The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children

The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on ChildrenA review of the evidenceProduced by the CPC Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task ForceAugust 2011

The Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task Force is convened by the Women’s Refugee Commission on behalf of Child Protection in Crisis.

© Peter Biro/IRC

Contents

Summary

Introduction

Review Process

Focus

Objectives

Methodology

Inclusion Criteria

Limitations

State Of The Evidence Base

Theory Of Change

Logic Behind The Model

Approaches To Economic Strengthening

Economic Strengthening Engaging Caregivers

Microfinance

Cash And Vouchers

Other ES Approaches Engaging Adults

Economic Strengthening Engaging Children Directly

Savings And Financial Education

Adolescent Girl-Focused Work: “Girl Platforms”

Cash Transfers To Children

Microcredit

Negative Outcomes

Spillover Effects

Indicators

Recommendations

Questions For Further Research

Annex I: Impact Evaluations Looking At Protection/Well-Being

Outcomes For Children From Economic Strengthening Programs

Annex II: Search Methodology

Annex III: Literature Review Search Terms

Annex IV: Draft Minimum Standard On Child Protection And Livelihoods

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The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children i

The Child Protection in Crisis (CPC) Network was established in 2008 as a mechanism to strengthen and systematize child care and protection in crisis-settings through collaborative action of humanitarian agencies, local institutions and academic partners. The secretariat of the CPC Network is housed at Columbia University’s Program on Forced Migration and Health. Emphasizing learning, the CPC Network undertakes innovative research and builds evidence to affect change in child protection policy and practice. At the country level, the CPC Network brings together policy makers and practitioners to determine learning priorities and ensure the results of these endeavors are put to good use. Globally, the CPC Network works with coalitions of UN, NGO, private sector and government actors to generate evidence and link research findings to global practice.

As a part of this effort, the CPC Task Force on Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening seeks to enhance the protection and well-being of crisis-affected children through sustainable livelihoods approaches and economic strengthening of households. The Task Force strives to improve the design, quality and effectiveness of economic programming targeting crisis-affected populations, both with adults, and in economic interventions for adolescents themselves.

Acknowledgements

This review was made possible with generous support from The Oak Foundation. Written by Josh Chaffin of Women’s Refugee Commission, with major inputs and research assistance from Deanna Bergdorf. Hui Mien Tan conducted the initial database search. Reviewers included:

• Wayne Bleier, Save the Children-UK• Noemi Gerber, War Child Holland• Mendy Marsh, UNICEF • Lloyd McCormick, ChildFund International• Karen Austrian, Population Council• John Williamson, Displaced Children and Orphans Fund, USAID • Jina Krause-Wilmar, Women’s Refugee Commission • Irma Specht, Transition International• Alistair Ager, Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health• Dale Buscher, Women’s Refugee Commission• Bobbi Gray, Freedom From Hunger

Special thanks to Jennifer Schulte of the Women’s Refugee Commission for guidance. Layout by Antonius Murdhani. Illustration layout by Craig Adams. Please direct comments and questions to [email protected].

Cover photo © Dale Buscher

The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Childrenii

[email protected]

Summary

This review of 43 impact studies sought to methodically capture the known impacts of economic strengthening (ES) programs (microcredit, skills training, agricultural interventions, etc.) on the well-being of children (0-18 years) in crisis contexts in low-income countries. The review looked at effects on children both from interventions engaging caregivers as beneficiaries, and those targeting children themselves. The goals were to understand the types of approaches taken to economic strengthening that focus on improving children’s welfare, catalog the interventions that have been rigorously evaluated for their impacts on children, and synthesize the evidence to identify the gaps in knowledge.

Most of the evidence from rigorous research to date comes from non-emergency contexts, and even the literature on impacts from non-crisis settings is fragmented and underdeveloped. Analysis is largely gender-blind at the level of the child and rarely disaggregated by age within the category of children (0-18 years). With so many possible approaches and contexts, and with such a small universe of rigorous impact research reports, positive results from any particular study are not necessarily generalizable to the wider field.

The review shows that economic strengthening programs canhavemanypositivebenefitsforchildrenofbeneficiaries,or for children themselves when targeted directly. In several cases ES programs were also shown to increase thedemandfor,and/ortheefficacyof,non-economicprogramming (health education, building social capital, etc.).

ES programs do not always benefit children, and can also cause harm in some cases. Incidence of child labor may follow an inverted U-shape depending on the phase of the program or the size of a loan, meaning programmers should expect both increases and decreases in child labor and must monitor accordingly. Children’s exposure to gender-

based violence can increase as a result of changing time-use patterns and increased income. Microcredit is seen as inappropriate for children as direct beneficiaries, but savings interventions for children show promise in various combinations with non-economic interventions. Financial literacy education may be more appropriate for younger than for older adolescents. Spillover effects on outcomes among non-beneficiary children can be positive or negative.

Looking at the basic research on income and assets, gender, bargaining, and agency, we posit a theory of change, wherein ES programs targeting adults result in better outcomes for children when the female caregiver has the power to make important decisions that affect well-being, both in the home and in the community. In ES programs engaging children directly, we argue, their intra- and extra-household agency should be a major determinant of program success.

The review finds some evidence to reinforce this model. Approaches that work to strengthen the social capital of adolescent girls have shown positive results, though the relationship with the efficacy of the economic intervention is still unclear. For women borrowers in microcredit schemes, group deliberation may hold a key to increasing their agency and achieving better results for children in their care.

ES practitioners should build children’s protection and well-being into the assessment, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of economic strengthening programs. Monitoring and evaluation staff and researchers should monitor changes in beneficiary and children’s time-use, as well as changes in women’s (or children’s, where children are direct beneficiaries) intra- and extra-household agency. Donors should require that proposals for ES programming include the protection and well-being of children in their monitoring and evaluation strategies, and that data collection is disaggregated by sex and age.

The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children 1

Introduction

Economic strengthening approaches (microcredit, cash transfers, skills training, etc.) are increasingly applied in crisis and post-crisis contexts. These programs are aimed at achieving a wide variety of socio-economic goals, which may or may not explicitly include goals for children’s protection and well-being. Programs are implemented by a variety of actors from various sectors such as early recovery, child protection, health, nutrition, gender-based violence, etc., on the assumption that greater household wealth can lead to better outcomes in their category of focus (HIV, psychosocial, etc.).

Engaging children or their households in economic programs can have positive effects, but they are also acknowledged to introduce risk of harm, which can sometimes undermine the benefits.Introducingneweconomicincentivesmaycausechildren to change their routines in dangerous ways. In programs engaging caregivers, even when they are deemed effective at the level of the household, they may be ineffective in reaching the youngest in the house, 1 2 and can even put children at greater risk of school-leaving, exploitation or harmful labor.

Due to the broad range of approaches, the methodological difficulties and cost implications, the impact of economic interventions on children’s welfare is not often assessed. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) processes and evaluation research often focus on first-order effects like changes in knowledge, attitudes and practices, which are seen as preconditions for achievement of second-order effects

like improved nutritional status or greater educational attainment. Over the last decade or so, external evaluation research has begun to look more closely at impacts for children, and this review is an attempt at compiling the initial results.

The theme of this study emerges from a poll of practitioners, donors and academics taken at a 2008 Child Protection in Crisis (CPC) network meeting on livelihoods/economic strengthening and child protection in Kampala, Uganda, which found that documenting the impact of interventions was thegroup’sfirstpriorityforresearch.3

Additionally, many factors combine to justify this area of inquiry: • The lack of evidence as to which approaches work and

in which contexts.• The wider effort toward impact evaluation in

humanitarian and development work. Traditionally, economic interventions engaging caregivers, even where they are implemented by child protection agencies, have not been evaluated for their impacts, much less for their impacts on children.

• The rights-based approach increasingly favored by humanitarian actors.

• Recognition of the need to tackle intergenerational cycles of poverty in order to maximize aid effectiveness. Poor children are much more likely to become poor adults.4

• Recognition that household poverty is often a major factor in family separation, which has many documented negative impacts on children.

• The principle of ‘doing no harm’. Some economic strengthening interventions have been shown to increase risk of harmful child labor and school dropout, among others.

The review finds that the evidence of impact on children from economic strengthening (ES) approaches in crisis settings is scarce, and that even the literature on impacts from non-crisis settings is fragmented and underdeveloped. The review draws on basic research on gender, agency, intra-household resource allocation, and asset theory to posit a theoretical model of change. A synthesis of the evidence from the impact literature is then presented, and priority areas for future research are suggested.

Terminology• Livelihoods refers to the capabilities, assets and

activities required for a means of living.*• Economic Strengthening refers to the actions taken

by governments, donors and implementers to improve livelihoods.

• Confusion can arise as the term livelihoods is also used colloquially to refer to economic strengthening interventions (e.g., “livelihoods program”).

* A widely-quoted definition from Chambers, R. and G. Conway, 1992

(Department for International Development

The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children2

1. Peace, Gill and David Hulme. Microenterprise and Children: What Are the Intra-household Impacts of Income-generating Programmes?, Social Enterprise Development Vol. 5 No. 1, 1994.

2. As in the case considered in Save the Children UK. How Cash Transfers Can Improve the Nutrition of the Poorest Children: Evaluation of a Pilot Safety Net Program in Niger, 2009.

Review Process

The review relied on an extensive database search for rigorous program impact evaluation reports, supplemented withexpertinterviews.Feedbackonthefirstdraftwasprovided by humanitarian and development agency staff on the CPC Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task Force.

Focus

The review focused on evidence of impacts from economic strengthening interventions on the protection and well-being of children in crisis and post-crisis settings.

Objectives

• Understand the types of approaches taken to economic strengthening that focus on improving children’s welfare,

• Catalog the interventions that have been rigorously evaluated for their impacts on children, and

• Synthesize the evidence and identify the gaps in knowledge.

Information from the review process also fed into the drafting of the forthcoming minimum standard on Child Protection and Economic Strengthening as part of the Child Protection in Emergencies Minimum Standards (IASC Child Protection Working Group, 2012. See Annex IV). In addition, the review process will inform a Child Protection in Crisis program guidance document on economic strengthening and other products to follow.

Methodology

An initial search of social science journals, international NGO and research institute websites, and UN and development agency databases focused on a broad range of keywords 5 related to child welfare and livelihoods in the Global South, and yielded a variety of project documents, research reviews, reports on basic research from various disciplines, and program guidance documents. The bibliographies of these documents were scanned to yield more results, and a series of expert interviews led to additional reports.

The search yielded approximately 160 relevant documents, which was pared down to the present 36 (plus 11 ongoing studies) based on the inclusion criteria detailed below. The final set of program evaluation reports were added to a matrix and assigned to categories based on types of interventions, target groups and indicators, and their findings were summarized for analysis. A handful of relevant research reviews were also included in the document set. See Annex I for the matrix of the research reports, which also includes web links to the individual reports.

To submit impact studies for inclusion in this area of research, please contact [email protected].


3. For the report from this conference, see: USAID DCOF/AED/Columbia University Program on Forced Migration and Health, Household Livelihoods in Crisis Situations: What Do We Know

and Need to Learn about Economic Interventions for Child Protection and Well being?, 2008.

4. Child Poverty and Cash Transfers, CHIP Report No. 4, Child Poverty Research and Policy Center, 2004.

5. For a detailed list of document sources and search terms see Annexes II and III.

© Peter Biro/IRC


Inclusion CriteriaMost reports generated on these themes are prepared by implementing agencies evaluating their own work to satisfy a donor agency, and do not take pains to rigorously measure outcomes or impact. Reports of this nature were rejected as impact evidence.

The document set consists of published evaluation reports in English of economic strengthening interventions that specificallysoughttorigorouslymeasureimpactsforchildren.Peer-reviewed journal articles evaluating randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of economic interventions were prioritized and are considered here as evidence, but given the small number of such reports available, the criteria for consideration were expanded to include non-peer-reviewed program evaluations, provided that they were conducted by independent (non-implementing) researchers whose methodology included both baseline and post-project data collection on both treatment group(s) that received the intervention and control group(s) that did not. A handful of ex-post evaluations without baselines are also included as evidence, but with caveats. Reports on research in Northern contexts were excluded.

Type of PopulationWhile the direct beneficiaries of programs are often adult caregivers, the review focused on reports looking at outcomes and impacts for children aged 0-18, both within and outside of household care in developing countries.Types of InterventionsInterventions considered in this review fall into the broad category of economic strengthening programming: approaches undertaken by governments, national and international NGOs and agencies to help people increase their assets and income. These include, among others: • vocational skills training • income-generation schemes• cash transfers and conditional cash transfers• agricultural development projects including livestock and

aquaculture• entrepreneurship training and small business

development services• financial education

• microfinance ◦ microcredit ◦ group and individual savings ◦ micro-insurance

• micro-franchising• value-chain work• jobs development interventions including career

counseling and apprenticeships• for-work programs (cash, food) • vocational counseling, mentoring

Research reports considering program impact on children were found for many but not all of the above classes of programming.

With so many possible approaches, establishing parameters foradiscretecategoryof‘economicstrengthening’isdifficult,and inclusion decisions become somewhat subjective. At one end of the spectrum, the line between economic strengthening and social protection (“welfare” programming) is a blurry one. The reviewers chose not to include studies of national social protection programs such as unemployment insurance, but the review does include a study on a large-scale guaranteed employment scheme in India,6 because of the relative quality of the research and the apparent applicability of lessons. At another end of the spectrum, the line between economic strengthening and grassroots community organizing is also blurry. The review considers a handful of multi-sectoral empowerment programs for girls that, while they do include economic interventions such as vocational training, ES is only one fairly minor component alongside many others.

Types of outcome measuresThe review focused on interventions evaluated for their child protection and child well-being outcomes such as (but not limited to) child nutrition (number of meals in a day, stunting, wasting, etc.), education (school enrollment, attendance, level of attainment), health (accessing a health facility, knowledge of health concepts), mental health (self-esteem, hope for the future) and child-caring (hours spent with inadequate care, etc.).

6. Dev, S. Mahendra. NREGS and Child Well Being, Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, 2011


LimitationsWhile the goal of the CPC network is to review and catalyze learning around protection of children in crisis contexts, the major limitation of this study is that most of the evidence from rigorous research to date comes from non-emergency contexts. Some reviewers noted that evidence from non-crisis settings may be of limited use in crisis settings. Admittedly, an inherent tension lies between seeking rigorous program impact evidence and seeking evidence from crisis contexts, where the likelihood of finding rigorous research is the lowest. Most of the published knowledge on children’s outcomes from ES programming in crisis comes from the field of reintegration of children associated with armed forces and groups (CAAFAG), and tends to lack methodological rigor. Further, findings from research on ES approaches for CAAFAG are unlikely to be applicable to the non-CAAFAG children who make up the majority of the child population even in a conflict setting. As many effects of programming on children would not accrue for perhaps many years after the end of a program, properly measuring impact would entail conducting longitudinal studies. The review did not unearth any such studies that met the inclusion criteria.

This review did not consider reports written in languages other than English.

© Lindsay Stark

State of the Evidence Base

Rigorous research on the impacts on children’s welfare from economic strengthening programs in crisis settings is scarce. The two reports on individual programs in crisis settings that met our inclusion criteria included one on an agricultural intervention during a food crisis in Niger 7 (slow onset emergency), and another on the impacts of microcredit programming after the 2004 tsunami in Aceh, Indonesia 8 (retrospective research, initiated by CPC).

The evidence from non-crisis contexts (29 reports) is fragmented and underdeveloped. In the pool of studies that met our criteria for inclusion, many of the lessons are more context-specific than generalizable.

The final document set of 31 research reports can be divided in two major categories: 18 measure the impact of programs in which caregivers were the direct ES beneficiaries, and 13 measure the impact of programs in which children were the direct ES beneficiaries.

Geographical coverage of the 36 completed studies:• 14 reports on Sub-Saharan Africa• 11 on Latin America • 7 on South Asia • 2 from elsewhere in Asia (both Indonesia)• 3 multi-country • 1 on North Africa (Egypt)

Rural-urban breakdown: • 19 reports on a rural context• 6 reports on an urban (or peri-urban) context• 11 reports on both rural and urban contexts

Through the expert interviews we found 11 further studies currently ongoing. A few of these have preliminary results reports, which were factored into the review. Eight of the ongoing studies are looking at ES programs in Sub-Saharan Africa (though one also includes a program in Ecuador), as well as one study focused on each Morocco, Bolivia and Indonesia.

Most of the studies appear to have disaggregated results by sex, but the reports rarely include an analysis of differential effects from ES programs on girls and boys. Similarly, the category of children (0-18 years) is rarely disaggregated by age in the studies, except to the extent the programs target a particular age range such as adolescents 10-18, or a subset of adolescents such as 10-14.

7. Burns, John C. and Omeno W. Suji. Impact Assessment of the Chical Integrated Recovery Action Project, Niger, Feinstein International Center, 2007

8. Sparling, Thalia and Rebecca Gordon. Assessing Impact of Post-Disaster Livelihood Programs on Children

A Two-Country Report from Indonesia and Sri Lanka, Columbia University Program on Forced Migration, 2011

9. Definedbydictionary.comas“thenetworkofsocialconnectionsthatexistbetweenpeople,andtheirsharedvaluesandnormsofbehaviour,whichenableandencouragemutually

advantageous social cooperation”.


© Lindsay Stark

Theory of Change

Looking at basic research on gender, agency, intra-household allocation, and asset theory, we posit a model of change for economic strengthening programs that achieve improved outcomes for children in crisis situations:

Economic strengthening programs targeting adults result in better outcomes for children when the female caregiver has greater agency (capacities to make important decisions that affect well-being and strategic interests) both in the home (resulting in more child-centered resource allocation) and in the community (resulting in greater social capital 9 and increased ability to overcome structural barriers such as restrictive norms and policies, geographic isolation, etc.). In ES programs engaging children as direct beneficiaries, it is their intra- and extra-household agency that matters.

Logic behind the modelOutside the context of an economic intervention, basic research from various disciplines has found that owning assets leads to increased wealth and better options for the future, political participation, educational attainment, diet, and health.10 Multiple studies have also found that well-being is improved among children when their caregivers own assets, as reflected in lower rates of child mortality.11 Increased income in the household has been found to be a main determinant of how much children work or go to school.12 Looking across the body of impact studies that met our inclusion criteria, there also appears to be a positive association between exposure to economic strengthening interventions and child well-being. That is, intervening to grow people’s income and assets can often have positive effects on their children, in various categories of indicators. For example, findings from a multi-country qualitative survey of beneficiaries of an integrated education and savings program said the program made the difference between being able to afford medicines or not, being able to send a child to school, and the number of meals in a day, and having sufficient savings to gird against future economic shocks.13

10. Chowa, Gina A. N. Asset Outcomes for Women and Children: a Research Review, Center for Social Development, 2007, a literature review which lists multiple sources for each of these

individual categories.

11. Ibid.

12. AfindingofseveralstudiesincludingCongdonFors,Heather,The Determinants of Rural Child Labor: An Application to India, Working Papers In Economics No. 256, Göteborg University,

2007; and Das, Saswati and Diganta Mukherjee. Measuring Deprivation Due to Child Work and Child Labour: A Study for Indian Children, 2010.

13. Jarrell, Lynne, et al. Human Faces of Microfinance Impact. Freedom From Hunger International, 2011.



Programs engaging adults: The centrality of the female caregiverIn some cases “control and ownership of assets increases [women’s] bargaining power in the household, provides better prospects for their education and employment, and increases female autonomy and empowerment.” 14 These effects can accrue to the children in their care. When mothers own assets, children have better outcomes because their nutrition isbetterandtheybenefitfromincreasedspendingoneducation and clothing.15 16 In Nepal, women’s land ownership is correlated with better child nutrition,17 and in various countries, livestock in the hands of women is associated with better outcomes in education and nutrition.18 Most economic strengthening programs aimed at adults favor women as directbeneficiariesforthesereasons.

None of this is to minimize the role of males, which is crucial. In conservative settings especially, sustainable ES programming will be impossible without the consent and involvement of men. In restrictive normative environments, women’s control and ownership of assets can be harmful and may not increase women’s bargaining power. Control of assets will only work to women’s interests through the transformation of gender relations—changing the social positioning of women and men. For this reason, ‘male-friendly’ ES approaches are increasingly applied alongside programs engaging women and/or children.

Intra-household resource allocationGiven that the household is known to be a ‘contested terrain,’ 19 in which women, men, girls and boys bargain over resources and decision-making power, we identified intra-household (IHH) agency as a key indicator for analyzing economic empowerment and the success of an ES program in reaching children. Household members enact their “priorities, perceptions, and norms for survival” 20 through IHH decision-making processes. The capacity of women, men, girls and boys to participate in resource allocation decisions is the critical filter through which benefits to children flow.

In the absence of analysis (i.e., through program monitoring) on how new or multiple income sources are controlled within

households, “it will be a gamble whether giving money to women [or children, in cases where children are direct ES beneficiaries]willimprovelifeforthehousehold,promotebettergender relations and women’s status, or bring harm.” 21 This is especially true of crisis contexts, when household composition may change due to the loss of some members and/or sudden integration of others.

In the past it was generally assumed “that the needs and priorities of children coincide with the household.” 22 However, with the reevaluation of household livelihoods, composition and headship in the past decade, children have been recognized as economically capable and targeted as direct beneficiaries of ES programs with some success. For children, financial education and asset accumulation have been shown to have an impact on a variety of well-being indicators including improved self-esteem, school attendance, and reduced sexual risk-taking intentions. A review of the evidence of these impacts is given in greater detail in Economic Strengthening Engaging Children Directly, below. As with female caregivers, allocation of increased resources accruing from ES programs targeting children in household care will depend on the degree of intergenerational agency they enjoy.

For female caregivers and children alike, participation in ES programs is itself a means to increase IHH agency. The ability of any household member to participate in resource allocation decision-making may be linked to their perceived income generating potential. In evidence from our document set, Barnes found that when a woman’s income rises proportionally to that of her spouse, her financial control increases as well.23 In some contexts, income earners may receive a higher proportion of household resources than non-income-earners;24 Engle and Nieves found that girls who worked for income were more likely to survive than their siblings who did not, using samples from food insecure parts of rural Philippines and India.25

Increased IHH agency may also translate into increased extra-household agency and to influence the changing of social norms that previously prevented them from engaging in the economic sphere.

14. Chowa, Gina A. N. Asset Outcomes for Women and Children: a Research Review, Center for Social Development, 2007.

15. Ibid.

16. Holvoet, Nathalie. Impact of Microfinance Programs on Children’s Education - Do the Gender of the Borrower and the Delivery Model Matter?,JournalofMicrofinanceVol.6No.2,2004.

17. Allendorf, Keera. Do Women’s Land Rights Promote Empowerment and Child Health in Nepal?, World Development 35(11), 2007.

18. Valdivia, Corinne. Gender, livestock assets, resource management, and food security: Lessons from the SR-CRSP, Agriculture and Human Values 18: 27–39, 2001.


Extra-household agencyEconomic empowerment (and resulting outcomes for children) is also constrained by forces outside the household. Social norms “regulating the socially permissible economic activities of women [and we argue, of girls and boys] are of equal if not perhaps greater importance than their intra-household bargaining power.”26 Women and children, and especially girls, have been more constrained than men by policies and local norms regulating their behavior. The ability of women and children to engage in the economic sphere in a meaningful way “will depend on the restructuring of long-term and deeply unequal processes of integration in the market.”27

Programs that work to change local norms may have largely favorable effects for women and children. Those that allow women to generate their own income have a positive effect on women’s status and level of empowerment and family’s economic situation.28

As discussed below, this effect has been shown to be stronger when a program incorporated some kind of group process (savings and lending groups, etc.); participation in extra-household groups in a decision-making capacity has a significant effect on intra-household decision-making processes.29 30 This can translate into changes in expenditure and consumption

patterns,31 which, as shown above, favors better outcomes for children. If the approaches include group-based activities or community outreach, participation in economic programming can also reinforce social capital and shift social attitudes about the roles of men and women.32

ES programs engaging children have sometimes helped them to obtain bir th certif icates and government IDs, secure apprenticeships or jobs, and participate in community-level discussion groups. These strategies enhance the extra-household agency of children by making them more visible in their communities, and equipping them with the knowledge, tools, and skills required to exercise their rights.

Program evidence: intra- and extra-household agency• Iyengar and Ferrari tested the impact of adding an

economic strengthening component to an intervention focused on changing harmful social norms. They found that the addition of a village savings and loan (VSLA) project not only made the discussion group intervention more effective, but that the economic component was essential to ensuring community tolerance of a process that might otherwise be met with hostility.33

19. Guyer, Jane. Dynamic Approaches to Domestic Budgeting: Cases and Methods from Africa, in A Home Divided: Women and Income in the Third World, Stanford University Press, 1988.

20. Piwoz, E.J. and Viteri, F.E. Studying Health and Nutrition Behaviour by Examining Household Secision-making, Intra-household Resource Distribution, and the Role of Women in These

Processes, Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 1985.

21. Slater, R. and M. Mphale. Cash Transfers, Gender and Generational Relations: Evidence from a Pilot Project in Lesotho, ODI for World Vision International, 2009, as cited in Paul Harvey

and Sarah Bailey, Humanitarian Practice Network at ODI. Cash transfer programming in emergencies, Good Practice Review No. 11, 2011.

22. Sebstad, J. and Chen, G. Overview of Studies on the Impact of Microcredit Enterprise, Management Systems International, 1996.

23. Barnes,Carolyn.MicrofinanceProgramClientsandImpact:AnAssessmentofZambukoTrust,Zimbabwe,OfficeofMicroenterpriseDevelopmentGlobalBureau,USAID,2001.

24. Based on International Federation for Family Development (IFFD) studies in multiple countries, as cited in Patrice L. Engle and Isabel Nieves, Intra-household food distribution among

Guatemalan families in a supplementary feeding program: Behavior patterns. 1993.

25. Patrice L. Engle and Isabel Nieves, Intra-household food distribution among Guatemalan families in a supplementary feeding program: Behavior patterns. 1993.

26. Kevane, Michael. Extra-household Norms and Intra-household Bargaining: Gender in Sudan and Burkina Faso, 1998.

27. O’Laughlin, B. A Bigger Piece of a Very Small Pie: Intrahousehold Resource Allocation and Poverty Reduction in Africa, Development and Change, 2007.

28. Schuler, Sidney Ruth and Syed M. Hashemi. Credit Programs, Women’s Empowerment, and Contraceptive Use in Rural Bangladesh, Studies in Family Planning 25 (2), 1994.


30. Iyengar, Radha and Guilia Ferrari. Women’s Empowerment in Burundi: Impact Evaluation Paper, London School of Economics, 2011.

31. Iyengar, Radha and Guilia Ferrari. Women’s Empowerment in Burundi: Impact Evaluation Paper, London School of Economics, 2011

32. International Center for Research on Women and Nike Foundation. Emerging Insights: Linkages Between Economic Empowerment and HIV Interventions for Girls and Young Women, 2010

33. Iyengar, Radha and Guilia Ferrari. Women’s Empowerment in Burundi: Impact Evaluation Paper, London School of Economics, 2011


Structural barriers In addition to the gender and intergenerational barriers already mentioned, the ability of ES programs to improve the lot of children is mediated by such conditions as structural inequality, geographic isolation, age discrimination, poor quality of health and education services, lack of information about parenting, and cultural norms. The quality of health or education services available may also affect the level of demand and evidence of impact on health, education, etc. in evaluation of programs.34

Important constraints may not be addressed by programs

as currently designed.35 Looking across the body of impact evidence, this review finds that questions of agency and structural barriers are insufficiently incorporated in the programs (and to a lesser extent, the research) in the adults-as-beneficiaries category. Programs engaging children (at least those that are captured in our document set) are more closely aligned with our theoretical model of change, incorporating strategies to address issues of agency and structural barriers, and evaluating based on observed changes in those categories.

34. Becchetti, Leonardo and Pierluigi Conzo. The Controversial Effects of Microfinance on Child Schooling: A Retrospective Approach, University of Rome, 2010.

35. Fiszbein, Ariel et al. Conditional Cash Transfers: Reducing Present and Future Poverty, The World Bank, 2009.

© Peter Biro/IRC


Approaches To Economic Strengthening

Starting in the 1980s, economic strengthening programs were mostly aimed at the household head and designed on the assumption that the household was a benevolent, co-operative unit, where an increase in income would likely benefit all members.36 Since that time the field has seen several major shifts in understanding that have led to changes in programmatic and evaluation approaches. Many programs—including large-scale cash transfer and microfinance schemes—now focus more on women as primary program beneficiaries because a wealth of studies has shown female caregivers allocate more resources to household needs than do their male counterparts. In contexts with high numbers of adolescent household heads and other vulnerable children, agencies sometimes engage children directly with ES programming.

Economic strengthening is increasingly applied as part of a multi-sectoral integrated community development approach. Many of the programs considered here use ES approaches as part of holistic initiatives that may include multiple economic programs and multiple non-economic programs at the same time, and which may engage more than one cohort of community members. Sometimes ES programs are established to enable time-poor beneficiaries to access programming (health education, peer groups, etc.) that they might not be able to access without the promise of a near-term economic benefit.

Program evidence: General• Non-economic programs can achieve better outcomes

with the addition of an ES component. For example, a multi-arm Population Council impact evaluation in South Africa found that adding a financial literacy component to an HIV education program helped achieve safer sex outcomes for participants.37

Approaches to ES can be divided into two major categories: those that engage caregivers as the primary beneficiaries, and those that engage children directly. In some cases programmers use both approaches simultaneously. Within

these two categories, the discussion below is broken up below by the type of intervention.

Economic Strengthening Engaging Caregivers

MicrofinanceLeaving aside the question of impact on children, the question of microfinance impact in general is one of intense controversy and little firm evidence. The term microfinance includes a variety of services including credit, savings, and insurance, among others, which are delivered by many different types of providers including informal financial service providers (ROSCAs, ASCAs, etc.), member-owned organizations (self-help groups, credit unions, etc.), NGOs, MFIs and formal banks.

Several major global evidence reviews have found mixed and limited results from microfinance in reducing poverty. In the tiny universe of our evidence base on the impacts of microfinance on children, results are similar: a mixture of positive, weak positive, negative and inconclusive. Some of the most promising approaches, those more in line with the theory of change proposed in this paper such as the successful Intervention with Microfinance for AIDS and Gender Equity (IMAGE) model,38 have not been evaluated for their impacts on children. Microcredit is one of the most common ES approaches globally, and it played a role in all but two of the studies in the adults-as-beneficiaries category of our document set. Sometimes credit was the principal intervention of the program, and in other cases it was one strategy among others including savings, agricultural support and non-economic interventions.

All of the caregiver-targeted development-context credit programs in this review seem to have had some positive benefit on children, though most are gender-blind at the level of the child. The one study of microfinance program impact in an emergency context was unable to discern a significant effect on children.

36. Peace, Gill and David Hulme. Microenterprise and Children: What Are the Intra-household Impacts of Income-generating programmes?, Social Enterprise Development Vol. 5 No. 1, 1994.

37. IsihlanguHealth&DevelopmentAgency,theUniversityofKwaZulu-NatalandPopulationCouncil.SiyakhaNentsha,“BuildingwithYoungPeople.”Enhancingthehealth,economic,and

social capabilities of highly vulnerable adolescents, summary brief, 2010.

38. Program description and other resources on IMAGE can be found at http://www.aidstar-one.com/promising_practices_database/g3ps/intervention_microfinance_aids_and_gender_

equity_image_study.

Program Evidence: microfinance engaging caregivers• Two major (though largely gender-blind in the case of

children) multi-country impact studies of microfinance programs found that the resulting new spending generally benefits children. Significant numbers of beneficiaries in the Freedom from Hunger study reported that they use their increased income to pay for children’s education or to purchase more food.39 In the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) cross-sectional study, education was the first priority for spending, followed by health care.40

• Looking at experiences in eight countries, the CIDA study found that children were involved in supporting most beneficiaries’ household microenterprises, even when they were not engaged as direct beneficiaries.41 This has profound implications for monitoring and evaluation (M&E) and evaluation research, because many ES programs are aimed at least in part at microenterprise development.

• The multi-country CIDA study found differences in the amount of time girls and boys spend working in their households’ microenterprises, but that the combined total time spent on chores and microenterprises was similar for both sexes.42

• In one of the few studies looking at an emergency context, a retrospective research project after the 2004 tsunami in Indonesia could find no statistically significant effect on children from microfinance treatment households in comparison to control households.43 This may be due to acknowledged difficulties in measurement, or perhaps to a failure of programs even to improve the lot of adult beneficiaries.

• Looking at outcomes in children’s education in rural India, Holvoet found that in the case of individual bank-borrower credit delivery, it did not matter whether credit entered the household through the mother or the father. Large differences were observed, however, when mothers obtained credit through women’s groups. “Combined financial and social-group intermediation led to higher educational inputs and outputs, mainly for girls. Changes in underlying allocative rules that are provoked by group membership could be explanatory for the results obtained.” 44

• An evaluation of Project HOPE’s Health Bank approach (small business loans combined with health classes and peer education) compared children of beneficiaries with a control group of children whose mothers had received only loans. The study showed that health practices do not improve automatically with greater wealth. Health Bank participation “significantly raises subsequent healthcare over credit-only participation, and at least reduces the tendency to switch from breast-feeding to bottle-feeding as income rises.” 45

• Looking at education and child labor in a rural Bolivian context, Maldonado and Gonzalez-Vega found that for some ranges of household income and some types of borrowers, access to MFIs can have conflicting impacts on child schooling. “Microfinance may increase the demand for education…[or]…households that cultivate land may discover new demands for child labor for farming (or perhaps taking care of siblings while the mothers operate a new or expanded business).” 46

For more on the conflicting impacts on children from microfinance approaches, see Negative outcomes, below.


39. Jarrell, Lynne et al. Human Faces of Microfinance Impact. Freedom From Hunger International, 2011.

40. CIDA. Impacts of Microfinance Initiatives on Children: Overview of the Study Report, 2007.

41. Ibid.

42. Ibid.

43. Stark, Lindsay, et. al. Assessing the Impact of Microfinance Programming on Children: An Evaluation from Post-tsunami Aceh (draft), 2011.


45. Smith, Stephen C. Village Banking and Maternal and Child Health: Evidence from Ecuador and Honduras, George Washington University, 2001.

46. Maldonano, Jorge H. and Claudio Gonzalez-Vega. Impact of Microfinance on Schooling: Evidence from Poor Rural Households in Bolivia, 2008.


47. Harvey, Paul. HPG Report 24: Cash-based responses in Emergencies, Humanitarian Policy Group, 2007.

48. Ibid.

49. Barrientos, Armando and Jocelyn DeJong. Child Poverty and Cash Transfers, Childhood Poverty Research and Policy Centre, 2004.

50. Ibid.

51. Del Carpio, Ximena V. Does Child Labor Always Decrease with Income? An Evaluation in the Context of a Development Program in Nicaragua, World Bank, 2008, and several other

studies have reached this conclusion.

52. Ibid.

53. de Janvry, Alain, et. al. Can Conditional Cash Transfer Programs Serve as Safety Nets in Keeping Children at School and from Working When Exposed to Shocks? World Bank and UC Berkeley, 2006.

54. Del Carpio, Ximena V. Does Child Labor Always Decrease with Income? An Evaluation in the Context of a Development Program in Nicaragua, World Bank, 2008.

Cash and vouchersCash and vouchers is one of the few areas of ES research that has been conducted in acute emergency contexts. This paper relies partly on a 2007 Humanitarian Policy Group literature review to represent the body of research on this area. In development contexts, cash transfer programs have been implemented at great scale and are widely acknowledged as a cost-effective means of helping families escape the inter-generational poverty cycle. They are usually made conditional upon investments in children such as regular doctor visits and school attendance. In acute crisis settings, cash transfers have more often been delivered without such conditions.

Imposing conditions on cash and vouchers allows programmers to address non-economic barriers to child welfare. For example, conditional cash transfer (CCT) programs in some countries address the lack of adequate parenting skills by requiring participation in dialogs on parenting. Programmers in some contexts have attempted to apply such conditions to other types of ES programs (skills training, etc.) but this is a poorly documented and little-understood area.

Program evidence: cash transfers to caregivers• The provision of cash can enhance caring practices

because it enables women to feed their children more frequently, diversify their diet and obtain medical care more quickly.47

• A World Food Program (WFP) cash pilot project in Sri Lanka found that, in households where women already had greater control over resources, receiving cash rather than in-kind transfers led to improved and diversified dietary quality and reduced expenditure on alcohol.48

• Program evidence from South Africa and Brazil shows that cash transfers targeted at women have a stronger impact on the living standards of their children, particularly girls.49

• The same study found that cash transfers directed at women can also have equalizing impacts on bargaining power within the household, because “the strength of negotiating positions arises partly from the income which members contribute to the household.” 50

• In her study of a CCT program in Nicaragua, Del Carpio found that girls required much less of an increase in total household income to experience a decrease in labor than did boys.51

• Del Carpio also found that combining a CCT with a vocational or business grant and an education condition makes it far less appealing for parents to send their children to work instead of school.52

• However, conditionality is not a guarantee of protection. A survey of CCT beneficiaries in Mexico found that while the program caused most children to stay in school during a negative economic shock, the incidence of child labor among those children rose nonetheless.53 Children were simply working outside of school hours.

• Disaggregating types of labor, Del Carpio found that the CCT program not only reduced the incidence of children working, but helped to change the nature of the work children were doing. CCTs led to a decrease in the amount of children’s physical labor, and an increase in non-physical labor such as minding a family store or doing calculations. 54


Other ES approaches engaging adultsBesides the approaches already discussed, many other approaches to economic strengthening of caregivers exist, but few have been captured in the rigorous research. A limited number of findings are presented here.

Program evidence: other approaches engaging adults• An integrated emergency agricultural intervention (asset

transfers, skills training, credit access) in Niger led to better nutritional outcomes for children in beneficiary households, but the project’s establishment of a granary also led to increased demand for the labor of women and girls to pound millet,55 which has implications for childcare and child labor.

• The S. Mahendra Dev study of a large-scale government-run guaranteed-employment program in India found a significantimpactonchildwell-being.Thepositiveimpactson household incomes, migration, and the empowerment and well-being of women have helped in improving nutrition, health and education of children and reduction in child labor.56 (See also Spillover Effects, below.)

• In their evaluation of an intervention to increase production of cash crops (vs. consumption agriculture) in Nepal, Paolissimo et. al. found that the ages and the number of children in a household can determine the degree of change in time-use for child care.57 The intervention increased the time that both women and men were able to care for under-5-year-olds, but this effect was recorded only in households with greater numbers of young children. In households with only one preschooler, the opposite effect was seen. As in many program contexts, this would seem to warrant the provision of child care as a feature of the program, especially for households with fewer children.

Economic Strengthening Engaging Children Directly

Many adolescent girls and boys have the ability, the desire, and the need to engage in economic activities, and in crises they are often forced by parents to contribute to the household income. In the country contexts considered in the research, the majority of older adolescents may already be economically active. In addition, after conflict or in high HIV prevalence contexts, there may be a large number of adolescent household heads, orphans, and other vulnerable children who will need to learn skills to make a living and to manage their money. Thus, older children are sometimes engaged by humanitarian actors directly in training and other ES activities.

Savings and Financial EducationSavings schemes are a common economic strengthening approach in programs engaging children as direct beneficiaries, and savings features in most of the child-focused programs considered in our document set. Exclusion from access to formal financial services is widespread in developing countries, especially among the poor,58 and programmers must intervene to help children access savings accounts to lay the foundation for adult personal financial management behavior. In some cases this involves advocacy with banks or policymakers to change the minimum age for opening a sole owner account. Major donors are now working to take child savings approaches to global scale, using a “social movement” model.

55. Burns, John C. and Omeno W. Suji. Impact Assessment of the Chical Integrated Recovery Action Project, Niger, Feinstein International Center, 2007

56. Dev, S. Mahendra. NREGS and Child Well Being, Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, 2011

57. Paolisso, Michael J. et. al. Does Cash Crop Adoption Detract from Child Care Provision? Evidence from Rural Nepal, University of Maryland, IFPRI and New ERA, 2002

58. ChildFinance/YouthFinance.ChildFinance: A Literature Review, 2011.


Sometimes savings is a group activity, often centered in a school, and in other cases children have access to individual accounts. Savings schemes for children can be formal or informal and are delivered in several ways:• Traditional savings accounts alone• Matched savings accounts alone• Matched or unmatched savings accounts with financial

education• Matched or unmatched savings accounts with other

financial services

As with most of the approaches considered in this paper, savings schemes are often delivered in a package of non-financial support services.

A comprehensive literature review on savings and financial education for children was prepared by ChildFinance in 2011. The evidence base on child savings in developing countries was found to be very limited, and the research on crisis contexts may be non-existent. However, several rigorous impact evaluations of child savings schemes in non-crisis settings are currently underway, some details of which can be found at the end of ANNEX I: Impact evaluations looking at protection/well-being outcomes for children from economic strengthening programs.

Program evidence: savings with children• ChildFinance found from the literature on developed

countries that it may be necessary to target financial education at younger rather than older children, the latter having already formed beliefs and behaviors that weaken the impact of financial education efforts.60

• Evaluating its own local NGO implementing partner, the INGO Aflatoun found that 65 percent of participating child savers used their savings to pay for school-related expenses.61

• In a matched savings account program in Uganda, where adolescent girls and boys saved as much as $318.60 per year, there were weak positive results for the treatment groups on psychosocial indicators. HIV prevention attitudes and educational aspirations improved slightly, while those of the control groups declined slightly over the same period.62

• Looking at the same program, researchers concluded that programs with components that encourage and facilitate improved communication between adolescent girls and boys and their care-givers have the potential to increase a child’s intra-household agency.63

• In a savings intervention that included mentoring, job counseling, and financial education, AIDS-orphaned adolescent girls and boys self-reported significant positive effects on their health and mental health functioning. A study confirmed that health, mental health, and community involvement are all connected to improving economic stability.64 Another study on the same dataset in Uganda found significant positive effects reducing adolescent girls’ and boys’ self-reported sexual risk-taking intentions.65

• A successful Population Council savings experiment with adolescent girls in Kenya and Uganda found that saving with a group (vs. individual borrowing) had little effect on how much girls saved, but girls who saved with a group were found to withdraw their money less often.66

59. Ibid.

60. Ibid.

61. Ibid.

62. Ssewamala, Fred M. et al. A Novel Economic Intervention to Reduce HIV Risks Among School-Going AIDS Orphans in Rural Uganda, Journal of Adolescent Health, 2008

63. Ssewamala, Fred M. et al. Economic Empowerment as a Health Care Intervention among Orphaned Children in Rural Uganda, Center for Social Development, 2006.

64. Ssewamala, Fred M. et al. Asset Ownership and Health and Mental Health Functioning among AIDS-orphaned Adolescents: Findings from a Randomized Clinical Trial in Rural Uganda,

Social Science and Medicine, 2009.

65. Ssewamala, Fred M. et al. Effects of Economic Assets on Sexual Risk-Taking Intentions Among Orphaned Adolescents in Uganda, American Journal of Public Health, 2010.

66. Austrian, Karen. Safe and Smart Savings Products for Vulnerable Adolescent Girls in Kenya and Uganda: Results from the Uganda Pilot Evaluation (Presentation slides from an address

atMakingCentsInternational’sGlobalYouthEconomicOpportunitiesConference2011,WashingtonDC).

.


Adolescent girl-focused work: “girl platforms”About half of the child-targeted ES programs that have been rigorously evaluated are pilot programs aiming to promote the rights of adolescent girls. The research around these approaches, conducted mostly in conjunction with the Population Council, is based on a more nuanced causal chain theory than most others, and has researchers involved from the beginning stages of program implementation. In these approaches (and the corresponding research), the economic intervention is but one element among many in the empowerment of girls. They focus on a spectrum of outcomes including strengthening girls’ social networks; better knowledge, attitudes and practices in reproductive health; exposure to positive role models through mentorships; improving personal safety through community risk mapping; and literacy/numeracy, among others. Establishing safe spaces as multi-purpose platforms for economic strengthening and other mutually-reinforcing interventions is a primary activity in these programs.

Program evidence: girl platform approachesResults from this kind of programming have been mixed, but in general the application of social capital theory, which is the principal innovation of holistic girl-focused work, is seen as a key to success.67 Programmers start by creating safe spaces where girls are given access to social networking opportunities. Evidence from the following pilot programs contributes several valuable lessons to the field. While this evidence includes a variety of positive and negative effects, all of the programs tended toward strong positive results with regard to their social networking components.

• A pilot evaluation in Kenya and Uganda found multiple positive effects from adding a social capital approach to a savings intervention for adolescent girls. Girls who were in groups had higher levels of trust in members of their community and stronger social networks. Girls with a savings account only (not in groups) were more likely to be sexually harassed and teased by males than girls in the groups, and they were two times more likely to have been touched indecently by a male. Girls in the groups were found with better self-esteem and attitudes toward gender norms and were more likely to have future life goals.68

• In Uganda and Tanzania, BRAC International found that many adolescent girls who regularly attend school were uninterested in income generating activities. For girls who do not attend, self-employment and entrepreneurship training may be more appropriate in these contexts.69

• The Population Council evaluated a livelihoods training program in India and found that in this instance, skills and vocational training were more accessible than group savings accounts. After the program ended, participants maintained control over and use of their new skills, while structural barriers such as age and gender discrimination kept them from using their savings accounts.

• In rural Egypt, the Population Council implemented a social capital program that unexpectedly generated girls’ interest in economic strengthening. The success of the subsequent skills training program resulted in spillover effects at community and governmental levels, with local businesses and ministry officials becoming supporters of the program. In very conservative rural settings, adolescent girls (and the communities where they live) must first recognize their social and economic capabilities before being introduced to an off-the-shelf vocational skills program.70

• Mentoring is an important part of girl platform work and several of the other ES approaches considered here. However, psychosocial and health-related impacts of mentoring are not immediately measureable, and will likely accrue in the decade following adolescence, necessitating the use of longitudinal studies in impact evaluations.71

67. Brady, Martha et. al., Providing new opportunities to adolescent girls in socially conservative settings: The Ishraq program in rural Upper Egypt, Population Council, 2007.

68. Austrian, Karen. Safe and Smart Savings Products for Vulnerable Adolescent Girls in Kenya and Uganda: Results from the Uganda Pilot Evaluation. (Presentation slides from an address

atMakingCentsInternational’sGlobalYouthEconomicOpportunitiesConference2011,WashingtonDC.Reportforthcoming.)

69. Zerihun,AbebualandNtambiRichard,Social and Economic Empowerment of Adolescent Girls in Uganda and Tanzania, BRAC International, 2010.

70. Brady, Martha et. al., Providing New Opportunities to Adolescent Girls in Socially Conservative Settings: The Ishraq Program in Rural Upper Egypt, Population Council, 2007.

71. Amin, Sajeda et. al., Enhancing Adolescent Financial Capabilities through Financial Education in Bangladesh, Population Council, 2010.

© Peter Biro/IRC

© Lindsay Stark


Cash transfers to childrenCash transfers directly to children are not widely used, and even less widely researched for their impacts, much less in emergency contexts.

Program evidence from cash transfers to children• Recent World Bank research on cash transfers for

adolescent girls in a development context (Malawi) found that the positive income shock can cause a substantial temporary reduction in psychological distress, but that the effect is mostly limited to the duration of the program.72 The positive psychological effect was greater when the cash was offered without the condition that the girl attend school.

• Meanwhile the HIV prevalence among beneficiaries was 60 percent lower than the control group and herpes simplex virus type 2 was more than 75 percent lower. No significant differences were detected between those offered conditional and unconditional cash payments.73

MicrocreditMicrocredit and small enterprise development interventions are sometimes extended to older children, but in most cases children are seen as uninterested in credit productsorunpreparedtomanagedebt.Younger,in-school adolescents are seen as lacking the networks and experience necessary to sustain a small business. Further, donors and programmers are often reluctant to enable children to engage in work. Only two impact evaluations of credit programs engaging children were found meeting the inclusion criteria.

Program evidence from microcredit to children• Due to low levels of beneficiary enthusiasm and low repaymentrates,theauthorsofareportontheSHAZ!programforadolescentgirlsinZimbabwerecommendedagainst extending credit to children in the future.74

• In a project in Nairobi, Kenya, researchers found younger girls significantly more likely to drop out of a microcredit program compared to older girls.75

72. Baird, Sarah et. al. Income Shocks and Adolescent Mental Health. Policy Working Paper 5644, World Bank Development Research Group, 2011.

73. World Bank. A Cash Transfer Program Reduces HIV Infections among Adolescent Girls, (year unknown, accessed at http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DEC/Resources/

HIVExeSummary(Malawi).pdf ).

74. Dunbar, M.S. et. al., Findings from SHAZ!: A Feasibility Study of a Microcredit and Life-skills HIV Prevention Intervention to Reduce Risk among Adolescent Female Orphans in Zimbabwe, 2010.

75. Erulkar, Annabel S. and Erica Chong. Evaluation of a Savings & Micro-Credit Program for Vulnerable Young Women in Nairobi, 2005.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DEC/Resources/ HIVExeSummary(Malawi).pdf

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DEC/Resources/ HIVExeSummary(Malawi).pdf

Negative outcomes

As shown above, economic strengthening interventions can have various positive effects on children. They can also sometimes inadvertently cause harm to children. Changes in time-use patterns for caregivers and children themselves can reduce the time a child spends under caregiver supervision, increase the time that children must care for their younger siblings or work, and reduce the time spent in school. Negative effects can also spill over to non-beneficiary children (See Spillover effects, below). Still, increases in caregiver time spent doing paid work can result in increased income, expenditures and resource allocations that improve children’s nutrition, education, clothing, healthcare, etc. Programs should be designed to help caregivers address risks of their new economic activities.

Program evidence: negative outcomes• A microcredit and life-skills HIV prevention intervention foradolescentfemaleorphansinZimbabwewasfoundtohave increased exposure to gender-based violence, as girls increased their movement around the community and to other towns for their new petty trading businesses.76

• Several reports note that child labor does not always decrease with income, and that the relationship is complex. Programmers can expect to observe both lower and higher rates of child labor resulting from an intervention, and must monitor accordingly. ◦ The Del Carpio research on a CCT program in

Nicaragua found that the child labor rate exhibits an inverted U-shape; upon receiving the grant, “child labor first increases and then decreases as household production passes the maximum point.” 77

◦ The CIDA study found another inverted U in Egypt, where the amount of child labor was directly influenced by the size of a microloan. At smaller loan sizes child labor increased, while larger loan sizes meant caregivers could hire adult workers in their businesses and stop relying on children’s work.78

• In the National Rural Employment Generation Scheme (NREGS) public works program in India, in some project sites where no crèche arrangements were made, participation of women led to school-leaving as older school-going children were made to care for younger siblings when the mother was working.79

Spillover effects

A few of the studies considered here mention spillover effects on non-program children.

Spillover effects can be positive or negative: • A life skills/financial education/girl groups intervention

in Uganda found better reproductive health knowledge, attitudes and practices for all girls living in the intervention villages, regardless of their participation in the program, which the researchers attributed to the changing norms among girls brought about by the program, and not to the economic intervention per se.80

• A conditional cash transfer program in Brazil found adverse spillovers, where the number of working hours for non-program children increased as the working hours for program children decreased.81

• Looking at the NREGS guaranteed-employment scheme in India, S. Mahendra Dev found that in addition to the improved outcomes for children from increased household income, the program’s public works projects improved infrastructure that helped indirectly in improving child well-being.82

76. Dunbar, M.S. et. al., Findings from SHAZ!: a Feasibility Study of a Microcredit and Life-skills HIV Prevention Intervention to Reduce Risk among Adolescent Female Orphans in Zimbabwe, 2010.

77. Del Carpio, Ximena V. Does Child Labor Always Decrease with Income? An Evaluation in the Context of a Development Program in Nicaragua, Policy Research Working Paper 4694,

World Bank, 2008.

78. CIDA. Impacts of Microfinance Initiatives on Children: Overview of the Study Report, 2007.

79. Dev, S. Mahendra. NREGS and Child Well Being, Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, 2011.

80. Bandiera, O. et. al. Economic Empowerment of Female Adolescents: Evidence from Uganda, BRAC and World Bank, 2011.

81. Yap,Yoon-Tien,et.al.Limiting Child Labor Through Behavior-Based Income Transfers: An Experimental Evaluation of the PETI Program in Rural Brazil, 2001.

82. Dev, S. Mahendra. NREGS and Child Well Being, Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, 2011.


Indicators

All classes of ES programs face significant obstacles in trying to measure outreach and impact at an acceptable cost.83 Because of the research logistics, in the case of programming engaging adults, it is much easier to fall back on measures of outcomes for adults. Child-specific information is less available than household level information, especially in developing countries,84

and affordable methodologies that unpack the impact of economic programs on individual household members have yet to be developed.85

Perhaps unsurprisingly, considering the small size of the document set, no common approach to indicators for children’s outcomes emerges from the impact literature on ES approaches. Education (attendance, enrollment, etc.) is the most popular class of indicator among the studies considered here, followed by nutrition (meals consumed, variety, etc.). Child labor appears in five of the 31 studies, and early marriage appears in one study, but other indicators associated with child protection, such as exposure to violence and abuse, are not found in the document set.86

Any economic strengthening intervention will have an effect on the beneficiary’s time-use, and will usually have effects on the time-use of others in the household. Few studies make a concerted effort to measure time-use or to examine the changing activity patterns of women and men in response to economic strengthening interventions.

Other findings include:• In the S. Mahendra Dev study of a national guaranteed-

employment program in India, the availability of crèche facilities was used as an indicator of whether the benefits of an ES approach could be expected to accrue to children.87

• Only one study, Burns and Suji, makes note of having evaluated their intervention using community-developed indicators of children’s welfare. Here, change in labor migration out of the project area was used as an indicator of economic stability and child protection.88

• Only three studies of ES approaches engaging adults appear to have measured adult spending on children.89

• Of the 13 evaluations of ES approaches engaging children, only one study seems to have looked at children’s spending.90

• Only two of the studies of programming engaging adults looked at measures of intra-household decision-making.91

• Few studies looked at changes in levels of extra-household agency of female caregivers. One study looked at changes in their civic involvement.92

• Only one of the studies of ES engaging children looked at measures of children’s intra-household agency, using an indicator of increased child-caregiver communication resulting from the intervention.93

83. USAID/AED/Save the Children. February 2008. FIELD Report No 2: Economic Strengthening for Vulnerable Children: Principles of Program Design & Technical Recommendations for

Effective Field Interventions.

84. Roelen, Keetie and Franziska Gassman. Measuring Child Poverty and Well-Being: a literature review, Maastricht Graduate School of Governance, 2008.

85. USAID/AED/Save the Children. FIELD Report No 2: Economic Strengthening for Vulnerable Children: Principles of Program Design & Technical Recommendations for Effective Field

Interventions, 2008.

86. A forthcoming study from CPC will include an indicator on exposure to violence and abuse to examine any possible correlation with exposure to economic strengthening interventions.

87. Dev, S. Mahendra. NREGS and Child Well-being, Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, 2011.

88. Burns, John C. and Omeno W. Suji. Impact Assessment of the Chical Integrated Recovery Action Project, Niger, Feinstein International Center, 2007.

89. Barnes,Carolyn.MicrofinanceProgramClientsandImpact:AnAssessmentofZambukoTrust,Zimbabwe,OfficeofMicroenterpriseDevelopmentGlobalBureau,USAID,2001;CIDA,

ImpactsofMicrofinanceInitiativesonChildren:OverviewoftheStudyReport,2007,andtheforthcomingCPCUgandastudy.

90. IPALabs.StartingaLifetimeofSaving:TeachingthePracticeofSavingtoUgandanYouth,http://www.poverty-action.org/project/0113(ongoingstudy).

91. Iyengar, Radha and Guilia Ferrari. Women’s Empowerment in Burundi: Impact Evaluation Paper, London School of Economics, 2011; and Dev, S. Mahendra. NREGS and Child Well-being,

Indira Ghandi Institute of Development Research, 2011.

92. MkNelly, Barbara and April Watson. Credit with Education Impact Review No. 3: Children’s Nutritional Status, Freedom From Hunger, 2003.

93. Ssewamala, Fred M. et. al. Effect of Economic Assets on Sexual Risk-Taking Intentions among Orphaned Adolescents in Uganda, American Journal of Public Health, 2010.


Recommendations

In order to improve the quality and sustainability of their practice, practitioners should:• Build children’s protection and well-being into the

assessment, design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of economic strengthening programs.

• Review existing economic strengthening programs to ensure they mainstream a children’s rights perspective.

• Program around the Minimum Standards on Livelihoods and Child Protection. (See ANNEX IV: Draft minimum standard on Child Protection and Livelihoods.)

M&E staff and evaluation researchers should:• Monitor changes in beneficiary and children’s time-use.• In ES programs engaging caregivers, monitor changes in

women’s intra-household and extra-household agency, i.e., their capacity to make important life decisions and decide over allocation of resources.

• In ES programs engaging children, monitor changes in children’s intra-household and extra-household agency.

• Experiment with methods that can link improvements in children’s outcomes to participation in particular economic strengthening activities and combinations of ES and non-economic activities.

• Ensure that M&E data is disaggregated by age and sex to facilitate analysis and inform program decisions.94

• Adapt indicators to locally-determined priorities and needs. Comparing child welfare across different settings requires universal standards. However, depending on the local context, certain aspects of children’s wellbeing will be more salient than others.95

• Include children’s perspectives in the process to identify relevant indicators.

• Monitor significant changes in time spent on care-giving and paid work of beneficiaries and their households, as well as non-beneficiary children, and address needs for childcare services for working caregivers.

• Given that ES interventions may not result in easily measurable outcomes for children in the short term, proxy indicators should be used such as meals consumed, school participation and child health data where available.

In order to enable all of the above, donors should:• Require that proposals for ES programming include

the protection and well-being of children in their M&E strategies.

• Fund systematic robust evaluation of ES programs.• In particular, support the development of longitudinal

studies of impact.• Require sex- and age-disaggregated data collection.

Questions for Further Research• What are the impacts for children from economic

strengthening programs in crisis contexts, where evidence is scarce?

• As with conditional cash transfers, (how) can non-cash ES interventions be made conditional upon human capital investments in children?

• What child-focused M&E indicators are used by ES programs around the world? (Mapping exercise)

• In seeking to increase female caregivers’ leverage in household decision-making, which approaches are better at improving outcomes for the child?96

• What are the contributions of children to household economies? ◦ What impact does children’s income have on other

household children?

94. Miller, Carrie, Melita Sawyer and Wendy-Ann Rowe. My Skills, My Money, My Brighter Future in Zimbabwe: An Assessment of Economic Strengthening Interventions for Adolescent Girls,

Catholic Relief Services, 2011.

95. Sparling, Thalia and Rebecca Gordon. Assessing Impact of Post-Disaster Livelihood Programs on Children: A Two-Country Report from Indonesia and Sri Lanka, Columbia University

Program on Forced Migration, 2011.

96. Holvoet,Nathalie.ImpactofMicrofinanceProgramsonChildren’sEducation-DotheGenderoftheBorrowerandtheDeliveryModelMatter?,JournalofMicrofinanceVol.6No.2,2004.

© Peter Biro/IRC


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CT

stud

y re

port

Enh

anci

ng A

do-

lesc

ent F

inan

cial

C

apab

ilitie

s th

roug

h Fi

nanc

ial E

duca

tion

in B

angl

ades

h

2010

Ban

glad

esh

ru

ral a

nd

urba

n

Pop

ulat

ion

Cou

ncil

Saj

eda

Am

in, L

aila

R

ahm

an, S

igm

a A

inul

, Uba

idur

Rob

,

BushraZaman,

Rin

at A

kter

Fina

ncia

l edu

catio

n, m

ento

ring,

life

sk

ills,

incl

udes

mal

es b

ut fo

cuse

s on

fem

ales

Ado

lesc

ents

Goa

l set

ting,

bu

dget

aw

aren

ess,

us

e of

sav

ings

, re

cord

kee

ping

This

pilo

t stu

dy in

clud

ed a

con

trol g

roup

, a te

achi

ng a

rm, a

nd a

teac

hing

plu

s m

ento

ring

arm

in u

rban

andruralsites.Participantsreportedasignificantincreaseinsavings,recordkeeping,andbudgeting.

Thedifferenceinshort-termim

pactonfinancialknowledge,attitudes,andbehaviorswasnotsignificant

betweentheteachingarmandthementoringarm.Therewasnosignificantincreaseinlifeskills,as

therewerehighlevelsofreportedself-efficacyinthisareaattheoutset.Financialeducationhadno

impa

ct o

n he

alth

, edu

catio

n, s

exua

l or r

epro

duct

ive

heal

th in

the

shor

t ter

m. A

pro

gram

of l

onge

r dur

a-tio

n is

nec

essa

ry to

mea

sure

the

posi

tive

outc

ome

of m

ento

ring,

as

men

torin

g re

latio

nshi

ps re

quire

tim

e to

mat

ure.

Eva

luat

ion

of

pilo

t stu

dy w

/ba

selin

e an

d en

dlin

e su

rvey

s

Intro

duci

ng A

do-

lesc

ent L

ivel

ihoo

ds

Trai

ning

in th

e S

lum

s of

Alla

haba

d,

Indi

a

2007

Indi

a

urba

n sl

ums

of A

lla-

haba

d, U

ttar

Pra

desh

Pop

ulat

ion

Cou

ncil

Mon

ica

J. G

rant

, B

arba

ra S

. Men

sch,

M

ary

P. S

ebas

tian

RH

edu

catio

n, IG

A, l

ife s

kills

, voc

a-tio

nal t

rain

ing,

sav

ings

gro

ups,

girl

s'

grou

p, in

clud

es m

ales

but

focu

ses

on fe

mal

es

Ado

lesc

ents

, yo

ung

wom

enS

avin

gs p

erfo

r-m

ance

, RH

kno

wl-

edge

, use

of s

kills

tra

inin

g, s

ocia

l ne

twor

king

Pro

gram

incr

ease

d pa

rtici

patio

n in

soc

ial g

roup

s, h

ighe

r sel

f-est

eem

and

bet

ter s

ocia

l ski

lls, m

ore

info

rmed

abo

ut R

H, a

nd ti

me

spen

t on

leis

ure

activ

ities

(alth

ough

girl

s st

ill s

pend

four

tim

es a

s m

any

hour

s on

cho

res

than

boy

s do

). N

o de

mon

stra

ble

effe

ct o

n ge

nder

role

atti

tude

s, m

obili

ty, w

ork

expe

c-ta

tions

, tim

e us

e, o

r lab

or m

arke

t wor

k. M

ore

than

80%

con

tinue

d to

use

thei

r voc

atio

nal s

kills

afte

r the

pr

ojec

t end

ed, a

nd m

ore

than

50%

wer

e ab

le to

ope

n sa

ving

s ac

coun

ts. G

ende

r and

age

dis

crim

ina-

tion

impe

ded

use

of s

avin

gs a

ccou

nts,

pro

gram

sta

ff ha

d to

act

as

inte

rmed

iarie

s fo

r girl

s to

acc

ess

acco

unts

, so

man

y gi

rls d

id n

ot c

ontin

ue to

act

ivel

y us

e th

eir s

avin

gs a

ccou

nts.

NO

TE: l

ooks

like

sam

e da

ta s

et a

s "T

he E

ffect

of a

Liv

elih

oods

Inte

rven

tion

in a

n U

rban

Slu

m in

Indi

a's.

Men

sch,

200

4.

Mul

ti-ar

m R

CT

stud

y re

port

Initi

al F

indi

ngs

from

Im

pact

Eva

luat

ion

of

Bra

c’s

Pro

gram

for

Ado

lesc

ent G

irls

in

Uga

nda

2011

Uga

nda

rura

lB

RA

C

Oria

na B

andi

era,

N

ikla

s B

uehr

en,

Rob

in B

urge

ss,

Imra

n R

asul

, Mun

shi

Sul

aim

an

Ski

lls tr

aini

ng, l

ives

tock

, IG

A, s

eeds

, lifeskills,financialeducation,girls'

grou

p, m

icro

cred

it fo

r old

er g

irls

Ado

lesc

ent g

irls

Soc

ial n

etw

orki

ng,

scho

ol e

nrol

lmen

t, he

alth

and

kno

wl-

edge

pra

ctic

es,

econ

omic

em

pow

-er

men

t, ea

rnin

g ac

tivity

, ent

repr

e-ne

uria

l abi

lity,

mar

-ke

t par

ticip

atio

n,

life

aspi

ratio

ns

Nosignificantdifferenceinenrollmentoreducationattainment.Significantimpactonhealthaware-

ness

and

ferti

lity

beha

vior

. Par

ticip

ants

hav

e gr

eate

r kno

wle

dge

on H

IV/A

IDS

, pre

gnan

cy a

nd S

TDs,

m

ore

likel

y to

use

con

trace

ptiv

es, a

nd le

ss li

kely

to h

ave

a ch

ild. T

hese

effe

cts

are

foun

d fo

r all

girls

in

the

inte

rven

tion

villa

ges,

rega

rdle

ss o

f the

ir di

rect

par

ticip

atio

n in

ELA

. It a

ppea

rs th

at th

ese

effe

cts

are

mai

nly

driv

en b

y tra

inin

g an

d ch

angi

ng n

orm

s fo

r the

ado

lesc

ent i

n th

e vi

llage

rath

er th

an th

roug

h th

eir e

cono

mic

em

pow

erm

ent.

Spi

llove

r effe

cts-

incr

ease

d R

H k

now

ledg

e am

ong

non-

parti

cipa

nt

girls

. NO

TE: i

nfor

mat

ion

from

par

ents

will

be

used

to e

valu

ate

indi

rect

effe

cts

of th

e pr

ogra

m o

n ot

her

hous

ehol

d m

embe

rs.

Long

itudi

nal

stud

y of

a 4

ye

ar p

roje

ct

Eva

luat

ion

of a

Sav

-in

gs &

Mic

ro-c

redi

t P

rogr

am fo

r vul

ner-

ableYoungW

omen

in N

airo

bi

2005

Ken

ya

ur

ban,

N

airo

bi

Pop

ulat

ion

Cou

ncil

Ann

abel

S. E

rulk

ar,

Eric

a C

hong

Sav

ings

, cre

dit,

men

torin

g, b

usin

ess

supp

ort

Ado

lesc

ent g

irls

who

are

not

in

scho

ol

Incr

ease

d ea

rn-

ings

/ass

ets/

savi

ngs,

RH

kn

owle

dge,

HIV

at

titud

es

Atendlineparticipantshadsignificantlyhigherlevelsofincomeandassetscom

paredtocontrols.

Participantshadsignificantlymoresavingsandweremorelikelytokeepitinasafeplace.Participants

dem

onst

rate

d m

ore

liber

al g

ende

r atti

tude

s, a

nd m

ore

abili

ty to

refu

se s

ex o

r ins

ist o

n co

ndom

use

, co

mpa

red

to c

ontro

ls. 6

6% o

f par

ticip

ants

dro

pped

out

by

the

endl

ine

of p

rogr

am. D

elay

s in

rece

ivin

g loansandnothavingaccesstosavingswereoftencitedasreasonsfordroppingout.Youngergirls

weresignificantlymorelikelytodropoutthanwereoldergirls,asweregirlswhohadlesseduca

-tio

n an

d liv

ed a

way

from

thei

r par

ents

. Thi

s im

plie

s th

at th

e m

odel

was

not

app

ropr

iate

to m

ost g

irls,

es

peci

ally

for t

he m

ost v

ulne

rabl

e.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtA

Nov

el E

cono

mic

In

terv

entio

n to

R

educ

e H

IV R

isks

A

mon

g S

choo

l-Go-

ing

AID

S O

rpha

ns in

R

ural

Uga

nda

2008

Uga

nda

rura

lS

ocie

ty fo

r A

dole

scen

t Med

icin

e

Fred

M. S

sew

amal

a,

Sta

cey

Alic

ea, W

il-lia

m M

. Ban

non,

Jr.,

Le

yla

Ism

ayilo

va

Chi

ldre

ns S

avin

gs A

ccou

nts

(CS

A)

with

2:1

mat

chin

g fu

nds,

sch

olar

-sh

ips,

28%

mal

e pa

rtici

pant

s

Ado

lesc

ent O

VC

Sav

ings

leve

l, H

IV

attit

udes

, edu

ca-

tiona

l pla

nnin

g

Par

ticip

ants

sav

ed a

s m

uch

as $

318.

60 p

er y

ear.

HIV

pre

vent

ion

attit

udes

impr

oved

onl

y sl

ight

ly,

alth

ough

thos

e of

mem

bers

of t

he c

ontro

l gro

up d

ecre

ased

ove

r the

sam

e pe

riod

of ti

me.

Sim

ilarly

, par

-tic

ipan

ts n

oted

an

incr

ease

in e

duca

tion

plan

ning

, whi

le c

ontro

l gro

up e

duca

tiona

l pla

nnin

g de

crea

sed.

N

OTE

: Thi

s is

the

sam

e da

ta s

et a

s "E

cono

mic

Em

pow

erm

ent a

s a

Hea

lth C

are

Inte

rven

tion

amon

g O

rpha

ned

Chi

ldre

n in

Rur

al U

gand

a" F

. Sse

wam

ala,

200

6.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtE

cono

mic

Em

pow

-er

men

t as

a H

ealth

C

are

Inte

rven

tion

amon

g O

rpha

ned

Chi

ldre

n in

Rur

al

Uga

nda

2006

Uga

nda

rura

lC

ente

r for

Soc

ial

Dev

elop

men

t

Fred

M. S

sew

amal

a,

Sta

cey

Alic

ea, W

il-lia

m M

. Ban

non,

Chi

ld D

evel

opm

ent A

ccou

nts

(CD

A)

with

2:1

mat

chin

g fu

nds

for s

choo

l orbusiness,financialeducation,

heal

th e

duca

tion,

sch

ool s

uppl

ies,

28

% m

ale

parti

cipa

nts

OV

CH

IV a

ttitu

des,

ed

ucat

iona

l pla

ns,

child

/car

egiv

er

rela

tions

hip

ChildrendidnotsignificantlydifferbetweenarmsintheirbaselinescoresonHIVpreventionattitudes,

educ

atio

nal p

lans

or t

he d

egre

e of

chi

ld-c

areg

iver

com

mun

icat

ion.

At 1

2-m

onth

follo

w-u

p, e

xper

imen

-ta

l arm

chi

ldre

n ha

d im

prov

ed th

eir H

IV p

reve

ntio

n at

titud

es, w

here

as c

ontro

l arm

chi

ldre

n sh

owed

decreasedscoresrelativetobaselinemeasurementonthisvariable.Educationalplanfindingsshow

ed

a si

mila

r pat

tern

. Fin

ding

s on

the

degr

ee o

f chi

ld-c

areg

iver

rela

tions

hip

reve

aled

a s

imila

r pat

tern

for

diffe

renc

es b

etw

een

arm

s. T

he m

ean

leve

l of c

hild

-car

egiv

er c

omm

unic

atio

n re

porte

d by

chi

ldre

n in

th

e ex

perim

enta

l arm

incr

ease

d fro

m 2

.2 to

2.5

from

bas

elin

e to

12-

mon

th fo

llow

-up.

Chi

ldre

n in

the

cont

rol a

rm d

ecre

ased

thei

r mea

n le

vel o

f chi

ld-c

areg

iver

com

mun

icat

ion,

from

2.4

to 2

.2 fr

om b

asel

ine

to 1

2-m

onth

follo

w-u

p. N

OTE

: Thi

s is

the

sam

e da

ta s

et a

s "A

Nov

el E

cono

mic

Inte

rven

tion

to R

educ

e H

IV R

isks

Am

ong

Sch

ool-G

oing

AID

S O

rpha

ns in

Rur

al U

gand

a" F

. Sse

wam

ala,

200

8, a

nd in

crea

sed

child

to c

are-

give

r com

mun

icat

ion

leve

l is

pote

ntia

lly IH

H a

genc

y fo

r kid

s.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtIn

tegr

atin

g C

hild

ren’

s S

avin

gs

Acc

ount

s in

the

Car

e an

d S

uppo

rt of

O

rpha

ned

Ado

-le

scen

ts in

Rur

al

Uga

nda

2009

Uga

nda

rura

lC

olum

bia

Uni

vers

ity

Fred

M. S

sew

amal

a,

Leyl

a Is

may

ilova

Chi

ld S

avin

gs A

ccou

nt (C

SA

) with

2:

1 m

atch

ing

fund

s fo

r edu

catio

nal

expe

nses

or i

ncom

e ge

nera

ting

activ

ities

, ski

ll bu

ildin

g w

orks

hops

, m

ento

ring,

43%

mal

e pa

rtici

pant

s

AID

S-o

rpha

ned

yout

hs (a

ges

11-1

7) li

ving

with

re

lativ

es, n

ot in

in

stitu

tions

Edu

catio

nal p

lans

an

d as

pira

-tio

ns, a

cade

mic

pe

rform

ance

, HIV

at

titud

es.

Par

ticip

ants

sav

ed a

n av

erag

e of

$22

8 pe

r yea

r, en

ough

to p

ay fo

r 1.5

yea

rs o

f sec

onda

ry e

duca

-tion.Participantsreportedmoreconfidenceineducationplansandattitudestowardsexualrisk-taking

beha

vior

. A fa

mily

-cen

tere

d ec

onom

ic in

terv

entio

n co

uld

have

a ro

le in

pro

vidi

ng c

are,

sup

port,

and

ed

ucat

iona

l fun

ding

for O

VC

. Mat

ched

-sav

ings

pro

gram

s m

ight

ach

ieve

pos

itive

long

-term

effe

cts

for

parti

cipa

nts

by in

corp

orat

ing

asse

t-bui

ldin

g tra

inin

g an

d a

men

tors

hip

com

pone

nt. I

f the

futu

re lo

oks

brig

hter

, you

ths

may

be

mor

e in

clin

ed to

pre

serv

e it.

Eco

nom

ic e

mpo

wer

men

t mod

els

inco

rpor

atin

g a

mul

tidim

ensi

onal

app

roac

h co

mbi

ning

car

e fo

r orp

hane

d yo

uths

with

mon

etar

y sa

ving

s pr

ogra

ms,

traininginfinancialm

anagem

ent,andotherm

icrofinance-relatedservicesmaybemosteffective.

AN

NE

X I

: Im

pa

ct

eva

luat

ion

s lo

oki

ng

at

pro

tec

tio

n/w

ell-

be

ing

ou

tco

me

s fo

r c

hil

dre

n f

rom

ec

on

om

ic s

tre

ng

the

nin

g p

rog

ram

s

Met

hodo

logy

Pro

j./R

epor

t Nam

eP

ublic

atio

n D

ate

Loca

tion

Res

earc

h G

roup

/A

utho

rsIn

terv

entio

nsTa

rget

Pop

ula-

tion

Indi

cato

rsS

umm

ary

Program

swithchildrenasdirectbeneficiaries

Eva

luat

ion

of

pilo

t pro

gram

w

/bas

elin

e an

d en

dlin

e su

rvey

s

Pro

vidi

ng N

ew

Opp

ortu

nitie

s to

A

dole

scen

t Girl

s in

S

ocia

lly C

onse

rva-

tive

Set

tings

: The

Is

hraq

Pro

gram

in

Rur

al U

pper

Egy

pt20

07

Egy

pt

rura

lP

opul

atio

n C

ounc

il

Mar

tha

Bra

dy, R

agui

A

ssaa

d, B

arba

ra

Ibra

him

Girl

s' g

roup

s, s

ports

, lite

racy

ed

ucat

ion,

life

ski

lls, v

ocat

iona

l ski

lls

train

ing

for s

ome

parti

cipa

nts,

mal

e in

volv

emen

t

13-1

5 yr

old

ad

oles

cent

girl

s w

ho a

re n

ot in

sc

hool

Sel

f-est

eem

, so

cial

net

wor

k-in

g, c

omm

unity

at

titud

es to

war

d gi

rls, I

D c

ards

Ishr

aq s

ecur

ed s

afe

spac

es fo

r girl

s. 9

2 pe

rcen

t of p

artic

ipan

ts w

ho to

ok th

e go

vern

men

t lite

racy

exa

m

pass

ed; 6

8.5

perc

ent o

f par

ticip

ants

hav

e en

tere

d or

re-e

nter

ed s

choo

l. P

artic

ipan

ts re

port

know

ledg

e of

"rights"andhigherlevelsofself-confidence.A

ttitudesofparentsandmalepeerstowardgirls'm

obilityand

com

mun

ity p

artic

ipat

ion

wer

e al

tere

d th

roug

h pr

ogra

ms

desi

gned

for t

hem

. Par

ticip

ants

exp

ress

ed in

tere

st

in a

live

lihoo

ds p

rogr

am, s

o Is

hraq

add

ed tr

aini

ng in

hom

e an

d vo

catio

nal s

kills

. Of 2

77 p

artic

ipan

ts, 8

7 to

ok p

art i

n vo

catio

nal t

rain

ing

incl

udin

g el

ectri

cal a

pplia

nce

man

agem

ent a

nd re

pair,

hai

rdre

ssin

g, a

nd

swee

ts p

rodu

ctio

n. S

pillo

ver e

ffect

s. L

ocal

bus

ines

ses

offe

red

parti

cipa

nts

appr

entic

eshi

ps, a

nd "P

aral

-lelchanges[that]occurredamonggovernorateandnational-levelministryofficials,whohavebecome

enth

usia

stic

sup

porte

rs o

f Ish

raq.

"

Long

itudi

nal

stud

y, R

CT

Ass

et O

wne

rshi

p an

d H

ealth

and

M

enta

l Hea

lth

Func

tioni

ng a

mon

g A

IDS

-Orp

hane

d A

dole

scen

ts20

09

Uga

nda

rura

lFr

ed M

. Sse

wam

ala,

C

hang

-Keu

n H

an,

Tors

ten

B. N

eila

nds

Ass

et b

uild

ing

oppo

rtuni

ties,

job

counseling,mentoring,financial

educ

atio

n, C

DA

with

2:1

mat

chin

g fu

nds,

40%

mal

e pa

rtici

pant

s

OV

CS

elf-r

ated

hea

lth

and

men

tal

heal

th fu

nctio

n-in

g, u

se o

f sav

-in

gs a

ccou

nts,

se

lf-es

teem

Significantpositiveeffectsofeconomicempowermentinterventiononadolescents’self-ratedhealthand

men

tal h

ealth

func

tioni

ng. H

ealth

and

men

tal h

ealth

func

tioni

ng fo

und

to b

e po

sitiv

ely

asso

ciat

ed w

ith

eachother.Thefindingshaveimplicationsforpublicpolicyandhealthprogram

mingforA

IDS-orphaned

adol

esce

nts.

Pro

gram

E

valu

atio

nFindingsfrom

Shaz!:

A Fe

asib

ility

Stu

dy

of a

Mic

rocr

edit

and

Life

-Ski

lls H

IV

Pre

vent

ion

Inte

rven

-tio

n to

Red

uce

Ris

k am

ong

Ado

lesc

ent

Fem

ale

Orp

hans

in

Zimbabw

e20

10

Zimbabw

e

urba

n/pe

ri-ur

ban

Wom

en’s

Glo

bal

Hea

lth Im

pera

tive

M. S

. Dun

bar,

M.C

. M

ater

now

ska,

M. S

. K

ang,

S.M

. Lav

er, I

. M

udek

unye

-Mah

aka,

N

.S. P

adia

n

RH

edu

catio

n, IG

A, l

ife s

kills

, voc

a-tio

nal t

rain

ing,

sav

ings

gro

ups,

girl

s'

grou

p, in

clud

es m

ales

but

focu

ses

on fe

mal

es

Ado

lesc

ent g

irls

Fina

ncia

l in

depe

nden

ce,

HIV

atti

tude

s,

repa

ymen

t rat

es,

GB

V ri

sk, s

ocia

l po

wer

At 6

mon

ths,

resu

lts in

dica

ted

impr

ovem

ents

in k

now

ledg

e an

d re

latio

nshi

p po

wer

. Bec

ause

of t

he e

co-

nom

ic c

onte

xt a

nd la

ck o

f ade

quat

e su

ppor

t, ho

wev

er, l

oan

repa

ymen

t and

bus

ines

s su

cces

s w

as p

oor.

The

resu

lts s

ugge

st th

at m

icro

cred

it is

not

the

best

live

lihoo

d op

tion

to re

duce

risk

am

ong

adol

esce

nt g

irls

in th

is c

onte

xt. U

nint

ende

d co

nseq

uenc

es: i

ncre

ased

risk

of G

BV

in th

e ho

me.

Long

itudi

nal

stud

y of

an

RC

TE

ffect

s of

Eco

-no

mic

Ass

ets

on

Sex

ual R

isk-

Taki

ng

Inte

ntio

ns A

mon

g O

rpha

ned

Ado

les-

cent

s in

Uga

nda

2010

Uga

nda

rura

lFr

ed M

. Sse

wam

ala,

C

hang

-Keu

n H

an,

Tors

ten

Nei

land

s,

Leyl

a Is

may

ilova

, E

lizab

eth

Spe

rber

Ass

et b

uild

ing

oppo

rtuni

ties,

job

counseling,mentoring,financial

educ

atio

n, C

DA

with

2:1

mat

chin

g fu

nds,

40%

mal

e pa

rtici

pant

s

OV

CC

omm

unic

atio

n w

ith c

are-

give

rs

abou

t ris

k-ta

king

be

havi

or, i

nten

-tio

ns to

eng

age

in ri

sk-ta

king

be

havi

or

Red

uced

sel

f-rep

orte

d se

xual

risk

-taki

ng in

tent

ions

.

Sta

tistic

al

anal

ysis

of a

n R

CT

Inco

me

Sho

cks

and

Ado

lesc

ent M

enta

l H

ealth

2011

Mal

awi

urba

n an

d ru

ral

The

Wor

ld B

ank

De-

velo

pmen

t Res

earc

h G

roup

Pov

erty

and

In

equa

lity

Team

Sar

ah B

aird

Jaco

bus

de H

oop

Ber

k Ö

zler

Cas

h tra

nsfe

rsA

dole

scen

t girl

sP

sych

olog

i-ca

l dis

tress

as

mea

sure

d by

the

over

all G

HQ

-12

scor

e

Theprovisionofmonthlycashtransfershadastrongbeneficialim

pactonthementalhealthofschool-age

girls

dur

ing

the

two-

year

inte

rven

tion.

Am

ong

base

line

scho

olgi

rls w

ho w

ere

offe

red

unco

nditi

onal

cas

h tra

nsfe

rs, t

he li

kelih

ood

of s

uffe

ring

from

psy

chol

ogic

al d

istre

ss w

as 3

8 pe

rcen

t low

er th

an th

e co

ntro

l group,whilethesamefigurewas17percentifthecashtransfersoffersweremadeconditionalonregular

schoolattendance.Theauthorsfindnoimpactonthementalhealthofgirlswhohadalreadydroppedout

ofschoolatbaseline.Thebeneficialeffectsofcashtransferswerelim

itedtotheinterventionperiodand

diss

ipat

ed q

uick

ly a

fter t

he p

rogr

am e

nded

.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtS

iyak

ha N

ents

ha20

08N

gony

amen

i, S

outh

Afri

cape

ri-ur

ban

Pop

ulat

ion

Cou

ncil

Fina

ncia

l lite

racy

edu

catio

n, s

ex

educ

atio

n, li

velih

oods

trai

ning

Ado

lesc

ents

Acc

ess

to s

ocia

l gr

ants

, loo

king

fo

r wor

k, s

elf-

este

em, g

ende

r re

latio

ns

Thefinancialeducationandcareerguidanceofferedbytheprogramalsoappeartohavemadealasting

impr

essi

on o

n pa

rtici

pant

s. S

iyak

ha N

ents

ha m

ales

and

fem

ales

had

muc

h hi

gher

rate

s, h

avin

g di

scus

sed

financialdecisionmaking,careers,startingabusinessandlookingforw

ork.Program

learnerswerealso

mor

e lik

ely

to h

ave

grea

ter k

now

ledg

e of

the

rang

e of

soc

ial g

rant

s av

aila

ble

in S

outh

Afri

ca, i

nclu

ding

eligibilitycriteriaforeachgrant.Abilitytoanswermath/financialquestionscorrectlywasalsohigheramong

Siy

akha

Nen

tsha

par

ticip

ants

.

Pro

gram

E

valu

atio

nYouthandSavings

in A

sset

s A

frica

2009

Uga

nda

rura

lC

ente

r for

Soc

ial D

e-ve

lopm

ent,

Sch

ool o

f S

ocia

l Wor

k, W

ash-

ingt

on U

nive

rsity

in

St.

Loui

s

Gin

a A

.N. C

how

a,

Dav

id A

nson

g

Fina

ncia

l edu

catio

n, H

IV p

reve

ntio

n tra

inin

g, C

SA

with

1:1

mat

chin

g,

55%

mal

e pa

rtici

pant

s

Youth(ages15

to 3

5)A

sset

acc

umu-

latio

n, p

erfo

r-m

ance

Themeandifferenceinfinancialassets($763.17),totalw

ealth($897.75)andnet-worth($1,117.83)

arestatisticallysignificantinfavoroftheyouthinthetreatmentgroup.H

owever,themeandifferencein

productiveassets($3.77)isnotstatisticallysignificant.YouthinruralSub-SaharanAfrica(S

SA)areableto

accu

mul

ate

subs

tant

ial a

sset

s th

at m

ay w

ell c

ontri

bute

to th

eir w

ell-b

eing

in th

e lo

ng te

rm.

http://www.popcouncil.org/pdfs/IshraqFullReport.pdf







https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B2Vae1IX6AVmYTdkZDgzMTEtOTdkZS00NDg3LWJkYmYtN2U0MjQxOTU1MmI0&hl=en






https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_jPUvZXRrpXMDllYTBkMmQtNjE4YS00NjNiLTk0ZTMtZjBiZThhZmJlZGFk&hl=en_US and http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=wghi05-02-sl and http://cega.berkeley.edu/files/events_materials/documentE2A-2011_Dunbar-Presentation.pdf









https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_jPUvZXRrpXZWViMDgxZGUtNDNlMy00OGU3LWFkZDMtNjI2YTk0NGQ2YjNl&hl=en_US






https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B_jPUvZXRrpXNmM4Y2I1ZjQtODIzNS00YmE0LWEwMWYtY2YwZWQ5ZjJhMDRj&hl=en_US



https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B2Vae1IX6AVmMmE2M2VmOGUtYzU4OS00YmE1LWFiYTUtYThlZmMxYmJmMDY5&hl=en

https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B2Vae1IX6AVmMmE2M2VmOGUtYzU4OS00YmE1LWFiYTUtYThlZmMxYmJmMDY5&hl=en

Met

hodo

logy

Pro

j./R

epor

t Nam

eP

ublic

atio

n D

ate

Loca

tion

Res

earc

h G

roup

/A

utho

rsIn

terv

entio

nsTa

rget

Pop

ula-

tion

Indi

cato

rsS

umm

ary

Program

swithcaregiversasdirectbeneficiaries

Cro

ss-s

ectio

nal

stud

y N

RE

GS

(Nat

iona

l R

ural

Em

ploy

men

t G

uara

ntee

Sch

eme

(NR

EG

S))

and

C

hild

Wel

l-Bei

ng20

11

Indi

a

rura

lIn

dira

Gan

dhi I

nsti-

tute

of D

evel

opm

ent

Res

earc

h (IG

IDR

)

S. M

ahen

dra

Dev

Pub

lic w

orks

: 100

day

s gu

aran

teed

w

age

empl

oym

ent/y

r per

hou

se-

hold

. Mal

e/fe

mal

e pa

rtici

patio

n va

ries

grea

tly b

y vi

llage

Hou

seho

lds

Chi

ld la

bor

patte

rns,

ho

useh

old

expe

nditu

re,

wom

en's

w

ell-b

eing

, w

omen

's

empo

wer

men

t, in

tra-h

ouse

-ho

ld d

ecis

ion-

mak

ing,

nut

ri-tio

n, m

igra

tion,

nu

mbe

r of

fem

ales

w

orki

ng a

nd

cont

rolli

ng th

eir

own

wag

es

Positive,significantimpactonchildwell-being.Thepositiveim

pactsonhouseholdincomes,m

igra

-tio

n, a

nd th

e em

pow

erm

ent a

nd w

ell-b

eing

of w

omen

hav

e he

lped

in im

prov

ing

nutri

tion,

hea

lth a

nd

educ

atio

n of

chi

ldre

n an

d re

duct

ion

in c

hild

labo

r. Th

e im

prov

ed in

frast

ruct

ure

thro

ugh

publ

ic w

orks

pr

ojec

ts a

lso

help

ed in

dire

ctly

in im

prov

ing

child

wel

l-bei

ng. P

artic

ipat

ion

of w

omen

in s

ome

case

s le

d to

sch

ool-l

eavi

ng a

s ol

der s

choo

l-goi

ng c

hild

ren

wer

e m

ade

to c

are

for y

oung

er s

iblin

gs w

hen

the

mot

her w

as w

orki

ng. P

ossi

ble

spill

over

effe

cts

for v

illag

es—

bette

r ove

rall

sani

tatio

n an

d he

alth

from

im

prov

ed p

ublic

faci

litie

s.

Mix

ed m

eth-

ods

stat

istic

al

anal

ysis

Doe

s C

ash

Cro

p A

dopt

ion

Det

ract

fro

m C

hild

Car

e P

rovi

sion

? E

vi-

denc

e fro

m R

ural

N

epal

2002

Nep

al

rura

lU

nive

rsity

of

Mar

ylan

d, IF

PR

I, N

ew E

RA

Mic

hael

J. P

aolis

soK

elly

Hal

lman

, La

wre

nce

Had

dad,

S

hibe

sh R

egm

i

Agr

icul

tura

l inp

uts,

agr

icul

tura

l tra

inin

g, ta

rget

s m

ales

and

fem

ales

eq

ually

Sub

sist

ence

fa

rmer

sFo

od s

ecu-

rity,

chi

ld c

are:

br

east

-feed

ing,

ps

ycho

soci

al

stim

ulat

ion,

nu

tritio

n,

hygi

ene

Res

ults

incl

uded

an

incr

ease

d al

loca

tion

of re

sour

ces

to c

hild

ren.

Gre

ater

tim

e fo

r wom

en a

nd m

en to

ca

re fo

r und

er 5

yea

r old

s. C

hild

ren

rece

ived

less

car

e in

hou

seho

lds

with

onl

y on

e pr

esch

oole

r. Th

e cu

rren

t dat

a se

t doe

s no

t per

mit

a lo

ng-r

un a

naly

sis

of th

e im

pact

s of

this

agr

icul

tura

l tec

hnol

ogy

and

train

ing

on th

e nu

tritio

n st

atus

of p

resc

hool

ers,

but

futu

re d

ata

colle

ctio

n ef

forts

in th

is a

rea

of re

sear

ch

shou

ld s

trive

to d

o so

. NO

TE: O

ne o

f the

few

pro

gram

s th

at is

not

an

inte

grat

ed in

terv

entio

n.

Ex-

post

impa

ct

eval

uatio

n ba

sed

on q

uasi

-ex

perim

enta

l da

ta

The

Con

trove

rsia

l E

ffect

s of

Mic

ro-

financeonChild

Sch

oolin

g: A

Ret

ro-

spec

tive

App

roac

h20

10

Arg

entin

aur

ban,

Bue

-no

s A

ires

Uni

vers

ity o

f Rom

e

Leon

ardo

Bec

chet

ti,

Pie

rluig

i Con

zo

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Sch

ool a

ttend

-an

ceYearsofcredithistoryhaveapositiveandsignificanteffectonchildschoolingconditionaltothebor-

rower’sstandardoflivinganddistancefromschool.Microfinancegeneratespositiveeffectsonchild

scho

olin

g on

ly w

hen

pare

nt in

com

e is

abo

ve a

cer

tain

thre

shol

d. Im

pact

dep

ends

on

inco

me

and

scho

olin

g co

sts.

The

ban

k-bo

rrow

er re

latio

nshi

p m

ay p

rovi

de a

dditi

onal

reso

urce

s th

at c

ompe

nsat

e tra

nspo

rt co

sts

for f

amili

es w

hich

are

mor

e di

stan

t fro

m s

choo

ls b

ut is

inef

fect

ive

(or e

ven

harm

ful)

if th

e le

vel o

f inc

ome

rem

ains

bel

ow th

e th

resh

old

of in

com

e un

der w

hich

par

ents

are

forc

ed n

ot to

sen

d ch

ildre

n to

sch

ool b

y ne

cess

ity. N

OTE

: val

idat

es g

radu

atio

n m

odel

.

Sta

tistic

al

anal

ysis

of a

na

tion-

wid

e su

rvey

usi

ng

a di

ffere

nce-

in-d

iffer

ence

s m

odel

Mea

surin

g th

e Im

pact

of M

icro

-financeonChild

Hea

lth O

utco

mes

in

Indo

nesi

a20

11

Indo

nesi

aur

ban

and

rura

l

Elo

n U

nive

rsity

, D

epar

tmen

t of E

co-

nom

ics

Ste

ve D

eLoa

ch,

Erik

a La

man

na

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Chi

ldre

n's

wei

ght

Childrenlivinginparticipantcom

munitiesexperiencedsignificantlyhigherratesofw

eightgain.Results

rein

forc

e th

e im

porta

nce

of a

cces

s to

cre

dit a

s a

cruc

ial p

olic

y to

ol. G

aini

ng a

cces

s to

mic

rocr

edit

led

to fa

ster

rate

s of

wei

ght g

ain

in c

hild

ren,

whi

le th

e lo

ss o

f suc

h ac

cess

did

not

app

ear t

o ha

ve d

elet

eri-

ous

effe

cts.

Wha

t we

do n

ot k

now

is w

hy. O

ne p

ossi

bilit

y is

that

the

com

mun

ities

that

orig

inal

ly h

ad

microfinanceinstitutionshadtimetodevelopalternativesourcesofcreditthatarenotcapturedbythe

data

. Alte

rnat

ivel

y, h

ouse

hold

s in

thos

e co

mm

uniti

es m

ay h

ave

had

othe

r sou

rces

of w

ealth

ava

ilabl

e to

hel

p sm

ooth

con

sum

ptio

n du

ring

this

per

iod.

Dat

a co

mpi

led

from

Indo

nesi

a Fa

mily

Life

Sur

vey

1993

-200

0.

Cro

ss-s

ectio

nal

stud

y of

ran-

dom

ly s

elec

ted

borr

ower

s in

se

vera

l cou

n-tri

es

ImpactsofMicrofi-

nanc

e In

itiat

ives

on

Chi

ldre

n20

07

glob

alP

artn

ers

in T

echn

ol-

ogy

Exc

hang

e Lt

d,

Men

noni

te E

co-

nom

ic D

evel

opm

ent

Ass

ocia

tes

Can

adia

n In

tern

a-tio

nal D

evel

opm

ent

Age

ncy

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Adu

lt sp

endi

ng

on: e

duca

-tio

n, h

ousi

ng,

nutri

tion

Whenfamilyincomeimproves,priorityareasofspendinggenerallybenefitchildren.Educationisthe

high

est p

riorit

y fo

r spe

ndin

g, fo

llow

ed b

y he

alth

car

e. H

ousi

ng a

nd n

utrit

ion

are

othe

r are

as o

f spe

nd-

ingthatwereidentifiedbythestudyparticipants.Asignificantw

aythatchildrenareaffectedbymicrofi-

nanceprogrammingisthroughtheirownparticipationinmicrofinanceinitiatives.Thestudyfoundthat

childrenwereactivelyengagedinmany,ifnotmost,ofthemicroenterprisesexamined.S

tudyfindings

sugg

est t

hat c

hild

ren

play

an

impo

rtant

role

in th

e in

itial

gro

wth

of f

amily

ent

erpr

ises

that

beg

in to

ac-

cesscreditthroughmicrofinanceinstitutions.

Ran

dom

ized

Q

uasi

-Exp

eri-

men

tal S

tatis

ti-ca

l Ana

lysi

s of

Hou

seho

ld

Sur

vey

Dat

a an

d FG

Ds

ImpactofM

icrofi-

nanc

e P

rogr

ams

on

Chi

ldre

n’s

Edu

ca-

tion:

Do

the

Gen

der

of th

e B

orro

wer

and

th

e D

eliv

ery

Mod

el

Mat

ter?

2004

Indi

a

rura

lIn

stitu

te o

f Dev

elop

-m

ent P

olic

y an

d M

anag

emen

t, U

ni-

vers

ity o

f Ant

wer

p

Nat

halie

Hol

voet

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

with

ch

ildre

n ag

ed

4-17

Inci

denc

e of

sc

hool

ing,

kin

d of

sch

ool-

ing,

num

ber

of y

ears

of

scho

olin

g,

inci

denc

e of

lit

erac

y, a

bil-

ity to

read

and

w

rite

Reg

ress

ion

resu

lts s

how

that

, in

the

case

of d

irect

ban

k-bo

rrow

er c

redi

t del

iver

y, it

doe

s no

t mat

ter

whe

ther

cre

dit e

nter

s th

e ho

useh

old

thro

ugh

the

mot

her o

r the

fath

er. H

owev

er, l

arge

diff

eren

ces

occu

r whenmothersobtaincreditthroughwom

en'sgroups.Com

binedfinancialandsocial-groupintermedia

-tio

n le

ads

to h

ighe

r edu

catio

nal i

nput

s an

d ou

tput

s, m

ainl

y fo

r girl

s. In

divi

dual

inte

rvie

ws

with

bor

row

-er

s an

d in

terv

iew

s w

ith w

omen

's g

roup

s su

gges

t tha

t cha

nges

in u

nder

lyin

g al

loca

tive

rule

s th

at a

re

prov

oked

by

grou

p m

embe

rshi

p co

uld

be e

xpla

nato

ry fo

r the

resu

lts o

btai

ned.

Sta

tistic

al

Ana

lysi

sImpactofM

icrofi-

nanc

e on

Sch

ool-

ing:

Evi

denc

e fro

m

Poo

r Rur

al H

ouse

-ho

lds

in B

oliv

ia20

08

Bol

ivia

rura

lU

nive

rsid

ad d

e lo

s A

ndes

—C

ED

E,

Bogota,C

olom

bia,

Ohi

o S

tate

Uni

-ve

rsity

Jorg

e H

. Mal

do-

nano

, C

laud

io G

onza

lez-

Vega

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Sch

oolin

g ga

psFo

r som

e ra

nges

of h

ouse

hold

inco

me

and

som

e ty

pes

of b

orro

wer

s, a

cces

s to

MFI

s m

ay h

ave

conflictingimpactsonschoolinggaps.M

icrofinancemayincreasethedemandforeducationasaresult

of in

com

e, ri

sk-m

anag

emen

t, ge

nder

, and

info

rmat

ion

effe

cts.

Or,

cred

it-co

nstra

ined

hou

seho

lds

that

cu

ltiva

te la

nd m

ay d

isco

ver n

ew d

eman

ds fo

r chi

ld la

bor f

or fa

rmin

g (o

r per

haps

taki

ng c

are

of s

iblin

gs

whi

le th

e m

othe

rs o

pera

te a

new

or e

xpan

ded

busi

ness

). Th

e re

latio

nshi

p be

twee

n fa

rm s

ize

and

de-

man

d fo

r edu

catio

n m

ay c

reat

e so

me

polic

y di

lem

mas

, as

incr

ease

d op

portu

nitie

s fo

r far

min

g ap

pear

to

rais

e th

e ho

useh

old’

s de

man

d fo

r chi

ld la

bor.

Sim

ilar e

ffect

s se

em to

em

erge

from

the

enco

urag

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Met

hodo

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Pro

j./R

epor

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e/P

ublic

atio

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ate

Loca

tion

Res

earc

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roup

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utho

rsIn

terv

entio

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rget

Pop

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Indi

cato

rsS

umm

ary

Program


Sta

tistic

al

Ana

lysi

s H

ow D

oes

Cre

dit

Acc

ess

Affe

ct

Chi

ldre

n's

Tim

e A

lloca

tion?

Evi

denc

e fro

m R

ural

Indi

a20

09

Indi

a

rura

lIn

stitu

te o

f Dev

elop

-in

g E

cono

mie

s (ID

E)

N. F

uwa,

S. I

to, K

. Kubo,T.K

urosaki,Y.

Saw

ada

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Chi

ldre

n's

time

allo

catio

ns o

n sc

hool

, lei

sure

, w

ork,

cho

res

Cre

dit m

arke

t fai

lure

s le

ad to

a s

ubst

antia

l rea

lloca

tion

of ti

me

used

by

child

ren

for a

ctiv

ities

suc

h as

sc

hool

ing,

hou

seho

ld c

hore

s, re

mun

erat

ive

wor

k, a

nd le

isur

e. T

he n

egat

ive

effe

cts

of c

redi

t con

stra

ints

on

sch

oolin

g am

ount

to a

60%

dec

reas

e of

ave

rage

sch

oolin

g tim

e. H

owev

er, t

he m

agni

tude

of d

ecre

ase

due

to c

redi

t con

stra

ints

is a

bout

hal

f tha

t of t

he in

crea

se in

bot

h do

mes

tic a

nd re

mun

erat

ive

child

lab

or,

the

othe

r hal

f app

earin

g to

com

e fro

m a

redu

ctio

n in

leis

ure.

Qua

si-e

xper

i-m

enta

l ana

lysi

s of

bas

elin

e an

d en

dlin

e da

ta

Cre

dit w

ith E

duca

-tio

n Im

pact

Rev

iew

N

o. 3

: Chi

ldre

n’s

Nut

ritio

nal S

tatu

s20

03

Gha

na,

Bol

ivia

rura

lFr

eedo

m fr

om

Hun

ger

Bar

bara

MkN

elly,

A

pril

Wat

son

Cre

dit,

heal

th e

duca

tion

Wom

en w

ith

child

ren

Civ

ic in

volv

e-m

ent,

food

se

curit

y, b

reas

t fe

edin

g, c

hild

nu

tritio

n, s

ocia

l ne

twor

king

NutritionalstatusofchildreninGhanapositivelyandsignificantlydifferentw

hileresultsfrom

Boliviawere

not s

o cl

ear.

At c

omm

unity

leve

l, w

omen

's d

egre

e of

civ

ic in

volv

emen

t and

stre

ngth

and

var

iety

of s

ocia

l networksbeyondtheirfam

iliesim

provedinbothstudyareas.Attheindividuallevel,wom

en'sself-confi-

dence,self-perceptionandattitudeimprovedinGhana.A

tthehouseholdlevel,therewerefewsignificant

resu

lts, e

xcep

t for

gre

ater

"say

" in

Bol

ivia

in h

ow m

uch

to s

pend

on

hous

e re

pairs

and

gre

ater

"say

" in

Gha

na in

whe

ther

or n

ot th

eir c

hild

ren

wen

t to

scho

ol.

Long

itudi

nal s

ur-

vey

of ra

ndom

ly

sele

cted

loan

re

cipi

ents

Microfinance

Pro

gram

Clie

nts

and

Impa

ct: A

n A

sses

s-mentofZam

buko

Trust,Zimbabw

e20

01

Zimbabw

e

urba

n-

Har

are,

B

ulaw

ayo,

M

utar

e

AIM

S, M

anag

emen

t S

yste

ms

Inte

rna-

tiona

l, U

SA

ID

Car

olyn

Bar

nes

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Sav

ings

le

vel,

spen

ding

, sc

hool

atte

nd-

ance

"Pos

itive

impa

ct o

n th

e ed

ucat

ion

of b

oys

aged

6 to

16

in c

lient

hou

seho

lds,

pos

itive

impa

ct o

n th

e ed

ucat

ion

of b

oys

aged

6 to

16

in e

xtre

mel

y po

or c

lient

hou

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lds.

No

effe

ct o

n th

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te o

f girl

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ed 6

to16enrolledinschool.Significantimpactontheconsum

ptionofmeat,fishorchickeninextremelypoor

cont

inui

ng c

lient

hou

seho

lds.

The

tren

d am

ong

mar

ried

clie

nts

and

non-

clie

nts

was

mor

e co

nsul

tatio

n an

d jointdecisionmakingwiththespouse,ratherthanthefinancialdecisionbeingsolelymadebythemicro

entre

pren

eur.

This

pat

tern

was

foun

d am

ong

both

mar

ried

wom

en a

nd m

en. A

mon

g m

arrie

d w

omen

, abo

ut

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quar

ter r

epor

ted

a ch

ange

to a

uton

omou

s de

cisi

on m

akin

g an

d a

sim

ilar p

ropo

rtion

exp

erie

nced

gr

eate

r inv

olve

men

t of a

noth

er p

erso

n, w

hile

app

roxi

mat

ely

half

said

ther

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as n

o ch

ange

. Am

ong

the

mar

ried

men

, slig

htly

mor

e th

an h

alf s

aid

ther

e w

as n

o ch

ange

and

one

third

repo

rted

grea

ter i

nvol

vem

ent

of a

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er p

erso

n.

Pro

gram

eva

lu-

atio

n th

roug

h fo

cus

grou

p di

scus

sion

s an

d ho

useh

old

inte

rvie

ws

Impa

ct A

sses

s-m

ent o

f the

Chi

cal

Inte

grat

ed R

ecov

ery

Act

ion

Pro

ject

, Nig

er20

07

Nig

er

rura

lFe

inst

ein

Inte

rna-

tiona

l Cen

ter,

Tufts

U

nive

rsity

, Afri

Car

e

John

C B

urns

, O

men

o W

Suj

i

Cer

eal b

anks

, as

set t

rans

fer,

lives

tock

, cre

dit,

skill

s tra

inin

g,

bala

nce

betw

een

mal

e an

d fe

mal

e pa

rtici

patio

n

Com

mun

ities

re

cove

ring

from

fo

od c

risis

Inco

me

diversification,

food

sec

urity

, ch

ild n

utrit

ion,

in

com

e

Impr

oved

chi

ld n

utrit

ion.

Cer

eal b

ank

has

led

to a

n in

crea

sed

labo

r dem

and

for w

omen

and

girl

s to

pou

nd

mill

et. A

n in

crea

se in

the

cont

ribut

ion

of p

etty

trad

e an

d in

com

e ge

nera

ting

activ

ities

in c

ompa

rison

to o

ther

ho

useh

old

inco

me

sour

ces.

Inco

me

from

this

cat

egor

y is

mos

tly d

eriv

ed fr

om li

vest

ock

cond

ition

ing

and

fatteningfacilitatedthroughtheprojectsre-stockingandmicro-creditactivities.Asignificantdeclineinthe

importanceofincomefromlaborm

igrationandurbanem

ployment.Thesignificancebeingthatcom

munity

mem

bers

con

side

r a re

duce

d de

pend

ency

on

this

inco

me

sour

ce a

s a

good

indi

cato

r of h

ouse

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food

se

curit

y. N

OTE

: thi

s is

the

only

one

that

use

s co

mm

unity

-est

ablis

hed

indi

cato

rs.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtW

hat C

hang

es A

re

We

See

ing

In P

eo-

ple’

s Li

ves:

Qua

ntita

-tiv

e R

esea

rch

2011

Indi

a

ur

ban

and

rura

l

IPA

, CG

AP

Dea

n K

arla

n

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h an

d as

set t

rans

fer,

ski

lls tr

ain-

ing,savingsplan,financialeducation

Sin

gle

wom

en

with

sch

ool-a

ged

child

ren

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are

w

orki

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ther

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an a

ttend

ing

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ol

Inco

me,

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curit

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choo

l at

tend

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cess

to

heal

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re,

basi

c lit

erac

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spen

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ease

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ease

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e im

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lth, i

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ase

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ittle

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ease

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impa

ct o

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men

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ct o

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ease

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r day

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hild

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spen

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e,

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spen

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-40

mn

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e/da

y st

udyi

ng. N

OTE

: the

web

site

say

s pa

rtici

pant

s re

ceiv

e U

S$0

.90/

wee

k,

whi

le th

e re

port

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es th

is a

mou

nt a

t US

$2.0

0/w

eek.

Ret

rosp

ectiv

e ev

alua

tion

with

co

mpa

rison

gr

oup

The

Con

trove

rsia

l E

ffect

s of

Mic

ro-

financeonChild

Sch

oolin

g: A

Ret

ro-

spec

tive

App

roac

h20

11

Indo

nesi

a

urba

n, A

ceh

Wom

en’s

Ref

u-ge

e C

omm

issi

on,

Col

umbi

a U

nive

rsity

M

ailm

an S

choo

l of

Pub

lic H

ealth

Lind

say

Sta

rk,

Naf

essa

Kas

sim

, Th

alia

Spa

rling

, D

ale

Bus

cher

, Nei

l B

ooth

by

Gro

up g

uara

ntee

lend

ing

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sav-

ings

pro

gram

Hou

seho

lds

Long

-term

im

pact

s on

nu

tritio

n, h

ealth

, ch

ild c

are,

ed

ucat

ion

Theresearchteam

foundnodifferencebetweenthehouseholdsthatreceivedmicrofinanceandcom

pa-

rabl

e ho

useh

olds

, ind

icat

ing

the

impa

ct o

f the

pro

gram

on

child

ren

was

not

det

ecta

ble

on th

is c

onte

xt, o

r thattherewasnosalientbenefitforchildwell-being.

Cas

e co

ntro

l st

udy

Pro

gram

a de

Err

adi-

caca

o do

Tra

balh

o In

fant

il (P

ETI

) 20

01

Bra

zil

urba

n an

d ru

ral

IXI C

orpo

ratio

n,

Wor

ld B

ank,

Iow

a S

tate

Uni

vers

ity

Yoon-TienYap,

Gui

lher

me

Sed

lace

k,

Pet

er F

. Ora

zem

c

Cas

h tra

nsfe

rsH

ouse

hold

sS

choo

l enr

oll-

men

t, la

bor p

ar-

ticip

atio

n, h

ours

of

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k, s

ecto

r of

em

ploy

men

t, hi

ghes

t gra

de

atta

ined

Pro

gram

incr

ease

d tim

e in

sch

ool,

redu

ced

labo

r for

ce p

artic

ipat

ion

and

haza

rdou

s w

ork,

and

incr

ease

d ac

adem

ic s

ucce

ss fo

r chi

ldre

n in

the

prog

ram

. For

the

mos

t par

t, sp

illov

er e

ffect

s on

non

prog

ram

chi

ldre

n weresm

allandinsignificant.H

owever,w

edofindevidencethatasprogramchildrenreducedtheirw

orking

hour

s, n

onpr

ogra

m c

hild

ren

beca

me

mor

e lik

ely

to w

ork

ten

hour

s or

mor

e. C

onse

quen

tly, t

here

wer

e so

me

adve

rse

spill

over

effe

cts

on n

onpa

rtici

pant

s. N

ever

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ess,

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over

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unic

ipal

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ct o

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TI,

net o

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pot

entia

l adv

erse

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ct o

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ticip

ants

, is

alm

ost u

nive

rsal

ly in

the

dire

ctio

n of

pro

gram

ob

ject

ives

. Con

sequ

ently

, the

PE

TI a

ppea

rs to

be

a su

cces

sful

mec

hani

sm to

spe

ed th

e de

clin

e of

chi

ld

labo

r in

rura

l are

as.

Sta

tistic

al a

naly

-si

s of

an

RC

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ondi

tiona

l C

ash

Tran

sfer

P

rogr

ams

Ser

ve

As

Saf

ety

Net

s in

K

eepi

ng C

hild

ren

at S

choo

l and

Fro

m

Wor

king

Whe

n E

x-po

sed

to S

hock

s?20

08

Mex

ico

ru

ral

Ala

in d

e Ja

nvry

, Fr

eder

ico

Fina

n,

Elis

abet

h S

adou

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Ren

os V

akis

Cas

h tra

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rsH

ouse

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Usi

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dat

a fo

r vill

ages

from

the

Mex

ican

Pro

gres

a pr

ogra

m w

e ha

ve s

how

n th

at s

hock

s ar

e hi

ghly

pr

eval

ent,

man

y ch

ildre

n ha

ve ir

regu

lar p

erio

ds o

f sch

ool e

nrol

lmen

t, ch

ild la

bor i

s ve

ry fr

eque

nt, a

nd

child

ren

are

inde

ed u

sed

as ri

sk c

opin

g in

stru

men

ts. T

he c

ash

trans

fers

, how

ever

, lar

gely

com

pens

ate

for

thes

e sh

ocks

, red

ucin

g bo

th th

e dr

op-o

ut ra

te a

nd ir

regu

larit

y in

sch

ool e

nrol

lmen

t. C

ondi

tiona

l tra

nsfe

rs

help

ed p

rote

ct e

nrol

lmen

t, bu

t did

not

refra

in p

aren

ts fr

om in

crea

sing

chi

ld w

ork

in re

spon

se to

sho

cks.

http://ir.ide.go.jp/dspace/bitstream/2344/815/3/ARRIDE_Discussion_No.183_kubo.pdf





https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=explorer&chrome=true&srcid=0B2Vae1IX6AVmN2JmNTU0YjYtMTE2YS00MmU2LWE5OWMtZThmZWFiNDdjNjY4&hl=en




http://www.givebetter.net/files/Cause1-2/Independent%20research%20on%20microfinance/barnes%20zimbabwe%202001.pdf





https://wikis.uit.tufts.edu/confluence/download/attachments/14553662/Filingue+PIA.pdf?version=1&modificationDate=1218807867000




http://graduation.cgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Impact-research-findings_Karlan1.pdf




http://www.politiquessociales.net/IMG/pdf/Brazil_erradicating_child_labor.pdf



http://www.econ.berkeley.edu/~ffinan/Finan_Shocks.pdf








Met

hodo

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Pro

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Res

earc

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view

Con

ditio

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ash

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educ

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Pre

sent

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2009

p

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zbei

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bert

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Cas

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hold

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usP

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naly

sis

by c

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revi

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T im

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eva

luat

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. Ove

rall,

CC

T pr

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ms

have

be

en v

ery

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refo

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cial

ass

ista

nce

polic

ies

by re

plac

ing

badl

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rget

ed a

nd in

effe

ctiv

e su

bsid

ies

and

in c

reat

ing

the

polit

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con

ditio

ns fo

r exp

andi

ng in

com

e su

ppor

t to

the

poor

.

RC

T st

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repo

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oes

Chi

ld L

abor

A

lway

s D

ecre

ase

with

Inco

me?

An

Eva

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e C

onte

xt o

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evel

-op

men

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in

Nic

arag

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rura

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e W

orld

Ban

k

Xim

ena

V. D

el

Car

pio

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Chi

ld la

bor,

“hum

an c

apita

l” ou

tcom

es o

f sc

hool

age

d ch

ildre

n:

nutri

tion,

hea

lth,

form

al

educ

atio

n, o

n-th

e-jo

b tra

inin

g

Whe

n ho

useh

olds

are

giv

en a

CC

T w

ith a

voc

atio

nal o

r bus

ines

s gr

ant,

non-

phys

ical

chi

ld la

bor

incr

ease

s (c

alcu

latio

ns, s

tore

-min

ding

, etc

). G

ende

r mat

ters

- girl

s re

quire

far l

ess

incr

ease

in to

tal

hous

ehol

d in

com

e to

hav

e a

decr

ease

in la

bor t

han

boys

do.

Incl

udin

g an

edu

catio

n co

nditi

on m

akes

it

far l

ess

appe

alin

g fo

r par

ents

to s

end

thei

r chi

ldre

n to

wor

k in

stea

d of

sch

ool.

Whe

n w

e di

sagg

rega

te

betw

een

phys

ical

and

non

-phy

sica

l lab

or, w

e se

e th

at th

e C

CT

help

s de

crea

se p

hysi

cal l

abor

and

in

crea

se n

on-p

hysi

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abor

.

Exa

min

es

quas

i-exp

eri-

men

tal d

ata

Villa

ge B

anki

ng a

nd

Mat

erna

l and

Chi

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Hea

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vide

nce

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and

H

ondu

ras

2002

Ecu

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ondu

ras

Geo

rge

Was

hing

ton

Uni

vers

ity

Ste

phen

C. S

mith

“Hea

lth b

anks

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edit-

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vill

age

bank

s H

ouse

hold

sC

hild

hea

lth,

brea

st fe

edin

g,

spen

ding

Hea

lth p

ract

ices

do

not i

mpr

ove

auto

mat

ical

ly w

ith g

reat

er w

ealth

. In

Hon

dura

s, re

sults

sho

w th

at

heal

th b

ank

parti

cipa

tion

is ro

bust

ly a

ssoc

iate

d w

ith re

duce

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bseq

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con

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rrhe

a probability,butinnospecificationdoescredit-onlybankparticipationhavethiseffect.InEcuador,

resultssuggestalargereffectofcredit-onlybanks.Inbothcountries,healthbankparticipationsignifi

-ca

ntly

rais

es s

ubse

quen

t hea

lthca

re o

ver c

redi

t-onl

y pa

rtici

patio

n, a

nd a

t lea

st re

duce

s th

e te

nden

cy

to s

witc

h fro

m b

reas

t-fee

ding

to b

ottle

-feed

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as in

com

e ris

es. E

ffect

s on

exp

endi

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s ar

e am

bigu

ous.

RC

T st

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repo

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ouse

hold

Inco

me

As

A D

eter

min

ant

of C

hild

Lab

or a

nd

Sch

ool E

nrol

lmen

t in

Bra

zil:

Evi

denc

e Fr

om A

Soc

ial

Sec

urity

Ref

orm

2008

Bra

zil

Inte

rnat

iona

l Mon

-et

ary

Fund

(IM

F)

Irine

u E

vang

elis

ta

de C

arva

lho

Filh

o

Chi

ldre

n ag

ed

10-1

4C

hild

labo

r, sc

hool

enr

oll-

men

t

This

pap

er s

tudi

es th

e ef

fect

s of

hou

seho

ld in

com

e on

labo

r par

ticip

atio

n an

d sc

hool

enr

ollm

ent o

f chi

l-dr

en a

ged

10 to

14

in B

razi

l usi

ng a

soc

ial s

ecur

ity re

form

as

a so

urce

of e

xoge

nous

var

iatio

n in

hou

se-

hold

inco

me.

Est

imat

es im

ply

that

the

gap

betw

een

actu

al a

nd fu

ll sc

hool

enr

ollm

ent w

as re

duce

d by

20percentforgirlslivinginthesamehouseholdasanelderlypersonbenefitingfromthereform.G

irls'

laborparticipationratesreducedwithincreasedbenefitincome,butonlywhenbenefitswerereceived

by a

fem

ale

elde

rly. E

ffect

s on

boy

s' e

nrol

lmen

t rat

es a

nd la

bor p

artic

ipat

ion

wer

e in

gen

eral

sm

alle

r andstatisticallyinsignificant.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtTh

e Im

pact

of C

ash

Tran

sfer

s on

Chi

ld

Labo

r and

Sch

ool

Atte

ndan

ce in

B

razi

l, D

epar

tmen

t of

Eco

nom

ics

2004

Bra

zil

Elia

na C

ardo

so, A

n-dr

é P

orte

la S

ouza

Con

ditio

nal c

ash

trans

fers

Hou

seho

lds/

fam

ilies

Chi

ld la

bor,

scho

ol a

ttend

-an

ce

The

pape

r est

imat

es th

e im

pact

on

scho

ol a

ttend

ance

and

chi

ld la

bor o

f con

ditio

nal c

ash

paym

ents

to

poo

r fam

ilies

in B

razi

l. It

desc

ribes

Bra

zil's

tran

sfer

pro

gram

s an

d pr

esen

ts s

tatis

tics

on s

choo

l at

tend

ance

and

chi

ld la

bor.

In th

e se

cond

hal

f of t

he 1

990s

, man

y m

unic

ipal

ities

had

ado

pted

the

"Bol

sa E

scol

a" (a

cas

h tra

nsfe

r con

ditio

nal o

n sc

hool

atte

ndan

ce) a

nd/o

r the

fede

ral m

inim

um in

com

e pr

ogra

m (i

n pl

ace

durin

g 19

99 a

nd 2

000

and

repl

aced

by

the

"Bol

sa E

scol

a Fe

dera

l" in

200

1). A

lthou

gh

cond

ition

al c

ash

trans

fer p

rogr

ams

in B

razi

l hav

e be

en in

pla

ce s

ince

199

6, s

tudi

es o

n th

eir e

x-po

st im

-pa

ct a

re v

ery

few

. Mic

ro h

ouse

hold

leve

l dat

a fro

m th

e 20

00 C

ensu

s al

low

s th

e us

e of

pro

pens

ity s

core

m

etho

ds to

est

imat

e th

e im

pact

of i

ncom

e tra

nsfe

rs o

n ch

ild la

bor a

nd s

choo

l atte

ndan

ce. T

he p

aper

findsthatincometransferprogram

shadnosignificanteffectonchildlaborbutapositiveandsignificant

impa

ct o

n sc

hool

atte

ndan

ce. T

hese

pre

limin

ary

resu

lts s

ugge

st th

at th

ese

prog

ram

s ha

ve n

ot b

een

effectiveinfightingchildlaborinBrazil.Theyincreasethechanceofapoorchildgoingtoschoolbut

do n

ot re

duce

her

labo

r act

ivity

per

haps

bec

ause

she

pre

fers

to c

ombi

ne s

choo

l and

labo

r, co

nsid

erin

g th

at th

e tra

nsfe

rs a

re to

o sm

all t

o pr

ovid

e an

ince

ntiv

e to

forg

o th

e la

bor i

ncom

e.

RC

T st

udy

repo

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easu

ring

the

Im-

pactofM

icrofinance

in H

yder

abad

, Ind

ia20

05-2

008

Hyd

erab

ad,

Indi

aJ-

PAL

Abh

ijit B

aner

jee,

EstherD

uflo,Rachel

Gle

nnes

ter,

Cyn

thia

K

inna

n

Microfinanceloans

Wom

enN

ew b

usi-

ness

es,

businessprofits,

expe

nditu

res,

he

alth

, edu

ca-

tion

and

fem

ale

empo

wer

men

t

Spandanaintroducedtheirfinancialproductsintothetreatmentvillagesatthebeginningofthestudy

in 2

005.

Fift

y-tw

o ar

eas

wer

e ra

ndom

ly s

elec

ted

for t

he o

peni

ng o

f an

MFI

bra

nch

imm

edia

tely,

whi

le

anot

her 5

2 se

rved

as

the

com

paris

on c

omm

uniti

es. N

o ev

iden

ce w

as fo

und

to s

ugge

st th

at m

icro

-cr

edit

empo

wer

s w

omen

or i

mpr

oves

hea

lth o

r edu

catio

nal o

utco

mes

. Wom

en in

trea

tmen

t are

as

wer

e no

mor

e lik

ely

to m

ake

deci

sion

s ab

out h

ouse

hold

spe

ndin

g, in

vest

men

t, sa

ving

s, o

r edu

catio

n.

Hou

seho

lds

in tr

eatm

ent a

reas

spe

nt n

o m

ore

on m

edic

al c

are

and

sani

tatio

n th

an d

o co

mpa

rison

ho

useh

olds

, and

wer

e no

less

like

ly to

repo

rt a

child

bei

ng s

ick.

Am

ong

hous

ehol

ds w

ith s

choo

l-age

d ch

ildre

n, h

ouse

hold

s in

trea

tmen

t are

as a

re a

lso

no m

ore

likel

y to

hav

e ch

ildre

n in

sch

ool-

alth

ough

sc

hool

goi

ng ra

tes

wer

e al

read

y hi

gh in

the

treat

men

t and

com

paris

on g

roup

s.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtH

ealth

Edu

catio

n fo

r M

icro

cred

it C

lient

s in

Per

u20

05-2

007

Per

uJ-

PAL

Rita

Ham

ad, D

ean

Kar

lan

Microfinanceloans,healtheduca

-tio

nM

ostly

wom

en

(85%

of c

lient

s)H

eigh

t, w

eigh

t, he

mog

lobi

n,

days

abs

ent

from

wor

k du

e to

illn

ess,

ch

ild n

utrit

ion

pa

ttern

s, c

lient

re

tent

ion

and

repa

ymen

t rat

es

PRISMA,amicrofinanceinstitutionlendingtoover20,000clients,partneredwithIPAtoprovidemicrofi-

nanc

e w

ith h

ealth

trai

ning

that

incl

uded

the

follo

win

g to

pics

focu

sing

on

child

and

mat

erna

l hea

lth: c

om-

mon

chi

ldho

od il

lnes

ses,

four

dan

ger s

igna

ls (e

.g. d

iarr

hea,

cou

gh, f

ever

), m

edic

al e

xam

s, in

dica

tors

of

qual

ity m

edic

al v

isits

, and

car

e fo

r sic

k ch

ildre

n. A

dults

who

rece

ived

the

heal

th e

duca

tion

train

ing

had

significantlyhigherlevelsofknowledgeofmodulecontentthanthoseinthecomparisongroup.There

was

no

impa

ct o

n he

alth

out

com

es fo

r chi

ldre

n or

inst

itutio

nal o

utco

mes

.

http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCCT/Resources/5757608-1234228266004/PRR-CCT_web_noembargo.pdf











http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305750X01001280





http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/wp/2008/wp08241.pdf







http://www.vanderbilt.edu/econ/wparchive/workpaper/vu04-w07.pdf






http://www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/measuring-impact-microfinance-hyderabad-india



http://www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/health-education-microcredit-clients-peru



Met

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Pro

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RC

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prov

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Des

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ondi

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ash

Tran

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P

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Evi

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m a

Ran

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s, s

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in s

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sc

hool

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ricu-

latio

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terti

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inst

itutio

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The

follo

win

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ree

ince

ntiv

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ruct

ures

wer

e us

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or a

CC

T sy

stem

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ic m

odel

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ticip

ants

re

ceiv

ed U

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15 m

onth

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ased

on

scho

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ttend

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trea

tmen

t of U

S $

5 ba

nked

mon

thly,

te

rtiar

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atm

ent s

tude

nts

rece

ive

US

$30

0 af

ter g

radu

atin

g fro

m a

hig

her e

duca

tion

inst

itutio

n. O

n av

erag

e al

l inc

reas

ed a

ttend

ance

from

3 to

5 p

erce

ntag

e po

ints

. The

sav

ings

trea

tmen

t and

the

terti

ary

treat

men

t pro

ved

effe

ctiv

e at

impr

ovin

g en

rollm

ent o

f the

low

est i

ncom

e st

uden

ts a

nd s

tude

nts

with

th

e lo

wes

t par

ticip

atio

n ra

tes.

The

bas

ic tr

eatm

ent h

as li

ttle

effe

ct o

n th

ese

grou

ps o

f stu

dent

s. S

tudy

fo

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that

ince

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adua

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PAG

, W

orld

Ban

k

IRC

, AR

C, o

ther

s

Girl

s' g

roup

s, s

kills

trai

ning

, hea

lth

educ

atio

n, c

redi

t, jo

b pl

acem

ent

Ado

lesc

ent g

irls,

yo

ung

wom

en

(16-

24 y

ears

ol

d)

Soc

ial n

etw

ork-

ing,

wag

e em

ploy

men

t, us

e of

cre

dit

Aim

: the

cre

atio

n of

girl

s' c

lubs

as

a hu

b fo

r del

iver

y of

man

y se

rvic

es (p

sych

osoc

ial,

heal

th, s

kills

tra

inin

g, e

tc.).

Unk

now

nE

xam

inin

g U

n-de

rinve

stm

ent i

n A

gric

ultu

re:

Mea

surin

g R

etur

ns

to C

apita

l and

Insu

r-an

ce in

Gha

naFo

rthco

min

g

Gha

na

rura

l Yale,IPA

Labs,

ISS

ER

Dea

n K

arla

n, Is

aac

Ose

i, R

ober

t Ose

i, C

hris

Udr

y

Cas

h gr

ants

, agr

icul

tura

l ins

uran

ceH

ouse

hold

s S

choo

l enr

oll-

men

tW

ith c

apita

l inc

reas

e, 1

3 to

16

year

old

chi

ldre

n w

ere

24%

mor

e lik

ely

to b

e en

rolle

d in

sch

ool.

http://www.poverty-action.org/sites/default/files/Christopher%20Udry.pdf.

Unk

now

nE

ffect

s of

an

Inte

grat

ed P

rote

c-tio

n an

d E

cono

mic

S

treng

then

ing

Pro

gram

on

Chi

ld

Wel

l-bei

ng [w

orki

ng

title

]20

12

Uga

nda

rura

lC

hild

Pro

tect

ion

in

Cris

is, W

omen

’s

Ref

ugee

Com

mis

-si

on, C

olum

bia

Uni

vers

ity M

ailm

an

Sch

ool o

f Pub

lic

Hea

lth

Ben

jam

in K

atz,

Jos

h Chaffin,etal.

Cre

dit

Hou

seho

lds

Hea

lth s

pend

-in

g on

chi

ldre

n,

mea

ls p

er

day,

pro

tein

co

nsum

ptio

n,

inci

denc

e of

ab

use,

sch

ool-

ing,

intra

-hou

se-

hold

allo

catio

n of

food

, chi

ld

wor

king

out

side

th

e ho

me

Stud

y Q

uest

ion:

Wha

t is

the

rela

tions

hip

betw

een

hous

ehol

d liv

elih

ood

stat

us &

stra

tegy

, chi

ld p

rote

ctio

n ris

ks a

nd

child

ren’

s ps

ycho

soci

al w

ell-b

eing

in c

omm

uniti

es s

erve

d by

the

WU

BP

prog

ram

?Sp

ecifically:

•Doesahousehold’slivelihoodstatus(m

easuredintermsofassets)predictthelikelihoodofprotection

from

risk

s w

ithin

that

hou

seho

ld?

•Doesahousehold’slivelihoodstatus(m

easuredintermsofassets)predictthepsychosocialwell-

bein

g of

chi

ldre

n w

ithin

that

hou

seho

ld?

•Doesahousehold’slivelihoodstrategy(m

easuredintermsofrecentadjustmentstohouseholdeco

-no

mic

act

ivity

) pre

dict

the

likel

ihoo

d of

pro

tect

ion

from

risk

s w

ithin

that

hou

seho

ld?

•Doesahousehold’slivelihoodstrategy(m

easuredintermsofrecentadjustmentstohouseholdeco

-no

mic

act

ivity

) pre

dict

the

psyc

hoso

cial

wel

l-bei

ng o

f chi

ldre

n w

ithin

that

hou

seho

ld?

•Doesreceiptofanyservices(from

WUBPorotherprogram

sactiveinthearea)atthehouseholdlevel

pred

ict a

ny o

f the

se o

utco

mes

?

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtH

uman

Cap

ital,

Fina

ncia

l Cap

ital,

and

the

Eco

nom

ic

Em

pow

erm

ent o

f Fe

mal

e A

dole

scen

ts

in U

gand

a an

d Ta

nzan

iaFo

rthco

min

g

Uga

nda,

Ta

nzan

ia

rura

l and

pe

ri-ur

ban

Pov

erty

Act

ion

Lab

Oria

na B

andi

era,

R

obin

Bur

gess

, M

arku

s G

olds

tein

, S

elim

Gul

esci

, Im

ran

Ras

ul, M

unsh

i S

ulai

man

Form

atio

n of

Ado

lesc

ent D

evel

op-

men

t Cen

tres,

whi

ch p

rovi

de li

fe

skill

s tra

inin

g, h

ealth

ass

ista

nce,

in

com

e ge

nera

tion,

ski

lls tr

aini

ng,

assettransfer,financialliteracy

training,accesstomicrofinance

Girl

s ag

e 14

-20

Sch

ool e

nrol

l-m

ent,

risk-

taki

ng

beha

vior

, m

arria

ge a

ge,

dow

ry g

ivin

g,

econ

omic

as

pira

tions

, eco

-no

mic

em

pow

-er

men

t, so

cial

ne

twor

king

Res

earc

hers

will

try

to m

easu

re c

hang

es in

girl

s' e

xpec

tatio

ns a

nd a

spira

tions

, as

wel

l as

thos

e of

thei

r pa

rent

s, o

ver t

he c

ours

e of

the

two

year

pro

ject

(200

8-20

10) i

n a

sam

ple

of 1

20,0

00 h

ouse

hold

s in

300

vi

llage

s.

Unk

now

nA

dvan

cing

Inte

-gratedMicrofinance

forYouth—AIM

Youth

Ong

oing

Ecu

ador

, M

ali

rura

lFr

eedo

m fr

om

Hun

ger

Ros

sana

Ram

irez

Fina

ncia

l edu

catio

n, s

avin

gs a

nd

cred

it pr

oduc

tsA

dole

scen

ts,

mal

e an

d fe

mal

e pa

rtici

pant

s

Abi

lity

to m

an-

age

mon

ey, p

lan

ahea

d, s

et a

side

sa

ving

s

In th

is th

ree-

year

initi

ativ

e, F

reed

om fr

om H

unge

r will

des

ign,

test

, and

doc

umen

t you

th-fo

cuse

d m

icro

-financeandfinancialeducationservicesbenefitting37,000youthinEcuadorandMali.New

savings

and

cred

it pr

oduc

ts w

ill b

e de

sign

ed a

nd te

sted

as

part

of th

e in

itiat

ive.

http://www.povertyactionlab.org/sites/default/files/publications/112%20Conditional%20Cash%20Transfers%20April%2011.pdf







http://www.poverty-action.org/project/0113





https://docs.google.com/document/d/1FvEgQNMsZHVfMLYxfp62DUly8nY1850lh2vGmiYHk_0/edit?hl=en_US and http://www.supportliberia.com/assets/108/EPAG_one-pager_1_.pdf





https://docs.google.comleaf?id=1B3bhtvLdMwKOW89IpxOc3h_FFhc8igzG1dAi7kxsKmjy6hkQnG8GC_1HJ2tK&hl=en_US






http://www.poverty-action.org/sites/default/files/Christopher%20Udry.pdf

http://www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/human-capital-financial-capital-and-economic-empowerment-female-adolescents-uganda-and-ta







http://www.freedomfromhunger.org/programs/AIM_youth.php




Met

hodo

logy

Pro

j./R

epor

t Nam

eP

ublic

atio

n D

ate

Loca

tion

Res

earc

h G

roup

/ A

utho

rsIn

terv

entio

nsTa

rget

Pop

ula-

tion

Indi

cato

rsS

umm

ary

Ong

oing

Stu

dies

Mul

ti-ar

m R

CT

stud

y re

port

Eco

nom

ic E

mpo

w-

erm

ent o

f Fem

ale

Ado

lesc

ents

: E

vide

nce

from

U

gand

a20

11

Uga

nda

ru

ral

LSE

, UC

L

O. B

andi

era,

S.

Gul

esci

, N. B

uehr

en,

I. R

asul

, R. B

urge

ss,

M. S

ulai

man

, M.

Gol

dste

in

Girl

s' c

lubs

, life

ski

lls, s

kills

trai

ning

Ado

lesc

ent g

irls

Eng

aged

in

IGA

, hea

lth

know

ledg

e,

entre

pren

euria

l ability,financial

skill

s, a

naly

tical

ab

ility

, sav

ings

am

ount

Two

year

s af

ter t

he in

cept

ion

of th

e pr

ogra

m, a

nd b

efor

e th

e in

trodu

ctio

n of

the

cred

it co

mpo

nent

, participantshavebetterR

Hknowledge,engagedinlessriskybehaviors,havebetterfinancialand

analyticalabilities,moreconfidenceinentrepreneurialcapacity,andarelikelytoberunningtheirown

busi

ness

es a

nd s

avin

g m

oney

.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtS

iyak

ha N

ents

ha:

Bui

ldin

g E

cono

mic

, H

ealth

and

Soc

ial

Cap

abili

ties

amon

g H

ighl

y Vu

lner

-ab

le A

dole

scen

ts

inKwaZulu-Natal,

Sou

th A

frica

Ong

oing

Sou

th A

frica

pe

ri-ur

ban,

ou

tsid

e of

D

urba

n

Pop

ulat

ion

Cou

ncil

Kel

ly H

allm

an, E

va

Roc

a

Mentoring,lifeskills,cashstipend,fi

-na

ncia

l edu

catio

n, ta

rget

s m

ales

and

fe

mal

es e

qual

ly in

a g

roup

set

ting

Ado

lesc

ents

Fina

ncia

l pl

anni

ng,

HIV

at

titud

es,

com

mun

ity

invo

lvem

ent

Pro

gram

led

to im

porta

nt c

hang

es in

you

ng p

eopl

e’s

attit

udes

and

beh

avio

rs. P

artic

ipan

ts w

ere

mor

e lik

ely

to k

now

whe

re to

get

con

dom

s, h

ave

know

ledg

e of

soc

ial g

rant

requ

irem

ents

and

crit

eria

, im

prov

ed b

udge

ting

and

plan

ning

ski

lls, a

nd h

ave

atte

mpt

ed to

ope

n a

bank

acc

ount

. Oth

er im

pact

s differedbetweenmalesandfemales.G

irlsreportedfeelinghigherself-esteem,greaterconfidencein

thei

r abi

lity

to o

btai

n co

ndom

s, g

reat

er le

vels

of s

ocia

l inc

lusi

on in

thei

r com

mun

ities

and

wer

e m

ore

likelytohaveobtainedanationalbirthcertificate.Boysreportedhavingfewersexualpartnersandwere

mor

e lik

ely

to h

ave

a S

outh

Afri

can

ID th

an b

oys

in th

e co

ntro

l gro

up, a

nd w

ere

mor

e lik

ely

to h

ave

repo

rted

unde

rtaki

ng a

n in

com

e-ge

nera

ting

activ

ity.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtC

ondi

tiona

l Cas

h Tr

ansf

ers

for E

du-

catio

n in

Mor

rocc

oO

ngoi

ng s

ince

200

8

Mor

rocc

o: 5

of

the

poor

-es

t reg

ions

J-PA

L

Flor

enci

a D

evot

o, E

s-therDuflo,Pascaline

Dup

as

Con

ditio

nal c

ash

trans

fers

, unc

ondi

-tio

nal c

ash

trans

fers

Prim

ary

scho

ol

aged

chi

ldre

nS

tude

nt

atte

ndan

ce,

drop

out r

ates

, te

st s

core

s an

d ho

useh

old

wel

fare

A to

tal o

f 320

sch

ool s

ecto

rs a

re in

volv

ed in

the

pilo

t. S

choo

ls w

ere

rand

omly

ass

igne

d to

thre

e gr

oups

. In

180

sch

ool s

ecto

rs, t

he g

over

nmen

t is

prov

idin

g fu

ndin

g to

the

fam

ilies

con

ditio

nal o

n sc

hool

par

tici-

patio

n. P

aren

ts re

ceiv

e ca

sh tr

ansf

er e

very

two

mon

ths

as lo

ng s

the

child

mai

ntai

ns a

n 80

% a

ttend

-an

ce ra

te. A

llow

ance

incr

ease

s w

ith p

rogr

ess

thro

ugh

grad

e le

vels

. In

80 s

choo

l sec

tors

, the

gov

ern-

men

t pro

vide

s fu

ndin

g to

all

fam

ilies

with

chi

ldre

n of

prim

ary

scho

ol a

ge, r

egar

dles

s of

atte

ndan

ce ra

te.

60 s

choo

l sec

tors

ser

ve a

s a

com

paris

on g

roup

and

whe

re p

aren

ts d

o no

t rec

eive

cas

h tra

nsfe

rs. T

he

180

scho

ol s

ecto

rs a

re fu

rther

div

ided

into

thre

e se

ctor

s, w

here

atte

ndan

ce m

onito

ring

is li

ght,

med

ium

in

tens

ity a

nd in

tens

ive.

Effe

ctiv

enes

s is

eva

luat

ed a

lso

by g

ende

r of a

dult

reci

pien

t.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtIn

trodu

cing

Fin

an-

cial

Ser

vice

s to

N

ewly

Mon

etiz

ed

Am

azon

ian

Com

-m

uniti

es20

10-2

011

San

Bor

ja,

Bol

ivia

J-PA

L

Ric

ardo

God

oy, D

ean

Kar

lan,

Mar

gare

t M

cCon

nell,

Har

ry

Pat

rinos

, Jon

atha

n Zinm

an

Sav

ings

Am

azon

ian

Tsim

ane’

com

-m

uniti

es

Inco

me,

con

-su

mpt

ion,

sav

-in

gs a

ctiv

ity a

nd

hous

ehol

d w

ell

bein

g m

easu

res

(sho

rt-ru

n nu

-tri

tiona

l sta

tus

and

hous

ehol

d em

erge

ncie

s)

The

stud

y in

clud

es 1

100

hous

ehol

ds in

70

villa

ges

rand

omly

ass

igne

d to

one

of t

wo

treat

men

t gro

ups

or a

com

paris

on g

roup

. To

asse

ss w

heth

er s

avin

gs b

oxes

in th

e po

sses

sion

of f

emal

e ho

useh

old

head

s pr

oduc

e gr

eate

r hou

seho

ld s

avin

g an

d ex

pend

iture

s on

chi

ldre

n th

an s

avin

g bo

xes

in th

e ha

nds

of m

ale

hous

ehol

d he

ads,

lock

ed b

oxes

will

be

rand

omly

giv

en to

eith

er fe

mal

e or

mal

e he

ads

of

hous

ehol

ds. T

he v

aria

tion

of k

ey p

lace

men

t will

allo

ws

us to

eva

luat

e w

heth

er p

osse

ssio

n of

the

key

enco

urag

es im

puls

ivity

and

alte

red

expe

nditu

re p

atte

rns.

Out

com

es w

ill b

e m

easu

red

one

year

afte

r th

e in

trodu

ctio

n of

the

lock

box

es in

a fo

llow

-up

surv

ey.

RC

T st

udy

repo

rtP

roje

ct G

ener

asi:

Con

ditio

nal C

om-

mun

ity B

lock

Gra

nts

in In

done

sia

2007

-200

9R

esul

ts fo

rthco

min

g

Indo

nesi

aJ-

PAL

Ben

Olk

en, J

unko

O

nish

i, S

usan

Won

g

Com

mun

ity-b

ased

blo

ck g

rant

sR

ural

vill

ages

Hea

lth a

nd

educ

atio

n se

rvic

e de

liver

y (p

rena

tal a

nd

post

nata

l ca

re, c

hild

birth

as

sist

ed b

y tra

ined

per

son-

nel,

imm

uniz

a-tio

ns, s

choo

l en

rollm

ent a

nd

scho

ol a

ttend

-an

ce)

The

Gov

ernm

ent o

f Ind

ones

ia s

elec

ted

300

Indo

nesi

an s

ub-d

istri

cts

for r

esea

rche

rs to

eva

luat

e,

test

ing

the

effe

ctiv

enes

s of

the

annu

al b

lock

gra

nts

to im

prov

e se

rvic

e co

vera

ge a

nd u

sage

of b

asic

he

alth

and

edu

catio

n se

rvic

es. O

f the

se, 1

00 w

ill b

e en

rolle

d in

Gen

eras

i and

giv

en a

n an

nual

blo

ck

gran

t pro

porti

onal

to th

e nu

mbe

r of h

ouse

hold

s in

the

villa

ge. V

illag

es c

an u

se th

ese

gran

ts to

impr

ove

thecoverageofspecifiedhealthandeducationservicesintheircom

munity.W

henvillagesre-applyin

subs

eque

nt y

ears

, the

siz

e of

the

bloc

k gr

ant w

ill d

epen

d in

par

t on

past

per

form

ance

rela

tive

to o

ther

villagesinthesamesub-district,providinganincentiveforvillagestousethefundsefficiently.Aseries

of e

valu

atio

n su

rvey

s w

ill b

e co

nduc

ted

to a

sses

s w

heth

er p

rovi

sion

of a

id is

mor

e ef

fect

ive

whe

n it

is

mad

e co

nditi

onal

on

perfo

rman

ce. T

he e

valu

atio

n su

rvey

s w

ill a

lso

mea

sure

whe

ther

com

mun

ities

are

abletocollectivelyworkoutsolutionstoim

provephysicalandfinancialaccessestoservicesandsolve

smal

l-sca

le s

uppl

y pr

oble

ms,

and

how

the

ince

ntiv

e st

ruct

ure

alte

rs th

e ty

pe o

f inv

estm

ents

cho

sen

by

com

mun

ities

.

http://www.womenforwomen.org/help-women/assets/files/ebrd/Economic%20Empowerment%20of%20Female%20Adolescents%20in%20Uganda%20and%20Tanzania%20by%20Selim%20Gulesci.pdf





http://www.slideshare.net/ABBArpc/siyakha-nentshaenhancing-the-economic-health-and-social-capabilities-of-young-women-and-men-in-kwazulunatal-south-africa








http://www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/conditional-cash-transfers-education-morocco



http://www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/introducing-financial-services-newly-monetized-amazonian-communities





http://www.povertyactionlab.org/evaluation/project-generasi-conditional-community-block-grants-indonesia





ANNEX II: Search MethodologyThe literature review focused mainly on published literature from a broad search of social science journals such as Academic Search Premier, EconLit, European Journal of Development, JSTOR, PAIS, ProQuest and others. Reviewers searched keywords from Annex III at the websites of international NGOs and research institutes (Save The Children, ODI, DFID, IDS, Plan International, World Vision), the Directory of Open Access Journals, the ALNAP database, Eldis, RePEc, Google Scholar, Google, Reliefweb and the USAID Development Experience Clearinghouse, UNICEF and World Bank databases. Databases of experimental research were also searched including IPA, JPAL, the Center for Evaluation of Global Action, International Initiative for Impact Evaluation (3IE), National Council for the Evaluation of Social Development Policy (Coneval), the Swedish Agency for Development Evaluation (SADEV), and the Independent Commission on Aid Impact (ICAI).

ANNEX III: Literature Review Search TermsKeywords associated with economic strengthening interventions

Keywords associated with child protection and well-being

AgricultureApprenticeshipAquacultureAsset transferBusiness development servicesCareer counselingCash for workCash transferCreditEconomic strengtheningEnterpriseEntrepreneurship ExtensionFarmFishingFood for work

GardenIGAIncome generatingIncome generationIncome growthIncome supportJob creationJob developmentLivelihoodLivestock supportLoanLocal economic developmentMarket linkagesMicrocreditMicrofinanceMicro-franchising

Micro-insurancePondSavingsSeeds and toolsSILCSkills trainingSLASustainable livelihoods approach TVETValue chainVocational educationVocational trainingVoucherVSLA

AbuseBride priceCare-takingChild careChild nutritionChildcareChild healthChild protectionChild safetyChild welfare

DietDowryEarly marriageFGCFGMForced marriageNutritionEducationMental healthPsychosocial

School attendanceSchool enrollmentSchoolingSelf-esteemStuntingSurvivalViolenceWasting


ANNEX IV: Draft minimum standard on Child Protection and Livelihoods As part of the coordination effort in the humanitarian field, agencies have collaborated to create a set of Minimum Standards for their work, under what is known as The Sphere Project. The Sphere Standards are seen as the minimum commitment that humanitarian agencies are responsible for in their crisis response. As a companion to the Sphere Standards, child protection actors are now collaborating to develop the Child Protection in Emergencies Minimum Standards (Inter-Agency Standing Committee, Child Protection Working Group, 2012). As part of this process, the following draft language on Child Protection and Livelihoods was submitted to the Child Protection Working Group in 2011.

Standard 15. Economic recovery and child protectionEconomic interventions such as vocational skills training; cash transfers and vouchers; enterprise development; and microfinance, among others, are meant to stabilize and increase income of emergency-affected populations. Effective programs are based on The SEEP Network’s Minimum Economic Recovery Standards.97 They often have protective effects on children, particularly when mothers are engaged as direct beneficiaries and when interventions build on existing livelihood strategies.

But even when programs are effective at the level of the household, they may be ineffective in protecting or promoting wellbeing of some girls and boys. Children may face increased risk of leaving school or being exploited due to an economic intervention. Adolescents (10-18 years) themselves may become heads-of-household during a crisis, and tailored action must be taken towards sustainable strategies that help the family or the child to earn a living.

Standard Children at risk and working-age children have access to adequate livelihood/economic strengthening support, and child protection and well-being concerns are reflected in the assessment, design, monitoring and evaluation of economic recovery programmes.

Key actions for child protection actors• In collaboration with communities including older

children, government actors and the private sector, lobby and support economic recovery specialists to design livelihood interventions that specifically address child protection

• Train personnel working on economic recovery on child protection issues

• Map the most vulnerable children in need of economic recovery interventions

Key actions for economic recovery actors• Ensure that child protection is considered in economic

recovery assessments and interventions, so as to identify specific child protection issues and target-groups

• Ensure that positive impacts of household economic strengthening programs for children within a household are not assumed, but instead, are carefully monitored and evaluated

• Include gender mainstreaming and gender-targeted programming within any strategy and make sure all gathered data are disaggregated

• Design livelihood interventions that are flexible and can quickly accommodate new children and families, and coordinate with CPWG to get up-to-date information on new children and families

• Provide or facilitate access to cash grants and other emergency social protection measures for those who cannot work

• Include child protection specialists in planning economic recovery interventions

97. The SEEP Network. Minimum Economic Recovery Standards (Second Edition) 2010. http://www.seepnetwork.org/Pages/EconomicRecoveryStandards.aspx.

http://www.seepnetwork.org/Pages/EconomicRecoveryStandards.aspx

Core indicators• Monitoring and evaluation of economic interventions

includes child protection, economic empowerment, and well-being indicators

• % of economic recovery programmes that are designed based on market and value chain analyses and/or vulnerability analyses

• % economic recovery programmes are designed with the active involvement of personnel well-versed in child protection principles

• % economic recovery programmes are designed with the input of local women and girls, boys and men.

• % of economic recovery programs which have a CP focal person

Guidance notes 1. Livelihood assessments should engage stakeholders–

including women, older boys and girls, and caregivers of vulnerable children to identify any emerging detrimental coping mechanisms due to loss of household assets and income, such as child labour, transactional sex, or school dropout. Assessments should also identify any protection risks for girls and boys that may be unintentionally exacerbated by economic recovery responses.

2. First conduct adequate analysis of root causes of the vulnerability or shock, critical economic assets, local demand for labour and goods, or value chain opportunities.

3. In the aftermath of an emergency, cash-for-work programming can lay the groundwork for recovery for vulnerable households. Direct cash transfers may be necessary for households without able-bodied members of working age (injured, disabled, orphan, etc.) and should be carefully targeted, with a clear exit strategy. Women, girls and vulnerable groups should be engaged to ensure that their livelihood needs will be met, either through economic recovery programming or emergency social protection measures.

4. Economic recovery programming should include outcomes for children as part of M&E plans, organizing data in a way to facilitate analysis and inform programme decisions based on age and sex. Livelihood and economic recovery interventions may not result in easily measurable outcomes for children in the short term and, therefore, proxy indicators should be used such as meals

consumed, school participation, and child health data where available. Programs should monitor indicators of potential harm from interventions, such as incidence of hazardous labour (see also Child Protection Minimum Standard 8: Child Labour). Actors should share data and coordinate to avoid duplicating M&E efforts.

5. Since many child protection agencies lack the expertise to deliver economic programming, and vice-versa, agencies should focus on delivering from their core competencies and build partnerships to deliver the rest. Child protection actors have the responsibility for the provision of information and training, while economic recovery actors should facilitate access to such training for their staff.

6. As part of a market-based approach, implementers of economic recovery interventions will often rely on self-selection of beneficiaries, resulting in programs that favor participants who are most able. Child protection actors should identify the unreached cohorts and connect them with alternative forms of assistance.

7. While most programs target adults, older adolescents may also benefit directly from skills training, savings schemes, apprenticeships and other activities.98

8. In many contexts, women and girls are more likely than men and boys to prioritize the needs of children in their care. Women and girls are also more vulnerable to many risks including HIV and gender-based violence (GBV), but in spite of the protective benefits of economic programming, in many cases they are left out.99 Programs cannot expect to fulfil the participation rights of both sexes by relying solely on beneficiary demand for programs; women and girls face many barriers to participation and will require special measures to be reached. The availability of crèche facilities will often determine whether female caregivers can take part in programs. Dialogs at the household and/or community level may be needed to negotiate their participation. Men and boys as caregivers may also be in need of targeted approaches.

98. OVCsupport.net, Technical Areas: Economic Strengthening, accessed at http://www.ovcsupport.net/s/index.php?c=10.

99. Betcherman, Gordon et. al, World Bank. A Review of Interventions to Support Young Workers, 2007.


© Peter Biro/IRC

www.cpcnetwork.org

Documents

The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children