does seem particularly invidious, though, is his
call for deceit and
trickery. A
ruler must be a fox. He need not be religiOUS but
appear
so;
he need not be justbut must appear to be just.If clever, a ruler
can do what
a
situation demands while convincing the people of his
concern for humanity.
But,
to the reader, this demonstrates his pre
sumption that running
a
government calls for means of its own. This is
what separates him from the
classicists. Machiavelli
is willing to ac
knowledge
a
separation of the public and private domains.
This position regards The Prince, in
relation
to The Discourses
and
Machiavelli himself,
neither as an aberration, nor as a set up, nor
solelyas a response to the uncertainty and unrest that fortuna had laid
upon
Florence.
Rather, Machiavelli's realism,and notably his national
ism, are viewed as the only
effective
means of governing the people of
the
time.
Dietz's arguments against this theory are unconvincing. For
example, she harps on his historical examples and his exclusion of
historical data contradictory to his arguments. I assert that like any
smart
politician
or realist, Machiavelli simply selected supportive
evidence most appropriate to his purposes. The Prince was not intended
as
a
complete historical account. Furthermore, Machiavelli was not an
historian but
a politician
turned writer. As Leo Strauss points out, The
Discourses,
too,
are filled with inconsistencies regarding past events.9
The former work, then, isnot the onlyevidenceofmaterial thathasbeen
ignored or misconstrued.
Additionally,
the fact that Machiavelli only
61 9
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62
designed The Prince for the eyes of Lorenzo de Medici. support my
thesis. Again, one notes that history suggests Machiavelli, in every
other treatise he wrote, intended it to address a very specific set of
circumstances such as those we find in The Prince. And, lastly, the final
chapter of The Prince not only serves as a call to action for Lorenzo but
suggests that he truly believed that the action he calls for would be in
the best interests of all. Rule under The Prince would not be as brutal as
the prevailing circumstances. In the closing of The Prince he states,
''What
Italian
would withhold allegiance? This barbarous domination
stinks in the nostrils of every one/'IO
The differences between these two great works are best recon
ciled by viewing the measures for ruling a state called for in The Prince
as
being consistent
with measures described in ruling a republican
government modeled after the great republic of Rome. The underlying
practice of the two governments remains remarkably constant. But,
Machiavelli's effort to sustain Medici rule created a dichotomy which
can only be resolved through evaluating his visions of realpolitik and
a unified Italian state. These are the reflections of the practical politics
that he was
concerned
with throughout his adult life. And, despite his
love of liberty he acknowledged his forceful rules as being more
important than the establishment of a weak republican state. For such
a statewould be incapableof maintainingorderand of creating the new
strength that Italy needed in order to flourish. Italy could not be
extravagant. The Italians were not in a solely epistemological world,
but
rather the empirical, practical world
of feudal 16th century Euro
pean
politics.
IHale,
J.R. Machiavelli and til. Ian Company, 1960), p.10.
2 Whitfield, J.H. Discourses W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., 196!
3 Machiavelli, Niccolo. The _ tion by Max Lerner (NewY
4 Jensen, De Lamar. Machit (Lexington, Massachusetts:
5 Machiavelli, Niccolo. The _ tion by Max Lerner (New'"
6Hale, J.R. Machiavelli and th Ian Company, 1960), p. 25.
7 Langton, John and Mary I Teaching the Prince,"Ame 1987), p. 1282.
8 Machiavelli, Niccolo. The tion by Max Lerner (New")
9 Strauss, Leo. Thoughts 071 Press, 1958), p. 36.
10Machiavelli, Niccolo.The tion by Max Lerner (New ~
10
Undergraduate Review, Vol. 3, Iss. 1 [1989], Art. 8
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Lorenzo de Medid support my
y suggests Machiavelli, in every
to address a very specific set of
in The Prince. And, lastly, the final
as a call to action for Lorenzo but
he action he calls for would be in
Ie Prince would not be as brutal as
eclosing of The Prince he states,
~7nusbarbarousdonUnation
!Ie
two great works
are best recon
ling
a state called for
in The Prince
described in ruling a republican
republicof Rome. The underlying
mains
remarkably constant. But, :i
rule created a dichotomy
which
lting his visions of realpolitik and
reflections of the practical politics
out his adult life. And, despite his
Us
forceful rules
as being more
a weak republican state. For such
ningorder and of creating the new
r to flourish. Italy could not be
na solely epistemological world,
orld of feudal 16th century Euro-
NOTES
1Hale, J.R. Machiavelli and the RenaissanceItaly, (New York: the MacnUlIan Company, 1960), p.10.
2 Whitfield, J.H. Discourses on Machiavelli, (Cambridge, Great Britain: W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., 1969), p. 23.
3 Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince and the Discourses, with an introduction by Max Lerner (New York: Random House, 1950), p. 66.
'Jensen, De
Lamar.
Machiavelli: Cynic, Patriot, or Political Scientist?, (Lexington, Massachusetts: J.e. Heath and Company, 1960), p. 10.
5 Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince and the Discourses, with an introduction by Max Lerner (New York: Random House, 1950), p. 528.
6Hale, J.R. Machiavelli and the RenaissanceItaly, (New York: The MacnUlIan Company, 1960), p. 25.
7 Langton, John and Mary Dietz, "Machiavelli's Paradox: Trapping or Teaching the Prince,"American Political Science Review (December ,
1987), p. 1282.
8 Machiavelli, Niccolo. The Prince and the Discourses, with an introduction by Max Lerner (New York: Random House, 1950), p. 96.
9 Strauss, Leo. Thoughts on Machiavelli, (Glencoe, illinois: The Free Press, 1958), p. 36.
10Machiavelli, Niccolo.The Prince and the Discourses, with an introduction by Max Lerner (New York: Random House, 1950), p. 98.
63 11
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64
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Dietz, Mary. "Trapping the Prince: Machiavelli and the Politics of Deception." American Political Science Review (September, 1986): p. 777
797.
Gilbert, Felix. Machiavelli and Guicciardini. Princeton, New Jersey:
Princeton University Press, 1%5.
Hale, J.R. Machiavelli and Renaissance Italy. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1960.
Jensen, De Lamar, ed. Machiavelli: Cynic, Patriot, or Political Scientist? Howard RcLexington, Massachusetts: D.C. Heath and Company, 1960.
Langton, John and Mary Dietz. "Machiavelli's Paradox: Trapping or Teaching thePrince." American Science PoliticalReview (December1987): Mary
p.1277-1288.
Machiavelli, Niccolo.
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Machiavelli, Niccolo. The History ofFlorence. Edited by Hugh R. TrevorRoper. New
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Undergraduate Review, Vol. 3, Iss. 1 [1989], Art. 8
https://digitalcommons.iwu.edu/rev/vol3/iss1/8