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Australian Journal of Adult Learning Volume 52, Number 2, July 2012
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning: Evidence from labour market
program participants
Roslyn CameronCentral Queensland University
Jennifer L. HarrisonSouthern Cross University
Definitions, differences and relationships between formal, non-formal and informal learning have long been contentious. There has been a significant change in language and reference from adult education to what amounts to forms of learning categorised by their modes of facilitation. Nonetheless, there is currently a renewed interest in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning internationally and in Australia. This has been evidenced through the New OECD Activity on Recognition of Non-Formal and Informal Learning and recent policy developments in Australia. These developments have implications for the recognition of skills derived from informal and non-formal learning, especially for those disadvantaged in the labour market. This paper reports on
278 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
data from a learning grid in a Learning Survey of labour market program participants (n = 172) from northern New South Wales and southern Queensland. We find that life (informal learning) and work experience (non-formal learning) are relatively more important for gaining self-reported skills than formal training/study. We conclude by arguing for a holistic focus on the dynamic interrelatedness of these forms of learning rather than being constrained by a deterministic dichotomy between formality and informality.
Introduction
Thisstudylooksattherelativityandinterconnectednessbetweenthethreeformsoflearning—formal,non-formalandinformal—forself-reportedskillsetsfromlabourmarketprogram(LMP)participants.LMPparticipantsareconsideredtobedisadvantagedinthelabourmarketbuttheyareapotentialsourceoflabourforamarketunderimmenseskillanddemographicpressures.DespitetherecentglobalfinancialcrisisAustraliaisexperiencingsignificantskillshortagesandwillsoonfeeltheeffectsofthedemographictsunamiofthe‘babyboomer’generationleavingtheworkforceenmasse.Governmentpolicyandfundedinitiativestoincreaseworkforceparticipationandaddresshumancapitalconcernshasbroughttherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning(RNFIL)totheforefrontofseveralpolicydriversaimedatgroupsexcludedandtraditionallydisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Nowmorethanever,therecognitionofinformalandnon-formallearningwillneedtobeconsideredtoassistthesegroupsandhelpalleviatesomeofthelabourmarketpressuresbeingexperienced.
TherehavebeenthreesetsofpolicydriversbehindbringingRNFILbacktotheforefrontofpolicy.TheseincludetheSocialInclusionagenda,theCouncilofAustralianGovernments’(COAG)NationalSkillsandWorkforceDevelopmentAgreement,andthe2008
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 279
MinisterialDeclarationonAdultCommunityEducation(ACE).In2009COAGestablishedtheVocational Education and Training—National Skills and Workforce Development Agreement. ThisagreementaimstoimprovethefoundationalskillsofAustralia’sworkingagepopulationtoenableeffectiveeducational,labourmarketandsocialparticipationandtoensuretheAustralianworkingagepopulationhastheskillsandcapabilitiesforthe21stcenturylabourmarketandtoincreasehumancapitalinnovation,productivityandutilisation(COAG2008).TheestablishmentoftheMinistryforSocialInclusionandrelatedpolicydirectionsfromtheAustralianGovernmentaddsanotherpolicydimensiontothepotentialrolethatRNFILcouldplayinaddressingmajorissuesthatemergefromthesocialinclusionagenda.Forexample,manyoftheprimaryandsecondaryindicatorsofsocialinclusionhavedirectrelevancetothepracticeofRNFILandthefivekeyforces(Pierson2001)thatdrivetheprocessofsocialinclusion(povertyandlowincome;lackofaccesstothejobmarket;limitedsocialsupportsandnetworks;theeffectofthelocalneighbourhood;andexclusionfromservices).
TheMinisterialCouncilforVocationalandTechnicalEducationannouncedanewMinisterialDeclarationonACEin2008(MCVTCE2008)whichacknowledgestheoriginal2002DeclarationandtheroleplayedbytheACEsectorindevelopingsocialcapital,communitycapacityandsocialparticipation.The2008DeclarationofACEextendsbeyondtheseareastotheACEsector’s‘potentialtorespondtochangedindustrial,demographicandtechnologicalcircumstances,andencouragesacollaborativeapproachtoACEtoallowthesectortomakeagreatercontributionto…skillsandworkforcedevelopment’(MCVTCE2008).Bowman(2009:1)reportsthatthe2008MinisterialDeclarationonACE‘focusesonoptimisingthenationalcapacityofACEproviderstodelivervocationallyfocusedprogramswhichleadtofurthertrainingand/orworkforceparticipationwithaparticularfocusinengagingthedisadvantagedinsuchprogramsandeconomiclife’.Ultimately,theDeclarationprovidesACEwitha
280 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
significantrole‘attheinterfacebetweenthetwonationalagendasofHumanCapitalReformandSocialInclusion’(Bowman2009:2).
Thispaperwilloverviewthekeyliteratureoninformal,non-formalandformallearning,beforereportingtwostudiesthathaveattemptedtomeasureadultlearningatanationallevel(CanadaandAustralia).ThepaperwillthendescribeinternationalbasedinitiativesandpolicyrelatedtoRNFILbeforepresentingthefindingsfromtheLearningSurveyoflabourmarketparticipantsandtherelateddiscussionsandconclusions.
Key literature on formal, non-formal and informal learning
Amuchquotedsetofdefinitionsforformal,non-formalandinformallearninghasbeendevelopedbytheOECD(2005):
Formallearning:Referstolearningthroughaprogrammeofinstructioninaneducationalinstitution,adulttrainingcentreorintheworkplace,whichisgenerallyrecognisedinaqualificationoracertificate.
Non-formallearning:Referstolearningthroughaprogrammebutitisnotusuallyevaluatedanddoesnotleadtocertification.
Informallearning:Referstolearningresultingfromdailywork-related,familyorleisureactivities.In1996,theOECDeducationministersagreedtodevelopstrategiesfor‘lifelonglearningforall’.Theapproachhasbeenendorsedbyministersoflabour,ministersofsocialaffairsandtheOECDCouncilatministeriallevel.
Attemptstodefineformal,informalandnon-formallearningareoftenreferredtoasproblematic,blurred,competing,contestedandcontradictory(Colley,Hodkinson&Malcolm2003;Golding,Brown&Foley2009;Hager&Halliday2006;Werquin2007).AresearchreportcommissionedbytheLearningandSkillsDevelopmentAgency(LSDA)ofEnglandtomaptheconceptualterrainaroundnon-formallearning(Colley,Hodkinson&Malcom2003)isoneofthemostrecentandcomprehensiveconceptualanalysesofinformalityand
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 281
formalityinlearningtodate.Thereportnotonlysynthesisesthebroad-basedliteratureinthisareabutalsocontributessignificantlytofuturedevelopmentofandresearchintotheseaspectsofadultlearning.Thereportacknowledgesthehighlycontestedandevencontradictorynatureoftheseconcepts.However,theauthorscategorisedefinitionalcriteriaaroundtwodimensions:atheoreticaldimensionandapoliticaldimension,asfollows:
• Differingtheoreticalapproachestolearning(theoreticaldimension);
• Contrastingclaimsabouttheeffectivenessoflearning(theoreticaldimension);
• Differingclaimsabouttherelationshipbetweenlearningandknowledge(theoreticaldimension);
• Attemptstoempowerunderprivilegedlearners(politicaldimension);and
• Attemptstoharnesslearningforinstrumentalpurposes,includingsocialinclusionandeconomiccompetitiveness(politicaldimension)(Colleyetal.,2003:64).
ThesetheoreticalandpoliticaldimensionshaveinfluencedtheoperationalisationoftheseconceptsinverydifferentdirectionsfromtheearlierwritingsofadultlearningtheoristsDeweyandKnowles,andrepresentasignificantandtheoreticallyinterestingtransition.
ThestancetakenbyGolding,BrownandFoley(2009)providesanexampleofhowinformallearningisviewedintermsofbothatheoreticalandapoliticaldimension.Theauthorsrefertothepowerdifferentialthatcreatesasystematicdevaluingofinformallearning.Theygoontostatethatthe‘verynatureofinformallearning,particularlyitsunstructuredandorganicquality,workstodis-empowerarangeofadultstakeholdersanddiminishitsvalueasameaningfuleducationalpursuitinasystemthatvalueshighlystructured,systematised,outcome-drivenapproachestoyoung
282 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
people’slearning’(Goldingetal.2009:53).Coffield(2000:8)alsotakesatheoreticalstanceintermsoftherelationshipbetweenlearningandknowledgebyarguingfortherelativere-valuingofinformallearning:
Informallearningshouldnolongerberegardedasaninferiorformoflearningwhosemainpurposeistoactastheprecursorofformallearning;itneedstobeseenasfundamental,necessaryandvaluableinitsownright,attimesdirectlyrelevanttoemploymentandatothertimesnotrelevantatall.
Intermsofinformallearning,McGivney(2002)statesthereisnounanimouslyaccepteddefinition.Sheclaimsthattryingtoexplaininformallearningislike‘tryingtograspjelly’,andthatitiseasiertodescribewhatinformallearningisnotthantotrytodescribewhatitis(McGivney2002:102).Nonetheless,theauthorfallsbackonthedefinitionwhichstatesinformallearningisaprocessbywhichindividualsacquirevalues,skillsandknowledgefromdailyexperience.Livingstone(2000a:2)definesinformallearningas‘undertakenonone’sown,eitherindividuallyorcollectively,withouteitherexternallyimposedcriteriaorthepresenceofaninstitutionallyauthorizedinstructor’.
Someauthorsandcommentatorshavenotedproblemswiththeemphasisondifferencesbetweenformsoflearning.Davies(2001:113)hasexpressedconcernsaboutthedivisionbetweendifferenttypesoflearning:
Idohavesomeconcernsthatthenotionofformal,non-formalandinformalmaybecomefixedasifthesearethreeroomswithhighwallsaroundthemsothattheintegratedholisticwayinwhichrealpeoplelearnandmakesenseoftheirworldislost.Itmaybethatwhilebreakingdownboundariesbetweensectors,newboundariesarebeingconstructedarounddifferentformsoflearning.
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 283
Colley,HodkinsonandMalcolm(2004:3)makeastrongconnectionbetweeninformalandformallearningthroughthenotionofattributes:
Itismoresensibletoseeattributes of informality and formality aspresentinalllearningsituations.Attributesofin/formalityareinterrelateddifferentlyindifferentsituations.Thoseattributesandtheirinterrelationshipsinfluencethenatureandeffectivenessoflearning.Changingthebalancebetweenformalandinformalattributeschangesthenatureofthelearning.
Marsick(2009),inaguesteditorialfocuseduponaunifyingframeworktosupportinformallearningtheory,researchandpractice,concludesthat,althoughinformallearningisalwaysdefinedincontrasttoformallearning,theyinteractinimportantways.
Adiscussiononformal,informalandnon-formallearningcannotbeadequatelycoveredwithoutmentioningtheworkofEraut(2000)inrelationtonon-formallearning,implicitknowledgeandtacitknowledgewithintheworkplace.Eraut’sresearchfoundthatadegreeofexplicitnessisneededforimprovingwork-basedperformance:
…thicktacitversionsofpersonalknowledgecoexistwiththinexplicitversions:thethickversionisusedinpractice,thethinversionfordescribingandjustifyingthatpractice…Ifpeople’stacitpersonalknowledgeandimplicitlearningaredevalued,theirconfidencewilldiminishandtheiruseof,andinterestin,moreformalknowledgewillalsosuffer(Eraut2000:29).
Eraut(2000)developedatypologytoexplorethefullrangeoflearningprocessesormodesthatfallwithinthisdomainof‘non-formallearning’.
Similarly,Schugurensky(2000)developedataxonomyofinformallearningbyusingtwomaincriteriafordistinguishinglearning:intentionalityandconsciousness(awareness).Thesetwocriteriaarethenmappedagainstthreeforms(types)ofinformallearning:self-directedlearning,incidentallearningandsocialisation.This
284 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
resultsinself-directedlearningatoneendofaspectrumofinformallearning,theotherendoccupiedbysocialisationandincidentallearningoccurringsomewhereinbetween(Schugurensky2000:5).Werquin(2007:5)proffersasimilarmappingexercisewithtwocomponentsusedtodefinethemodeoflearning:intentionallearning,andwhethertheactivityhaslearningobjectives.Thismappingexerciseproducesasetoffourtypesoflearning:
• FormalLearning (TypeILearning);
• Non-FormalLearning (TypeIILearning);
• Semi-Formallearning (TypeIIILearning);
• InformalLearning (TypeIVLearning).
Semi-FormalLearning(TypeIIILearning)isdefinedaslearninginwhichindividuals,‘maylearnduringactivitieswithlearningobjectivesbuttheylearnbeyondthelearningobjectives;thisissemi-formal learning…Individualshavetheintentionoflearningaboutsomethingand,withoutknowingit,learnalsoaboutsomethingelse’(Werquin2007:5).
Recently,Illeris(2009)exploredthebarriersbetweendifferentlearningspacessoastobridgethegapbetweenlearningthatoccursinsideschoolsandoutsideschools.Heidentifiedfivemainlearningspacesincontemporarysociety:
1. Everydaylearning
2. Schoolandeducationallearning
3. Workplacelearning
4. Interest-basedlearning
5. Net-basedlearning(Illeris2009:139–140).
TheinclusionofthelastlearningspacehasalsobeennotedbyHalliday-WynesandBeddie(2009:7–8),althoughtheydonotdefineitassuch.Theyrefertotheuseoftechnologyorinformationcommunicationtechnologies(e.g.websites,blogs,socialnetworking
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 285
sites)andhowthemassconsumptionofthesenewtechnologiesisexpandingthehiddenicebergofinformallearning.Thesetechnologiesarefacilitatinginformallearningandconnectingthephysicalspacesoflearningtovirtuallearningspacesthroughmobilephonesandwirelesswebaccess.
Thedefinitionoflearningspacesisnotwithoutitscontroversiesandisalsoaproblematicarea.Billett(2002:56)arguesthat‘describingworkplacelearningenvironmentsandexperiencesas“informal”…constrainsunderstandingabouthowlearningoccursthroughwork’.Hearguesthatthisdescriptionoflearningenvironmentsaseitherformalorinformalleadsto‘situationaldeterminism’insteadofviewinglearningas‘inter-dependentbetweentheindividualandthesocialpractice’(Billett2002:56).Ascanbeseenfromthediscussionoftheliterature,thedefiningofformsoflearningandlearningspacesremainsanareaofconceptualandtheoreticaldialogueanddebate.Weargueforafocusontherelativityandinterconnectednessoftheseformsoflearningandlearningspaces.
International interest in the recognition of non-formal and informal learning
Internationally,theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment(OECD)hasbeenresearchingandpromotingtheimportanceoflifelonglearning,careerdevelopmentandtherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearning.SeveralstudieshavebeencommissionedbytheOECDandotherinternationalandEuropeanbodiesintheseareas(CommissionofEuropeanCommunities2000;EuropeanCommission2001;OECD2003;TheWorldBank2003).TheDirectorateofEducationwithintheOECDviewstherecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearningasacrucialpartofthelifelonglearningagenda:
Therecognitionofnon-formalandinformallearningisanimportantmeansformakingthe‘lifelonglearningforall’agenda
286 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
arealityand,subsequently,forreshapinglearningtobettermatchtheneedsofthe21stcenturyknowledgeeconomiesandopensocieties(OECD2007:1).
Therehavebeenseveralprojectsofacross-countryandinternationalnatureconductedbyinternationalbodieswhichacknowledgethevalueofrecognisingnon-formalandinformallearning.Theseinclude:Identification, assessment and recognition of non-formal learning in Europe (Bjornavold2000); Transfine TRANSsfer between formal, informal and non-formal education (Davies2003);Making learning visible (OECD2007);andtheNew OECD activity on recognition of non-formal and informal learning (Werquin2010).
Measuring the extent of non-formal and informal learning
TheworkofLivingstone(2000a,2000b,2001),throughthefirstcountry-widesurveyofinformallearningpracticesofadultsinCanada,hasexpandedthenotionsoflearningandwork.TheNationalResearchNetworkonNewApproachestoLifelongLearning(NALL)surveywasfirstconductedin1998,andhasfoundthatadults’explicitinformallearningisveryextensive.LivingstoneacknowledgestheearlierworkofTough(1978)andtheuseofthemetaphoroftheiceberg,wherethesubmergedpartoftheicebergrepresentsadults’informallearningactivities.TheNALLsurveyfoundthatrespondents’formal/informallearningrepresenteda20/80percentsplit.Twentypercentofallmajorlearningeffortswereformal,orinotherwordsinstitutionallyorganised(e.g.drivinglessons,pianolessons).Thiswasusuallyone-on-one,butinvolvedaprofessional,formalsituation.Theother80percentwereinformal.Seventythreepercentwereplannedbythelearnersthemselves,wherethelearnersdecidedthewhatandthehowofthelearning.Threepercentwereundertakenwithafriend,neighbourorco-workerteachingthelearnersomething,andfourpercentwerewithinapeergroupwithoutanykindofprofessionalhelp.AnotherfindingfromtheNALLsurveywasthatinformallearningisaverysocialphenomenonandthat‘…theremay
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 287
actuallybemoresocialinteractionininformallearningthanthereisinclassroomlearning’(Tough2002:3).
AsignificantfindingfromtheresearchwasthelevelofsurpriseNALLsurveyrespondentsexpressedatthevolumeoflearningtheyhadcompletedandthevarietyofmethodstheyhadutilisedinthislearning.
…thisispartoftheicebergphenomenon—notonlyareweasasociety(oraseducators)oblivioustoinformallearning,wedon’tevennoticeourown.That’sright,peopledon’tevennoticetheirowninformallearning.Sowhatdowedoaboutthis?Ithinkit’sreallyempoweringandhelpfulandsupportivetoencouragepeopletolookattheirownlearning(Tough2002:7).
In2007theAustralianBureauofStatistics(ABS)conductedasurveyofAdult Learning in Australia(ABS2007)andfoundthat:
Oneineight(12%or1.3million)Australiansaged25to64yearsparticipatedinsomeformofformallearninginthe12monthspriortointerviewin2006–07.Almostone-third(30%or3.3millionpersons)participatedinnon-formallearningandapproximatelythree-quarters(74%or8.1millionpersons)participatedinsomeformofinformallearning…Thoseemployedfull-timeweremorelikelytohaveparticipatedinsomeformoflearningthanpersonsnotinthelabourforce(84%comparedto62%).Unemployedpersonshadlowerparticipationinnon-formal(25%comparedto38%)andinformallearningcomparedtopersonsemployedfull-time(71%comparedto79%)(ABS2007:3).
TheABSsurveyalsofoundthatthemostcommonformofnon-formallearningwaswork-relatedcourses(78%or2.6millionpersons)followedbyarts,craftsorrecreationallearning(12%).Themainfieldsofnon-formallearningwereinmanagementandcommerce(25%)andhealth(22%)(ABS2007:4–5).Forinformallearning,thesurveyfound8.1millionAustraliansparticipatedintheprevious12monthswithrelativelyevennumbersacrossgender(76%ofmalesand73%offemales).Themostcommonformofinformallearningwasreading
288 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
manuals,referencebooks,journalsorotherwrittenmaterials(75%),followedbyusingcomputersortheInternet(71%).Thosewhoindicatedtheydidnotparticipateinanyformoflearningrepresentedone-fifthofAustraliansandweremorelikelytonotbeinthelabourforcethanthoseemployedfull-timeorunemployed(38%comparedto16%and24%).Labouringwasthemostcommonoccupationalgroupfornon-participators(18%)andthemostcommonindustryforthosewhodidnotparticipatewasthemanufacturingindustry(14%)followedbytheretailtradeindustry(11%)(ABS2007:5).
Inconsiderationoftheseissues,thepresentstudysoughttoinvestigatethecombiningandrelativeimportanceofformal,non-formalandinformallearning.Inparticular,tworesearchquestionsrelatedtocombiningformsoflearningwereaddressed:
RQ1:Areskillsgainedbyasingleformoflearningorbycombinationsofforms?
RQ2:Aretheredifferencesincombiningofformsoflearningbasedondemographicfactors?
Afurtherthreeresearchquestionsrelatedtotherelativityofformsoflearningwereaddressed:
RQ3:Aretheredifferencesbetweenthepercentagesofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearning?
RQ4:Arethereinteractionsbetweenthepercentageofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearninganddemographicfactors?
RQ5:Isthereaninteractionbetweenthepercentageofskillsgainedfromdifferentformsoflearningandcategoryofskill?
Method and sample description
TheapproachtakeninthisstudywasexploratoryandutiliseddatadrawnfromabroaderLearningSurveyadministeredto247labourmarketprogramparticipantsinvariousprogramsruninsoutheastQueenslandandnorthernNewSouthWalesinAustralia.Thesurvey
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 289
addressedissuesacrossseveralthemes:currenttraining/study;computeraccessanddigitalliteracy;previouseducationandtraining;awarenessofrecognitionofpriorlearning(RPL);experiencewithRPL;futureintentionsforlearning;andmotivationsandinfluencesonlearning.Thesurveywasadministeredbytheresearcherorbytrainers/facilitatorsoflabourmarketprogramstogroupsoflabourmarketprogramparticipants.Anaimoftheresearchwastoaccessasampleofpeopleconsideredtobedisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.AmajorcriticismoftwolargeAustralianresearchreportsonRPL(Bowmanetal.2003;Wheelahanetal.2003)wasthattheresearchutilisedlargesecondarydatasetsofexistingpopulationsofstudentswithinformallearningsettings;thatis,peoplealreadyengagedinsomeformofformallearningwithaneducationalinstitution.Amajoraimofthisresearchwastoaccessasamplenotengagedinsomeformofformallearningwithintheexistingeducationalsectors,alongwithbeingdisadvantagedwithinthelabourmarket.Itwasdecidedthataccessingparticipantsonlabourmarketprogramswouldbeanefficientmeansbywhichtocapturesuchademographic.ParticipantsonlabourmarketprogramsareusuallyregisteredasunemployedorseekingemploymentwithCentrelinkand/orreceivingsomeformofgovernmentbenefitorallowance.Labourmarketprogramsareusuallytargetedtocertaingroupsofdisadvantagedjobseekersinreceiptofbenefits/allowances.Limitationscommontosurveyswereaddressedinthebroaderstudy.
Thesamplingframeforthebroaderstudywasthoseindividualswhowerecurrentlyunemployedandparticipatinginalabourmarketprogram.Thesamplingtechniquesusedwerepurposefulandsnowballsamplingwherelabourmarketprogramswereidentifiedthroughgovernmentfundingbodywebsitesandthenbyrequestingreferralstoothersimilarprogramsbythoseorganisationsfundedtoconductthelabourmarketprograms.Samplebiasoccurredwhenagroupattendingacoursenotconsideredtobealabourmarket
290 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
programwasincluded.Thisgroupwasengagedinatrainingcoursethatwasfulltime,fee-payingandataCertificateIIIAQFlevelandwasincludedastheyrepresentedthoseindividualsconsideredhiddenunemployed—registeredwithCentrelinkbutnotreceivingunemploymentbenefitsduetotheemploymentstatusoftheirspouse.Duetothenatureofthesample,thefindingsarelimitedtounemployedadults.Validskillsdataforthepurposeofthepresentstudywereprovidedby172oftheparticipants.SampledemographicsareprovidedinTable1.ThesamplelargelyconsistsofunemployedadultsandthehighesteducationalachievementofthesamplebroadlymatchesthedistributionforunemployedintheSurvey of Education and Training(ABS2005).
Table 1: Sample demographics
Gender(n=169):
Male 75
Female 94
Age(n=170):
15–19 11
20–24 15
25–29 6
30–34 4
35–39 11
40–44 26
45–49 35
50–54 29
55–59 23
60+ 10
Employment status(n=170)
Employed 18
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 291
Unemployed 152
Length of unemployment(n=138):
<6months 30
6monthsto1year 29
>1year 79
Highest education level(n=166):
UptoSchoolCertificate/Year10/equivalent 71
HigherSchoolCertificate/Year12/equivalent 37
TAFE/CollegeCertificate 33
Diploma 9
Bachelordegree 9
Postgraduate 7
TheLearningSurveyincludedalearninggridforlistingandproportioningself-reportedskillsacrossformsoflearning.Morespecifically,surveyrespondentswhereaskedtolistuptothreeoftheirskillsand,foreachskill,allocatetheirlearningofthatskillacrossthreeformsoflearning:lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study.Asmentionedearlierinthispaper,definitionsofformal,non-formalandinformallearningareproblematicandcontested.Wedonotassumealllifeexperienceisinformallearning,allworkexperienceisinformalorallformaltrainingisformallearning.However,forthepurposesofthisdatacollectionexercisethesethreecategorieswereutilised.
Allocationsforeachofthethreecategories(lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study)werepercentages,sothatforeachskillthetotalacrossthethreeformsoflearningequals100%.Atotalof460skillswerereportedbyrespondentsalongwithproportionsacrossthethreeformsoflearning.Atotalof129respondentsprovideddataforthreeself-reportedskills,
292 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
30respondentsprovideddatafortwoskillsand13respondentsprovideddataforonlyoneskill.
Theself-reportedskillswerecodedusingtheAustralian Standard Classification of Education (ASCED)(ABS2001).The6-digitcodesfromtheASCEDwereusedininitialcoding.Aggregationto4-and2-digitcodeswaslaterperformedusingSPSS’srecodefeature.Codingwasundertakenusingthefollowingprocess.First,theauthorsandaresearchassistantdiscussedthecodingschemeandasagroupcodedtensurveys.Theresearchassistantthencodedtheremainingsurveys.However,oninstruction,anyskillsthattheresearchassistanthadanydoubtsoverwereasteriskedandlistedonaseparatesheet,indexedbacktotheoriginalsurvey.Whentheresearchassistantcompletedworkingthroughthesurveys,the‘asteriskedlist’wasforwardedtotheauthors,whoeachconsideredtheskillsonthelistandcodedthem.Discrepanciesincodeswerediscussedandagreementreached.Itisnoted,however,thatagreementwasevidentintheinitialcodingforthemajorityoftheseasteriskedskillssuggestingahighlevelofinter-coderreliability.
Table2presentsthefrequencyandpercentageofself-reportedskillsfallingintoeachofthe2-digitlevelclassificationsindescendingfrequencyorder.Thetablealsoincludesexamplesoftheskillsrepresentedineachcategory.Managementandcommerceskillsrepresentthehighestpercentage(41%)ofself-reportedskillsandallother2-digitclassificationsrepresented10%orlessofallreportedskills.Veryfewrespondentsreportedskillsrelatedtonaturalandphysicalsciences(2mentions),informationtechnology1(6mentions),health(8mentions)andeducation(11mentions).ExaminationoftheexamplesinTable2indicatesthatmostarelowlevelskills,aswould
1 ‘Computerskills’wascommonlymentioned,howeverthiswasclassifiedundermanagementandcommerce,whichincludesacode(080905)for‘PracticalComputingSkills’.ThiswasconsideredmorerelevantforgeneralcomputerskillsthanthecomputerscienceorientationcapturedbytheInformationTechnology2-digitclassification.
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 293
begenerallyexpectedfromthissample.Forexample,33%oftheskillsreportedintheengineeringandrelatedtechnologiescategory,whichmadeup10%ofallskillsreported,relatedtocleaning.
Table 2: Self-reported skills
2-digit classification n % Examples
Management&Commerce 188 40.9 Sales;secretarialandclerical;practicalcomputing
Engineering&RelatedTechnologies
46 10.0 Cleaning;automotive;mechanical
MixedFields 42 9.1 Socialandinterpersonal;workpractices
CreativeArts 38 8.3 Artsandcrafts;music;writing
Food,Hospitality&PersonalServices
37 8.0 Cooking;barservice;waiting;driving;massage
Society&Culture 33 7.2 Sportandrecreation;childandagedcare
Architecture&Building 28 6.1 Building;painting;laboring
Agriculture,Environmental&Related
21 4.6 Gardening;mowing;animalhusbandry
Education 11 2.4 Teaching;training
Health 8 1.7 Nursing;firstaid
InformationTechnology 6 1.3 IT;programming;technician
Natural&PhysicalSciences 2 0.4 Maths;chemistry
Total 460 100
Giventheprevalenceofmanagementandcommerceskillsreportedbythesample,thesearebrokendownfurtherinTable3.Practicalcomputingskillsmadeupthelargestnumberofskillsinthiscategoryat37%.Thenextmostcommontypeofmanagementandcommerce
294 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
skillreportedwassales.Allothercategoriesrepresentedlessthan10%ofmentionedmanagementandcommerceskills.
Table 3: Management and commerce skills
n %Examples of respondents’ wording
Practicalcomputingskills 69 36.7 Computer,wordprocessing,MicrosoftOffice
Sales 42 22.3 Customerservice,cashiering,sales,retail
Secretarialandclerical 15 8.0 Reception,secretarial,clerical
Office 12 6.4 Officeadmin,recordkeeping,
Accounting 10 5.3 Accounting,bookkeeping,budgeting
Businessandmanagement
10 5.3 Supervisory,manager,changemanagement
Purchasing,warehousinganddistribution
10 5.3 Packer,courier,truckdriving,forklift,stores
Keyboardskills 7 3.7 Typing
Marketing 5 2.7 Marketing,promoting
Humanresourcemanagement
3 1.6 Humanresources,recruitment
Publicrelations 2 1.1 Publicrelations
Publicandhealthcareadmin.
1 0.5 Clinicalcoding
Realestate 1 0.5 Realestatesales
Tourism 1 0.5 Touristindustry
Total 188 100.0
Thestatisticalanalysismethodsemployedtoaddresstheresearchquestionsareoutlinedinthenextsectionastherelevantfindingsarepresented.
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 295
Findings
Combining forms of learning
WefirstexaminedwhetherrespondentsreportedthatskillsweregainedbyasingleformoflearningorbycombinationsofformsinordertoaddressResearchQuestion1.Forthisexamination,weusedthedataforall460validlyreportedskills.Figure1presentstheresults.2Onlysmallproportionsofallself-reportedskillswerelearntbydrawingupononeformoflearning(thatis,lifeexperienceonly,workexperienceonlyorformaltraining/studyonly).Intotal,only16%oftheself-reportedskillswerelearntusingasingleformoflearning,leavingthevastmajority(84%)ofskillsbeinglearntusingsomecombinationofformsoflearning.Therefore,themajorityofskillsreportedbyrespondentswerelearntusingacombinationoflearningforms.
2 Figure1wasalsogeneratedusingonlythefirst-listedskillinthematrixbyeachrespondent.Thepercentagesforthedifferentformsandcombinationsoflearningwereessentiallythesameandsoarenotreportedhere.Wealsocontrolledforskillbyincludingonlythoseskillsinthelargestcategory(managementandcommerce)andagainthepatternwasverysimilar.
296 Roslyn Cameron and Jennifer L. Harrison
Figure 1: Forms of learning as a percentage of self-reported skills
Twoformsoflearningwereusedfor42%oftheself-reportedskills.Themostcommoncombinationoftwoformswaslifeandworkexperience,relevantto26%ofskills.Thisfindingindicatesthatnon-formalandinformallearning,representedbylifeandworkexperiencerespectively,incombinationrepresentasignificantbasisforlearningthelowerlevelskillssoprevalentamongstthosedisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.
Despitethis,byfarthemostcommoncombination,at42%,wassomemixofallthreeformsoflearning.Thisresultindicatesthatformallearningisrelevanttolowerlevelskillsandpeopledisadvantagedinthelabourmarketbutnotinisolation,asindicatedbythelowpercentageofskillsgainedentirelythroughformallearning(4%).Henceacombinationofformallearningwithotherformsoflearningseemsprevalentanddemonstratestheinterrelatednessofthethreeformsoflearninginskilldevelopment.
WeaddressedResearchQuestion2byexaminingwhetherthereweredifferencesincombiningformsoflearningbasedondemographic
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factors.Thefindingsreportedherearebasedonanalysesofonlythefirstmentionedskillbyeachrespondent.Itisnoted,however,thatthesefindingswereessentiallythesameasthoseusingallskills.Itwasconsideredmoreappropriate,however,toreportfindingsusingonlythefirst-mentionedskillbecausedemographicfactorsattheskilllevelarenotnecessarilyindependent.
AMann-WhitneyU-testindicatednodifferencebetweenmalesandfemalesinthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningused(U=3343;Z=-0.628;p=0.530).However,testingindicateddifferencesbasedonthedemographicfactorsofageandeducation.AKruskal-WallisRanktestindicatedthatthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearninguseddifferedacrossagegroups(χ2=6.825;df=2;p=0.033).Todeterminewhichofthethreeagegroups(15–29years;30–44years;45+years)differed,multiplecomparisontestsusingMann-WhitneyUwerecarriedoutwithBonferroniadjustmentininterpretingprobabilityvalues.Thisindicatedthatthe30–44yearsgrouphadasignificantlyhighermeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningusedthanthe45+agegroup(U=1492;Z=-2.515;p=0.12).
Similarly,aKruskal-WallisRanktestindicatedthatthemeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearninguseddifferedacrossgroupsdefinedbyhighestlevelofeducation(χ2=10.915;df=2;p=0.004).Thethreeeducationgroupswere(1)uptoschoolcertificate,(2)higherschoolcertificate(HSC),and(3)TAFE/collegecertificateorabove.MultiplecomparisontestsindicatedthatthosewithahighesteducationleveluptoschoolcertificatehadsignificantlylowermeanrankingofthenumberofformsoflearningusedthanboththeHSC(U=924.5;Z=-2.719;p=0.007)andfurthereducation(U=1538;Z=-2.707;p=0.007)groups.Figure2presentsamoredetailedpictureofthesedifferences.Thedistributionacrosssingleandcombinedformsoflearningforthosewithuptoschoolcertificateeducationisshownintheupperpanel,whilethemiddlepanelshows
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thedistributionforthosewithaHSCandthelowerpanelforthosewithaTAFE/collegecertificateorabove.Thefigureshowsthatalowerpercentageofuptoschoolcertificaterespondentscombineallthreeformsoflearning.
Figure 2: Forms of learning as a percentage of first-mentioned skills, by education
Relativity of forms of learning
Next,toaddressResearchQuestion3,weperformedanoveralltestofdifferenceinlabourmarketprogramparticipants’percentageofskillslearningthroughthethreeformsoflearning:lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study.Themeanpercentageofskillslearningfromeachformoflearningwascalculatedforeachrespondent,givinganoverallmeasure(acrossskills)oftherelativeimportanceofeachformoflearningforeachrespondent.ThisdatawasthenanalysedusingasinglegrouprepeatedmeasuresANOVA.3
3 InallanalysesthereportedFstatisticanddegreesoffreedomarebasedonmultivariatetestswithPillai’scriterion.
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Therewasasignificanteffectofformofskillslearning(F(2,172)=20.071,p<0.001).PairwisecomparisonsundertakenwithBonferroniadjustmentindicatedsignificantdifferencesbetweenlifeexperienceandformaltraining/study(p<0.001)andbetweenworkexperienceandformaltraining/study(p<0.001).Therewasnosignificantdifferencebetweenlifeexperienceandworkexperience(p=1).Themeansforlifeexperience(37.8%)andworkexperience(39.1%)aresignificantlyhigherthanthemeanforformaltraining/study(23.2%),indicatingthatthelatterformoflearningisrelativelylessimportantforgainingskills.
Wethenexploredanybetween-subjectinteractioneffectsassociatedwithage,genderandhighestlevelofeducationalattainmentinordertoaddressResearchQuestion4.Duetosmallcellsizesforafullmultivariatemodel,eachdemographicvariablewasconsideredseparately.Therefore,theresultshereshouldbeconsideredonlytentativebecauseinteractionsbetweendemographicfactorswerenottakenintoaccount,onlyinteractionswithformoflearning.
Genderdidnothaveasignificantinteractionwithformofskillslearning(F(2,168)=0.397,p=0.673).Hencegenderdoesnotinfluencetherelativeimportanceoftheformsoflearning.Surprisingly,agealsohadnosignificantinteractionwithformoflearning(F(4,338)=1.728,p=0.143).Therefore,agedoesnotinfluencetherelativeimportanceoftheformsoflearning.Incontrast,highesteducationlevelhadasignificantinteractionwithformoflearning(F(6,328)=1.984,p=0.067)atthe0.10level.Notethatforgreaterclarificationinthisanalysisweusedfour,ratherthanthree,educationgroupsbysplittingthe‘TAFE/collegecertificateorabove’groupintotwo:(1)TAFE/collegecertificateand(2)Diplomaorhigher.However,theanalysisusingthreegroupsalsohadasimilarlysignificantinteraction(F(4,330)=2.296,p=0.059).ProfilesofthefoureducationlevelsacrosstheformsoflearningareshowninFigure3.Thefigureshowsthattherelativeimportanceofformaltraining/studyincreasesat
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highereducationlevels.Inparticular,therelativeimportanceofformaltrainingandstudytothosewithadiplomalevelorhigherqualification(mean=33.6%)isgreatercomparedwiththosewithuptoschoolcertificate(mean=17.7%).Consequently,andnotsurprisingly,thosewithuptoschoolcertificaterelymoreheavilyonlifeandworkexperiencefortheirskilldevelopment.
Figure 3: Profiles of percentage of skill gained from forms of learning for education levels
ThefinalanalysisinvolvedexploringwhetherthepercentageofskillsgainedfromeachformoflearningdifferedbytypeofskillinordertoaddressResearchQuestion5.Skillswereclassifiedaccordingtotwo-digitASCEDcodes.Duetolownumbersofskillsfallinginthenaturalandphysicalsciences,informationtechnology,healthandeducationcategories,thesewereexcludedfromtheanalysis.Arepeatedmeasuresanalysiswithformoflearningastherepeatedmeasureandskillcategoryasthebetween-subjectsfactorwasundertaken.Themultivariatetestsforformoflearningandtheinteractionofformoflearningandskillcategoryweresignificant(respectively,
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F(2,424)=51.441,p<0.0005andF(14,850)=4.056,p<0.001).Theformsoflearningdifferedinthesamewayasthepreviouslyreportedanalysis(thatis,themeansforlifeexperienceandworkexperience,overall,weregreaterthanthemeanforformaltraining/study).Theinteractioneffectbetweenformoflearningandskillcategoryindicatedthattherelativeweightinggiventoformoflearningdependsonskillcategory.Figure4showstheprofilesoftheskillcategoriesacrosstheformsoflearning.Itshowsthatformaltrainingandstudyisrelativelylessimportantfordevelopingarchitectureandbuilding,andagricultureandenvironmentalskills.Architectureandbuildingskillsappeartodrawmoreuponworkexperiencethanotherskills.Architectureandbuilding,managementandcommerceandengineeringandrelatedskillsseemtorelylessonlifeexperiencethanotherskillscategories.
Figure 4: Profiles of percentage of skill gained from form(s) of learning for skill categories
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Conclusion
Thereportedfindingsaddresseachoftheidentifiedfiveresearchquestions.Conclusionsabouteachofthequestionsarepresentedbeforeoverallconclusionsaredrawn.
Thefirsttworesearchquestionsareconcernedwithcombiningformsoflearningandthefactorsthatmayimpactonthis.ResearchQuestion1asked,Are skills gained by a single form of learning or by combinations of forms?.Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethatforpeopleinlabourmarketprogramsmostskillsaregainedbycombinationsofformsoflearning;inparticular,combinationsof:
• lifeexperienceandworkexperience,representingnon-formalandinformallearning;and
• lifeexperience,workexperienceandformaltraining/study,representingnon-formal,informalandformallearning.
ResearchQuestion2,whichasked,Are there differences in combining of forms of learning based on demographic factors?,subsequentlybuildsonResearchQuestion1byinvestigatingwhetherdemographicfactorsarerelevanttounderstandingthecombiningofformsoflearning.Thestudyfoundnodifferencesbasedongenderbutthereweresomedifferencesbasedonageandhighestlevelofeducation;inparticular:
• thosebetween30and44yearsagetendtocombinemoreformsoflearningthantheirolderpeers;and
• thosewithuptoschoolcertificateleveleducationarelesslikelytocombineallthreeformsoflearningthanthosewithahigherlevelofeducation.
Onthewhole,however,itcanbeconcludedthatdemographicsdonotneatlydistinguishthewayinwhichformsoflearningarecombinedbypeopleinlabourmarketprograms.Thesecomplexitiesneedtoberecognisedwhenusingdemographicstotargetsub-groupsinthedevelopmentandimplementationoflabourmarketpolicies.
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Thefinalthreeresearchquestionsareconcernedwiththerelativeimportanceofthedifferentformsoflearningandthefactorsthatmayimpactonthis.ResearchQuestion3asked,Are there differences between the percentages of skills gained from different forms of learning?Thefindingsofthestudyindicatethattherearedifferences.Inparticular,thepercentagesofskillsgainedfromlifeandworkexperiencewerehigherthanthepercentageofskillsgainedfromformaltraining/study.Thissupportstheliterature,indicatingthatrecognitionofinformalandnon-formallearningisimportantasameansofrecognisingnon-credentialledskillsets,orwhatTough(2002)referredtoasthesubmergedpartoftheadultlearningiceberg.IndustriesandthebusinesscommunityareexperiencingmajorHRMchallengesandtherecognitionofthesesignificantformsoflearningcouldbethefirststepintappingintoapotentialpoolofworkforceapplicantstraditionallyviewedassemiorunskilled.
ResearchQuestion4,whichaskedAre there interactions between the percentage of skills gained from different forms of learningand demographic factors?,buildsonResearchQuestion3byinvestigatingwhetherdifferencesintheimportanceofformsoflearningvaryacrossdemographicfactors.Suchinteractionswerenotfoundforgenderorage.Althoughageprovidesmoreopportunitytolearnskillsthroughlifeexperienceitalsoallowsmoretimetolearnthroughworkexperienceandtoundertakeformaltrainingandstudy.Hence,therelativitiesofformsoflearningarenotlikelytobeaffectedsimplybecauseonebecomesolder.Conversely,highestlevelofeducationalattainmentwasfoundtointeractwiththeimportanceofformsoflearning.Specifically,gainingskillsthroughformaltrainingandstudyismoreimportantthanlifeandworkexperienceforthosewithahighlevelofeducationcomparedtothosewithonlyabasiclevelofeducation.Thisfindingconfirmstheobvious,butaddressestotheauthors’knowledgethepreviouslyuntestedassumptionthatinformalandnon-formallearningisrelativelymoreimportantforpeoplewithlesseducationandtraining.However,withrespectto
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ResearchQuestion4overall,itcanbeconcludedthatdemographicsdonothavealargeimpactontherelativeimportanceofformsoflearningforpeopleinlabourmarketprograms.
ResearchQuestion5asked,Is there an interaction between the percentage of skills gained from different forms of learning and category of skill? Thestudyfoundevidenceofsuchaninteraction,indicatingthatdifferentskillcategoriesshowdifferentpatternsoftherelativeimportanceofthethreeformsoflearning.Formaltrainingandstudyisrelativelylessimportantforlearningthearchitecture,building,agricultureandenvironmentalskillsheldbylabourmarketprogramparticipants.Instead,workexperienceismoreimportantthanotherformsoflearningforarchitectureandbuildingskills.Theseskills,alongwiththoserelatedtomanagement,commerceandengineering,alsorelylessonlifeexperiencethanotherskillcategories.
Theresultsareparticularlyinterestinginthecontextofthesampleexaminedinthisstudy;thatis,thosedisadvantagedinthelabourmarketwhoaremainlyunemployedandreportedmainlylowerlevelskills.Overall,theresultssuggestthatcombiningformsoflearningisthenormandthatnon-formalandinformallearningareparticularlyimportant.ThissuggestsRNFILhaspotentialapplicationtothissampleandothersimilarpeopleinlabourmarketprograms.
Thestudywasexploratoryandhashighlightedthesignificanceofinformalandnon-formallearningintheacquiringofskillswhichmayberelevantinassistingingainingemployment.AstudybyGolding,MarginsonandPascoe(1996)usedasomewhatsimilarmethodwithasampleofstudentswhohadmovedfromhighereducationtoTAFEtoshowthatevenpeoplewithtertiary(TAFE&university)backgroundsattributedmostoftheirskillstocombinationsofhome,familyandwork(andoccasionallyschool).Atadefinitionallevel,wenotedthechangeinlanguageandreferencefromadulteducationtowhatamountstoformsoflearningcategorizedbytheirmodesof
The interrelatedness of formal, non-formal and informal learning 305
facilitationandthecurrenttheoreticalandpoliticaldimensionsoftheseconcepts.
Thestudycouldbeextendedtofurtherinvestigateskillsetsforthoseconsidereddisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Forinstance,thosegroupstargetedbywelfarereformsaimedatincreasingworkforceparticipationtendtobeconsideredsemiorunskilled.Furtherresearchcouldinvestigatespecificskillsetsandgaugethelevelsofinformalandnon-formallearningthatinformtheseskillssetsforthepurposesofskillsrecognition.ManyindustriesarefacingimmenseHRissuesintermsoftheageingworkforce,skillshortagesandloweringratesofworkforceparticipation.Thisstudyhasimplicationsforfuturepracticesintermsoftheenactmentofpoliciesattheinterfaceofhumancapitaldevelopmentandsocialinclusion.
Duetothenatureofthesample,thefindingsarelimitedtounemployedadults.Despitethis,thepaperhashighlightedtheimportanceandextentoftheinterrelatednessofinformal,non-formalandformallearning,especiallyforthoseconsidereddisadvantagedinthelabourmarket.Thestudyhasidentifiedareasforfurtherresearchinrelationtotheconfigurationsattachedtotherelativityandinterconnectednessbetweeninformal,non-formalandformallearningforspecificselfreportedskillsetsandhassignificantimplicationsfortherecognitionofskillslearnedthroughnon-formalandinformallearning.Weargueforareframefromthefocusonthedifferencesbetweenformsoflearningtoafocusontheconnections,relationshipsandinterrelatednessbetweentheselearningforms.Weassertthiswillprovideamuchricherandfullerpictureofthevariablesandcontextualinfluencesatplaywhenindividualsandgroupsengageinlearningacrossadiverserangeoflearningspacesandacrosstime.Thisreframerecognisesthefluidanddynamicnatureofthecomplexinterplaythatislearning.
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About the authors
Dr Roslyn Cameron is a senior lecturer in the School of Management and Marketing at Central Queensland University. She teaches in both undergraduate and postgraduate programs in the field of Human Resource Management and Development. Roslyn is a Fellow of the Australian Human Resources Institute (FAHRI) and has a particular interest in skill recognition systems from a human resource development perspective.
Dr Jennifer L. Harrison is a senior lecturer in Southern Cross Business School at the Gold Coast campus of Southern Cross University. Her research interests include entrepreneurial learning, collaboration and innovation.
Contact details
Dr Roslyn Cameron, School of Management and Marketing, Central Queensland University, Gladstone Campus, PO Box 1319, Gladstone, Queensland 4680 Tel: 61–7 4970 7627 Fax: 61–7 4970 7252 Email: [email protected]
Dr Jennifer L. Harrison, SCU Business School, Southern Cross University, Gold Coast Campus, Locked Bag 4, Coolangatta, Queensland 4225 Tel:61–755893064 Fax:61–755893701Email:[email protected]