THE IMPACT OF OPEN LICENSING ON THE EARLY READER … Literacy and... · 2016-09-15 · The Impact of Open Licensing on the Early Reader Ecosystem iv Authors Neil Butcher Neil Butcher,

Neil Butcher and Sarah Hoosen, Neil Butcher and AssociatesLisbeth Levey, Consultant , ICT for DevelopmentDerek Moore, Weblearning

THE IMPACT OF OPEN LICENSING ON THE EARLY READER ECOSYSTEM

The Impact of Open Licensing on the Early Reader Ecosystem can be found at: http://www.nba.co.za/impact-open-licensing-early-reader-ecosystem

Funded byThe William and Flora Hewlett Foundationhttp://www.hewlett.org

July, 2016

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Unported Licence. You are free to share and adapt this work, but you must give appropriate credit and indicate if changes are made.

https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

TheImpactofOpenLicensingontheEarlyReaderEcosystem

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TableofcontentsListoftables..........................................................................................................................................iiiListoffigures.........................................................................................................................................iiiAuthors..................................................................................................................................................iv

NeilButcher.......................................................................................................................................ivSarahHoosen....................................................................................................................................ivLisbethLevey.....................................................................................................................................ivDerekMoore......................................................................................................................................v

Acknowledgements...............................................................................................................................viAcronyms.............................................................................................................................................viiGlossaryofkeyterms.............................................................................................................................xTheimpactofopenlicensingontheearlyreaderecosystem................................................................1

Introduction.......................................................................................................................................1Theearlyreaderecosystem...............................................................................................................4

Valuechainsandsupplychains......................................................................................................4Shiftingtotheconceptofavaluenetwork:anemergingnewmodel...........................................7Whatis‘digitaldisruption’?.........................................................................................................10Opennessandopenlicensing.......................................................................................................14

Emerginginnovationsthatcantransformtheearlyliteracyreaderecosystem..............................17Transformingcontentcreationmodels........................................................................................17Otheropenlicensingcontentcreationmodels............................................................................19Grapplingwiththechallengesofopenlicensing..........................................................................20Storybookmanagementandstorage...........................................................................................22Printinganddistribution..............................................................................................................23

Whataretheimplicationsforthesupplyanduseofearlyliteracyreadingmaterialsinlow-incomecountries?.........................................................................................................................................29Conclusion........................................................................................................................................34

References............................................................................................................................................35AppendixA:Listofinterviewees..........................................................................................................52

Bookproductionorganizations........................................................................................................52InternationalNGOsandotherliteracyorganizations......................................................................52Libraries............................................................................................................................................52Literacyand/orpublishingexperts...................................................................................................52Publishers.........................................................................................................................................53Organizations/initiativesthatpublishopenlylicensedbooks..........................................................53

AppendixB:Keycomponentsofearlyliteracy.....................................................................................54Whatisearlyliteracy?..................................................................................................................54


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Thesignificanceofreading...........................................................................................................56Thechallengeofilliteracy.............................................................................................................56Fosteringliteracy..........................................................................................................................57Thesignificanceofaccesstowrittentext....................................................................................58

AppendixC:Unpackingthecomponentsoftheearlyliteracyreadervaluenetwork..........................60AppendixD:Structuralchallengestoearlyliteracy.............................................................................66

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................66Povertyandliteracy.........................................................................................................................66ICTandthedigitaldivide..................................................................................................................67Language..........................................................................................................................................68Weakeducationsystems..................................................................................................................70Readingculture................................................................................................................................71Availabilityoflibraries......................................................................................................................72

AppendixE:Demandandsupplyofearlyreadingmaterial.................................................................73AppendixF:Changesinthepublishingindustry..................................................................................79

Introduction.....................................................................................................................................79Goingdigital.....................................................................................................................................79Reassessingbusinessmodels...........................................................................................................83Reconfigurationofmainactors........................................................................................................84Marketingandthegrowthofsocialmedia......................................................................................88Printondemand...............................................................................................................................89Dataanalytics...................................................................................................................................90

AppendixG:Examplesofearlyliteracydistributioninitiatives............................................................91Bookdonationprogrammes.............................................................................................................91ebookdistribution............................................................................................................................93Libraries:theviewfromSub-SaharanAfrica....................................................................................95Internationalnon-governmentalorganizations.............................................................................102NationalNGOsprovidingliteracysupport.....................................................................................105Commercialpublishers...................................................................................................................110Onlinefree,hardcopyforafee.....................................................................................................117Theroleofdonorsinopenlicensing..............................................................................................121Exploringopen-accessbusinessmodels.........................................................................................122


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ListoftablesTable1 Donationprogrammeimpacts...........................................................................................6Table2 Tenhyper-disruptivebusinessmodels.............................................................................11Table3 CreativeCommonslicences..............................................................................................15Table4 Stagesofreadingdevelopment........................................................................................55Table5 Unpackingtheearlyliteracyvaluenetwork.....................................................................60Table6 Digitaldrivers...................................................................................................................80Table7 Illustrativeuniteconomics...............................................................................................82Table8 NumberofpubliclibrariesinsevenAfricancountries.....................................................96Table9 FAVLcollectiondevelopment...........................................................................................98

ListoffiguresFigure1 Agenericpublishingbusinessmodel.................................................................................5Figure2 Anearlyliteracyreaderecosystem....................................................................................9Figure3 FindingMeshackAsareonline..........................................................................................27Figure4 Dailyunitsalesofebookbestsellers(195,000books58%ofAmazonebooksales).......87Figure5 “NewYearandChildren”inSomaliandinAmhara........................................................107


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Authors

NeilButcher

NeilButcher,whoisbasedinSouthAfrica,isDirectorofNeilButcher&Associates.Heprovidespolicy,technical advice, and support on educational planning and the use of educational technology,particularlyfordistanceeducation,Neil’sworkfocusesonthedevelopingworld.Neilconsultsforarangeofnationalandinternationalclients,includingtheSouthAfricanInstituteforDistanceEducation(SAIDE),whereheworkedfrom1993-2001;theWorldBank,onarangeofprojectactivitiesinIndia,includingalarge-scaleTeacherEffectivenessProgrammeinBihar;andSouthAfrica’sCouncil forHigher Education in supporting revision of its organizational processes and structures.EducationalorganizationswithwhichNeilhascollaboratedontransformationeffortstoharnessthepotentialofdistanceeducationalmethods,educationaltechnology,andOERincludeUnescoandtheCommonwealthofLearning,aswellasmanyuniversitiesandgovernmentsaroundtheworld.NeilhasservedasOERStrategistforOERAfricafromitsestablishment.Heiscurrently leadingtheresearch element of OER Africa’s pedagogical transformation grant from the William and FloraHewlettFoundationtoSAIDE.AdditionalworkcarriedoutwithHewlettFoundationfundingincludesacontracttoNBAforanopentextbooksinitiativeintheCaribbeanandagranttoNBAforthisworkonearlyliteracyandopenlicensing.neilshel@nba.co.za

SarahHoosen

SarahHoosenisaresearcherandprojectmanageratNeilButcher&Associates.ShehasaMasters’DegreeinSocialScienceinCounselingPsychology,andworkedattwostudentcounselingcentresathighereducationinstitutionsinSouthAfricabeforejoiningNBA.Since2006,shehasworkedatNBAonseveralprojectsinAfricanhighereducationarena,includingdevelopinganinstitutionalstrategyandassessingeducationaltechnologydevelopmentsinAfricanhighereducation.Sarahhasalsobeen involved inevaluatinganumberof educationand technologyprojects at theschoollevel,technicalandvocationallevelaswellasthehighereducationlevelforseveralclients.Shehasalsopreparedandpublishedanumberofpapersandreportsoninthefieldsofopeneducationalresources,quality,[email protected]

LisbethLevey

LisbethLeveyisaconsultantonICTfordevelopment,whoworksonissuespertainingtoinformationandcommunicationstechnologies(ICT)inAfrica,particularlyonimprovinginformationaccessandonenhancingdisseminationofAfricaninformationthroughtechnology.LiziscurrentlyanadvisortotheHewlettFoundationeducationprogram,whereshehelpsprogramstaff intheir internationalgrantmakingactivities.HerworkonearlyliteracyandopenlicensingisapartofhersupporttotheHewlettFoundation.


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LizalsoconsultedfortheBillandMelindaGatesFoundation(BMGF)toassisttheRegionalUniversitiesForumforCapacityBuildinginAgriculture(RUFORUM)tomaximizeitsknowledgemanagementandoutreach, including building an institutional repository. She alsoworkedwith RUFORUMon openaccessandintellectualpropertyrights(IPR).LizwasthefacilitatorofthePartnershipforHigherEducationinAfrica(PHEA)from2002-2006,wheresheco-authoredtwohighereducationcasestudies—oneonTanzaniaandtheotheronMozambique.Shewasalsoresponsibleforthestart-upofthePHEAbandwidthconsortiumforAfricanuniversities,whichmadeinexpensiveandreliablesatellitebandwidthavailabletoinstitutionsthathadbeenpayingexorbitantpricesforservicethatwasfrequentlyunreliable.From1997-2002Lizconsulted jointly for theFordandRockefeller foundations inNairobi,advisinggranteesandprogramofficersacrossAfricaonhowtomakeeffectiveuseofICTintheirwork.Aspartof this, shewrote guides on using the Internet to access information and to disseminate Africancontent.Shealsodirectedaneedsandfeasibilityassessmentforthecreationofadatabaseofthesesand dissertations completed in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2001, Liz managed and edited RowingUpstream:SnapshotsofPioneersoftheInformationAgeinAfrica,whichcapturesthestoriesoftheearliestICTusersinAfrica.Levey180@gmail.com

DerekMoore

Derek Moore is a teacher, educational technologist and learning designer who has 20 years ofexperienceinlearningandtheweb.Hisinterestsarefocusedonhowpupils,students,teachersandprofessionalscometounderstandandknow,usingthisdistributednetwork.Hehasworkedinarangeof secondary and tertiary contexts, including School of Education and Development (UKZN);eLearning,Supportand Innovation (Wits);Council forHigherEducation;NewUniversitiesLearningTechnologiesWorking Group; and other NGOs and public interest groups. He holds aMasters inComputerAssistedEducation(CumLaude)fromtheUniversityofPretoriaandiscurrentlyworkingasanindependentconsultant;enjoyingexploringthepotentialofOER,m-literaciesandthepotentialofe-platformsindevelopingearlycareerprofessionals.derek@weblearning.co.za


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AcknowledgementsTheauthorswouldliketothankTJBliss,oftheWilliamandFloraHewlettEducationProgram,forhiswillingness to support this research and his unstinting assistance all the way through fromconceptualizationtocompletionofthisreport.WewouldalsoliketothankDanaSchmidt,whowaswiththeFoundationwhenwefirstbeganthinkingofthiswork,forherhelpingettingusstarted.Inaddition,weareindebtedtotheorganizationsandexperts,whoseworkisreflectedinthisreport,fortheirwillingnesstorespondtonumerousqueriesandrequestsformore information. Theendlesspatienceofeveryoneconcernedisgratefullyacknowledged.Despite our efforts to ensure complete accuracy, we are certain that the reader will find errors,hopefully small ones, for which the authors accept responsibility. Please email Neil Butcher atneilshel@nba.co.zaifyoufindany.Wewouldalsoverymuchwelcomequestionsandcomments.


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Acronyms

ABCAfricanBooksCollective(http://www.africanbookscollective.com/)

ALAAmericanLibraryAssociation(http://www.ala.org)

ANA AnnualNationalAssessment

API ApplicationProgrammingInterface

APNET AfricanPublishersNetwork

ASbAfricanStoryBook(http://www.africanstorybook.org/)

BAI BookAidInternational(http://bookaid.org)

BPN BellagioPublishingNetwork(http://www.bellagiopublishingnetwork.com/index.htm)

CBP Children’sBookProjectforTanzania(http://www.cbp.or.tz)

CBT Children’sBookTrust(http://www.childrensbooktrust.com/)

CC CreativeCommons(https://creativecommons.org)

CE CODEEthiopia(http://www.code-ethiopia.org)

CHET CentreforHigherEducationTransformationofSouthAfrica(http://chet.org.za/)

CODE CanadianOrganizationforDevelopmentthroughEducation(http://www.codecan.org)

CODESRIA CouncilfortheDevelopmentforSocialScienceResearchinAfrica(http://www.codesria.org/)

D2C DirecttoConsumer

DBE DepartmentofBasicEducation

DTP DesktopPublishing

ECD EarlyChildhoodDevelopment

EIFL ElectronicInformationforLibraries(http://www.eifl.net)

ERSC EarlyReaderSupplyChain

FAVL FriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries(http://www.favl.org/index.html)

FAWE ForumforAfricanWomenEducationalists(http://www.fawe.org/index.php)

FBA FulfilmentbyAmazon


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HSRC HumanSciencesResearchCouncil(http://www.hsrc.ac.za/en)

IABSS Intra-AfricaBooksSupportScheme

IBB InternationalBookBank(http://www.internationalbookbank.org)

ICT InformationandCommunicationTechnology

IDPF InternationalDigitalPublishingForum(http://idpf.org)

IDRC InternationalDevelopmentResearchCentreofCanada(http://www.idrc.ca/EN/Pages/default.aspx)

IFLA InternationalFederationofLibraryAssociations(http://www.ifla.org)

InfoDev InformationforDevelopment(http://infodev.org)

INGO InternationalNon-GovernmentalOrganization

IP IntellectualProperty

IRS InternalRevenueService(https://www.irs.gov)

LCD LiquidCrystalDisplay

MILL MoltenoInstituteforLanguageandLiteracy(www.molteno.co.za)

MOU MemorandumofUnderstanding

NABOTU NationalBookTrustofUganda(http://nabotu.or.ug)

NAP NationalAcademiesPressoftheUnitedStates(http://www.nap.edu/)

NSDL NationalScienceDigitalLaboratory(https://nsdl.oercommons.org/)

OA OpenAccess

OCLF OsuChildren’sLibraryFund(http://www.osuchildrenslibraryfund.ca)

OCW OpenCourseWare

ODL OpenandDistanceLearning

OER OpenEducationalResources

OLCC OnlineComputerLibraryCentre

OLPC OneLaptopPerChild(http://one.laptop.org)

OPAC OnlinePublicAccessCatalogue

OSS OpenSourceSoftware

PALM PublishingandAlternativeLicensingModelsforAfrica

PDF PortableDocumentFormat

POD PrintonDemand


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PODS PrintonDemandSupplier

POP PointofPurchase

PRAESA ProjectfortheStudyofAlternativeEducationinSouthAfrica(http://www.praesa.org.za/)

RCRICED RuralCommunityRecreationInformationCommunicationEducationDevelopment

RFID RadioFrequencyIdentification

RFP RequestforProposals

Saide SouthAfricanInstituteforDistanceEducation(www.saide.org.za/)

SHRP SchoolHealthReadingProgramme

SIDA SwedishInternationalDevelopmentCooperationAgency(http://www.sida.se/English/)

SNNPR SouthernNationsNationalitiesandPeople’sRegions

SRM SupplementaryReadingMaterial

UgCLAUgandaCommunityLibraryAssociation(https://www.facebook.com/Uganda-Community-Libraries-Association-157679827673780/)

UNICEF UnitedNationsInternationalChildren'sEmergencyFund(http://www.unicef.org/)

URROUgandaReproductionRightsOrganization(http://www.ifrro.org/members/uganda-reproduction-rights-organisation)

USAID UnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(https://www.usaid.gov/)

ZAPH ZambianEducationalPublishingHouse(https://www.facebook.com/Zambiaeducationalpublishinghouse/)

ZIBF ZimbabweInternationalBookFair(http://www.zibfa.org.zw/)


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GlossaryofkeytermsBelowisalistofdefinitionsfortermsusedinthisreportthatmightnotbewidelyunderstoodbyreadersunfamiliarwithwordscommontothedigital,e-learning,and/orearlyliteracyworld.

CreativeCommons

Creative Commons is a non-profit organization ‘that enables thesharing and use of creativity and knowledge through free legaltools’.1 To do this, Creative Commons has developed a series oflicencesthatworkalongsidecopyrighttomakeitpossibleforauthorsto modify standard copyright terms and provide open accessprivileges to users. Each Creative Commons licence provides adifferentdegreeoffreedomtousers,butallrequirefullattribution.Creative Commons licences are the ones typically used for OpenAccess, Open Educational Resources, and other forms of openlylicensedmaterials.

Curation

The term curation was used in the past primarily by museumprofessionals.Today,curationhastakenonabroaderdefinition indigitale-learningto includetheselection,collection,maintenance,preservation,andarchivingofdigitalresources.2

Decodable

Inreadinginstruction,thetermdecodablereferstowordscontainingonlythephoneticcodethechildorstudenthasalreadylearned.Todetermine if text is decodable you need to evaluate the phoneticstructureofthevocabularyandcompareittothecodeknowledgethechildhasalreadyacquired.Weoftenthinkofdecodabletextasphonetically simple words and text. Although decodable text issimpleinthebeginningwhenthechildhaslimitedknowledgeofthephonemiccode,decodabletextexpandsasthechildlearnsmoreofthephonemiccode.3

DigitalRightsManagement

Digital Rights Management (DRM) is a technical approach tocopyright protection for digitalmedia to prevent its unauthorizedredistribution and restrict theways inwhich consumers can copycontentthattheyhavepurchased.

HomeLanguage

Theliteratureindicatesanumberofdifferenttermsusedtodescribemarginalizedorminority languages such as first language,mothertongue,homelanguage,heritagelanguageandnativelanguage,witheach having different definitions. There are some contentionsaroundusingthevariousterms–forexample,while‘mothertongue’is commonlyused, it isargued that isdifficult todeterminewhichlanguage used by multilinguals is actually the person’s mothertongue,andamothertonguecanchangeduringaperson’slifetime.Insomecountries,native languagereferstothe languageofone'sethnic group andnot necessarily the language the child speaks athome. Similarly, first language may not be appropriate as it only

1CreativeCommons.AboutCreativeCommons.Retrieved4March2016fromhttp://creativecommons.org/about2Curation.(2016,January11).InWikipedia,TheFreeEncyclopedia.Retrieved4March2016,fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Curation&oldid=6992978363Gagen,M.R.(2007).DecodableTextExplained.Retrievedfromhttp://www.righttrackreading.com/decodabletext.html


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relatestoorigin,butamultilinguals’chronologicalfirstlanguagemaynotbetheirdominantlanguage.

Locallanguage

Whilstanofficiallanguageisalanguagethatisgivenaspeciallegalstatus in a particular country or jurisdiction and is generally usedwithingovernment;theremaybemanyotherlanguagesusedbyapeopleorcountry.Werefertotheseaslocallanguages.Thisincludesindigenouslanguages(languagethatisnativetoaregionandspokenbyindigenouspeople).

OpenAccessOpen Access (OA) refers to research articles that are online andfreelyavailableforuserstoread,download,copy,distribute,print,search,orlinktofulltext.4

OpenEducationalResources

Open Educational Resources (OER) allow materials to be used,adapted, and distributed for teaching and learning withoutrequesting permission. Although OER are mainly sharable online,theycanbemadeavailableofflineviaaschoolintranet,onCD-ROM,DVD,oramemorystick;andinprint.

OpenLicensing Openlylicensedworksarefreetobesharedandbuiltuponwithoutrequestingpermissionfromtheauthororpublisher.5

PrintonDemand

Printondemand(POD)isaprintingtechnologyandbusinessprocessin which copies of a book (or other document) are printed inresponsetoanorder,printingtheexactamountordered,usuallyinsmallquantities.

Remix

To create a new version of something, such as a recording oreducationalresource,byrecombiningandre-editingtheelementsoftheexistingresource/sandoftenaddingmaterial.Withinthecontextof OER production, developers can, for example, take a recordedlectureandcombinethemwithslidesormultimediafromasecondlectureinordertocreateatotallynewresource.

Torrent

“A torrent is a file sent via the BitTorrent protocol. It can be justaboutanytypeoffile,suchasamovie,song,game,orapplication.During the transmission, the file is incomplete and therefore isreferredtoasatorrent.Torrentdownloadsthathavebeenpausedor stopped cannot be opened as regular files, since they do notcontainallthenecessarydata.However,theycanoftenberesumedusingaBitTorrentclient,aslongasthefileisavailablefromanotherserver.Torrents are different from regular downloads in that they areusually downloaded from more than one server at a time. TheBitTorrentprotocolusesmultiplecomputerstotransferasinglefile,thereby reducing thebandwidth requiredbyeach server.Whenatorrentdownloadisstarted,theBitTorrentsystemlocatesmultiplecomputers with the file and downloads different parts of the filefromeachcomputer.Likewise,whensendinga torrent, theserver

4Openaccess.(2016,February16).InWikipedia,TheFreeEncyclopedia.Retrieved4March2016,fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_access&oldid=7052036395OpenDefinition.(nodate).GuidetoOpenLicensing.Retrieved4March2016fromhttp://opendefinition.org/guide/


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may send the file to multiple computers before it reaches therecipient.Theresultisloweraveragebandwidthusage,whichspeedsupfiletransfers”.6

ValueNetworkAvaluenetwork is anetworkof relationships,which createsbothtangible and intangible value through a complicated dynamicexchangebetweenindividuals,groups,andorganizations.7

6Christensson,P.(2007,October3).TorrentDefinition.Retrieved6July2016fromhttp://techterms.com7ValueUnchained.(nodate).Forumforthefuture.https://www.forumforthefuture.org/sites/default/files/Value%2C%20Unchained%20-%20A%20short%20summary%20of%20value%20networks.pdf


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Theimpactofopenlicensingontheearlyreaderecosystem

Introduction

Sustainableacquisitionof literacy intheearlyyearsof learningisanessentialbuildingblockforallsubsequent education and development of children. Effective development of literacy requires atleastthreekeyinputs:• Structureddecodabletextsandlevelledreadersthat‘provideacontinuumofreadinglevelsfor

theprimarygrades’;8• Awidearrayof supplementary readingmaterials (SRMs) thatenablechildren topractise their

readingskillsanddevelopaloveofreading;• Teacherstrainedinappropriateliteracydevelopmentmethodswhoareabletoworkwithyoung

childrenastheydeveloptheirliteracyskillsandwhoknowthelanguage/sspokenintheschoolwheretheyteach.

Ithasbeenwidelydocumentedthatchildrenacquireliteracymosteffectivelyintheirmothertongue.9This introduces a significant barrier for those who live in low-income countries and speak locallanguagesforwhichthereisnotaviablepublishingindustry.Traditionalpublishingmodelsareveryoftenunabletomeetthereadingneedsofchildreninlowincome-countries,andthosechildrenareconsequentlyunabletoaccessrelevantdecodabletexts,levelledreaders,andSRMs.Therearetworelatedreasonsforthis.First,asthereisnosustainablemarketforsuchmaterials,earlyreadersinlocallanguagesarefewandfarbetween,especiallyinlow-incomecountriesandforlanguagesthathavearelativelylimitedfootprint.Second,evenwherecontenthasbeencreated,thesupplychainsthatareneededtoprintanddistributeeducationalmaterialsandtherebyensurethatlearnershaveaccess to early readers are typically under-funded, generally inefficient, and often susceptible tocorruption.10 Inaddition,thesesupplychainsareofteninequitable(operatingona‘firstcomefirstserved’basis),arebasedonunreliableschoolstatistics,havestorageandstockcontrolsystemsthat

8Davidson,M.(2013).BooksthatChildrenCanRead:DecodableBooksandBookLeveling.WashingtonDC.USAID.p.1.9Seeforexample:Eisenchlas,S.A.,Schalley,A.C.,andGuillemin,D.(2013).TheImportanceofLiteracyintheHomeLanguage:TheViewFromAustralia.SAGEOpenOctober-December2013:1–14.Retrievedfromhttp://sgo.sagepub.com/content/spsgo/3/4/2158244013507270.full.pdfBenson,C.(2004).Theimportanceofmothertongue-basedschoolingforeducationalquality.PapercommissionedfortheEFAGlobalMonitoringReport2005,TheQualityImperative.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001466/146632e.pdfColorado,C.(nodate).WhyReadingtoYourKidsinYourHomeLanguageWillHelpThemBecomeBetterReaders.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ldonline.org/article/21012/Kioko,A.(2015).Whyschoolsshouldteachyounglearnersinhomelanguage.Retrievedfromhttps://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-magazine/why-schools-should-teach-young-learners-home-languageBall,J.(2014).ChildrenLearnBetterinTheirMotherTongue.Retrieved30March2016fromhttp://www.globalpartnership.org/blog/children-learn-better-their-mother-tongue10Briberyandotherformsofcorruptioncanalsoinvolveinternationalpublishers.TherehavebeentworecentscandalsinvolvingWorldBankfinancedtextbookcontracts-onewasacontracttoMacmillanandtheothertoOxfordUniversityBooks,bothforEastAfrica.SeeBgoya,W.(2014).FiftyYearsofIndependence:ReflectionsontheRoleofPublishingandProgressiveAfricanIntellectuals.AfricaSpectrum,49(3),116.Retrievedfromhttp://mercury.ethz.ch/serviceengine/Files/ISN/186297/ichaptersection_singledocument/309dcad3-803d-4ed6-bd97-aaac98787e42/en/784-814-1-PB.pdf.


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are substandard, dependonpoor transportation facilities, and are negatively affectedbydelayedpaymentsfromgovernments.11Anadditionalissuerelatestoensuringthatpolicystatementsmatchpractice,whichisnotthecaseinmanycountriesworldwide.In2016,Unesco’sInternationalMotherLanguageDaywasmarkedbythepublicationofapolicypaperontheimportanceofteachingliteracyinmothertongue,appropriatelytitledIfYouDon’tUnderstand,HowCanYouLearn?.12Unescobeganproducingthesereportsin1953,withthepublicationofUseofVernacularLanguagesinEducation.13Thefactthatthesereportsappearwith regularity suggests that policy and good intentions are not translating into sufficient follow-throughatthelocal level.Manycountrieshavepoliciesmandatinginstructioninmothertongueinthe early primary school grades, but, even where they exist, these policies have often not beenimplemented.Kenyaprovidesanexampleofthisformofdisjuncturebetweenpolicyandpracticeandtheresultingdifficultiesthatariseforchildreninruralareas:

AteacherinKenyacanbepostedinaschoolinanypartofthecountryirrespectiveofmothertongue.Inaddition,thelanguagepolicyinthecountryisthatinprimaryschools,thelanguageofinstructioninlowerclasses(grades1-3)ismothertongueandEnglishingrades4-8.However,forschoolsinurbancentres,thelanguageofinstructioninlowerclassesisKiswahili.Thismeansthatateacherinaschoolwherehecannotspeakthelocal language(pupils'mothertongue)cannotteachthelowerclasses.Thisonawholehasanegativeimpactontheteaching/learningprocessbecausemanypupils,especiallyinruralschools,alsohavepoormasteryoftheEnglishlanguage.ReadinginmothertongueandtheninEnglishisthusabigchallenge.14InEgertonIamafraidwedonotfocusonmothertongueatall.Ialsothinkthereisnoteachereducation institution thatdoes that inKenya. This is becausenoneof the local languages istaughtinourinstitutionsexceptKiswahili.15

Appropriateteachertraininginearlyreadinginstructionisalsoessentialbecause,evenifsufficientbooksaremadeavailableandmother-tongueinstructionwerenotaproblem,manychildrenwillstillleaveschoolwithoutsufficientreadingandwritingskillsunlessthereisacorpsofteacherswhocanteach literacy. Sadly, however, as a 2011 report to theWilliam and Flora Hewlett Foundation onteacherpreparationandcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentinAfricaillustrated,‘moreeffortwasspent[onearlyreadingandmathematics]inteachingthecontentknowledgeoftraineeteachersthaninaddressingissuesabouthowprimarypupilsmightbehelpedtogainit’.16Lackofcapacityamongstearlyliteracyteachersisasignificantchallenge.Theproblemsaffectingearlyliteracyhavebeenwelldocumented(seeAppendixD).TheyhavealsorecentlyformedthefocusofaStudythatwascommissionedbyaconsortiumoffunders–includingUSAID,UKAID,theNorwegianMinistryofForeignAffairs,UNICEF,SavetheChildren,andtheGlobalPartnershipforEducation–in2015toassessthefeasibilityofestablishingaGlobalBookFundtotacklechallengesinthesupplyoftextbooksandlearningmaterialstoenableyoungchildrentodevelopbasicliteracyskills.However,researchinthisfieldhastendedtofocusontraditionalpublishingvalueand

11Read,T.(2015).WhereHaveAlltheTextbooksGone?TowardSustainableProvisionofTeachingandLearningMaterialsinSub-SaharanAfrica.DirectionsinDevelopment.Washington,DC.12UNESCO(2016).Ifyoudon’tunderstand,howcanyoulearn?GlobalEducationMonitoringReport,PolicyPaper24.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002437/243713E.pdf13UNESCO(1953)UseofVernacularLanguagesinEducation(Rep.).Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0000/000028/002897EB.pdf14ProfessorFredKeraro,DepartmentofCurriculum,Instruction&EducationalManagement,EgertonUniversityKenya,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,9April201615ProfessorFredKeraro,DepartmentofCurriculum,Instruction&EducationalManagement,EgertonUniversityKenya,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,23April201616Akyeampong,K.,Pryor,J.,Westbrook,J.,&Lussier,K.(2011,July).TeacherPreparationandContinuingProfessionalDevelopmentinAfrica(page3).Retrievedfromhttps://www.sussex.ac.uk/webteam/gateway/file.php?name=tpa-project-synthesis-executive-summary-july2011.pdf&site=320


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supply chains, without taking much account of new possibilities that might be ushered in as aconsequence of the digitization of content and how the use of open licences might create newapproachesandsolutionstotheseseeminglyintractableproblems.Digitizationishavingwidespreadeffectsonthepublishing industryasawhole.Whilepublishersaretryingtomanagingthisshift indifferent ways, they are no longer in control of the routes between author and reader. Internetcompanieshavecreatednewwaystoproduce,distribute,andconsumecontent.Digitizationisthustransformingthebusinessmodelsofthepublishingindustryverysignificantly.Withthisinmind,theWilliamandFloraHewlettFoundationawardedasmallgranttoNeilButcher&Associatestoconductaresearchstudytoconsiderarangeofinnovativesolutionsthatmighthelptotackletheseproblems.Thatresearch,whichisdocumentedinthisreport,hasfocuseditsattentionondevelopmentofvaluenetworksbasedonopenlicensingandtheextenttowhichthesemightmeetthedemands formaterials in thiscriticaleducational sector.Theprimary researchquestionposedwas:

Towhatextentcanopenlicensingcontributetotheconstructionofalternativebusinessmodelsinearlyliteracythatcansustainablysolvethestructuralchallengesthatarepreventingyoungchildreninmanycountriesfromgainingaccesstothelearningmaterialstheyneedtobecomeliterate?

To explore the various dimensions of this research, a three-pronged research methodology wasadopted:1) Completionofawide-ranging literaturereviewaimedatgleaningrelevant insightsandlessons

learned fromvarious contexts and sectors. This researchextended substantivelybeyondearlyliteracy,exploringpublishingmoregenerally,aswellaslessonslearnedfromothereducationalsectors,otherdevelopmentfieldssuchashealthandtheretailsector.

2) Conductingaseriesofface-to-faceandtelephonicinterviewswithexpertsinthesefields(29intotal).AfulllistofintervieweesiscontainedinAppendixA.

3) ParticipationinthemeetingsandactivitiesoftheGlobalBookFundduringtheresearchperiod,whichhasincludedmakinganinitialpresentationofresearchfindingstothatforum.

Thereportcomprisesarelativelybriefmainsection,whichseekstopresentacoherentargumentinfavour of harnessing the potential of open licensing and digitization of content creation anddistributionvaluenetworkstocontributetosolvingtheproblemsofsupplyofearlyreadersinlocallanguages17tolearners,withaparticularemphasisonlow-incomecountries,particularlythoseinSub-SaharanAfrica.Whereappropriate,evidenceandlinkstoemergingpracticesarewovenintothemainreport,which is thensupplementedbyaseriesofappendices,whichseek tocapture indetail thefindingsofourresearchprocesses.

17Anumberoftermshavebeenusedtodescribemarginalizedorminoritylanguages,suchasfirstlanguage,mothertongue,homelanguage,indigenouslanguage,heritagelanguage,andnativelanguage(seeGlossaryfordetails).Thesetermshaveallbeencontested–forexampleitisdifficulttodeterminewhichlanguageusedbymultilingualsisactuallytheperson’smothertongue,andfirstlanguagemaybeamultilinguals’chronologicalfirstlanguagebutmaynotbetheirdominantlanguage.Whileacknowledgingthattermsarecontested,wehavegenerallyusedtheterm‘locallanguage’todescribeminoritylanguagesspokenbyindigenouspeopleinaregion,withtheassumptionthatthelocallanguageisusuallythelanguageachildknowsbestandismostcompetentinbeforeenteringformaleducation.


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Theearlyreaderecosystem

Valuechainsandsupplychains

Traditionally,publishingprocesseshavebeenthoughtof intermsofavaluechainand/orasupplychain.Theconceptofachainthatlinksthewriterandreaderorcreatoranduserisawidelyacceptedandpowerfulmetaphor inpublishing.18VanderWeelsuggeststhatthereasonwhythismetaphorresonatesisthatitgivestheappearancethattherearelinksthatoverlayeachother,whileitdescribesanaturalsequenceofactions.ThevaluechainconceptwaspopularizedbyPorterinabookentitled‘CompetitiveAdvantage’.Valueisdefinedastheamountacustomeriswillingtopayforwhatafirmprovides.Withinthetraditionalmodelofbookproduction,publishershaveperformedasequenceofessentialfunctionsincluding:19• Developmentalediting;• Copyediting;• Bookdesignandcomposition;• Managementofprintinganddistribution;• Internationalrightslicensing;• Providingadvancesagainstroyalties;• Marketing.The sequence of these functions is known as the value chain. Value was generated from thisinterdependentsequenceofessentialfunctions,alongwiththevalueinherentinthecontentofthebook. Effective value chains generated profits, and, within the value chain, publishers were in apositiontoselect,invest,andaddvalue.Thesupplychainisabusinessphilosophythatemergedinthe1980s.IttookadvantageofInformationandCommunicationTechnology(ICT)infrastructuretomanagethetotalflowofgoodsfromsupplierstotheuser.Apartfromtheadded-valueservicesthatpublishersofferedauthors,theywerealsointhe print and distribution business. Distribution is managed by the supply chain and typicallyinvolves:20• Printing;• Warehousingbooks;• Packinganddispatchofbooks;• CustomerServices;• Orderprocessing;• Invoicing(forprintbookandebookresellers);• Creditcontrol.Inmanycases,publishers’traditionalsupplychainshaverecentlybecomestrainedduetoafailuretoinvestinlogisticsandtounderstandingconsumerbehaviouratthesametimehistoricallyasInternet-basedplatformssuchasAmazonandApplewereinvestingsignificantlyintheirvaluenetworks.21In summary, then, thedifferencebetweenavaluechainanda supplychain is thata supplychainrepresentstheprocessofallpartiesinvolvedinfulfillingacustomerrequest,whileavaluechainisa18VanderWeel,A.(n.d,)Fromvaluechaintovaluenetwork[v.1.1]Retrievedfromhttp://www.let.leidenuniv.nl/wgbw/research/Weel_Articles/ValueChainToValueNetwork.pdf19Clarke,M.(2010)TradePublishingandEbooks:W(h)ithertheSupplyChain?Retrievedfromhttp://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2010/05/27/trade-publishing-and-ebooks-whither-the-supply-chain/20Sheila(2014)TheBookIndustrySupplyChain:alegacybusiness?Retrievedfromhttp://www.otpi.co.uk/2014/03/02/the-book-industry-supply-chain-a-legacy-business/21Sheila(2014)TheBookIndustrySupplyChain:alegacybusiness?Retrievedfromhttp://www.otpi.co.uk/2014/03/02/the-book-industry-supply-chain-a-legacy-business/


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setof interrelatedactivitiesa companyuses tocreateacompetitiveadvantage. Inpublishing, thevaluechaindeterminedwhichbookwouldbeproducedandthesupplychainofferedameanstosellthebookandthusgeneraterevenues.Inthesemodels,eachstepinthechaintendstofollowlogicallyandcausallyfromonetothenextinalinearflow.Theemphasisofthepublishingbusinessmodelhasbeenverystronglyon‘theacquisitionofcontentrightsandtheexploitationofthoserights,deliveringvalueforcontentcreators,publishers,customers and consumers’22 This traditional publishing business model has been captureddiagrammaticallyasfollows:Figure1 Agenericpublishingbusinessmodel23

However,globally,thistraditionalpublishingbusinessmodelhascomeundergrowingpressureasaconsequenceoftechnologicaldevelopmentandthedigitizationofcontent.Thereportfromwhichthediagramaboveistakendocumentsaseriesofinnovationsthatarebeingimplementedbytraditionalpublishers in response to these pressures,which are as strongly felt in education as in any otherpublishingsector.Thesupplyofearlyliteracymaterialsinlow-incomecountries,however,particularlyinsub-SaharanAfrica,hasbeen largely in thehandsofdonorsand the internationalNGOs that implementdonorprogramming.Someefforts,suchasthoseemployedbySavetheChildren,RoomtoRead,Biblionef,andCODE,areinnovative,anduselocaltalenttocreatebooksrelevanttolocalconditionsinlanguagesthat children understand.Other programmes are less discriminating. Donated books programmeshave not always been demand-driven and often provide books from the global North. Suchprogrammeshavebeencriticizedforjeopardizingthedevelopmentoflocalbookpublishingandforthefactthatmanydonatedbooksareunsuitable,becausetheyareoutdatedor irrelevantto local22Faherty,A.(2013).CurioserandCurioser:NoveltyCentredBusinessModelsandValueCreationinEstablishedPublishingFirms.Illinois.CommonGroundPublishing.p.43.23Faherty,A.(2013).CurioserandCurioser:NoveltyCentredBusinessModelsandValueCreationinEstablishedPublishingFirms.Illinois.CommonGroundPublishing.p.44


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needs.24 It has been more complicated and expensive to develop local publishing andprint/distribution competencies and capacity than to collect bookspublished in theNorth for thedevelopingworld.Buttheformerismorevaluableandarguablymoresustainableoverthelongrun.Localpublishersalreadyhaveapooloftalentedauthorsandillustratorswhocanbetappedtoaddtothenumberofavailablebooks–ifwecandevelopmodelstomeetpublishingcosts.Supplies of donated books can suppress demand for locally published resources because manygovernmentsrelyonthesedonationprogrammestofillbookshelvesandcupboardsinschoolsandlibraries.Theyalsoshiftresponsibilityfromtheministriesthatshouldsupportbookpurchases,butdonot,tothedonationprogrammes.In2012,BookAidInternationalvisitedKenya,Malawi,Tanzania,Uganda,andZambiaforanin-depthevaluationoftheimpactofitsprogram.LibrariansanduserstoldtheBAIgroup:

Mostlibrarieswevisited–whetherschool,university,communityorpublic–reliedheavilyonbooksfromBookAidInternational.Somelibrariesreportedthatwehadprovidedupto80%ofthebooksintheircollections.Thisdependenceondonatedbooksderivesfromthefactthatmostof our partners have very small or non-existent book procurement budgets: once staff andrunningcostshavebeenaccountedfor,thereislittleornomoneyleftforbuyingbooks.25

Ina2004reportforUnescoandCODE,MauroRossiassessedtheimpactofdonationprogrammesonall components of thebook chain.He assessed the impact on the reader, on creative activity, onpublishing,andondistribution.Rossialsosubdividedthedifferentkindsofdonationprogrammesbytype of project, example, and characteristics. His conclusionswere thatNorth-South programmesmightberelevanttothereader,butSouth-South,National,andMixed(South-SouthandNational)strengthenedcapacityfarbetter:Table1 Donationprogrammeimpacts26

Typeofproject Example Characteristics

North-south DonationofNorthAmericanbookstolibrariesinMalawi

• Rapidcollection• Relativelyeasytransport,butnoparticipation

ofbookprofessionalfromthecountryorregionconcerned

• Booksnotalwayswelladaptedtoreadershipintermsofcontent,languageandformat

South-southDonationofbooksboughtinKenyaandgiventolibrariesinMalawi

• Reducedquantityandvariety• Laborioustransport• Booksadaptedtothecontext,improvementof

theindustryandregionalexchanges

NationaldonationDonationofbooksboughtinKenyaandgiventopoorlibrariesinKenya

• Reducedquantityandvariety• Bookswelladaptedtothecontext• Improvementofthenationalindustry

24Jacobs,G.(1998).ReviewofGreaney,V.(Ed.).(1996).Promotingreadingindevelopingcountries:Viewsonmakingreadingmaterialsaccessibletoincreaseliteracylevels.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.Retrievedfromhttp://extensivereading.net/docs/greaney.html25BookAidInternational.(n.d.).Talkingtousers:Areviewofourworkinfivecountries.Retrieved4May2016,fromhttp://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:7pnppMXpipQJ:www.bookaid.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/Talking-to-users-a-review-of-our-work-in-five-countries.pdf26Rosi,M.(2005).BookDonationsforDevelopment(Rep.No.UnescoDocumentNumber:CLT/ACE/CEC-05/1).Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001394/139429e.pdf,page16


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Typeofproject Example Characteristics

Mixedsouth-southandnational

DonationofbooksbroughtinKenyaandTanzaniatolibrariesinKenya

• Complexlogisticalcoordination• Booksadaptedtothecontext• Improvementofthenationalandregional

exchanges

Mixednorth-southandsouth-south

DonationofNorthAmericanandKenyanbookstolibrariesinMalawi

• Rapidcollection• Greatvariety• Complexlogisticalcoordination• Participationofbookprofessionalsfromthe

regionconcerned• Bookssufficientlyadaptedtothecontext

Inthefieldofearlyliteracy,therefore,thesimplerealityinlow-incomecountriesisthatearlyliteracyhasneverconstitutedaparticularlyprofitablesourceofincomeforpublishers.Forexample,MidakoPublishing,apublisherofchildren’sbooks inAddisAbaba,pricesbooksat$1.36.Otherpublishersinterviewedforthisreporthavesettheirpricesnotmuchhigher.Thepublishers’goalistomaximizecirculation,bearinginmindlocalincomelevels,ratherthanmakeasignificantprofit.Comparethattothe2016NewberryAwardwinner,TheLastStoponMarketStreet,whichcosts$10.54onAmazon.27TraditionalmarketmechanismssuchasthosepresentedinFigureOneabovesimplydonotexistinthese contexts, especially notwhere the focus has beenon attempting to producebooks in locallanguages – and the more marginalized the language, the less realistic this is. The publishing ofchildren’sstorybooksinlocallanguagesinmostdevelopingcountrieshastendedtobealabourofloveandcommitmentratherthanamajorbusinessopportunity.28

Shiftingtotheconceptofavaluenetwork:anemergingnewmodel

Digitaltechnologyhasbroughttoanendtotheneatnessofthechainmetaphorinpublishing,anddigitizationhas introducedawaveofchangesthat isreshapingpublishing inunpredictableways29.Chainthinkingcomesfromanindustrialageproductionlinemodelthathasbeensupersededbythenew enterprise model of the value network or value web.30 Today, an author can take directresponsibilityformanyoftheseessentialfunctionsthatwereoncethepreserveofapublisher,andvalue is no longer something that is created incrementally and chronologically by publishersthroughoutthepartsofthevaluechainuntilthebookreachesthereader.31TanandMartinarguethatchainsareaninappropriatemetaphortoexplainthecomplexitiesofvaluecreationintheknowledgebasedeconomy32.Productionprocesseswithinpublishingcompaniesarealreadynon-serial,repletewithloops,iterations,andembellishmentsofvaryingkinds.Publishersnowmanageaproductionweb,notaproductionline33.Digitalplatformsanddeviceshavealsodisruptedpublishersupplychains.Itisnolongeressentialtogothroughthepublisher,forexample, inordertowarehouseanddistribute

27LastStoponMarketStreet.Retrievedfromhttp://www.amazon.com/Last-Stop-Market-Street-Matt/dp/039925774828MoreinformationonpublishercostswillbefoundinthesectiononCostinganopen-accessbusinessmodelbelow.29Purcell,E.(2011)NoNewNormal–TheValueWeb.https://eoinpurcellsblog.com/2011/05/24/no-new-normal-the-value-web/30Allee,V.(2010)ReconfiguringtheValueNetwork.http://www.sveiby.com/articles/Allee-ValueNets.htm31Valtech.(2015).IsYourValueChainInDangerofBecomingPartofanAlternativeValueNetwork?Retrievedfromhttps://www.valtech.com/blog/who-will-create-a-value-network-out-of-your-value-chain/32Tian,X.,&Martin,B.(2012).Books,bytesandbusiness:Thepromiseofdigitalpublishing.AshgatePublishing,Ltd.33Anderson,K.(2011)TheValueWeb-TheValueChainIsn’tBreaking,It’sInterweaving.Retrievedfromhttps://scholarlykitchen.sspnet.org/2011/06/01/the-value-web-the-value-chain-isnt-breaking-its-interweaving/


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books.IntheUnitedStates,therearenowseveralsitesthatoffertipstobuddingauthorsonhowtowriteandpublishtheirchildren’sbook.34Withinthischangingcontext,FirthandPageidentifyfiveelementswithintheValueNetwork:35• Contentrights;• Onlineservices;• Enablingtechnology/services;• Connectivity;and• Userinterface(devicesandapplications).With the Internet, value can be created in networks where individuals, customers, partners,competitors, and suppliers collaborate in value-creationprocesses. In early literacy in low-incomecountries,thisconceptofapublishingvaluenetworkcanbeconstructeddiagrammaticallyasfollows:

34Fortwoexamples,seeQuickandDirtyTips.com.CommonMistakestoAvoidWhenWritingaChildren'sBook.Retrievedfromhttp://www.quickanddirtytips.com/education/writing/common-mistakes-to-avoid-when-writing-a-childrens-bookandFriedman,J.(2015,March12).HowtoSelf-PublishChildren'sBooksSuccessfully:NotesfromtheTrenches|JaneFriedman.Retrievedfromhttps://janefriedman.com/self-publish-childrens/35ATKearney.InternetValueChainEconomics.Retrievedfromhttps://www.atkearney.com/paper/-/asset_publisher/dVxv4Hz2h8bS/content/internet-value-chain-economics/10192#sthash.iWkJm25H.dpuf


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Figure2 Anearlyliteracyreaderecosystem

Althoughthisdiagramincludesmanycomponentsonewouldfindintraditionalpublishingvalueandsupplychains,itillustrateshowtheprocessisnolongeralinearchainorend-to-endprocess.Rather,


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weseeanecosystemcomprisingamorecomplicatedvaluenetwork,inwhichthedifferentnetworkcomponents canbeplanned andexecuted independently of one another. This ‘disaggregation’ oftraditionalchainsisfacilitatedbothbydigitaldisruptionandopenlicensing.Ofcourse,withineachofthesecomponents,thereareseveralissuesthatrequirecarefulplanning,sotheecosystemasawholeismuchmoreconvolutedthantheabovediagramsuggests.AppendixCprovidesadetailedoverviewofeachofthecomponentsofthisecosystem,aswellasthekeyquestionsthatrequireconsiderationinplanning.Ecosystemsaredynamicandmadeupofthecomplexinterplaybetweenthesystemandits environment, together with emergent properties created by such an intricate interplay. Theconceptofanearlyliteracyreaderecosystemreinforceseithertherichnessorthepovertyofreadingsystemsinplaceandthepotential(orlackofit)foradaptationandself-organization.Theterm‘earlyliteracyreaderecosystem’thushighlightsthecomplex,nonlinearinteractionsthataffect,sustain,orfrustratethereadingopportunitiesofchildreninlow-incomecountries.Manynewpracticesareemergingglobally,bothinearly literacyandinothersectors,thatprovidecompelling anecdotal evidence of how a different way of conceptualizing value chains as valuenetworks can create new opportunities for a wider range of players and potential new financialefficiencies.Beforeexploringtheseinnovationsinmoredetail,though,itisworthexploringfirstwhatismeantbydigitaldisruptionandopenlicensing.

Whatis‘digitaldisruption’?

Ingeneralterms,digitaldisruptionrefersto‘thechangethatoccurswhennewdigitaltechnologiesand business models affect the value proposition of existing goods and services’.36 Continuousevolution of technology is changing the ways in which people do business, the dynamics of theworkplace,andwhatweperceiveaspossible.Forexample,technologyfosterssustainedcollaborationamongworkteamswithoutarequirementtomeetinperson,enhancesproductivitybyreducingdataprocessingtime,andimprovestheeasewithwhichlargevolumesofdatacanbemanipulatedbyandtransferredbetweenvariousunitswithin anorganization. Forbesmagazinehighlights fiveways inwhich digital disruption impacts on customers: pace of innovation, with technology disruptionsoccurring at faster intervals; increased competition; personalized interaction (with data analyticsenablingmarketers to send customer communications that aremore relevant and personalized);increasedspeedofinteraction;andintegrationtocreatecohesionacrossallmarketingchannelsandplatforms.37Therapidincreaseinuseofmobiledevicesforpersonaluseandworkhasincreasedthepotentialfordigitaldisruptionacrossnumerousindustries,includingfilm,journalism,andmusic.Forexample,partofthechallengeformedia,music,andtelevisionisthattheyarevulnerabletodisaggregation.Theirproducts are made up of songs, articles, and shows that have traditionally been consumed inindividual units. The Internetmade it possible for consumers to ignoreunwantedmaterial,whichresulted in overall value decreasing. Easy access to favourite songs opened those up to impulsepurchases,butalsomadebuyingthewholealbumunnecessary.Thereisalsothethreatofpiracy,withtorrentsoftwareandwebsites38havinghelpedtoconvincemanypeoplethattheyshouldnothaveto

36TechTarget.(nodate).DigitalDisruption,Retrievedfromhttp://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/digital-disruption37Arthur,L.(2013).FiveWaysDigitalDisruptionWillImpactTheCustomerExperience.Retrievedfromhttp://www.forbes.com/sites/lisaarthur/2013/03/19/five-ways-digital-disruption-will-impact-the-customer-experience/#7248f23527af38Atorrentfileisasmallcomputerfilethatcontainsmetadataaboutfilesandfolderstobedistributed,andusuallyalsoalistofthenetworklocationsoftrackers(computersthathelpparticipantsinthesystemfindeachotherandformefficientdistributiongroups).Atorrentfiledoesnotcontainthecontenttobedistributed;itonlycontainsinformationaboutthosefilesDownloadingwithatorrentisadvantageousparticularlywhendownloadingfiles,whicharemomentarilyverypopularandwhichlotsofpeoplearedownloading,asthemorepeopledownloadthefile,thehigherthespeedforeveryone.


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pay for digital goods. There is even a torrent equivalent for scholarly journal articles. A graduatestudent from Kazakhstan has created awebsite called Sci-Hub,39 a searchable online database ofnearly 50 million stolen scholarly journal articles that are normally hidden behind a publisher’spaywall.Publishers,suchasElseviercallherapirate;scholarswhocannotaffordtopayforarticlescallherRobinHood.40Furthermore, sites likeNetflix have bundled films into affordable smorgasbords, undermining theperceivedvalueofeachindividualtitle,whilePandoraandSpotifyhaverecentlydonethesameformusic.41TelevisionisalsofacingissuesofpiracyandnewcompetitionfromstreamingpartnerssuchasAmazonPlusandNetflix,bothofwhichchargeforcontentbutwithoutcommercials.Inaddition,Amazon and Netflix are now producing their own original content.42 Hulu Plus provides anotherexampleofdigitaldisruption.Viewersaresparedcommercialsforthepriceofamonthlysubscription.Some of the major television broadcasters participate in Hulu. Advertisers are trying to developalternativemethodsofdeliveringtheirmessage,whichmaymeanfurtherchangesinhowcontentisaccessedbyconsumersandmonetizedbyadvertisers.Inthenewsfield,thereare24-hourrollingnewschannelsandaplethoraofbloggersprovidinghugevolumesofcontent.Thoughqualityandobjectivityarenotcontrolled,blogsaregrowinginpopularity,andtheyofferthepotentialofreceivingpaymentforpoststhathavemanyviewers/readers.Technologyalsoallowseasypostingofafewcharacterstoa high-quality video, so everybody can be both reporter and publisher.43 In addition, traditionalnewspapersliketheNewYorkTimes,allowprintsubscriberstoaccessthenewspaperandopeningparagraphs online free of charge. Readers are allowed a certain number of free downloads eachmonth;subscribershaveaccesstoeverything.Asitaggressivelymovesintodigital,thepaperisnowreportingbetterthanexpectedprofit.44Marsden(2015)outlinestenhyper-disruptivebusinessmodels,presentedinthetablebelow:Table2 Tenhyper-disruptivebusinessmodels45

Model Description Examples

Thesubscriptionmodel

Disruptsthrough‘lock-in’bytakingaproductorservicethatistraditionallypurchasedonanadhocbasis,andlocking-inrepeatcustombychargingasubscriptionfeeforcontinuedaccesstotheproduct/service.

Netflix,DollarShaveClub,AppleMusic

Thefreemiummodel

Disruptsthroughdigitalsampling,whereuserspayforabasicserviceorproductwiththeirdataor‘eyeballs’,ratherthanmoney,andthenchargingtoupgradetothefulloffer.Workswheremarginalcostforextraunitsand

Spotify,LinkedIn,Dropbox

39Sci-Hub.Retrievedfromhttps://sci-hub.io40Rosenwald,M.S.(2016,March30).Thisstudentput50millionstolenresearcharticlesonline.Andthey'refree.Retrievedfromhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/this-student-put-50-million-stolen-research-articles-online-and-theyre-free/2016/03/30/7714ffb4-eaf7-11e5-b0fd-073d5930a7b7_story.html41Hughes,E.(2013).ThePublishingIndustryisThriving.BooksDon'tWanttoBeFreeHowpublishingescapedthecruelfateofothercultureindustries.TheNewRepublic.Retrievedfromhttp://www.newrepublic.com/article/115010/publishing-industry-thriving42Greenfield,J.(2013).HowthePeopleSavedBookPublishing.Forbes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.forbes.com/sites/jeremygreenfield/2013/02/11/how-the-people-saved-book-publishing43SmithersPira.(2011).NewDevicesandMeansofConsumingContentareChangingtheFaceofthePublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.smitherspira.com/news/2011/may/the-changing-face-of-the-publishing-industry44Nair,A.S.(2016,February04).NewYorkTimesreportsbetter-than-expectedprofitandrevenue.Retrieved5April2016,fromhttp://www.reuters.com/article/us-new-york-times-results-idUSKCN0VD1U445TakenverbatimfromMarsden,P.(2015).The10BusinessModelsofDigitalDisruption(andhowtorespondtothem).Retrieved4April2016fromhttp://digitalintelligencetoday.com/the-10-business-models-of-digital-disruption-and-how-to-respond-to-them/


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Model Description Examples

distributionarelowerthanadvertisingrevenueorthesaleofpersonaldata.

Thefreemodel

Disruptswithan‘if-you’re-not-paying-for-the-product-you-are-the-product’modelthatinvolvessellingpersonaldataor‘advertisingeyeballs’harvestedbyofferingconsumersa‘free’productorservicethatcapturestheirdata/attention.

Google,Facebook

Themarketplacemodel

Disruptswiththeprovisionofadigitalmarketplacethatbringstogetherbuyersandsellersdirectly,inreturnforatransactionorplacementfeeorcommission.

eBay,iTunes,AppStore,Uber,AirBnB

Theaccess-over-ownershipmodel

Disruptsbyprovidingtemporaryaccesstogoodsandservicestraditionallyonlyavailablethroughpurchase.Includes‘SharingEconomy’disruptors,whichtakesacommissionfrompeoplemonetizingtheirassets(home,car,capital)bylendingthemto‘borrowers’.

Zipcar,Peerbuy,AirBnB

Thehypermarketmodel

Disruptsby‘brandbombing’usingsheermarketpowerandscaletocrushcompetition,oftenbysellingbelowcostprice.

Amazon,Apple

Theexperiencemodel

Disruptsbyprovidingasuperiorexperience,forwhichpeoplearepreparedtopay. Tesla,Apple

Thepyramidmodel Disruptsbyrecruitinganarmyofresellersandaffiliateswhoareoftenpaidonacommission-onlymodel.

Amazon,Microsoft,Dropbox

Theon-demandmodel

Disruptsbymonetizingtimeandsellinginstant-accessatapremium.Includestakingacommissionfrompeoplewithmoneybutnotimewhopayforgoodsandservicesdeliveredorfulfilledbypeoplewithtimebutnomoney.

Uber,Operator,Taskrabbit

Theecosystemmodel

Disruptsbysellinganinterlockingandinterdependentsuiteofproductsandservicesthatincreaseinvalueasmorearepurchased.Createsconsumerdependency.

Apple,Google

Forbookpublishing,Cuddy(2015)arguesthatthisprocessofdisruptionhasnotyetbeguninearnest.WiththeexceptionofAmazonandebooksmoregenerally,digitaldisruptionhasbeenslowtoreachthe publishing industry.46 T.D. Wilson of the Swedish School of Library and Information Science,UniversityofBoråsreviewedtheimpactofebooksoveraten-yearperiod,primarilyinSwedenbutalsointheUnitedStatesandelsewhereinEurope.Heconcludedthat,todate,theebookmarkethasbeenprimarilydrivenbysalesintheUnitedStates.47Whileebooksinitiallycreatedadisruptionandmanypublishersadoptedkeyelementsofebooks,therehasnotbeenmuchboldinnovation;digitalcontentisstilllargelyseenasanadd-ontoprint.Cuddy(2005)thusarguesthatweareyettoseea‘re-imagination’causedbydigitaldisruption.48Clearlythesefuture‘disruptions’willhaveimplicationsforhowbusinessesmoveforward,and,giventherapidityofdigitaldisruptionselsewhere,itisdifficulttobeconfidentabouthowthefuturewill look(althoughwecanbefairlysurethatpublishersandsocieties will continue to experience significant change). What is clear is that businesses and46Cuddy,G.(2015).Publishing'sDigitalDisruptionHasn'tEvenStarted.Retrievedfromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2015/publishings-digital-disruption-hasnt-even-started/47Wilson,T.D.(2014).Thee-bookphenomenon:Adisruptivetechnology.InformationResearch.19(2).Retrievedfromhttp://www.informationr.net/ir/19-2/paper612.html#.VwNv5McRrok48Cuddy,G.(2015).Publishing'sDigitalDisruptionHasn'tEvenStarted.Retrievedfromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2015/publishings-digital-disruption-hasnt-even-started/


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organizationswill need to leverage digital disruptions to enhance customer experience and drivebusinessvalue.Theeffectofdigitaldisruptionneedstobeunpackedfordifferentcontextsandeconomicsectors.Inparticular, questions need to be asked about the effects of this disruption on a fragile publishingindustry,suchasthatfound,whereitevenexists,inlow-incomecountries.Theemergingnetworkedinformationenvironmentcanbringaboutdeepchangesintechnologies,economicorganization,andsocialpractices.YochaiBenkler,authoroftheWealthofNetworks,49arguesthatafourthtransactionalframeworkhasemergedasaresultofanetworkedinformationeconomy.Thisparticularframeworkisnotmarketfocusedanddecentralized.Socialsharingandexchangeisnowpossiblebecauseordinarypeople have the means of production and participation in their hands. In this new model ofproduction,peopleworkcooperativelytocreate,translate,anddistributecontenttoreaderswithoutrelyingonmarketpricingormanagerialhierarchiestocoordinatetheircommonenterprise.However,beforeassumingthatallwillbenefitfromthisnewmodalityoforganizinginformation(whatBenklercalls commons-based peer production), it is important to consider what the prime focus of thisinitiativewillbe.Willtheprimefocusbetocreatevalueforglobalshareholders,anetworkofsmallfor profit enterprises, the local community, or the transnational commons? These questions areespecially important inearly literacy,becausethekey localplayers indeveloping literacymaterialsalready have very fragile businessmodels and further disruptions can just as easily destroy theirlivelihoodsasitcancreatenewopportunities.Bauwens and Kostakis, authors of Network Society and Future Scenarios for a CollaborativeEconomy,50alsoacknowledgethatthatpeerproductioncandisruptindustries.But,ifpeerproductionislocatedwithinasingleproprietaryhierarchy,thenitislikelythatthosewhoinitiatethedisruptionwill beprivileged, and,while theymay create value for theparticipants in thepeer-to-peer (P2P)system, their overall intention is to extract value. Bauwens and Kostakis call this ‘netarchicalcapitalism’.Facebook,YouTube,Google,andApplearecitedasexamplesofthistypeofproduction.WhenadistributedcommunityisbehindP2Pproduction,andtheplatformsandinfrastructuresaredesigned toallowautonomyandparticipation,butprofit is still theguidingmotivewithinamoreinclusionaryanddistributedenvironment,amoredistributedformofcapitalismemerges(suchasintheexamplesofKickstarterorblockchains).Kickstarterisafund-and-releasesystemintendedtohelpcreativepeople, suchas artists,musicians, and filmmakersbring theirprojects to life.51 Fundsaregatheredviaanonlinethresholdpledgesystem.Anamountofmoneyissetasthegoal(threshold)toreachforaspecifiedpurposeand interested individualsare invitedtocommittothegoal,butthemoneyatfirsteitherremainswiththepledgersorisheldinescrow.Oncethethresholdisreached,thepledgesarecalledinandacontractisformedsothatthecollectivegoodissupplied.52AblockchainisessentiallyaledgerorrecordthatissharedviaaP2Pnetwork.Theblockchaincanonlybeupdatedbyconsensusofamajorityoftheparticipantsinthesystem.Onceentered,informationcanneverbeerased so it is designed for recording transactions.53 The most widely known application of ablockchainisthepublicledgeroftransactionsforcryptocurrencies,suchasbitcoin.54

49Benkler,Y.(2006).Thewealthofnetworks:Howsocialproductiontransformsmarketsandfreedom.YaleUniversityPress.50Kostakis,V.,&Bauwens,M.(2014).Networksocietyandfuturescenariosforacollaborativeeconomy.PalgraveMacmillan.51Kickstarter.(2016).Ourmissionistohelpbringcreativeprojectstolife.Retrievedfromhttps://www.kickstarter.com/about52Thresholdpledgesystem(2016)Retrievedfromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_pledge_system53Gault,M.(2015)ForgetBitcoin-WhatIstheBlockchainandWhyShouldYouCare?Retrievedfromhttp://recode.net/2015/07/05/forget-bitcoin-what-is-the-blockchain-and-why-should-you-care/54Blockchain.(2016).http://p2pfoundation.net/Blockchain


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Opennessandopenlicensing55

Acommonthemeinmuchrecentinnovationineducationgloballyhasbeenthatofgreateropenness.‘Open(ness)’ has become the watermark for a fast growing number of learning materials andassociatedplatformsandpracticesemanatingfromvariousinstitutionsandindividuals.Thenotionofopen learning, once defined largely by the reduction or waiving of admission requirements forstudentstoenterprogrammesofstudy,hasexplodedintoarainbowof‘open’concepts,allofwhichchallenge traditional ideas of the campus experience as central to learning, ownership, restrictedaccess,academicprivilege,andeducationalhierarchy.56Twoimportantnotions,egalitarianismandsharing,areatthecoreoftheconceptof‘open’.Egalitarianismimpliesanequalrighttoparticipate(access, use, and collaboration). Sharing is rooted in the idea of widening access where it haspreviouslybeenrestricted.Enhancedaccessisoftenmotivatedbyadesiretoshare,whetherthroughawishtocontributetothecommongoodortoparticipateinacoordinatedorcollaborativeactivity.57Formaleducationsystemshaveembracedopennessformanydecades,notablythroughthecreationofopenuniversitiesandopenschools.58Morerecently,variousdevelopmentsinopeneducation,suchasOpenandDistanceLearning (ODL),OpenAccess (OA),OpenData,OpenEducationalResources(OER), and OpenCourseWare (OCW), have each made a valuable contribution to creating a newcultureofopenness.Technologicaldevelopmentsanddigitaldisruptionhavehelpedtheconceptof‘open’ ineducationtoemerge in itscurrent forms.59For instance, ‘opencontent’ isanattempttocarryoverthelogicof‘opensource’softwaretotheworldofculturalandscientificartefactslikemusic,literature, and images.60 Johnson et al (2013) report that open education advocates are workingtowardsacommonunderstandingof‘open’asfree,abletobecopied,remixable(thatis,abletobeadaptedandcombinedwithothercontenttocreatenewcontent),andwithoutanybarrierstoaccessorinteraction.61Licensingiscentraltotheissueofopenness.Legalframeworks(suchasCreativeCommons62)helptogovern how open a resource really is. They provide legal mechanisms to ensure that authors ofmaterialscanreceiveacknowledgementfortheirworkwhileallowingittobeshared.Theycanalsorestrictcommercialactivityandpreventpeoplefromadaptingaresourceiftheysowish.Therehavebeenattemptstodefineopennessinparticulardomains.Forexample,intheareaofopencontent,awidelyuseddescriptionofopennessisthe‘4Rs’byWiley(2009):1) Reuse–therighttoreusethecontentinitsunaltered/verbatimform;2) Revise–therighttoadapt,adjust,modify,oralterthecontentitself;3) Remix – the right to combine the original or revised content with other content to create

somethingnew;and4) Redistribute–therighttomakeandsharecopiesoftheoriginalcontent,yourrevisions,oryour

remixeswithothers.

55ThissectionisadaptedfromButcher,N.,andHoosen,S.(2014).AGuidetoQualityinPostTraditionalOnlineHigherEducation.AcademicPartnerships:Dallas.56Conrad,D.(2013).Assessmentchallengesinopenlearning:Way-finding,forkintheroad,orendoftheline?OpenPraxis,vol.5issue1,January–March2013,pp.41–47.InternationalCouncilforOpenandDistanceEducation.57OpenICTforDevelopment.WhatisOpenness?Retrievedfromhttp://openict4d.wikidot.com/open-ness-to-open-ict4d58Lane,A.(2009).TheImpactofOpennessonBridgingEducationalDigitalDivides.InternationalReviewofResearchinOpenandDistanceLearning.Volume10,Number5.59Peter,SandDeimann,M.(2013).Ontheroleofopennessineducation:Ahistoricalreconstruction.OpenPraxis,vol.5issue1,January–March2013,pp.7–1460Wiley,D.(2009).Defining‘Open’.Retrievedfromhttp://opencontent.org/blog/archives/112361Johnson,L.,AdamsBecker,S.,Cummins,M.,Estrada,V.,Freeman,A.,andLudgate,H.(2013).NMCHorizonReport:2013HigherEducationEdition.Austin,Texas:TheNewMediaConsortium62CreativeCommons.Retrievedfromwww.creativecommons.org


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Tothedegreethatalicenceprovidesuserswithno-cost(free)permissiontoexercisetheserightswithregardtocontent, thatcontent isopen.Thus,whethertheserightsaregrantedunconditionallyorpermittedonlyiftheusermeetscertainconditions(forexample,requiringattribution,necessitatingdistributionofderivativesunderaspecifiedlicence,orprohibitingcommercialredistribution),itisstillappropriate to call this contentopen.The fewer restrictionsa licenceplacesonauser’s ability toexercise4Rrightsinthecontent,themoreopenthecontentis.63Butitisimportanttoremember,however, that nomatter how open the licence, credit to the original author andwork is alwaysrequired.Table3belowprovidesanoverviewofthedifferenttypesofCreativeCommonslicencesandhowtheirpermissionswork.Table3 CreativeCommonslicences64

LicenceName Acronym Icon Description

Attribution BY

Thislicenceletsothersdistribute,remix,tweakandbuilduponyourwork,evencommercially,aslongastheycredityoufortheoriginalcreation.Thisisthemostaccommodatingoflicencesoffered,intermsofwhatotherscandowithyourworkslicensedunderAttribution.

AttributionShareAlike BY-SA

Thislicenceletsothersremix,tweakandbuilduponyourworkevenforcommercialreasons,aslongastheycredityouandlicensetheirnewcreationsundertheidenticalterms.Thislicenceisoftencomparedtoopensourcesoftwarelicences.Allnewworksbasedonyourswillcarrythesamelicence,soanyderivativeswillalsoallowcommercialuse.

AttributionNoDerivative BY-ND

Thislicenceallowsforredistribution,commercialandnon-commercial,withcredittotheauthor.Theworkmaynotbealtered,transformedorbuilton.

AttributionNon-commercial

BY-NC

Thislicenceletsothersremix,tweakandbuilduponyourworknon-commercially,andalthoughtheirnewworksmustalsoacknowledgeyouandbenon-commercial,theydon’thavetolicensetheirderivativeworksonthesameterms.

AttributionNon-commercialShareAlike

BY-NC-SA

Thislicenceletsothersremix,tweakandbuilduponyourworknon-commercially,aslongastheycredityouandlicensetheirnewcreationsundertheidenticalterms.OtherscandownloadandredistributeyourworkjustliketheBY-NC-NDlicence,buttheycanalsotranslate,makeremixesandproducenewstoriesbasedonyourwork.Allnewworkbasedonyourswillcarrythesamelicence,soanyderivativeswillalsobenon-commercialinnature.

63Wiley,D.(2009).Defining‘Open’.Retrievedfromhttp://opencontent.org/blog/archives/112364AdaptedfromCreativeCommons.AbouttheLicenses.Retrievedfromhttps://creativecommons.org/licenses/LicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution4.0Internationallicense.


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LicenceName Acronym Icon Description

AttributionNon-commercialNoDerivatives

BY-NC-ND

ThislicenceisthemostrestrictiveofthesixmainCClicences,allowingredistributiononly.Thislicenceisoftencalledthe‘freeadvertising’licencebecauseitallowsotherstodownloadyourworksandsharethemwithothersaslongastheymentionyouandlinkbacktoyou,buttheycannotchangetheminanywayorusethemcommercially.

Open Educational Resources (OER) apply open source principles to the release of educationalcontent.65Thetermreferstoanyeducationalresources(includingcurriculummaps,coursematerials,textbooks,streamingvideos,multimediaapplications,podcasts,oranyothermaterialsdesignedforuseinteachingandlearning)thatareopenlyavailableforusebyeducatorsandstudents,withouttheneed to pay royalties or licence fees.66 OER can exist as smaller, stand-alone resources (reusablelearningobjects)thatcanbemixedandcombinedtoformlargerpiecesofcontentoraslargercoursemodulesandfullcourses.OERcanalsoincludesimulations,virtuallaboratories,collections,journals,andtools.ThesematerialsareconsideredopeniftheyarereleasedunderanopenlicencesuchasaCreativeCommonslicence.The2012ParisDeclarationonOpenEducationalResourcesadoptedthedefinitionofOERas:

Teaching,learningandresearchmaterialsinanymedium,digitalorotherwise,thatresideinthepublicdomainorhavebeenreleasedunderanopenlicensethatpermitsno-costaccess,use,adaptationandredistributionbyotherswithnoorlimitedrestrictions.67

ThefundamentalprincipleunderlyingOERisthefreedomtoshareknowledge,whichshouldbelegally,socially, and technologically open.68 This ensures greater access for more people than a similarcommercial product that is not free. It also increases flexibility of use, which in turn createsopportunityforgreateraccess.69OER create multiple opportunities to innovate in teaching and learning. For example, sharing ofresources opens access to intellectual capital,which candramatically improve the affordability ofeducation.Itcanalsoenablebetterpersonalizationofinstruction,70byfocusinglessonthecontent(whichisfreelyavailable)andmoreonthefacilitationoflearninginteractions.

65Weller,M.(publishedonline2014).TheDigitalScholar:HowTechnologyIsTransformingScholarlyPractice.BloomsburyAcademic.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bloomsburyacademic.com/view/DigitalScholar_9781849666275/chapter-ba-9781849666275-chapter-009.xml66Butcher,N.(2011).ABasicGuidetoOpenEducationalResources(OER),theCommonwealthofLearning.67UNESCO(2012).2012ParisOpenDeclaration.WorldOpenEducationalResources(OER)Congress,UNESCO,Paris,June20-22,2012.Retrievedfromhttp://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CI/CI/pdf/Events/Paris%20OER%20Declaration_01.pdf68Torres,N.PM.(2013).Embracingopenness:ThechallengesofOERinLatinAmericaneducation.OpenPraxis,vol.5issue1,January–March2013,pp.81-8969Smith,M.S.(2013).RuminationsonResearchonOpenEducationalResources.CarnegieFoundationfortheAdvancementofTeaching70Wiley,D.,andGreen,C.(2012).WhyOpennessinEducation?InOblinger,D.GameChangers:EducationandInformationTechnologies.Educause


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Emerginginnovationsthatcantransformtheearlyliteracyreaderecosystem

Digital disruption and open licensing are important because they have stimulated a range ofinnovations thatcan transformtheoperationsof theearly literacy readerecosystempresented inFigure2.Mostimportant,though,isthekeypointthatdigitaldisruptioninpublishingvalueandsupplychainsenablesadisaggregationofthosesupplychains,sothateachaspectoftheearlyliteracyreaderecosystemcanfunctionindependentlyoftheothers,introducingopportunitiesforworkingdifferentlyand more efficiently. Within this emerging new framework, various emerging innovations areexploredbelow.

Transformingcontentcreationmodels

ThedisruptivepotentialofopenlicensingwaswellunderstoodbyPrathamBooksinIndiawhenittookadecisiontobeginsharing itsstoriesunderaCreativeCommonsAttribution licence.ThePrathamBooksbusinessmodel isbasedonan important insight thataffectsearly literacy inalldevelopingcountrycontexts,namelythattherehasneverreallybeenasustainablebusinessmodelforcontentcreation other than investment by governments and donor agencies. In a traditional publishingbusinessmodel,however,whererightsacquisitionisimportant,thechallengehasbeenthatpaymentfor content creationhas typically beenbundled into the cost of printing anddistributing readers,whichhassignificantlyincreasedindividualunitcosts.PrathamBooks,however,bytreatingtheseasseparate processes that are funded independently of one another has relied exclusively onphilanthropytocoverthecostsofstorycreation,ratherthanloadingthiscostintotheprintinganddistributionofitsbooks.Theresultisthatitisabletosellitsprintedbooktitlesatapproximately50%ofthecostofcommercialpublishers.71As importantly,though,whenPrathamBooksbeganaprocessofreleasingitstitlesunderanopenlicence,itquicklydiscoveredthatopenlylicensedbookstendedtooutsellthosethatwerestillsubjecttoanAll-RightsReservedlicence,byafactortwotoone.Asasmallorganizationwithabigmissiontosee‘abookineverychild’shand’,itrecognizedtheneedtocreatealternateandscalablechannelsofreachingbookstothevastpopulationofchildreninIndia.

Fromourearlyexperimentswithopenlylicensingourcontent,weknewthatitledtothecreationofmanymorederivativeversionseitherinnewlanguagesorinnewformsandtherebytravelledfurthertoreachmorechildren,thatPrathamBooks’wouldnotbeabletoreach.72

ThiswasthebasisofbuildinganewwayforwardwithStoryweaver,throughwhichitdistributesitsresourcesonline.

Wewantedtoprovideopenaccesstoalibraryofdigitizedstories,bothtextandillustrations,wherereadersandcontentcreatorscouldparticipateinacollaborative,creativeandmutuallybeneficial process of transforming and creating engaging, openly accessible material forchildren.Ourtwingoalswere-toprovidemoremultilingualcontentandmoreaccess.73

This digitization of content has also enabled more cost-effective creation of new content. As ofDecember,2015,theStoryweaverplatformwasstoring1,100stories,ofwhich200wereuniqueandtheremainderderivatives(translationsoradaptations)oftheoriginalstories.Thesederivativesareproducedverycost-effectivelyusingdigitaltoolstofacilitaterapidtranslationandadaptation.74

71SuzanneSinghandPurviShah,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcher,7December201572SuzanneSinghandPurviShah,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcher,6June201673SuzanneSinghandPurviShah,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcher,6June201674SuzanneSinghandPurviShah,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcher,7December2015


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TheStoryweaverplatformprovidesfacilitiestoRead,Create,andTranslatestories,usingamodularAPI-basetechnologyplatformthat facilitatessimpleadditionofnewfeatures. It isalsopossible todownloadhigh-resolution,printableversionsofstoriesviathesite.Italsocontainsanimagebankofall of the images used in its openly licensed books. All of its fonts are Unicode fonts, and thussearchable.Storyweaveralsoincludesatransliterationtoolfor11Indianlanguages.75Inaparallelexperience, theAfricanStorybook Initiative (ASb),which isbeing implementedby theSouthAfricanInstituteforDistanceEducation(Saide),hasfocusedheavilyoncreationofanonlineplatformthatprovidesaccesstocompletedstories,whileprovidingtoolsforcreationandtranslation/adaptationofexistingstories.AllofthestoriesavailableonthisplatformarelicensedunderaCreativeCommonsAttributionlicence.AswithStoryweaver,thismeansthattheASbplatformhasbeenabletoproliferatenewcontentwithouthavingtoproducenewstories.InMarch,2016,ithad615uniquestoriesand2,039translated/adaptedstories,representing73languages,ofwhich68areindigenousAfrican languages. Not coincidentally, these include some stories sourced from the Storyweaverplatform,furtherdemonstratingthepowerofopenlicensing.Importantly,ASbhasbeenexperimentingwithanumberofdifferentwaysofusingitsonlinecontentcreation and translation/adaptation tools to draw new players into the content creation space,focusingoncontentcreators fromAfricancountries. Ithasanumberofpartnersandpilotsites inKenya,SouthAfrica,Lesotho,Ethiopia,andUganda,whereeducatorshavebeenabletocreateand/ortranslate/adaptstoriesonline.Forexample,oninvitationfromtheKibaaliForestSchoolsProgrammeinWesternUganda,ASbranastorydevelopmentandtranslationworkshopearly in2015.Flowingfromthatprocesswere25storiesinRutooro(amajorlanguageinUganda).76ASbhasalsoworkedwith Uganda’s community libraries in creating content. Appendix G describes additional andinnovativewaysthatASbhasbeenharnessingonlinecontent.Likewise,ASbhasbeenexploringthepotentialofharnessingteachereducationstudentstocontributeto content creation. For example, story development and translation workshops were held withteachereducationstudentsattheUniversityofPretoria,andtheeducationcampusoftheUniversityofMpumalanga,KenyattaUniversity,UniversityofCapeTown,andKabwangasiPrimaryTeachers’College in East Uganda. The first two workshop processes yielded 100 Afrikaans translations, 30isiNdebeletranslations,and26siSwatitranslations.TheworkwithKenyattaUniversitycontinuestobe productive. The first twoworkshopswith students at KenyattaUniversity produced eight newstoriesandtranslationsofsixstoriesintofourlanguages,allofwhichwereuploadedontothewebsite.This approach achieves a dual goal of inducting teacher trainees into use of the website, whileincreasing the numbers of translations and languages at no extra cost. As a result of the ASbexperience,additionalAfricanuniversitiesareinterestedinexploringthepossibilityofusingstudentstotranslatestories.Pratham Books has made the Storyweaver platform accessible on desktops, laptops, tablets andmobilephones;allowinguserstoread,downloadandprintallthestories.Theyalsoembeddedsometools for content creation to enable people to repurpose the content into more languages andversions. ASb has recently invested heavily in adapting its online platform to make it more webresponsiveandthereforemoreeasilyaccessibleviamobiledevices.Theintentioninthisinstanceistoenable seamless access both to stories and to the story creation/translation/adaptation tools oncomputers and mobile devices, thereby expanding access to their openly licensed content.Importantly, readers are readily available both as digital e-readers and for download as printablecontent(includinghighresolutionversionsofPDFfilesthatenableprofessionalprinting).Thisallowsopenaccesstotheirreadersinmultipleformats,withminimaladditionalexpense.75SuzanneSinghandPurviShah,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcher,7December201576TessaWelch,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,16March2016


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BookDashisanexampleofaninitiativeusinganinnovativecontentcreationmodel.Itisfocusedoncreatinghigh-quality,low-costAfricanchildren’sbooksthatanyonecanfreelytranslateanddistribute.Inthismodel,anorganizationusuallycommissionsabook-creationworkshop,andateamofvolunteercreativeprofessionals is invitedtogeneratestorybooks in twelvehours.Thebooksare licensedtoallowanyonetofreelytranslateanddistribute(underaCreativeCommonsAttributionlicence).TheBookDashwebsitehasalreadyshared45uniquechildren’sbooksproducedthisway,whichcanbedownloaded as a low-resolution PDF, source and print-ready files, or as an e-reader andmobile-optimizedHTML.ThismodelisbeingharnessedbyASbaspartofitswidercontentcreationstrategy.77Anothercontentcreationmodeladoptediscompetitions,whichwasadoptedbytheChildren’sBookTrust(CBT)inIndia.Inthismodel,booksaresourcedfromthepublicviacompetitionsruneveryfewyears toacquirepicturemanuscriptsor short stories.Prizesareawarded to selectedmanuscripts,whichthenbecomethepropertyofthetrust(copyrightforthematerialthenvestswiththetrust).CBThasanin-houseteamofeditorsandartistsanditsownprintingpress.Thepresswasestablishedto print CBT books as a cost-cutting measure to ensure that books are priced low to ensureaffordability.Typically,a16-pagebookwithcolourfulpicturescosts25rupees(US$0.37),anda100-150-pagebookcosts110rupees(US$1.64).CBT’spolicyisnottoextractmaximumfundsfromthefirstprintrunortomakemoneyfromthebooksprinted.Thetrustrecoupsthecostofthebooksoverseveralyears.CBTownsabuildingandearnsrevenueandpayssalariesfromfundsgatheredbyrentingoutseveralfloorsinthebuildingwhereitsofficesandpressislocated.Thepressalsoprovidesservicesforexternalclientsatafee.Noexternalfundsaresourced.78

Otheropenlicensingcontentcreationmodels

Onasmallscale,thereareseveralorganizationsexploringreleasingtheirstorybooksunderaCreativeCommons licence.One example of this is theUS-basedBrothersWhim,which is releasing storiesunderaCCBYSAlicence(meaningallthebooksandartworksarefreelyaccessibleontheinternettodownload,share,copy,andremix/alter). Itsbooksareproduced inEnglish,but,astheyhaveaCClicence,othershaveproducedtranslationsinArabic,Spanish,Dutch,Braille,andSwedish.BrothersWhimmakesitsbooksfreelyavailablefordownloadinmultipleformats,includingePub,PDF,Mobi,Kindle,andVideo(mp4),andsomebooksareavailableonYouTube.Artworkalbumsarealsoavailablefor freedownload. Thebooksarealsoavailable inhardcover at a costof $8perbook,with costsreducedto$4ifbuyerspurchasebooksinbulk(thisexcludesshipping).Printingisinabulkproductionrun,offset,withahardcover forbetterquantityat lower cost.79 Similarly,CrimperBooks80offersCreativeCommons-licensedchildren’s fiction,andallowsusers todownloadbooks for freeand tosharethemwithothers.Thebooksareavailablefreetodownloadinvariousebookformatsaswellastobuyinpaperbackandkindleformats.InanotherexampleinAlberta,Canada,LittleCreeBooksfocusesondesigningsupplementaryreadingmaterial(inthePlainsCreedialect)forchildrenwhodonotspeakCreeasafirstlanguageThefounderofLittleCreeBooksdiscoveredthat,whiletherewerebasicinformationbooksinCree(forexample,materialswithonewordsuchas‘bear’and‘owl’)andbookswrittenatthehigherlevelinsyllabics,therewerefewlevelledmaterialsatscaffoldedorprogressivelevels.Additionally,whiletherewasacurriculumtoteachthelanguageintheprovince,therewerenoresourcestomatchit.Initiallyfundedasasmallproject,theinitiativenowcontinuesonavolunteerbasis,withthegoalofpromotingthe

77ArthurAttwell,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcherandDerekMoore,12February201678NavinMenon,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,20January201679SpencerHanson,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,9and10February2016.80CrimperBooks.Retrievedfromhttp://crimperbooks.co.uk/


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language.ThebooksareavailabletodownloadfromtheLittleCreeBookswebsite,carryingaCCBY-NC-SAlicence.81Theissueofopenaccessisusuallyhighlightedinrelationtoacademicpublications,andinthisfieldtherehavebeenanumberofchangesoccurring,asopenaccessplaysanimportantroleinmouldingstrategiesforcommercialpublishers.Forexample,NaturePublishingGroup82)allowssubscriberstoshareanarticleinaformatthatallowsittobereadonline,butnottobeprintedordownloaded.Thisisanattempttoletscientistsfreelyreadandsharearticleswhilepreservingthepublisher’sprimarysource of income, which is the subscription fees libraries and individuals pay to gain access toarticles.83InscholarlypublishinginSouthAfrica,theHumanScienceResearchCouncil(HSRC)Press,theexternalpublishing arm of the HSRC (the largest dedicated research institute in the social sciences andhumanities on the African continent), pioneered an Open Access model which allows users freedownloadsofmanyofitsbooks(onefreedownloadperbookperperson).Theyofferscholarlybooksinthesocialsciencesandhumanities(asopposedtotrade,educationaltextbook,reference,generalbooks). Open access has enabled them to become the leading scholarly book publisher in AfricathoughcitationandtobecomewellknowngloballyasapublisherofAfrican-leadresearch.Theyofferbooksinprint,openaccess,andasebooksavailablefromonlinebookstoreslikeAmazonandBarnes&Noble.Thismodelisbelievedtobeimportantforknowledgebuilding.Notallbooksareavailableunderanopenlicence-andtheintellectualpropertyrightsaredeterminedonabook-by-bookbasisandarecoveredinthecontractwithauthors.AsimilarmodelisadoptedbyvariousotherscholarlypublishersincludingtheUSNationalAcademyofSciences’NationalAcademiesPress (NAP),84 theCouncil for theDevelopment forSocialScienceResearchinAfrica(CODESRIA),andtheCentreforHigherEducationTransformation(CHET)85inSouthAfricaallofwhichprovideonlinecopiesforfreeandchargeafeeforhardcopies.86TheCHETexampleisparticularlyinterestingbecause,unliketheotherscholarlypublisherslistedhere,CHETisanopenaccesspublisherandusesaCreativeCommonsAttribution-ShareAlike4.0InternationalLicence(seeAppendixGformoredetails).Finally,thereare lessonstobe learnedfromtheexperienceofopenaccess intheresearchsector.Muchofthedonorcommunitynowrequiresthattheresearchitfundsbemadepubliclyaccessiblewithintwelvemonthsofjournalpublication.Moreover,thesesamefunderswillsupportpublishingcostsincurredbytheirgranteesinfulfilmentofthisrequirement.ThisisdiscussedinmoredetailinAppendixG.

Grapplingwiththechallengesofopenlicensing

The kinds of opportunities outlined above are not uniformly positive, especially for thoseorganizationswhosebusinessmodelspredatedigitaldisruptionandopenlicensing.Forexample,theMolteno Institute for LanguageandLiteracy (MILL),which isa longstanding literacyNGObased inSouthAfrica, hasbeengrapplingwith the challengeofopen licensing in a context inwhich it has

81CaylieGnyra,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,18January201682NaturePublishingGroup.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nature.com/83ResearchInformation.(2015).2015willbeayearofchangeinprofessionalpublishing,saysSimbareport.Retrievedfromhttp://www.researchinformation.info/news/news_story.php?news_id=184184AFrameworkforK-12ScienceEducation:Practices,CrosscuttingConcepts,andCoreIdeas.(n.d.).Retrievedfromhttp://www.nap.edu/catalog/13165/a-framework-for-k-12-science-education-practices-crosscutting-concepts85CHETBooks.Retrievedfromhttp://chet.org.za/publications86CODESRIA.CODESRIAPublicationsinfulltext.Retrievedfromhttp://www.codesria.org/spip.php?rubrique65


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historicallyreliedonamoretraditionalpublishingbusinessmodel.Seeingthepotentialopportunitiesofopenlicensing,asillustratedfromtheexamplesabove,theDepartmentofBasicEducationinSouthAfrica,togetherwithoneofMILL’sprimaryfunders,theZenexFoundation,hasrecentlymadeaccesstomaterialsunderanopen licencea requirement forongoingpartnership. TheMoltenoboardofdirectorsreflectedverysharplyonthisandindependentofthefunder,andsawmeritinthemodel.MILL recognizes that these developments represent both a risk and an opportunity. They are achallengebecausetheInstitute’sbusinessmodelhashistoricallyreliedstronglyon itbehaving– inmanyways–likeaneducationalpublisherandrelyingonprotectingitsIntellectualProperty(IP)togenerate revenue to sustain itself. It is now clear that the above trends threaten to undermineMolteno’ssustainability,withtheaccompanyingriskthataccesstoitsIPwillbelosttoSouthAfricanandAfrican schools, teachers, and students.However, the digitization of information and ease ofsharing also provides Molteno an unprecedented opportunity to scale up the impact of itsmethodologiesbysharingthemubiquitouslywitheducationsystemsinSouthAfricaandbeyond.Asaresult,MILLiscurrentlyintheprocessofdevelopinganewbusinessmodel,whichisbasedonsharingallofitseducationalresourcesandcontentfreelyunderasuitableCreativeCommonslicence,toenableotherstocopyandsharetheseresourceswithoutpayinglicensingfees.Thisisinvolvingthefollowingsteps:• FurtherdevelopmentofMolteno’seducational resources toensure that it isable topresenta

comprehensive suite of literacy materials under open licences for use by governments andschools. Like PrathamBooks,Molteno recognizes that investment in this development is onlypossiblewithfundseitherfromgovernmentorfromdonoragencies.

• Packagingandrelease–viatheMoltenoportal–ofalloftheInstitute’seducationalresourcesunder Creative Commons licences, combined with an integrated payment gateway andprinting/distribution capability that allows cheap purchase of high quality printed versions ofthesematerialsonline,eitherindividuallyorinbulkpurchases.

• Reviewand streamliningofMolteno’s core services to ensure that they areboth contextuallyrelevant and up-to-date and provide clear, sustainable business opportunities for theorganization. The focus in this regard isparticularlyon its teacher training services, aswell asdevelopingadedicatedresearchandevaluationservicefocusedonliteracy,whichaimstoprovideservicesincompletingfeasibilitystudies,policyresearchreports,academicpapers,evaluationsofMoltenoandotherliteracyinterventions,andotherrelatedresearchactivities.

• Design and implementation of changemanagement strategy to supportMolteno inmaking asuccessfultransitiontoitsnewbusinessmodel.

However, this transition isawork inprogress,andhasalreadyforcedtheorganizationtoundergomany painful changes. The organization hopes that these changes will usher in a period of newopportunities for the organization or extend the period of sluggish growthwhichwould result infurtherpainsasittriestoattractfundsforitsnewlyfoundbusinessmodelofcontentdevelopment.As an NGO, Molteno is well respected for the quality of its materials and its teacher trainingmethodology,solosingaccesstoitsresourcesandexpertisewouldbealosstotheearlyliteracysectoras a whole (the type of loss that has sadly been all too common historically in this sector whenorganizationshavehad to shut theirdoorsdue toa lackof financing). Therefore, as this exampleillustrates,whenpressureisappliedbygovernmentsanddonoragenciesonorganizationstoharnessinnovations,thisneedstobeaccompaniedbyclearstrategiestofacilitatetransitionstonewbusinessmodels.Fortunately,inthiscase,theZenexFoundationiscurrentlyprovidingsuchsupporttoMILL,butthisisunusual,especiallyincaseswheregovernmentanddonorinitiativesarefocusedexclusivelyon short termdelivery targetsandnoton supporting thegrowthanddevelopmentof sustainableecosystems.


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Storybookmanagementandstorage

TheexamplesofStoryweaverandASbaboveillustrateanimportantshiftinwhatbecomespossiblewhencontentisdigitizedandsharedunderanopenlicence,namelytheeaseandflexibilityofsharingthat content online. In addition to enabling free and open access to both printable and e-readerversionsoftheirstories,theseplatformshavegoneonestepfurtherandmadeavailable,asseparatefiles,alloftheimagesfromtheirstoriessothatthesetoocanbeusedasresourcesinnewcontent.Asdevelopmentoftheseimageshastypicallybeenfundedthroughafinancedproject(inthiscase,usingdonor/philanthropic sourcesof income), their costhasalreadybeencoveredandsomaking themavailableforre-usebyothersmakessensefromafinancialperspective.Ofcourse,thereisstillalong-termproblemofensuringthatthesesharingplatformsthemselvesaresustainable,soitisimportantfor the fundersof theearly literacy readerecosystemtoensure that funding streamscover thesecosts, and for initiatives such as these to build platformdevelopment, hosting,maintenance, andmanagementactivitiesintotheirbusinessmodels(withoutunderestimatingthereal,long-termcostsoftheseactivities).Another interesting aspect of this online sharing of stories has been the sharing andtranslation/adaptationofstoriesbetweenStoryweaverandASb.Aswasnotedearlier,thisprocesstookplace ‘manually’,withcontentof storiesbeing shared through the interactionandactionsofpeoplewithinbothprojects.However, given that theunderlying content (text and images)of thestories isalldigitized,there isnoreasonwhysuchsharingmightnotbeautomatedinfuture,withcommondataprotocolsanddata-sharing standardsenablingusersof theseplatforms to ‘see’ theunderlying content of stories across a network of online platforms. This would become atremendouslypowerfulandcost-effectivewayofplatformssuchasStoryweaverandASbbeingabletoincreasethenumberofstoriesavailableindifferentlanguagesthroughadaptationandtranslation,a process which the statistics of both websites already shows works very successfully. Moreimportantly, it would build redundancy into the platforms, as content-sharing between theseplatformswouldhelptoensurethat–evenintheeventthatoneoftheinitiativescomestoanendduetolackoffunding–itscontentandstoriescouldremainaccessiblethroughtheotherplatformsintheresource-sharingnetwork.Thisispreferabletotheideaofbuildingasingleglobalrepositoryofstories (whichhasbeenmootedby some funders), as the latter conceptdiverts funds away frominitiativeswhosecorebusinessiscontentcreationanddistribution,whilecreatingyetanothernewinitiativethatdemandspreciousfundsforsustainability.Inanothercontext,aninitiativecalledpanOpenwasfoundedinApril,2013.Thecompanydescribesitself as a learningplatform foundedexclusivelyonOER,87 anddescribes itself as ‘anewbreedofcourseware,onethatpreservesthelowcostandflexibilityofopencontentwhileembracinglearningtechnologiesthatsupportfacultyandstudentsuccess’.88Atfirstglance,panOpenseemslikeanotherOERrepositorywithpeerreviewedandratedcontentandalibraryofsubjectcategoriesconsistingofcourses, textbooks,video,testssoftware,andsyllabus.However, thecombinationofplatformandopencontentallowspanOpentooffereachinstitutionaluserarangeofvalueaddservicesthatincludetheoptionsto89• CuratetheirownlibraryofOERtitles;

87Kelly,R.(2016)NewOER-BasedLearningPlatformProvidesAlternativetoTraditionalTextbooks.Retrievedfromhttps://campustechnology.com/articles/2016/01/26/new-oer-based-learning-platform-provides-alternative-to-traditional-textbooks.aspx88Kelly,R.(2016)NewOER-BasedLearningPlatformProvidesAlternativetoTraditionalTextbooks.Retrievedfromhttps://campustechnology.com/articles/2016/01/26/new-oer-based-learning-platform-provides-alternative-to-traditional-textbooks.aspx89TMCCLibGuides.(n.d)OpenEducationalResources:AnOpportunitytoEnhanceStudentSuccess:OERResources.Retrievedfromhttp://libguides.tmcc.edu/c.php?g=438080&p=2985233


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• Customize(revise,reuse,remixredistribute)contentfortheirparticularcurriculumandlearningobjectives;and

• Rewardstakeholderswitharevenuesharingarrangement.Thetechnologiesincludedwithintheplatformaredesignedtosupportadvancedcustomizationandincluderemixingtools,studentanalytics,note-takingtools,andreal-timechat.WhatmakespanOpendifferentfrommostotherOERinitiativesisthatitnotonlycollectsandsharesOER content, but is attempting to make OER more sustainable by marrying distributed contentdevelopmentwith a systemof distributed financial incentives.90 The combinationof customizablecontent, free tools and services, and revenue sharing makes it possible for both academics andstudentstobenefit.Academicsareincentivizedtoprovideresourcesandstudentspay$25foraccesstohighqualitycontentandtechnologically-richopensourcecoursewareandtoolsinsteadofspendinglargeamountsofmoneyontextbooks.Whilethefinancialcompensationsystemhasraisedconcernsintheopencommunity,theincentivesare,accordingtofounderBrianJacobs,ameanstoincentivizeandalignaplatformforopennessthatcanempowerfacultymembersandinstitutionsinunprecedentedways.Hebelievesthat,‘whenthisallcomestogetherthencoursewarewillescapecommodificationandbecomeacreativeandlow-costforceineducation’.91LocalcontentcreationorganizationsinearlyliteracymightostensiblypartnerwithplatformslikeStoryweaverandASbbasedonsimilarbusinessmodels.More generally, in theOER field, there are numerous examples of content sharing. For example,Currikiprovidesacommunityforteachingandlearning,allowinguserstoexplore,create,andshareK-12 content. Users can find and curate resources, filter resources by standards, easily identifyresources approved by other teachers, filter searches to match user specifications, search forresources by standards, upload and share resources, and rate or review resources.92 In anotherexample,CK-12providesaccesstomulti-modalcontentandapersonalizedlearningsystemfortheirdirectuseorforusebythestudent’steacher.AllofitscontentisOER,anditfocusesoncontinuouscontentenhancementthroughuser-generatedcontent,aswellaspartnertoolsandcontent.93OERCommonsallowsuserstosearchacrossover50,000vettedandfully-indexedOER,allowingforahighlevel of resource relevancy and discovery. It has also forged alliances between trusted contentprovidersandcreativeusersandre-usersofOER.94TheUSNationalScienceDigitalLaboratory(NSDL)is another instance of resources that permit content creation, adaptation, and sharing. TheNSDLwebsiteprovideshigh-qualityonlineeducational resources for teachingand learning,withcurrentemphasis on the sciences, technology, engineering, and mathematics from pre-school throughuniversitylevels.AlthoughnotalloftheresourcesareOERs,manyare.Itisalsopossibletosuggesteducationalmaterialstoaddtothesite.95

Printinganddistribution

Notwithstandingtheincreasedflexibilitythatonlineplatformsandopenlicensingprovideintermsofstorycreationandeasyaccesstodigitizedversionsofthosestories,therealityforthevastmajorityof

90Jacobs,B.(2014)OERBeyondVoluntarism.Retrievedfromhttps://www.insidehighered.com/views/2014/08/28/open-educational-resources-movement-needs-move-beyond-voluntarism-essay91 Jacobs,B. (2014)OERBeyondVoluntarism.Retrievedfromhttps://www.insidehighered.com/views/2014/08/28/open-educational-resources-movement-needs-move-beyond-voluntarism-essay92Curriki.Retrievedfromhttp://www.curriki.org/93CK12.(2010)CK12VisionDocument.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ck12.org/about/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/ck12-vision-document.pdf94OERCommons.Retrievedfromhttps://www.oercommons.org/about95NationalScienceDigitalLibrary.Retrievedfromhttps://nsdl.oercommons.org/


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youngchildreninlow-incomecountriesisthat,totheextentthatstoriesareavailableatall,theyarelikelytobeaccessibleonlywhentheyaredistributedinaprintformat.Despitetheoften-repeatedstatementsofthedemocratizingpotentialofdigitizedcontent,thesimplerealityisthathardwareandconnectivity costs, weak Internet penetration, and the challenges of technical maintenance andupgradesinlow-incomecountriesmeanthatthispotentialremainslargelyunrealized.Consequently,effortstointegratedigitaldevicesintoschoolingsystemsinlow-incomecountrieshavetypicallyendedup as expensive, unsustainable failures. Thus, printing and distribution of early literacy readersremainsanessentialcomponentofprovidingaccesstothosereadersforyoungchildren.Whenitcomestoprintinganddistributioninearlyliteracy,theconsiderationsreverttothoseofamore traditional supply chain, though disaggregation of the traditional publishing supply chainenables independent analysis of this side of the problem. As the example of Pratham Books hasdemonstrated,thiscanintroducenewefficienciesintotheprintingcomponentoftheearlyliteracyreaderecosystem,significantlyreducingthecostofprintedstories.Inaddition,though,italsoallowscomparisonswithothersectorsinordertolearnlessonsaboutprintinganddistribution.Forexample,aspartofthefeasibilitystudycommissionedbyUSAIDtoexploretheestablishmentofaGlobalBookFund,theresearchprocesshasexploredparallelswiththehealthsector,particularlyintheareaofsupplychainsformedicalproductssuchasvaccines.Ifonehastoexploresupplychainsintheirentirety,suchcomparisonswouldhavelimitedvalue,astheprocessofresearchingandcreatingvaccinesissofundamentallydifferentfromcontentcreationforearlyliteracy.However,ifonefocusesmore specifically on distribution only, then there are many lessons that can be learned fromvaccinationprogrammes,asitmatterssignificantlylesswhetherthebasicunitsbeingdistributedandtrackedarevaccinesorbooks.Creativesolutionstosolvingproblemsofinefficiencies,corruption,andtrackingdeliveryinsupplychainscanthereforemoreeasilybetransferredfromonesectortoanotherasdigitaldisruptionincreasinglyallowsindependentconsiderationofeachcomponentoftheearlyliteracyreaderecosystem.In addition, though, there are several innovations flowing from digital disruption that are worthexploringfurther.Althoughsomedonothave immediatelyobviousapplications inearly literacy inlow-incomecountries,theymayprovidesomeoptionsthathelptosolvetheoverallprobleminwaysthatbuildlocalcapacitytosustainprintinganddistributionbusinessesoncedonorfundedprojectsend.

Printondemand

Printondemand(POD)isabookdistributionsystemorprocessmadepossiblebydigitalprinting.Itprintsindividualcopiesorasmallnumberofbooksinresponsetoorders,printingtheexactnumberrequired.WhenusingaPODsystem,twofilesareaccessedelectronically(eitherfromawebsiteoradatabase), one digital file for the book interior and one digital file for the cover. The titles aresubmittedaselectronicfilesorashardcopy,examinedfortechnicalerrorsandaproofcopyofthebookiscreatedforreview.Oncesignedoff,thebookislistedinthedatabasereadyfordistributiontoa range of channels.96 Titles in the system entered into catalogues are available to wholesalers,retailersandbooksellers.ThecompanyprovidingthePODserviceusuallyhandlesallaspectsofordermanagement including receipt of payment, printing, anddelivery. It thenpays the author for thebooksthathavebeenpurchasedeachmonth.97AdvantagesofPODarethatitbringsthebookclosertothereader,eliminatestheneedtokeepbooksinaninventory,allowsbookswithoutsubstantialsalestostayinprint,vastlyreducestheinvestment96Friedlander,J.(2009).HowPrint-on-DemandBookDistributionWorks.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookdesigner.com/2009/12/how-print-on-demand-works/97SeeforexampleLightningsource.YourCompass.Retrievedfromhttps://www.lightningsource.com/


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neededtomaintainalargebacklist,andeliminatesthewasteandexpenseofpulpingthousandsofunsoldbooks.Disadvantagesarethatdigitallyprintedbookscostmoreperunitthanbooksprintedoffset,digitalprintingisnotefficientforbooksthatwillsellinvolume,anddigitalprinting’squalityandflexibilityofformatsisnotasgoodasoffsetprinting.98AninterestingPODmodelisMeganewsinSweden.MeganewsmagazinesareexperimentingwithPODkiosks at airports, train stations, and shoppingmalls, printingoutmagazinesbasedon customer’schoice from approximately 200 titles. Its model appears to be partly motivated by sustainableenvironmentalfactors,asitnotesthatitsoffering‘means60percentlessemissionsofgreenhousegases than traditionally sold magazine’.99 The machine (occupying less than 4 square meters) isconnected to the internet and can download upon request the latest PDF files from any partnerpublisher'sserver.Itallowscustomerstochoosethepublicationtheywanttobuyviaatouchscreen,paywithacreditcard,andgetacopy,printedimmediately,intwominutes.100Withtheminiaturizationofprintingdevices,retailersarealsoabletomakeuseofdecentralizedPOD.OneexampleistheEspressoBookMachine,whichcanbeinstalledinshopsandprintswholebooksinminutes.TheSouthAfricanstart-upPaperightconnectedcopyshopswithadatabaseofebooks,sothatcustomerscouldprintoutebooksattheirlocalstore.101TheUgandaDigitalBookmobile,whichwascarriedoutin2003with$150,000infundingtoAnywhereBooksintheUnitedStates102fromtheWorldBank’sInfoDevproject,isanearlierexampleofPOD.Theproject’smaingoalwastousemobilePODtechnologytodistributebooksatallreadinglevelstoruralpopulations.AnInternetBookmobilewasbasedatthePublicLibraryinCaezariaandtravelledtoruralvillages to print requested books for children and adults (these bookswere already in the publicdomain).Inaddition,aPODstationwasbasedattheCaezariaComplexPublicLibraryandascanningstationdeployedattheNationalLibraryinKampala.ThelatterequipmentenabledUgandanmaterialstobedigitizedandprintedondemandbythebookmobile.Oneimportantexpectedoutcomeoftheprojectwastobeaplanfornationwidebookmobilereplication,103butthisdidnotmaterialize.CostsformaintainingtheprojectweretobetheresponsibilityoftheseverelyunderfundedNationalLibrary.Inanemail,CharlesBatambuze,theprojectmanagerfortheMobileDigitalBookmobileexplainedtheprojectinmoredetail:

ItwasaveryexcitingprojectthatusedinternettodownloadbooksfromtheInternetarchivewebsitewiththousandsofpublicdomainbooks;printthemoffhugeLaserJetprinters,bindandcuttoshape,usingpapercutters.Allthisequipment(was)aboardavan.Electricitywasprovidedbyon-boardchargeablebatteries.ItusedtheinternetandPODtodeliverstorybookstoalmost20,000 rural school childrenand their teachers.Thedownside to theprojectwas thatbookswereprinted inblackandwhiteand the laserjetswereanexpensiveway toproducebooks.Otherwisetheprojectinitslifetimedeliveredalargequantityofbookstolearners.Theywouldchoosewhichbookstheywantedtoreadandthesewouldbeprinted,boundandcut.104

98Friedlander,J.(2009).HowPrint-on-DemandBookDistributionWorks.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookdesigner.com/2009/12/how-print-on-demand-works/99MegaNewsmagazines.Retrievedfromhttp://www.meganews.com/100Zareva,T.(n.d.).ThisInnovativeSolutionTakesPrintedMediaintotheFuture.Retrievedfromhttp://bigthink.com/design-for-good/this-innovative-solution-wants-to-take-printed-media-into-the-future101Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies102AnywhereBookswasanoffshootoftheInternetArchive.AlthoughtheArchiveisstillinexistence,AnywhereBooksisnot.103InfoDev.(2003).InfoDevAnnualReport(Rep.).Retrieved4May2016,fromInfoDevwebsite:http://www.infodev.org/infodev-files/resource/InfodevDocuments_480.pdf,page23104CharlesBatambuze,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,3May2016


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WhilePODprintingispossibleforchildren’sbooks,therearelimitations.Inanemail,JustinCox,CEOoftheAfricanBooksCollectiveexplained:

Ifwegetachildren’sbookinasquareshape:216x216wecanmakeitavailablePOD...LightningSourcecandobespokeprintingandhaveplanstoexpandtheirtrimsizeofferingsbutfornowweare limited to the square shape,whichmeanswe cannotdomuchwith children’sbooksPOD.105

Inanearlieremail,CoxexplainedinmoredetailwhyPODpresentsmajorchallengesforchildren’sbookpublishers:

ColourprintingPODhascomealongwaysincewestartedusingPODalmost15yearsago,buttrimsizeshavenot.EventhebigIngram-ownedmachinescannotproducelandscapesizebooks.Theclosestchildren’sbooksizePODisasquareshape.Sothevastmajorityofchildren’sbookswehaveweneedtostock,whichiswhytheygooutofprint…ThecostsofcolourPODbooksareverymuchhigherthanshort-runoroffsetprinting,theexpectedmarketpriceforthesebooksislowmakingPODproductionuneconomicevenifasquareshapecanbeused.ThisislargelywhyevenoutsideAfricathesizesneededforpicturebookshavenotbeendevelopedforPOD;thereisnodemandasthecostsdonotwork.106

ThisissueofPODnotbeingsuitableforyoungchildren’sbooksintermsofqualityandcostwasalsoechoedbyotherinterviewees:

Earlylearning(involves)bigillustrated,gradedreaders,andsharedreaders…PODisnotgreatforbigbookstuff.Butit’sokayforgradedreaders.107Forafourcolourchildren’sbookof12page,theysaytheunitcostsaremorethan$3or$4.Howmuchareyougoingtosellitfor?Soyousee,thequalityisnoteventhere.Itisbettertoprintwithaprinter–andprint1,000andgetunitcostsreallydown.108

Developmentsindigitalinkjetprinting

Theindustrystandardforprintinghastraditionallybeenoffsetprinting.However,thisprintingprocesshas longer workflow times and is less cost effective. Increasingly, commercial inkjet printers arebecoming faster,more reliable and producing better print quality, high-speed inkjet printers nowcapableofprintingtextatupto4,000wordsperminute,andspeedsforimagesandgraphicsarenotfarbehind.Advancesindigitalprinttechnologyalsoallowsformoreintricatedesigns,varyingsurfacefinishesandmorerealisticdepthforthreedimensionalgraphicdesigns.109

Hybridprinting

Hybridprintingisthecombinationofoneprintjobusingtwodifferentprintingtechnologies,andthuspublishers have the option of combining traditional print optionswith new ones. Hybrid printingallows digital printing and offset printing110 to be integrated due to computer-to-print-plateautomation. This process allows the user to send image files to electronic plates that are able torecognizethem.Thisallowsformorecomplexprintprojectswithdifferentcoloursandfinishes.111

105JustinCox,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,15May2016.106JustinCox,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,15December2015107GarryRosenberg,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,24February2016108SulaimanAdebowale,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,2February2016.109B2Cprint.LatestAdvancementsinPrintIndustry–What’sNew.Retrievedfromhttp://www.b2cprint.com/latest-advancements-in-print-industry-whats-new/110Offsetprintingiswhenaninkedimageistransferredfromaplatetoarubberblanketandthenontopaper.Whencombinedwithalargeroll(web)ofpaper,weboffsetprintingofferstheoptionofalargeprintrunatareasonableunitprice.111B2Cprint.LatestAdvancementsinPrintIndustry–What’sNew.Retrievedfromhttp://www.b2cprint.com/latest-advancements-in-print-industry-whats-new/


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Thebenefitofhybridprintingisthatprintershavetheoptionofwhichtechnologytousedependinguponthenumberofcopies,thedeadline,qualitylevel,andothercustomerrequirements.Ingeneral,offset printing is preferred for better colour accuracy, quality typography and allows for greaterchoiceswhenitcomestoprintmaterialsorspecialeffects.Forahighvolumeprintjobtheunitcostsofoffsetprintingaredrasticallyreduced,because,oncetheset-upiscomplete,printingextraunitsarerelativelycheaptoprint.112Ontheotherhand,digitalprintrunsenableshorterprintruns,doesnotcostasmuchtosetupastraditionalprintingandisquick.However,largerprintrunsareexpensivewhenprinteddigitally.113

Direct-to-consumerdistribution

Figure3 FindingMeshackAsareonline

Publishers and authors are exploringdirect-to-consumer (D2C) programmes.This method usually involves a websitethathelpsreaderstodiscoveranauthor’stitles.Theweb,incombinationwithsocialmedia enables authors to market theirtitlesonan‘easytofind’site.Oncefound,authors and publishers can sell booksdirectlytoconsumersthroughan‘easytobuy’ personal sales page. Authors andpublishers can use plug-ins and add-onsthat manage promotions, shopping cartfunctionality, checkout, and paymentprocessing.114 By selling directly toconsumers, royalties are increased as alarge portion of the distribution chain iscutout.Allofthepublishersinterviewedfor this paper have websites to markettheirtitles.Websearchesonanauthor’snamecanhave the same results inbothpublicizing books and making it easy tobuythem.FigurethreeisanexampleofaGoogle Search for the Ghanaian authorand illustrator, Meshack Asare.115Importantly,thismodelrequireseffortinbuilding a community around authors, a

brandorgenre,andconsumers.116Itwouldalsorequiredonorsfundinglocalcontentcreatorstoinvestin setting up systems that can contribute to their longer-term sustainability, rather than simplyseekingtoextractcompletedcontentfromthematthelowestprice.

112Cass,J.(2012)DigitalvsTraditionalOffsetPrinting:Pros&Cons.Retrievedfromhttp://justcreative.com/2012/05/01/digital-vs-traditional-offset-printing/113DiditDM.(2015).Prosandconsofdigitalprinting.Retrievedfromhttp://dm.didit.com/blog/pros-and-cons-of-digital-printing/114Izenwasser,M.(2015)ThreeDirect-to-ConsumerStepsEveryPublisherCanTake.Retrievedfromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2015/three-direct-to-consumer-steps-every-publisher-can-take/115MeshackAsare.(n.d.).RetrievedApril232016,fromhttps://www.google.co.il/search?q=meshekasare(Googleevencorrectsfortypos.ThesearchwasactuallyforMeshekAsare.)116Wikert,J.(2015).Direct-to-Consumer(D2C)StartswithBuildingCommunity,NotOwningtheSale.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bookbusinessmag.com/post/direct-consumer-d2c-starts-building-community-owning-sale/


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Fulfilmentcentres

Anothersignificantdevelopmentinbooksdistributionisthegrowthoffulfilmentcentres.Essentially,afulfilmentcentreisalocationwhereincomingordersforbooksarereceived(fromaffiliatedstoresor locations), processed, and filled. These centres can work independently of specific companieswhere orders are outsourced for the purpose of responding to customer orders.117 Typically, afulfilmentcentrestorestheinventory,acceptsorder,billsandcollectsfromtheendbuyer,packsandshipsthebooks;andprocessesreturns.Somefulfilmentcentresalsohelppublisherswithwebdesign,setupof e-commerce sites or shopping carts,websitemanagement, ebook solutions, sales reportgeneration, royalty reports, sales commissions, sales campaign tracking, outbound sales calls,inventory management (including POD), and assembly of Point-of-Purchase (POP) displays.118Fulfilmentcentresofferopportunitiestousedatatoleveragethesupplychain.Datacanbeusedtooptimizeserviceproperties,suchasdeliverytime,resourceutilizationandgeographicalcoverage.119Atleastinprinciple,fulfilmentcentresservicingmultipleprintinganddistributionrequirementsacrossdifferenteconomicsectorsmightprovideaway tobegin todevelopmoresustainabledistributioncapacityinlow-incomecountries,whichcouldinturnreducethecostsofbookdistributionforearlyliteracy. However, this would depend on funders being willing to invest in developing this localcapacityratherthansimplyfocusingnarrowlyonprocuringonce-offdistributionservicesfromexistingdistributionagencies(mostofwhicharelikelytobeinternationalcompaniesinlow-incomecountries).

Automaticreplenishment

Automaticreplenishmentisaninventorymanagementmodelinwhichsmallnumbersofbooksarestoredinawarehouse,reprintsaretriggeredautomaticallywhenstockrunslow,andthepublisheronly pays for the printing of each copywhen it ships out of thewarehouse.120ORBooks uses anAutomaticReplenishmentProgrammes(ARP)toprintbooksandfulfilorders.Thepublisherdefinesminimum stock levels and an automated reprint level for each title. Reprints are triggeredautomaticallywhenthereprintlevelisreached.Theprintedworksarethendeliveredtofulfilmentorotherdistributioncentres.121Leepercommentsthat,while ‘ARPunitcostsviewedin isolationarehigherthanifthebookswereprintedinlongoffsetruns,theyarelowerwhenthecostofunsoldconventionallyprintedbooksisfactoredin’.122Anotherimportantpartofthesuccessofthismodelistheeliminationofthecostofprintingbooksthatneversell.

Optimizingdistribution

Publishersandfulfilmentcentreshavebeenexperimentingwitharangeoftechnologiestooptimizeserviceproperties,suchasdeliverytime,resourceutilization,andgeographicalcoverage.Amazon,forexample,usesbigdatatomonitor,trackandsecure1.5billionitemsinitsinventorythatarelocatedaround250fulfilmentcentresaroundtheworld.Theirfulfilmentcentresarenotonly intendedfor

117BusinessDirectory.com.Fulfilmentcentre.Retrievedfromhttp://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/fulfillment-center.html118Shay,K.(2011).InthePublishingIndustry…TheDifferenceBetweenWholesalers,DistributorsandFulfilmentServices.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ware-pak.com/blog/fulfillment/distribution-options-for-publishers/119Mikavicaa,B.,Kostić-ljubisavljevića,A.,&Radonjić,V.(2015).Bigdata:challengesandopportunitiesinlogisticssystems.Retrievedfromhttp://logic.sf.bg.ac.rs/wp-content/uploads/Papers/LOGIC2015/ID-31.pdf120Leeper,D.(2014)Direct-to-ConsumerSalesasaCoreBookPublishingBusinessModel.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bookmobile.com/publisher-case-studies/direct-consumer-core-book-publishing-business-model/121CPI.AutoStockReplenishment.Retrievedfromhttp://www.cpi-print.co.uk/services/auto-stock-replenishment/122Leeper,D.(2014)Direct-to-ConsumerSalesasaCoreBookPublishingBusinessModel.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bookmobile.com/publisher-case-studies/direct-consumer-core-book-publishing-business-model/


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Amazonproducts,butthroughaprogrammecalledFulfilmentbyAmazon(FBA),whichallowsothersellerstolisttheiritemsonitswebsiteandallowsthemtooutsourceshipping.123AnotherinnovationusedinbookdistributionisRadio-frequencyidentification(RFID),abroadtermfortechnologiesthatuseradiowavestoautomaticallyidentifypeopleorobjects.124Thistechnologyofferstheopportunitytotrackproductsby‘tagging’themwithasmallelectronicdevicethatcontainsinformation.Thisinformationidentifiestheproductandenablesthemovementofthetaggeditemtobetrackedthroughthesupplychain,fromtheprintertothebookbuyer.125Thissystemthusallowsforreal-timeaccuratetrackingcapabilities,allowingbettervisibilityandcontrolofinventory.

Expandeddistribution

Expandeddistributionissimilartothetraditionalmodelofbookdistribution,whereabookisprintedaheadoftime(usingoffsetprinting)andstoredatawarehouse.Abenefitofthisdistributionmethodis that thedistributor126cansendcopiesofabookand itsmarketingmaterials tobuyers,andthisexposureincreaseschancesofgettingplacedinbookstores.Adistributorthenfulfilsordersusingtheprintedinventory.Thisoptionisregardedasmoreviableforchildren’sbooksduetospecialityprintingoptions.However,itdoescomewithhigherup-frontcosts,andbooksneedtobeprintedinadvance,aswellashigherrisksasiftheremaybeleftoverbooksiftheprintedbookinventorydoesnotsell.127Thissectionhasprovidedjustsomeexamplesofinnovationoccurringinprintanddistribution(seeAppendixFformoredetailsonchangesoccurringinthepublishingindustry).Whatisclearfromthesediscussions is that printing and distribution is rapidly evolving as technologies become moresophisticated.Theseinnovations,ifcombinedwithotherinnovationsincontentcreation,storageandmanagement,mightprovideatleastsomecreativesolutionstothemulti-facetedchallengesofearlyliteracyreaderdeliverytoyoungchildreninlow-incomecountries.

Whataretheimplicationsforthesupplyanduseofearlyliteracyreadingmaterialsinlow-incomecountries?

Theissuesoutlinedabove,aswellasthemoredetailedinformationandcasestudiespresentedintheappendicestothisreport,haveseveral implicationsforanyoneplanningearly literacy investmentsandinitiativesinlow-incomecountries.

Nothingbeatsabookifyouwanttolearntoread.

Withoutsufficientaccesstowrittentext,bothintheclassroomandelsewhere,youngchildrenwillnotmaster sufficient readingskillsand learn toenjoy reading.Onesuccessfulway to improve thereadingachievementofchildreninlow-incomecountriesistoincreasetheiraccesstoprint.DatafromtheUnitedStatesindicatethatcommunitiesrankinghighinachievementtestssharesomecommon

123AmazonServices.FulfilmentbyAmazon.Retrievedfromhttps://services.amazon.com/fulfillment-by-amazon/how-it-works.htm124Shahid,S.(2005)UseofRFIDTechnologyinLibraries:aNewApproachtoCirculation,Tracking,Inventorying,andSecurityofLibraryMaterials.Retrievedfromhttp://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/shahid.htm125Dehainaut,D.(2007)RFID:TheFutureinBookTechnology.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebindingedge.com/article.asp?ID=40#.VxOoHlR97IV126Abookdistributoractsasalinkbetweenthepublisherandretailerincaseswherethepublisherdoesnotwanttobeinvolvedinthedirectsellingprocess.Distributorstypicallysellbooksonconsignment,andpaypublishersacertainpercentageofthelistprice(generally40%offthelistprice)foreachunitsold.Thedistributoractsasmarketer,andisinvolvedinwarehousing,andshipping,sellingbookstolibraries,wholesalers,andbookstores.127WhichTypeofBookDistributionIsRightforMe?(n.d)Retrievedfromhttps://www.millcitypress.net/author-learning-center/type-of-print-distribution


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factors:anabundanceofbooksinpubliclibraries,easyaccesstobooksinthecommunityatlarge,anda large number of textbooks per student. Furthermore, the only behaviour measure correlatingsignificantlywithreadingscoresisthenumberofbooksinthehome.Ananalysisofanationaldatasetofnearly100,000UnitedStatesschoolchildrenfoundthataccesstoprintedmaterialswasacriticalfactorimpactingonacquiringreadingskills.128Whatdoesittake,though,togetbooksinthehandsofchildren that need them most and how can this be augmented by digital disruption and openlicensing?Theremainingimplicationsinthissectionlayoutthemajorissuesthatcanmilitatebothforandagainstaccesstoappropriateearlyliteracyresources.

Therearenotraditionalmarketmechanismsforsustainableinvestmentoncreationofcontentforlocallanguageearlyliteracymaterialsinlow-incomecountries.

Althoughthispointmayseemobvious,itisanimportantoneasitindicatesclearlythatcreationofthiscontentdependsexclusivelyoninvestmentseitherbygovernmentsordonoragencies.Thisplacesanadditionalburdenofresponsibilityonthosegovernmentanddonoragencyplanners,asitmeansthat the projects that they plan need to consider both achieving specific project outcomes andsimultaneouslysupportingsustainablecreationoflocalcapacityinthevariousrelatedcomponentsoftheearlyliteracymaterialsvaluenetwork.Iftheneedtosustainthislocalcapacityisnotfactoredintoprojectplanning,itleadstomassivelong-termwastageasindividualprojectsroutinelycreatecapacitythatisthenrapidlylosttothesystemaftertheprojectiscompleted.Thiswasnotedbyatleastthreeresearch participants,who highlighted the need to consider how to ensure long-term access andsustainability,beyondindividualprojectobjectives,forexample:

Thewastage,Ibelieve,intermsofcapacityisoftenduetothefactthatsomanybilateralandmultilateral investments try tosidestepthebusinessofpublishingand fundthecreationanddistributionofasingleprint-runwithintheprojectorwithintheMinistry,withlittlethoughttoongoingsupply.129

In addition, especially in a context in which digital disruption and open licensing have enabled adisaggregationofthetraditionalpublishingvalueandsupplychains,itsuggeststhatprojectplannersshouldincludededicatedstreamsoffundingtosupportlocalcontentcreation,independentlyofthefocusonprintinganddistributionofthatcontent.Thispointleadstothesecondkeyimplication.

Disaggregationofthetraditionalpublishingsupplyandvaluechainsenablestheintegrationofnewplayersintothecontentcreationcomponentoftheearlyliteracymaterialsvaluenetwork.

Casestudiesshowcased inthisreporthaveprovidedmanyexamplesofhowdigitaldisruptionandopenlicensingenabletheintegrationofnewcontentcreationplayersintothefieldofearlyliteracy,whetheritbegeographicallydistributedteamofexpertise,harnessingeducationstudents,orcreatingspecial-purpose content creation events with expert volunteers. Importantly, the use of onlinecontent creation tools and workflows means that content creation teams (authors, illustrators,editors,andlanguageexperts)nolongerneedtobelocatedinthesamegeographicalspaceortousethetraditionallinearworkflowsoftheoldpublishingvaluechain.Thispowerfullogiccanbeharnessedtoestablishcontentcreationteamsthataregeographicallydispersed,thusenablingcontentcreatorsin low-incomecountries tobeactively involved indevelopmentofearly literacymaterialseven incases where their teams lacks the full range of skills required to produce high quality readingmaterials.If online workflow systems are carefully designed, the process of establishing dispersed contentcreationteamscanbeusedcosteffectivelytoprovideongoingprofessionaldevelopmentsupporttolocalpublishingcompanies,NGOs,andothercontentcreationorganizationsandindividualexpertsto128Scholastic.AccesstoBooks.Retrieved14March2016fromhttp://teacher.scholastic.com/products/face/pdf/research-compendium/access-to-books.pdf129ScottWalter,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,18May2016.


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buildtheircapacityindevelopingearlyliteracymaterials,aswellasaugmentingtheircapacitywhererequiredwithexpertsfromothercountries.Althoughsomeofthiscapacitydevelopmentmayinitiallyrequire face-to-face interaction through story development workshops, capacity developmentsupportcanalsothenbecontinuouslyprovidedthroughonlinecollaborationandinteraction.Forthistoworksuccessfully,though,bothgovernmentsanddonoragencieswillneedtoseedevelopmentoflocalcontentcreationcapacityasavaluableoutcomeinitsownright,ratherthanbeingfixatedonshort-termtargetsofnumbersofreaderscreated,translated,and/oradaptedinspecificlanguages.

Targetinglocalcontentcreationcapacityinearlyliteracyshouldbeseenaspartofabroaderbaseofbuildingsustainablepublishingcapacityforlocallanguagesinallsectors.

Ourreviewoflocalpublishingcapacityintheearlyliteracysectorrevealsclearlythatworkinginthisspaceistypicallymorea‘labouroflove’ratherthanaviableeconomicactivity.However,manyoftheorganizationsandexpertstryingtoworkinthisspaceareimportantnotonlybecauseoftheirlocalknowledgeandexpertiseinearlyliteracy,butalsobecausetheyarecriticalcomponentsofabroadermedia creation and publishing industry that is typically struggling to survive inmany low-incomecountries.Andbuildingliteracyinlocallanguagesisimportantnotonlyforeducationalpurposes,butalsobecauseofitslonger-termvalueinbuildingawidercapacitythatiscriticaltodevelopingstrongercultural industries in countrieswhere this industryhasoftenbeen systematically underminedandundervaluedformanyyears.Again,theexamplesofdigitaldisruptionandsubsequentinnovationsincontentcreationandprintingofmaterialsillustratethattherearenew,excitingwaysinwhichthisindustrycanbehelpedtodevelopthatcansimultaneouslymeetthegoalsofearlyliteracyinitiativesandcontributetogrowinglocalpublishingcapacity.If,however,large-scaleliteracyinitiativessimplycontinue to invest in traditional publishing value and supply chains, the likelihoodof building thiscapacitylocallywillbeundermined,asthesenewwaysofoperatingwilltypicallybeoverlookedbysuchinitiatives.

Digitizationofcontent,combinedwithuseofopenlicensing,enablesrapid,costeffectivecreationofnewcontent.

The examples of Storyweaver and ASb have illustrated how online content creation tools, whencombinedwithopenlylicensedaccesstotextandillustrationsfromexistingstories,canbeusedtocreate‘new’stories(i.e.translatedandadaptedstories)verycosteffectively,therebyallowingforaproliferationofcontentatarelativelylowcost.Importantly,theseexamplesareonlyscratchingthesurfaceofwhatmightbecomepossible if theunderlyingtextanduncompressed illustrationsfromstories canbemore seamlessly transferredbetweendifferent content creationplatformswithoutrequiringmanualprocessesofsharing,asthiscanunlockexponentiallymoreaccesstohighqualitysourcematerialsthatcanbeinstantaneouslysharedglobally.Atthisearlystage,thefocusoncontentsharingonlinetendstobeoncompletedresources(images,PDFfiles,andonlineversionsofstorybooks).Whilethis,combinedwithaccesstoonlinetoolsforstoryadaptationandtranslation,isuseful,thereisanextlevelofsharingthathaspotentialtodrivemuchgreaterglobalcollaborationandmorecost-effectivecreationofnewresourcesforearlyliteracy.Thisinvolvessharingtheunderlyingassetsneededtoadaptstoriesandresourcesoutsideoftheplatformsthemselves, making available the text and images (i.e. the assets) of the stories for automatedimporting into other people’s platforms and content creation tools (as is currently possible withexportingandimportingofcoursesbetweenlearningmanagementsystemsthatusecommondatastandards and data-sharing protocols). Likewise, it will be useful to ensure that uncompressedversionsofimagesanddesktoppublishing(DTP)filesareaccessibletoenableotherstoeditthesefilesratherthanonlybeingabletousethemintheircompressedform.Thus,ifthesomewhatoutdated,expensiveideaofmaintainingcentrallycuratedcontentrepositoriescan be replaced by networked platforms of content creation and sharing, this can help to shift


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spendingtolocalcontentdevelopmentinitiatives,therebyenhancingtheirsustainabilityandhelpingto further reduce their costs of content development. And, if networked platforms such asStoryweaverandASbembraceopensourcesoftware,opendatastandards,andopendatasharingprotocols, their investmentscanenablenewcontentcreationagenciestoharnesstheseplatformsandtools,therebyjoiningaglobalnetworkofearlyliteracymaterialsdevelopmentandsharingwithverylittlecost.

Openlicensingposesthreatstonascentcontentcreationorganizationsifitisnotimplementedresponsibly.

As government funders and donor agencies come to appreciate the economic potential of openlicensing,itisincreasinglythecasethattheyareallrequiringthattheirinvestmentsincontentcreationbeusedtoproduceopenlylicensedcontent.Whilethisdoesindeedenablevariousoftheinnovationsdescribedinthisreport,italsohaspotentialtounderminefragileexistingbusinessmodelsonwhichmany local content creationagencies currentlydepend.Consequently, the requirement to releasecontentunderanopenlicencecarrieswithitanaccompanyingresponsibilitytosupportlocalcontentcreationagenciestodevelopsustainablenewbusinessmodelsthatcanextendbothbeyondcontentcreationandearlyliteracy.Itmayalsorequirelong-termcommitmentstothoseagenciestosupportongoingcontentcreationinearlyliteracy,giventhatthereareoftennosustainablesourcesofincomebeyonddonorfunding.Unlessthisisdone,therequirementtosharecontentunderanopenlicencehasseriouspotentialtodestroythislocalcontentcreationcapacity,andmayresultinthechannellingofdonorfundsintoprojectsmanagedbylargeinternationalcompanieswhosebusinessmodelsdonotdependexclusivelyonearly literacywork in low-incomecountriesfortheirsurvival.Whilethismaybemoreefficientintheshortterm,itslongtermnegativeeffectsonsustainablesolutionstothegrowthofpublishingcapacityinlow-incomecountrieswillmostlikelybedevastating.

Disaggregationoftheearlyliteracymaterialsvaluenetworkenablesinvestmentsinlocalprintinganddistributioncapacitythatdoesnotonlyserviceliteracyoreducation.

Reportsonearlyliteracyhaveoftennotedthattheabsenceofup-to-dateprintingtechnologiesinlow-incomecountriesdrivesupthecostofprintinganddistributionofearly literacymaterials inthosecountries.Thisproblem isworsenedwhenprocurementofservicesreliesontraditionalpublishingsupplychains,becausetenderscanonlybewonbycompaniesthathavealloftheskillsandcapacityrequiredtomanagethatsupplychain.However,inthesamewaythatdigitaldisruptionenablesthedrawing inofnewmarketplayers incontentcreation,sotoowill itenabletheuseofprintinganddistributionservicesfromorganizationsthatmightservicemultipleeconomicsectorswithinacountry.Thiswould strengthen the argument for investing in the kindsof printing technologies that couldenablecost-effectiveprintingofearlyliteracymaterials,particularlyifthoseinitialorderswereonasufficientscaletoraisethecapitaltomaketheseequipmentinvestments.And,whereopenlylicensedmaterialsbreakthemonopolyonwhocansubsequentlyprintthematerials,thisenablesinvestmentin localprintinganddistributioncapacity that,withproperbusinessplanning support, can remainsustainableafterprojectsbyprovidingprintingand/ordistributionservicesformultiplegovernmentand business requirements. Again, though, harnessing this opportunity requires an approach toinvestment in literacy development that sees long-term sustainable capacity to sustain the earlyliteracymaterialsvaluenetworkasbeingjustasimportantasonce-offdistributionsoflargenumbersofmaterialstoindividuallearners.

Moreflexibleprocurementmechanismsareneededtodrawinlocalplayerswithoutproliferatingadministrativebureaucracy,bothforthefundersandthefunded.

Given all of the above, careful consideration should be given by government funders and donoragencies to how best to leverage themany opportunities created by digital disruption and openlicensing in the design of literacy initiatives and subsequent procurement of services. Continued


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investmentintraditionalpublishingvalueandsupplychains,especiallyforinitiativesoperatingatalargescale, is likelytoprejudiceprocurementprocesses infavourof large internationalcompaniesandattheexpenseofgrowthanddevelopmentofsustainablelocalcapacity.Inaddition,designofinitiatives that focus exclusively on short-term targets like numbers of storybooks distributed areunlikelytosupportthesustainabledevelopmentofthislocalcapacity,despiteitsobviousimportanceincreatingcompellingreadingmaterialsinlocallanguagesforyoungchildren.Likewise,procurementprocessesthatnecessitateend-to-endservicedeliverythroughatraditionalpublishingchainarelikelyto require procurement instrumentswhose administrative demands are out of reach for the vastmajority of local players, thus skewing spending patterns in favour of international publishingcompanies and consulting firms whose businessmodels are geared specifically towards servicingthese typesof procurement requests. This perpetuates a skewedpatternof investment that seesdisproportionateamountsofdevelopmentfundingbuildingdeliverycapacityincompaniesthataredomiciledintheWesternworldattheexpenseofthoselocalplayerswhoseexistenceisessentialtolong-termsustainabilityofliteracyinitiativesinlow-incomecountries.The examples of content creation and sharing facilitated by digital disruption and open licensingdocumentedinthisreportdemonstrateclearly,thatrelativelymodestinvestmentsinthoseactivitiescan generate significant results, while opening the space for separate printing and distributionexpenditure that can specifically target sustainable creation of local printing capacity. To worksuccessfully,though,thoseinvestmentsrequireprocurementmechanismsthatcanenablesmaller,localplayerstocompeteeffectively.Theyalsorequireprojectdesignsthatseedevelopmentofthislocalcapacitytodevelopandsharehighqualitymaterialsasbeingequally importanttoproducingnewcontent.Finally,responsibledonorspending,whenrequiringtheuseofopenlicensing,shouldbeaccompaniedbyprocessesintendedtohelpthoselocalplayerstothinkthroughhowtoharnessopenlicensingwithintheframeworkofviablenewbusinessmodelsinacontextwherethosebusinessmodelsarenotyetwellunderstoodorfullydeveloped.

Collaborationamongstorganizationsworkinginthefieldofearlyliteracycanpromoteefficiencyandbetterquality.

Ourresearchshowedinstancesoforganizationsunnecessarilyduplicatingtheeffortsofothers,whileperhapsbeingunawareof eachother’swork. Likewise, there areparallel resources that couldbebroughttobearinenhancingtheefficiencyofinitiativesinthefieldofearlyliteracy.Thisisespeciallytrueoftrainingmaterials.Collaborationamongstgroupsanddocumentationofappropriateresourcesavailable through the Internet might make it possible to enhance and expand efforts alreadyunderway.Forexample,variousorganizationshavewrittentrainingmaterialsforauthors,illustrators,andteachers,buttheyareonlyavailabletothegroupswithwhichtheywork.Otherorganizationsaremoreopen.ASb,forexample,haspreparedaGuideforMakingandUsingStories,whichisavailableonlineunderaCreativeCommonslicence.130Inaddition,theOsuChildren’sLibraryFundhasaguideon establishing community libraries.131 CODE Ethiopia has prepared its own trainingmaterials forlibrarians that include modules on general principles, library programs, reading promotion, andliteracy/learningsupport.132Therearecertainlyotherusefulmaterials.AsimpleGooglesearchturnedupseveralexamplesofguidesthatarefreelyavailable.Twoinclude:HowtoCreateaFantasticPicture

130AfricanStorybook.(n.d.).RetrievedApril172016,fromhttp://www.africanstorybook.org/GototheASbhomepage,clickonhelpandnotes.YouwillbereferredtotheGuide.131OsuChildren'sLibraryFund.(n.d.).HowtoSetUpCommunityLibrariesforChildren.RetrievedApril172016,fromhttp://www.osuchildrenslibraryfund.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/How-to-Set-Up1.pdf(Thereisnolicensinginformation,butanoteattheendofthedocumenttellsreaderstofeelfreetocopyit.)132CODEEthiopia.ItTakesaVillagetoRaiseaReader.Retrieved14May2016,fromhttps://codelibraries.wordpress.com/


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Book133andWritingPictureBooksforChildren.134Asastart,organizationsproducingresourcesclosedtooutsidereadersmightbeencouragedtomakethemfreelyavailable. Itwouldalsobehelpfultohaveaplacetomountinformationaboutavailableguides,includingthoseidentifiedthroughsearchenginesandprovidelinkstothem.

Conclusion

This report has explored how digital disruption and open licensing are transforming theworld ofpublishing,withexamplesofhowthesechangesmightbeharnessedtofindsustainablesolutionstotheseeminglyintractableproblemofsupplyingenoughhighqualityearlyliteracystorybookstoyoungchildren in low-incomecountries toenable themtoacquireeffective literacy skills.Whilenoneoftheseinnovations,intheirownright,providesafullsolutiontothischallenge,itisclearthattheydosignificantly increase the range of available options when seeking to develop sustainable newsolutions.Forexample,AfricanStorybookhasexpandeditsnetworkoftranslatorsbyengagingwithstudents.ASbalsoinvolvescommunitylibrariesinstoryproduction.TheOsuChildren’sLibraryFundinGhanaco-publishesstorybookswithSub-SaharanPublishers,alsolocatedinGhana.Canpublishersplayadditionalrolesthattranscendtheirtraditionalrelianceonallrightsprotected?Couldchildrenbeinvolvedinwritingandillustratingstoriesthattheyandotherswillread?OxfordOwlintheUKhasawebsitetohelpgetchildrenstarted.135InKenya,ateacheraskedchildreninstandardeighttowritestories about animals as part of their Kiswahili lessons.136 Could those stories or similar ones betranslatedandillustratedforyoungerchildren?Asafinalexample,theIDRCresearchonalternativelicensingmethodsforAfricacouldbeadaptedfromafocusonscholarlypublicationsintoexperimentswithstorybookpublishers,forexample.137Whatdoesseemclearisthatfundingstrategies,whetherinitiatedbygovernmentsordonoragencies,thatadopta‘business-as-usual’modeltoearlyliteracystorybooksupply,investingsolelyintraditionalpublishingvalueandsupplychains,willsimplyreplicatethemanywelldocumentedfailuresofthepast.Likewise,initiativesthatfocusonlyonshort-termtargetslikenumbersofstoriesproducedornumbers of books distributed will do nothing to solve the underlying challenges of long-termsustainabilityoftheculturalindustriesinlow-incomecountriesonwhichsustainableliteracyforallareinevitablydependent.Thus,althoughdigitaldisruptionandopenlicensingdonot,bythemselves,solvethesesupplyproblems,theyofferexcitingnewopportunitiesthatmeritsystematictestingandscalinginordertoenablethemtoachievetheirfullpotential.

133Blackburn,E.(n.d.).HowToCreateAFantasticPictureBook.Retrieved17April2016,fromhttps://www.writersandartists.co.uk/writers/advice/327/dedicated-genre-advice/writing-for-children/134CambridgeCenterforAdultEducation.(n.d.).WritingPictureBooksforChildren.Retrieved17April2016,fromhttp://www.writingpicturebooksforchildren.com/135OxfordOwl.Retrieved23April2016fromhttp://www.oxfordowl.co.uk/for-home/reading-site/expert-help/how-to-write-your-best-story-ever136WanjiruMugai,J.TeachingKenyanchildrenKiswahilicomposition.RetrievedApril232016,fromTeachingKenyanchildrenKiswahilicomposition(ThisworkwasdoneundertheauspicesofTeacherEducationinSub-SaharanAfrica[TESSA]byJenestarWanjiruMugai,ateacherattheKagotoPrimarySchool,inNakuru,Kenya,whichhasatotalof1,660studentswithanaverageteacher/studentratioof1:55.In2009TESSAreceivedtheQueen'sAnniversaryPrize.ShewasoneoffiveoutstandingAfricanteachersselectedtotraveltotheUKtoparticipateintheceremonyandmeetQueenElizabeth.137OsuChildren’sLibraryFundisdescribedinthesectiononlibrariesinAppendixG.AnentryforSub-SaharanPublisherswillbefoundinAppendixG’ssectiononcommercialpublishers.IDRC’sresearchonPublishingandAlternativeLicensingModelsforAfrica(PALM)willalsobefoundinAppendixGinthesectiononOnlinefree,hardcopyforafee.


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SterlingPublishers.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sterlingpublishers.com/StoryPlace.Retrievedfromhttps://www.storyplace.org/frontStrydom,A.(2011).PovertydamnsSA‘schildrentoignorance.MailandGuardian,29June2011.Retrievedfromhttp://mg.co.za/article/2011-06-29-poverty-damns-sas-children-to-ignoranceSub-SaharanPublishers.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sub-saharanpublishers.com/TakingITGlobal.Literacy.Retrievedfromhttp://issues.tigweb.org/literacyTechTarget.(nodate).DigitalDisruption,Retrievedfromhttp://searchcio.techtarget.com/definition/digital-disruptionTextbooksandSchoolLibraryProvisioninSecondaryEducationinSub-SaharanAfrica(Rep.).(2008).Retrieved12April2016,fromTheWorldBankwebsite:http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/02/18/000333037_20080218061111/Rendered/PDF/425410PUB0ISBN101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdfTheBookBus.AbouttheBookBus.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookbus.org/about_the_book_bus.htmTheBorgenProject.(2014).FiveCountrieswithIncreasingYouthLiteracyRates.Retrievedfromhttp://borgenproject.org/five-countries-increasing-youth-literacy-rates/TheWilliamandFloraHewlettFoundation(2015).OpenEducationalResources:AdvancingWidespreadAdoptiontoImproveInstructionandLearning.December2015.Retrievedfromhttp://www.hewlett.org/sites/default/files/Open_Educational_Resources_December_2015.pdfTheBigGive.org.uk.Children'sBookPublishinginDevelopingCountriesRetrievedfromhttps://secure.thebiggive.org.uk/projects/view/8893/childrens-book-publishing-in-developing-countriesThresholdpledgesystem(2016)Retrievedfromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Threshold_pledge_systemTian,X.,&Martin,B.(2012).Books,bytesandbusiness:Thepromiseofdigitalpublishing.AshgatePublishing,Ltd.TMCCLibGuides.(n.d)OpenEducationalResources:AnOpportunitytoEnhanceStudentSuccess:OERResources.Retrievedfromhttp://libguides.tmcc.edu/c.php?g=438080&p=2985233TNSRMSEastAfrica.(2011).PerceptionsofpubliclibrariesinAfrica(Rep.).RetrievedApril112016,fromEIFLwebsite:http://www.eifl.net/system/files/resources/201408/perceptions_of_public_libraries_in_africa_-_full_report_hi.pdfTorres,N.PM.(2013).Embracingopenness:ThechallengesofOERinLatinAmericaneducation.OpenPraxis,vol.5issue1,January–March2013,pp.81-89UgandaChildren'sWriters&IllustratorsAssociation.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ucwia.or.ug/


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AppendixA:Listofinterviewees

Bookproductionorganizations

Organization NameBookDash ArthurAttwell

InternationalNGOsandotherliteracyorganizations

Organization Name

CODEEthiopiaYalewZeleke,ExecutiveDirectorAlemuAbebe,LibraryDevelopmentandManagementOfficerNemaBehutiye,PublishingUnitOfficer

CODE(formerlyCanadianOrganizationforDevelopmentthroughEducation) ScottWalter,ExecutiveDirector

Children’sBookProjectforTanzania PilliDumea,ExecutiveSecretaryPRAESA CaroleBloch,ExecutiveDirectorRoomtoRead AlishaBergerNeuhaus,AssociateLiteracyDirectorShineLiteracy CarrieMashek,OperationsManagerSILSenegal ChrisDarby,LiteracySpecialistBiblionefSouthAfrica(emailcorrespondence) JeanWilliams,ExecutiveDirector

Libraries

Organization Name

FriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries DeborahBerger(emailcorrespondence);CorneliusGulere(emailcorrespondence);MichaelKevane(emailcorrespondence)

LubutoLibraryPartners JaneKinneyMeyers,PresidentElizabethGiles,TrainingLibrarian

OsuChildren’sLibraryFund KathyKnowles,Director

Literacyand/orpublishingexperts

Name Affiliation

JanetCondy SeniorLecturer,EducationandSocialScienceFaculty,CapePeninsulaUniversityofTechnology

KarimaGrant ImaginationAfrika,DirectorandFounder

EveGray UniversityofCapeTown,ScholarlyCommunicationinAfricaProgramme


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Name Affiliation

FredKeraro

ProfessorofScienceEducation,DepartmentofCurriculum,Instruction&EducationalManagement;CoordinatorInstructionalMaterialsDevelopmentDepartment&TeacherEducationDepartment,CollegeofOpen&DistanceLearning,EgertonUniversity

GarryRosenberg Consultant

LeaShaver AssociateProfessorofLawandDean'sFellowIndianaUniversityRobertH.McKinneySchoolofLaw

RosemarieSomaiah Storyteller

PrashantYadav WilliamDavidsonInstituteUniversityofMichigan

HansZell Consultant,Africanpublishing

Publishers

Organization Name

AfricanBooksCollective JustinCox,ChiefExecutiveOfficerMaryJay,FoundingDirector

AmalionPublishing,Senegal SulaimanAdebowale,FounderandDirectorChildren’sBookTrust,India NavinMenon,EditorHumanSciencesResearchCouncilPress,SouthAfrica JeremyWightman,PublishingDirector

MidakoPublishing,Ethiopia TsionKirosMkukinaNyota,Tanzania WalterBgoya,DirectorNationalBookTrustofUganda CharlesBatambuze

SterlingPublishing,India SurinderGhai,ManagingDirector

Sub-SaharanPublishers,Ghana AkossOfori-Mensah

Organizations/initiativesthatpublishopenlylicensedbooks

Organization Name

AfricanStorybookProjectTessaWelch,ProjectLeaderJennyGlennie,DirectorSouthAfricanInstituteforDistanceEducation

LittleCreeBooks CaylieGnyra,FounderandManagerBrothersWhim(emailcorrespondence) SpencerHanson,FounderandwriterPrathamBooks SuzanneSinghandPurviShahMoltenoInstituteforLanguageandLiteracy MasennyaDikotla,CEO


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AppendixB:Keycomponentsofearlyliteracy

Whatisearlyliteracy?

Literacy iscommonlyregardedastheabilitytoreadandwrite.Traditionally, itmeansreadingandwritingata leveladequate forwrittencommunicationandwhichenablesapersontosuccessfullyfunctionatcertainlevelsofasociety.TheUnitedNationsdefinesilliteracyastheinabilitytoreadandwriteasimplesentenceinanylanguage.138However,standardsforwhatlevelconstitutes‘literacy’vary across contexts – for example, in some contexts, literacy is a broader concept incorporatingcomputerskills,basicnumeracy,andvisualliteracy.139,140Traditionalapproachestothestudyofliteracyusuallytakeastheirstartingpointachild’sentranceinto the formal school environment. However, an emergent literacy approach conceptualizes thedevelopmentofliteracyasacontinuumstartingearlyinthelifeofachild,ratherthanasanall-or-nonephenomenonthatbeginswhenchildrenstartschool.141Emergent literacyreferstotheskills,knowledge,andattitudesthatarepresumedtobedevelopmentalprecursorstoconventionalformsofreadingandwriting.Thisapproachdoesnotdelineateclearlybetweenreadingandpre-reading.Thus,earlyliteracyiswhatchildrenknowaboutreadingandwritingbeforetheycanactuallyreadandwrite.Researchshowsthatchildrengetpreparedtoreadyearsbeforetheystartschool.142Literatureindicatesthatearlyliteracydevelopmentbeginsinthefirstthreeyearsoflifeandiscloselylinked to a child's earliest experiences with books and stories.143 Early literacy behaviours wouldincludebookhandling(turningpages,mouthing,orchewingbooks),lookingandrecognizing(payingattention to pictures, pointing, laughing), picture and story comprehension (imitating actions ortalking about the story), and story reading (pretending to read or following thewordswith theirfingers).144 Thus, the focus is on developing children’s verbal interactions with books and anunderstandingofprintinbooks.145Theseinteractionsthatyoungchildrenhavewithliteracymaterialssuchasbooks,paper,andcrayons(andwithadultsintheirlives)areregardedasthebuildingblocksforlanguage,readingandwritingdevelopment.146

138SheppardSoftware.WorldIlliteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sheppardsoftware.com/worldgeographymainpage/worldstatistics8.htm139SheppardSoftware.WorldIlliteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sheppardsoftware.com/worldgeographymainpage/worldstatistics8.htm140TakingITGlobal.Literacy.Retrievedfromhttp://issues.tigweb.org/literacy141Lonigan,C.J.,Burgess,S.R.,andAnthony,J.L.(2000).DevelopmentofEmergentLiteracyandEarlyReadingSkillsinPreschoolChildren:EvidencefromaLatent-VariableLongitudinalStudy.DevelopmentalPsychology.2000,Vol.36,No.5,596-613.Retrievedfromhttp://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stephen_Burgess4/publication/12344851_Development_of_emergent_literacy_and_early_reading_skills_in_preschool_children_evidence_from_a_latent-variable_longitudinal_study/links/004635299682a7a6f3000000.pdf142FairfaxCountyVirginia.WhatisEarlyLiteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/library/preschoolers/whatisearlylit.htm143Zerotothree.EarlyLiteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.zerotothree.org/child-development/early-language-literacy/earlyliteracy2pagehandout.pdf144MaineStateLibrary.EarlyChildhoodLiteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.maine.gov/msl/libs/pr/posters/lit/earlyLit-newsletter.pdf145Zerotothree.EarlyLiteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.zerotothree.org/child-development/early-language-literacy/earlyliteracy2pagehandout.pdf146Zerotothree.EarlyLiteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.zerotothree.org/child-development/early-language-literacy/earlyliteracy2pagehandout.pdf


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Thereismuchwrittenabouttheskillsthatarenecessarytofocusoninearlyreading.Forexample,goodreadinginstructionbalancesattentiontotheskillsrequiredforaccurateandfluentwordreadingwithopportunitiestoexpandstudents’knowledgeandlanguage.Inpreschoolsyears,thefocusisonproviding opportunities to learn emergent literacy skills. These include identifying letters, writingone’sownname,recognizingfrequentlyencounteredwordslike‘stop’,rhyming,andknowingwhatsoundsthefirstletterofawordrepresents.Readingaloudtochildreniscommonlyusedbyteachersatthisstageandprovidesanopportunitytopointoutwordsandlettersincontext.147

…itshouldbeaboutmeaningmaking…youngchildrencometousewrittenlanguageastheyfinditpowerfulandpersonallyuseful–incontextswhereothersaroundthemareinteractiverolemodels…Readingaloudalsoexpands children’s imaginationsandexposes them to rich,complexformsoflanguagewhichtheycouldnotreadthemselvesbuttheycanunderstandandwhich inspiresandmotivatesthemtowantto learntoreadforthemselves–motivation isahugefactorinlearning.148

Inaddition,manylibrariesorganizestoryhoursforyoungchildren.TheroleoflibrariesisdiscussedinAppendixG.Ithasbeenarguedthatchildrenwhodeveloptheseemergentliteracyskillsarelikelytofindlearningto readeasier.However, inprimary grades (at least in theUnited StatesofAmerica), it hasbeensuggestedthatchildrenhavetheopportunitytolearnreadingasatool,butthecontentthatwouldsupport their later use of that tool for purposes of comprehension and further learning may beneglected.149Thefollowingtableprovidesausefuloutlineforthestagesforreadingdevelopment:Table4 Stagesofreadingdevelopment150

Stage Name TheLearnerStage0BirthtoG1 Emergentliteracy Gainscontroloforallanguages;reliesheavilyon

picturesintext;pretendreads;recognizesrhyme.

Stage1BeginningG1 decoding

Growsawareofsound/symbolrelationships;focusesonprintedsymbols;attemptstobreakcodeofprint;usesdecodingtofigureoutwords.

Stage2EndofG1toendofG3

Confirmationandfluency

Developsfluencyinreading;recognizespatternsinwords;checksformeaningandsense;knowsastockofsightwords.

Stage3G4-G8

Learningthenew(singleviewpoint)

Usesreadingasatoolforlearning;appliesreadingstrategies;expandsreadingvocabulary;comprehendsfromasingularpointofview.

Stage4HSandEarlyCollege Multipleviewpoints

Analyzeswhatisread:reactscriticallytotexts;dealswithlayersoffactsandconcepts;comprehendsfromamultiplepointsofview.

147Murnane,R.,Sawhill,I.,andSnow,C.(2012).LiteracyChallengesfortheTwenty-FirstCentury:IntroducingtheIssue.TheFutureofChildren,VOLUME22NUMBER2FALL2012.Retrievedfromhttp://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/22_02_FullJournal.pdf148CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,26June2016149Murnane,R.,Sawhill,I.,andSnow,C.(2012).LiteracyChallengesfortheTwenty-FirstCentury:IntroducingtheIssue.TheFutureofChildren,VOLUME22NUMBER2FALL2012.Retrievedfromhttp://futureofchildren.org/futureofchildren/publications/docs/22_02_FullJournal.pdf150TabletakenverbatimfromRoskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf


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Stage Name TheLearnerStage5LateCollegeandGraduateSchool

Aworldview Developsawell-roundedviewoftheworldthroughreading.

While,technically,earlyliteracyreferstoskillsdevelopedintheearlyyearsoflife,forthepurposesofthisreportwerefertoearlyliteracyasearlyreadingskills,specificallystage1andstage2(fromtheabovetable)–i.e.skillsdevelopedfromthebeginningofgrade1totheendofgrade3.

Thesignificanceofreading

Readingiswidelyrecognizedascriticalforthefoundationofchildren’ssuccess.Itisanessentiallifeskill;itimprovesliteracy,developsapositiveattitudetowardslearning,andiscrucialtotheacademicandsocialdevelopmentofyoungpeople.151Researchindicatesthatchildrenwhoreadearlyandwellexperience more print exposure and consequent growth in many different knowledge domains.Research also suggests that poor reading skills impede learning in other academic areas, whichincreasingly depends on reading across the school years.152 Learning to read is recognized as afundamentalrightofchildren,andthustoachieveandsucceedinschoolandintheworld,childrenneedtoknowhowtoreadandwrite.Readingisthusthefoundationforeducation,whichisvitaltoindividual,economic,andsocialdevelopment.

Thechallengeofilliteracy

Despiterecognitionoftheimportanceofreading,oneinfouryoungpeopleindevelopingcountriesareunabletoreadasentence.ResearchpublishedbyUnescosuggeststhat175millionyoungpeoplelackevenbasicliteracyskills.Furthermore,anestimated250millionchildrenarenotlearningbasicreadingandmathematicsskills,eventhoughhalfofthemhavespentatleastfouryearsinschool.153Additional Unesco statistics suggest that there are there are approximately 800 million illiteratepeopleintheworldand250millionchildrenofprimaryschoolagewholackbasicreadingandwritingskills.154Illiteracy is most prevalent in developing countries. While developing nations which adoptedCommunismanddeployedteacherswidely inthecountryside(suchasChina,Cuba,andVietnam),experiencedsomeof themostdramaticgrowthof literacyapproachingUSandEuropean rates,155

SouthAsian,Arab,andSub-SaharanAfricancountriesareregionswiththehighestilliteracyratesatabout 40 to 50%. East Asia and Latin America have illiteracy rates in the 10 to 15% rangewhiledevelopedcountrieshaveilliteracyratesofafewpercent.156Accordingly,governments,NGOs,and

151TheBookBus.AbouttheBookBus.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookbus.org/about_the_book_bus.htm152Lonigan,C.J.,Burgess,S.R.,andAnthony,J.L.(2000).DevelopmentofEmergentLiteracyandEarlyReadingSkillsinPreschoolChildren:EvidenceFromaLatent-VariableLongitudinalStudy.DevelopmentalPsychology.2000,Vol.36,No.5,596-613.Retrievedfromhttp://www.researchgate.net/profile/Stephen_Burgess4/publication/12344851_Development_of_emergent_literacy_and_early_reading_skills_in_preschool_children_evidence_from_a_latent-variable_longitudinal_study/links/004635299682a7a6f3000000.pdf153Provost,C.(2014).Oneinfouryoungpeopleindevelopingcountriesunabletoread,saysUN.Retrievedfromhttp://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jan/29/illiteracy-education-young-people-developing-countries154WorldReader.WhatWeDo.Retrieved14March2016fromhttp://www.worldreader.org/what-we-do/155SheppardSoftware.WorldIlliteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sheppardsoftware.com/worldgeographymainpage/worldstatistics8.htm156SheppardSoftware.WorldIlliteracy.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sheppardsoftware.com/worldgeographymainpage/worldstatistics8.htm


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international organizations are increasing efforts to help all people become literate and able tofunctioneffectivelyinliteratesocieties.Therehavebeenseveralreasonsattributedtoilliteracy,forexample:lackofaccesstoeducation,largeclass sizes, poor quality hindering learning for those who do make it to school,157 and a lack ofresources which means there are few reading opportunities for many children in developingcountries.158Thus,formanyoftheworld’silliterate,illiteracycanbetraced–atleastinpart–toaninabilitytoaccesstext.159

Fosteringliteracy

Italldependsonyourunderstandingofhowyoungchildrenlearnandhowtheylearntoread–myunderstanding…isthatifwewantchildrentolearntoread,wehavetomotivatethemandmakereadingmeaningfulineverydaylife…Itistheotherwayaroundwithwhathappensinschool(whichis)teachingchildrenhowtoreadandthenreadingtolearn.Ithinkit’safalsedivision.160

Researchsuggeststhatvariousfactorsorprinciplesfosterthedevelopmentandimplementationofsuccessfulearlygradereadingprogrammesandinitiatives.Insummary,theseare:• Orallanguageisthefoundationoflearningtoreadandwrite–theearlystagesofreadingdepends

onanorallanguage.Researchonliteracydevelopmentisincreasinglyclarifyingthecentralityoforal languageto long-termliteracydevelopment,with longitudinalstudiesrevealingcontinuitybetweenlanguageabilityinthepreschoolyearsandlaterreading.161Thus,readingprogrammesdesignedtobuildearlyreadingskillsoffersupportforandconnectionstoanoralvocabularyinaspokenlanguage.Readinginstructionshouldcultivateaconceptofwordinprintthatisthebasisfor learning how to transform written words into sounds (reading by sound) and/or how toretrievethemeaningandreferenceofprintedwordsfromavocabulary(readingbysense).Itisforthisreasonthatlearningtowriteisusuallyintroducedatthesametimeasreadingtoaidinmappingspokentowrittenlanguage.162Itisalsolikelyforthisreasonthatmanycountrieshavepolicieswhichindicatethattheformativeschoolyears(whenchildrenlearntoread)shouldbetaughtinlocallanguageswhichchildrenarefamiliarspeaking.Whenreaderslearntoreadtextwritteninalanguagetheyunderstand,theytransferanintuitiveunderstandingofwhatreadingisandhowtoreadwhenreadinginotherlanguages.163

• Childrenhaveaccesstomanyandvariedbooks(ingenreandform).Themorechildrenread,thebetterreaderstheybecome.164Childrenthriveinlearningtoreadwhentheenvironmentcontainsabundant books and printmaterial. They readmorewhen they have access to engaging, age

157Provost,C.(2014).Oneinfouryoungpeopleindevelopingcountriesunabletoread,saysUN.Retrievedfromhttp://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jan/29/illiteracy-education-young-people-developing-countries158TheBookBus.AbouttheBookBus.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookbus.org/about_the_book_bus.htm159West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf160CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016161Dickinson,D.K.,andGriffith,J.A.,Golinkoff,R.M.,andHirsh-Pasek,K.(2012).HowReadingBooksFostersLanguageDevelopmentaroundtheWorld.ChildDevelopmentResearchVolume2012(2012).Retrievedfromhttp://www.hindawi.com/journals/cdr/2012/602807/162Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf163CommissiononReadingoftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish.(2004).OnReading,LearningtoRead,andEffectiveReadingInstruction:AnOverviewofWhatWeKnowandHowWeKnowIt.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/onreading164CommissiononReadingoftheNationalCouncilofTeachersofEnglish.(2004).OnReading,LearningtoRead,andEffectiveReadingInstruction:AnOverviewofWhatWeKnowandHowWeKnowIt.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/onreading


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appropriate books, magazines, newspapers, computers, and other reading materials. Thisrequiresalargesupplyofbooksorganizedbothforinstructionandforindependentreadinginaclassroomlibrary.Forpurposesofinstruction,booksmustbeofhighqualityatarangeofreadinglevels for instruction. Ideally, there should be at least five to eight books per student thatrepresentdifferentgenres,suchasinformationbooks,traditionalstories,andpoetry.Inadditiontobooks,thelearningenvironmentshouldideallyberesourcedwithalargevarietyofhigh-qualityreading materials in relevant languages. This includes charts, work displays, and textscreated/authoredby the learners and the teacher. The learningenvironmentalso reflects thepsychological environment of the classroom that values all forms of reading and writing andsupportsrisk-takingasthelearnersexplorenewliteracypractices.165

• Readingprogrammesshouldbedesignedtosupportliteracygoalsandotherlearningoutcomesinthecurriculum.

• Teachersmustbewellprepared to teach reading. Inaddition tohaving thenecessaryskills toteachreading,particularlyinconditionsoflargeclassroomsandlimitedresources,theyshouldbewellsupportedonanongoingbasis.166

• Teachersmustberesponsivetolearnersastheyteachandastheyplantoteach,andthusgoodassessmenttoolsandstrategiesareessentialinguidingreadinginstruction.Familyinvolvementisanintegralpartofearlygradesreading,andthusinitiativesneedtofosterhome-to-schoolandschool to-home literacy connections.167 Consistent book reading has been found to have thepowertocreateinteractionalcontextsthatnourishlanguagedevelopment.168

Thesignificanceofaccesstowrittentext

Children from impoverished households generally have access to fewer books and other readingmaterialsthanchildrenfrommorefinanciallystablehouseholds.Notonlydopoorerchildrenhavefewer books in their homes, but they also tend to live in communities with fewer books in theclassroom, school, and public library, when one exists at all.169 Initiatives from various differentcountries focusingonprovidingbooks toparents andyoung children, andequippingparentswitheffectivestrategiesforusingbooksconsistently,havebeenfoundtobeeffectivemethodsoffosteringlanguageacquisitionandimprovingchildren’searlyreadingsuccess.170Thus,asuccessfulwaytoimprovethereadingachievementoflow-incomechildrenistoincreasetheiraccesstoprint.DatafromtheUnitedStatesindicatethatcommunitiesrankinghighinachievementtestssharesomecommonfactors:anabundanceofbooksinpubliclibraries,easyaccesstobooksinthe community at large, and a large number of textbooks per student. Furthermore, the onlybehaviourmeasurecorrelatingsignificantlywithreadingscoresisthenumberofbooksinthehome.165Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf166Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf167Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf168Dickinson,D.K.,andGriffith,J.A.,Golinkoff,R.M.,andHirsh-Pasek,K.(2012).HowReadingBooksFostersLanguageDevelopmentaroundtheWorld.ChildDevelopmentResearchVolume2012(2012).Retrievedfromhttp://www.hindawi.com/journals/cdr/2012/602807/169Scholastic.AccesstoBooks.Retrieved14March2016fromhttp://teacher.scholastic.com/products/face/pdf/research-compendium/access-to-books.pdf170Dickinson,D.K.,andGriffith,J.A.,Golinkoff,R.M.,andHirsh-Pasek,K.(2012).HowReadingBooksFostersLanguageDevelopmentaroundtheWorld.ChildDevelopmentResearchVolume2012(2012).Retrievedfromhttp://www.hindawi.com/journals/cdr/2012/602807/


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Ananalysisofanationaldatasetofnearly100,000UnitedStatesschoolchildrenfoundthataccesstoprintedmaterialswasacriticalfactorimpactingonacquiringreadingskills.171Thisresearchprovidescompellingevidencehighlightingthesignificanceofaccesstoreadingmaterialintheearlyyearsofachild’slife,providinganessentialfoundationforallsubsequenteducationandachild’sfuturedevelopment.

171Scholastic.AccesstoBooks.Retrieved14March2016fromhttp://teacher.scholastic.com/products/face/pdf/research-compendium/access-to-books.pdf


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AppendixC:UnpackingthecomponentsoftheearlyliteracyreadervaluenetworkThe tablebelowdelineates theessentialcomponentsofavaluenetwork forearly literacy readingmaterials.Table5 Unpackingtheearlyliteracyvaluenetwork

Valuenetworkcomponent Keycomponents/aspects Keyquestions

1. Overarchingissues

1.1. Governmentandotherregulations1.1.1. Formalcurriculum

requirements1.1.2. Importdutiesonraw

materials(paper,ink),books,printingtechnologies,e-readers

1.2. ValueNetworkgovernance1.2.1. Leadership1.2.2. Transparencyand

facilitationofpublicscrutiny

1.3. Theroleoflocalplayers(publishers,NGOs,printers,distributors)1.3.1. Harnessinglocalexpertise

intheentirevaluenetwork,fromcommissioningauthorstoproductionanddifferentmechanismsofdistribution

1.4. Valuenetworkintegration1.5. Valuenetworkmaturity

• Isthereadeepandstructuredunderstandingofliteracyvaluenetworksingovernment?

• Aregovernmentsabletoidentifyhowthevalueoftheirinvestmentsinliteracyvaluenetworkscanberealized?

• Whatincentivescanbeestablishedtoattractandretainvaluenetworkleaders/managers?

• Canliteracyprojectsinformtrade-relatedpoliciesinareaslikeimportduties?

• Canliteracyvaluenetworkdesignsbesuccessfullyseparatedfromtheadministrativestructureoftheeducationsystemtoreducethenumberoftiersinthesupplychainandeliminateunnecessarybottlenecks?

• Canasupplychainmaturitymodel(e.g.LockamyIIIandMcCormack(2004a))beusedtobenchmarkcurrentsupplychainperformancelevelsandidentifyareasforfurtherimprovement?

2. ValueNetworkPlanning

2.1. ValueNetworkInformationSystems2.1.1. Performancemetrics2.1.2. Storiesavailableinlocal

languages2.1.3. Locallyavailableprinting

capacityversusoffshoreprinting

2.1.4. LogisticsManagementInformationSystems(includingtrack-and-tracedata)

2.2. Participatingorganizations2.2.1. Identificationof

coordinatingorganization,acrossentirevaluenetworkandforeachstep

• Isthereanend-to-endprocessarchitectureinthevaluenetwork?Isthisneeded?

• Whatarethekeyperformancemetrics?Howcantheybeusedtoimprovevaluenetworkperformance?

• CanaSystemDynamicsmethodologyhelptodevelopunderstandingofhowthestructureofavaluenetworkenablesorimpedestheachievementoftargets?

• Whatkeydataanalyticsshouldbeprioritizedtoimprovevaluenetworkefficienciesandfacilitateanalysisoftheweakestpointsinthevaluenetwork?


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2.2.2. Participantsineachcomponentofvaluenetwork(organizationalandindividual)

2.2.3. Availabilityofskilledhumanresources

2.3. Monitoring,evaluation,andresearch2.3.1. Formulatingmonitoring,

evaluation,andresearchquestions

2.3.2. Determiningmethodologiestoanswerthesequestions

2.3.3. Formativeevaluations2.3.4. Impactevaluationsand

longitudinalstudies2.3.5. Commissionedresearch

onspecializedtopics2.4. Synchronizedfinancialflowsand

reliabilityoffinancialdisbursements

• Whatarethemostcost-effectivestrategiesforcapturingdataacrossthevaluenetworktostreamlineinformationflowandinformfutureplanning?

• Giventheirexpense,whatarethemostimportantissuestoinvestigateinrandomizedorquasi-randomizedimpactevaluationstudies?

• Isitpossibletocreateamodelthatdeterminesaccuratelythemaximumvolumesthatvaluenetworkscanhandle?

• Whataretheadvantagesanddisadvantagesoflocalprintingversusoffshoreprinting?Whatarethecostimplications?

3. Storycreation

3.1. Macroplanning3.1.1. Matchingsupplywith

demand(ofsystem,teachers,caregivers,andlearners)

3.1.2. Identificationoftargetlanguagespercountry

3.1.3. Assessingsupplyrequirementsinrespectofdecodabletexts,levelledreaders,andsupplementaryreadingmaterials(SRMs)perlanguage

3.2. Financial/businessmodelsforcontentcreation3.2.1. Market-drivenmodels

(e.g.royalties,contentsales,licensingagreements)

3.2.2. Governmentand/ordonorinvestmentsinstorycreation(includingtranslation/adaptationofexistingstories)

3.3. Identificationofsuitableliteracyfontsfordifferentwritingsystems(takingintoaccountrequirementofdigitizedworkflowsforcontentcreation/translation,storagesystems,printing,etc)

3.4. Sourcingexistingstories

• Whatisthecorrectbalancebetweenfollowingguidelinesongoodeducationalandpublishingpracticesandfocusingonwritingengagingstoriesofinteresttotargetedreadersandtheircaregivers?

• Canpre-definitionofkeydesignstandards(fonttypesandsizes,wordsperpage/line,fixedlocationofimagesonpages,andsoon)reducedesigncosts?Arethereanywaysinwhichthispre-definitionmightaffecttheeducationaleffectivenessofreaders?

• Canpre-definitionofkeydesignstandardsenablepredictableinvestmentinprintingtechnologiestoreducefinancialimpactof,forexample,printingincolour,trimming,etc?

• Whodecideswhatcontentisappropriateandwillbeengagingfortargetaudiences?

• Shouldreaders(coversandpages)beblack-and-whiteorcolour,takingintoaccountimprovedaccessibilityandenhancinginterestofyoungchildrenvsincreasedcostofprinting?NOTE:colourdecisionsshouldbetakenduringcontentcreationstep,notprintingstep,toavoidprintingofcolourstoriesinblack-and-white.


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3.4.1. Evaluatingrelevanceandappropriateness

3.4.2. Contentdigitization3.4.3. Buyingoutcopyright

3.5. Creatingnewstorybooks3.5.1. Identificationofexpertise

inlocallanguagesforcreation,translation,andediting

3.5.2. Specificationsforpagelayout,fonttypeandsize,coloursusedforimagesandtext,etc(takingintoaccountdualrequirementsforprintande-reading)

3.5.3. Numberofpagesavailable,takingintoaccountprintingcostswhereapplicable

3.5.4. Authoringcontent3.5.5. Editingtext3.5.6. Graphicdesignandpage

layout3.5.7. Illustratingtext3.5.8. Accessibledesignfor

learnerswithspecialeducationalneeds

3.6. Translatingandadapting(levelling)stories3.6.1. Identificationofexpertise

inlocallanguages3.6.2. Translationoftext,taking

intoaccountculturalspecificityaswellaslinguisticandorthographicalaccuracy[theneedtogetphonemes,syllablesandstructureofsentencesrightandtoensurethe‘accuracy’ofthemessageacrossdifferentculturalcontexts]

3.6.3. Adaptationofstoriestosuitdifferentreaderlevelsandcontexts

3.6.4. Editingtext3.6.5. Modification/replacement

ofgraphics3.7. Contentlicensing(imagesand

stories)3.7.1. Openlicencesvsall-rights

reservedcopyright

• Shouldfontcoloursbelimitedtoblacktofacilitateprintingofstoriesinmultiplelanguagesatreducedcost?

• Canstandardizedlayoutformatssimultaneouslyaccommodatee-readingandprint?

• Whatevidenceistherethatimagebanksfacilitatere-useofimagesinnewstories(i.e.areimagesdesignedforparticularstoriestoospecifictothatstoryanditscharacterstoenableeffectivere-useinnewstories)?

• Whatroledoillustrationsplayinpiquinginterest,enhancingthelearningexperience,andpromotingbetterreaders?

• Arequalityassurancecriteriaappropriatefortheintendedmedia(printorelectronic)?

• Whicharethemajorpublishers/suppliersofearlyliteracybooks?

• Whatrole(s)canpublishersplay?• Whatkindofincentiveswould

publishersneed?• Whoisbestplacedandhasthe

necessarycompetencetoevaluaterelevanceandappropriatenessofstorybooks?


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3.8. Qualityassurance3.9. Onlinesystemsformanagement

ofcontentcreation/adaptation/translationworkflows

4. Storymanagementandstorage

4.1. Commonformatsforstoringstorybooksandassets(e.g.uncompressed/compressedimages,textfiles,originalDTPfiles,PDFfiles,etc)

4.2. Metadatastructures4.3. Softwarechoices(bespokevs

existingplatforms,OSSvsproprietarysoftware,etc)

4.4. Sharingcontentandmeta-databetweenplatforms

4.5. Webresponsivedesignsandmobileaccess

4.6. Accessibledesignforuserswithspecialneeds

4.7. Interfacedesign4.8. Searchandqueryfacilities4.9. Hostingandconnectivityoptions4.10. Disasterrecoverystrategies4.11. Securityandprivacy4.12. Copyrightchoices4.13. Toolsforofflinedistributionof

stories4.14. PlatformUse

• Whatcompromisesarenecessarytoenablecommonformatsforstoriesthatautomaticallyenablebothe-readingandprinting(takingintoaccountneedsforwebresponsivedesignsandfileformatsthatcanbedownloadedinlow-bandwidthenvironments)?Aretheseeducationallyacceptable?

• Whodecidesoncommonfileformatsandwhopopulatesthem?

• Whatarethedifferentplatformsandwhataretheiradvantages/disadvantages?

• Canopenmeta-dataandtechnicalstandardsbeagreedtofacilitatesharingofstoriesanduniversalsearchesacrossplatforms?

• Arefiletypesopenandbroadlysupportedacrossmultipleplatformsanddevices?

• ShouldDigitalRightsManagement(DRM)technologiesbeincludedindigitalformats?

• Whatofflineoptionsareavailablefortransferringcontenttothosewhodonothaveinternet,buthaveelectronicreaders?

5. Readerprinting

5.1. Determiningandpredictingdemand5.1.1. Lengtheningsupplychains

tocreatepredictabilityandstimulateinvestment

5.1.2. Creatingfinancialmechanismsthatenhancepredictabilityoffinancialflows

5.1.3. Decidingbetweenpushandpullsystemstodeterminedemand

5.2. Accesstocost-effectiveprintingtechnologies5.2.1. Standardpageformats

andpagenumbersperreadertoreducecostsoftrimming

5.2.2. Durable/cost-effectivebindingsolutions

• Candemandbepredictedbasedonlanguagesthatchildrenactuallyspeakratherthanjustbasedonmediumofinstruction,especiallywherethereislimiteddata?

• Dofileformatsofstoriesgenerateadditionalcostsofreproandsetting?

• Whoispayingforprintjobs,bothintermsofproductioncostsandprintingcosts?

• Whatinvestmentsand/orstrategiesforstimulatinglocaleconomiescansupportsustainablelocalprocurementofprintingtechnologiesthatenablethemostcost-effectiveprintingofstories?Whatpartnershipsareneededwithothereconomicsectorstofacilitatethisinvestment?

• Whatformsofcompetitivepressurewillworkbesttoreducepricingwithoutcompromisingquality?


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5.2.3. Modernpressesthatenablesmallerprintrunsandgreaterflexibility

5.2.4. Rangeofprintingoptionstoaccommodatedifferentsizesofprintrun

5.3. Paperprocurement(standardoptionsforcoversandinsidepages)5.3.1. Choiceofpaperforcovers

andinsidepages5.3.2. Customsclearance5.3.3. Effectofimportdutieson

rawmaterialsvsprintedmaterials

5.4. Printing5.4.1. Procurementoptions

(pages/coversvscompletebooks)

5.4.2. Locationofprinting5.4.3. Numberofpagesper

reader5.4.4. Trimming5.4.5. Capacitybuildingofstaff

5.5. Qualitycontrol,bothbeforeprocurementandduringprinting

5.6. Warehousingofinventorybeforedistribution

• IfperfectbindingwithPURsignificantlyincreasesdurabilityandlifespanofreaders,cansupplychainincentivesensurelocalavailabilityofnecessarytechnologyandhumancapacitytosupportthistypeofbinding?

• Underwhatcircumstancesisadvancebulkprocurementofpaperjustifiedasaseparatestepintheprocurementprocess?Ifso,whoprocuresitandwherewillitbestored?

• Canmoreefficienteconomiesofscalebeachievedbyprocuringbulkordersofpage/coverprinting,ratherthanprocuringcompletereaders,giventhelong-termflexibilitythiscanaddintermsofmatchingsupplytodemandovertime?

• Atwhatpointsdoeconomiesofscalestopprovidingadditionalcostbenefits(takingintoaccountlocationandtypesofprinting)?

• Aretheresimplemechanismsthatcanenableregularevaluationofrelativepricesfordifferentprintoptionsindifferentcountries?

6. Printdistribution

6.1. Determiningdemandandidentifyingfinaldistributionpoint(schools.districtoffices,libraries?)

6.2. Internationaltransportchannels(ship,truck,train,airfreight)

6.3. Customsclearanceandimportduties(forinternationallyprintedmaterials)

6.4. Warehousingduringdistribution(focusedonreducingnumberoflocationsofstockholding)

6.5. National/localtransportchannels(truck,train,airfreight)

6.6. Financialincentivesforparticipants(organizationalandindividual)indistributionsupplychain

6.7. Capacitybuildingofparticipantsindistributionsupplychain

6.8. Monitoringsystems(includingtrack-and-tracesystems)6.8.1. Identificationofsuitable,

objectivemonitoring.Ensuringconsistent

• Whatformsofcompetitivepressurewillworkbesttoimproveperformancewithoutcompromisingqualityorleadingtowastage?

• Whoispayingforprintdistribution?Candistributionchannelsenablecost-effectiveprocurementbylibraries,schools,parents,etcorarebulkorderbygovernmentsanddonoragenciestheonlyviablebusinessmodel?

• Canpredictablereplacement/resupplycyclesbeestablishedforreaderstoincreasepredictabilityofdemandfordistributionofnewreaders?

• Underwhatcircumstanceswilluseofprivatesectordistributionchainsbepreferabletouseofpublicsectordistributionchains?

• Candistributionsupplychaindesigntakeintoaccounttheneedtoensureequitabledistributionintoruralareas?


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movementthroughdistributionchain

6.8.2. Minimizingdelays6.8.3. Avoidingloss/theftof

itemswithinsupplychain6.8.4. Verifyingdeliverytofinal

pointofdistribution

7. E-readerdistribution

7.1. Determiningdemand7.2. Formatsfordistributionofe-

stories7.3. Financialmodelsforsupplyof

devices7.4. Customsclearanceandimport

duties7.5. Offlinedistributionofe-stories7.6. Powersupplyfordevices7.7. Deviceconnectivity7.8. Devicemaintenance7.9. Devicereplacement7.10. Environmentallysustainable

devicedisposal7.11. Capacitybuildingofparticipants

indistributionsupplychain7.12. Capacitybuildingofteachersto

usee-readingdevices7.13. Monitoringsystems(including

track-and-tracesystems)7.13.1. Ensuringconsistent

movementthroughdistributionchain

7.13.2. Eliminatingdelays7.13.3. Avoidingloss/theftof

itemswithinsupplychain7.13.4. Verifyingdeliverytofinal

pointofdistribution

• Aretheresustainablemodelsfordistributinge-readingdevicestostudents,takingintoaccountissuesofconnectivity,devicemaintenance,andobsolescence?

• Aretheresuitablefacilitiesforstoring,recharging,andupdatingdevices?

• Howcanweavoidplatformlock-inandlackofinteroperability?

• Towhatextentdoteachersseee-readersascatalystsforlearningandcollaborativereading,justastheydowithprintmaterials

• WhatisthefitbetweenhowICTsareusedinforliteracyteachingandthetheoreticalframethatinformsteachers'educationalapproach?

• Who,inaschoolorlibrary,isresponsiblefortheadministrationofdevices?

8. Storybookaccessandreading

8.1. Safestorageofreadersande-readingdevices

8.2. Principalandteachertraining/capacitybuilding

8.3. Librariantraining/capacitybuilding

8.4. Ongoingteachersupport8.5. Parentawareness-

raising/advocacy8.6. Informationonuseofreadersby

students

• Underwhatcircumstanceswillaccesspointsotherthanschools(e.g.libraries,homes)beconsideredsuitable?

• Howcanpersonallyownedmobiledevicesbeusedtoofferanalternatee-readingexperience(egfamilyliteracy)outsideschool

• Towhatextentcanschoolsleveragetheircollectivepurchasingpowerandaccessparticularebooks


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AppendixD:Structuralchallengestoearlyliteracy

Introduction

Literacyhasbeen related tomany structuralproblems impacting societies. Forexample,evidencesuggeststhatilliteracycorrelatestohigherunemployment,illiterateadultsaremorevulnerabletoillheath,exploitation,andhumanrightsabuse.Ithasalsobeenarguedthatilliteracylockscommunitiesintoviciouscyclesofpovertythatlaytheconditionsforviolenceandstrife.172Thisappendixconsiderssomestructuralchallengesthatimpactonliteracy.

Povertyandliteracy

Researchers examining differences between the growth trajectories of children from differentbackgroundshavenotedthatenvironmentalfactorsplayamajorroleindeterminingthespeedandsuccesswithwhichchildrenlearntoread.Somechildren,notablythosefromhomeswhereparentsarepoorandhavelimitededucations,faceparticularchallengesinlearningtoread.173InSouthAfrica,theresultsofthe2011AnnualNationalAssessment(ANA)(whichassessesliteracyandnumeracy)highlightedaclosecorrelationbetweenpoor levelsofachievementand lowsocio-economicstatus.174IntheUnitedStatesofAmerica,theNationalInstituteforLiteracyestimatesthat43%ofadultswithvery low literacyskills live inpoverty.175Researchalsoshowsthat literacy (andnumeracy) skills play an important part with regards to employability and wages, and indicate amarked disparity in levels of literacy and employment rates. For example, data from nationallongitudinaldatasetsshowthatmenandwomenwiththelowestlevelsofliteracyarealsotheleastlikelytobeemployed.176Ithasbeenarguedthatilliteracyreinforcespovertybyprecludingaccesstoinformation.Whenpeopledonothavetheabilitytoreadlabelsortechnicalmanuals,theycannotdeveloptheskillsnecessarytoclimbthesocioeconomic ladder.A low literacyrate inacountrycanbeamajor impedimenttoeconomic progress, as the lack of a skilled work force prevents the development of a thrivingeconomy.177Povertyisalsorelatedtoahostofotherstructuralissueswhichimpactonliteracy.Forexample:• Healthproblems–malnutritioncausesblindnessinuptoamillionchildrenannually.• Unfavourablehomeconditions–povertyoftenleaveshomeswithoutspaceandlightforreading

facilitatinganenvironmentwherechildrenspendtheirtimeworkingratherthanreading.

172Bokova,I.,andBush,L.(2012).Literacyiskeytounlockingthecycleofpoverty.Retrievedfromhttp://www.chron.com/opinion/outlook/article/Literacy-is-key-to-unlocking-the-cycle-of-poverty-3848564.php173Dickinson,D.K.,andGriffith,J.A.,Golinkoff,R.M.,andHirsh-Pasek,K.(2012).HowReadingBooksFostersLanguageDevelopmentaroundtheWorld.ChildDevelopmentResearchVolume2012(2012).Retrievedfromhttp://www.hindawi.com/journals/cdr/2012/602807/174Strydom,A.(2011).PovertydamnsSA‘schildrentoignorance.MailandGuardian,29June2011.Retrievedfromhttp://mg.co.za/article/2011-06-29-poverty-damns-sas-children-to-ignorance175LiteracyandPoverty.Retrievedfromhttp://floridaliteracy.org/refguide/poverty.pdf176NationalLiteracyTrust(2011).NationalLiteracyTrustReview–Literacy:Aroutetoaddressingchildpoverty.Retrievedfromhttp://www.literacytrust.org.uk/assets/0001/1032/Literacy__Child_Poverty_2011.pdf177TheBorgenProject.(2014).FiveCountrieswithIncreasingYouthLiteracyRates.Retrievedfromhttp://borgenproject.org/five-countries-increasing-youth-literacy-rates/


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• Schooldeficiencies–teachersoftenlacktrainingandsuitablesalaries.178Aten-yearinvestigationoftwocommunitiesinPhiladelphia,Pennsylvaniabetween1998and2009byNeuman and Celano (2012) revealed that disparity between affluence and poverty has created aknowledgegapwithseriousimplicationsforstudents’economicprosperityandsocialmobility.Attheheart of this knowledge gap is the limited ability of students from poor communities to developinformationcapital.Oneoftheirkeyfindingswasthattherewere‘massivedifferencesinchildren’saccesstoprintintheearlyyears’.Inaneighbourhoodofpoverty,theyfoundatotalof358readingresources available for a child population of approximately 7,000 children; whereas, in aneighbourhoodofprivilege,16,453readingresourcesforachildpopulationof1,200.Anotherfindingwasthatintheprivilegedneighbourhood,foreveryhourinthelibrary,47minutesofthetimewasspentbyanadultreadingtoachild,orabout2,435wordsreadinthattime.Duringthesameperiod,theydidnot finda single adult reading to their child in theneighbourhoodofpoverty. They thusestimatedthatthatchildrenintheprivilegedneighbourhoodheardnearly14timesthenumberofwords inprintthanthose living inpoverty.179DatafromUNICEF(2012)also indicatesthatover50percentofwealthyfamiliesindevelopingcountrieshavethreeormorebooksintheirhouseholdsforchildrenundertheageoffive,butthisfigurereducestofivepercentforpoorfamilies.180

ICTandthedigitaldivide

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) refers to technology that is used in themanipulation, storage,andconveyanceofdata throughelectronicmeans.181 ICT is regardedasanengineforgrowthandtoolforempowerment,withprofoundimplicationsforeducationandsocio-economic development.182 ICT encompasses the digital technologies and infrastructure that havefacilitated globalization processes. ICT, in the globalization context, is all about global knowledge,access,participation,andgovernanceintheinformationage.BoththefallingcostofcomputersandtheexplosivegrowthoftheInternetasacommunicationsandinformationresourcehaveincreasedawarenessofthepotentialforinformationtechnologytobeatoolfordisseminatinginformation.183Oneofthemajorchallengesinimprovingliteracyisconsideringhowtoprovidereadingmaterialtopeoplewhodonothavesufficientaccess.TheInternetisplayingasignificantroleinthisregard.Digitalnetworks, computer processors, and liquid crystal display (LCD) screens remove productionconstraints that have kept reading material prohibitively expensive for centuries. Increasingly,physical distribution channels are being streamlined by cables that can instantly carry electronicinformationtoallpartsoftheworld.Simultaneously,searchtoolsaremakingrepositoriesofonlinetexteasytouseandnavigate.Arobustinternetconnectiontodaygivespeopleaccesstomoretext

178Jacobs,G.(1998).ReviewofGreaney,V.(Ed.).(1996).Promotingreadingindevelopingcountries:Viewsonmakingreadingmaterialsaccessibletoincreaseliteracylevels.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.Retrievedfromhttp://extensivereading.net/docs/greaney.html179Neuman,S.B.,andCelano,D.C.(2012).GivingOurChildrenaFightingChance:Poverty,Literacy,andtheDevelopmentofInformationCapital.Availablefromhttp://www-personal.umich.edu/~sbneuman/pdf/givingourchildren.pdf180West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf181OpenLearn.(nodate).ICTsineverydaylife.Retrievedfromhttp://labspace.open.ac.uk/mod/resource/view.php?id=371982182Butcher,N.(2010)ICT,Education,DevelopmentandtheKnowledgeSociety,p.5.Retrievedfromhttp://www.gesci.org/assets/files/ICT,%20Education,%20Development,%20and%20the%20Knowledge%20Society(1).pdf183Alexandru,A.,Ianculescu,M.,Parvan,M.,andJitaru,E.(2007).ICTandItsImpactupontheGlobalizationandAccessibilityoftheEducationintheHealthDomain.6thWSEASInternationalConferenceonEducationandEducationalTechnology,Italy,November21-23,2007.Retrievedfromhttp://www.wseas.us/e-library/conferences/2007venice/papers/570-332.pdf


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thaninallofthephysicallibrarieseverbuilt.184Thus,onecanarguethat,incontextswherethereisgreateraccesstoICT,thereismoreaccesstodigitalreadingmaterial.However,whilethisistransformational,thereisstilla‘digitaldivide’:unequalaccesstophysicalICT,suchascomputers,mobilephones,andinternetaccess,aswellasimbalancesintheeducationandexperiencenecessary to develop ICT skills.Data from2013 suggests that only 40%of theworld’spopulationisonlineandindevelopingcountries16%fewerwomenthanmenusetheinternet.185Ithasbeenarguedthataccess toreadingmaterialcanbeaddressedbythespreadof inexpensivemobiletechnology.Basicmobilephonesofferanew,affordable,andeasy-touseportaltoreadingmaterial.Mobiledevicescanhelppeoplefindgoodbooksreadandcultivatealoveofreadingalongwiththemyriadadvantagesthatportends–educationally,sociallyandeconomically.Inrecognitionof this, there have been efforts to provide access to text via the Worldreader programme.WorldreaderMobile(WRM)isanapplicationthatallowspeopletoaccessbooksandstoriesfromawidevarietyofmobilephones,includinginexpensivefeaturephones.186Interviewparticipantsnotedthat,whilethereisaplacefordigitalbooksandmobiledevicestoaccessreadingmaterial,thereisstillaneedforpaperbooksandparticularlyinpublicschools,thedemandismoreforprintedbooks.187

IntheareasthatIgoto,peopledon’thaveinternetaccess.Indeeplyruralareas,youaretalkingaboutpaperbooks….InSouthAfrica, it isbothimportantforchildrentoturnpages,butalsoimportanttohaveInternet…Idon’tthinkpaperwillgoout.Ruralchildrenwon’thaveaccesstoInternet.188Technologyhas itsplace. It is fantastic tosit inaclinicorbusstopandformotherstoallowchildren to see images or rhymes on screen (but this doesn’t) take the place of exploringbooks.189

Language

Toensurethatchildrenacquirestrongfoundationskillsinliteracyandnumeracy,ithasbeenwidelyacknowledgedthatschoolsneedtoteachthecurriculuminalanguagechildrenunderstand.190Thisacknowledgementisreflectedingovernmentpoliciesofvariouscountries(forexample,SouthAfrica,Uganda,SriLankaandNamibia)stipulatingthatchildren inearlyprimarygradesbetaught intheirmothertonguebeforetransitioningto‘official’languages.Despitetheseefforts,approximately40%oftheglobalpopulationdoesnothaveaccesstoeducationinalanguagetheyspeakorunderstand.Thechallengesaremostprevalentinregionswherelinguisticdiversityisgreatest(wheremultiplelanguagesspokenas‘mothertongue’or‘homelanguages’)such

184West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf185West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf186West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf187GarryRosenberg,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,24February2016188JanetCondy,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,28January2016189CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016190UNESCO(2016).Ifyoudon’tunderstand,howcanyoulearn?GlobalEducationMonitoringReport,PolicyPaper24.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002437/243713E.pdf


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asinsub-SaharanAfricaandAsiaandthePacific.191,192Forexample,inmanywesternAfricanschoolsystems, French continues to be themain language of instruction.193 In Senegal, learners are nottaught inmothertonguelanguagesandsotheyaretaught inFrenchfromwhentheyenterschool(although they have not spoken the language before).194 In multi-ethnic societies, imposing adominantlanguagethroughaschoolsystemhasfrequentlybeenasourceofgrievancelinkedtowiderissuesofsocialandculturalinequality.Further,evenincontextswherethereisapolicytopromoteteachinginlocallanguages,thepracticevarieswithincountriesdependingonthelocationoftheschools.Insomeinstances,schoolsinurbanareaswillteachmainlyinEnglish(orthedominantlanguage)whilethoseinruralareasmostlyteachinmothertonguelanguages.Forexample,inSouthAfrica,whileitisgovernmentpolicythatthefirstthreegradesbetaughtinmothertonguelanguages,manyschoolsinthemajorcitiesteachinEnglishandoneAfricanlanguage.ThismaybeduetoparentsdemandingthatchildrenbetaughtinEnglishorifteachersareEnglishspeakersandpreferspeakingEnglish.195IncontextswheretherearemultiplelanguagesandthepolicyistoinstructinEnglishandoneothertongue,childrenmaybetaughtinalocallanguage,butitmaynotnecessarilybetheirmothertongue.Forexample,inSingapore,childrenare taught in English, as well as in Chinese, Tamil, Malay andMandarin (as determined by localauthorities),butthismaynotbethemothertongueoflearners.196Manycountries in sub-SaharanAfrica that supportbilingualeducation take theview that the firstthreeyearsofschoolshouldbetaughtinmothertonguelanguages.Whilstrecentevidenceindicatesthatatleastsixyearsofmothertongueinstruction–increasingtoeightyearsinlesswell-resourcedconditions – is needed to sustain improved learning in later grades,197 this is unlikely tooccur as,currently,eventheperiodofteachinginmothertongueforthreeyearsdoesnotoccurinpracticeinmanycontexts.198Amajorobstacletoeffortstopromoteliteracyandreadingisthevirtualinexistenceofappropriatereadingmaterials,especiallyinlocallanguages.199Forexample,inSenegal,thereexistsmuchwrittenWolofHowever,theamountoftimeschildrencomeintocontactwithwrittenWolof,particularlyinthe pre-reading phase, is where the enormous gap is.Making this problemmore complex is theproblemofhowsocialmediaandtechnologyarecomplicatinghowWolof iswritten,whether it iswrittenwithEnglishorFrench.

Howoftendochildren,particularly children fromruralareascome intocontactwithwrittenWolof (or other local languages) as they form pre-reading skills? How often are emergentreadersexposedtowrittenWolofinwaysthatsupportreadingfluency.200

191UNESCO(2016).Ifyoudon’tunderstand,howcanyoulearn?GlobalEducationMonitoringReport,PolicyPaper24.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002437/243713E.pdf192Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.193UNESCO(2016).Ifyoudon’tunderstand,howcanyoulearn?GlobalEducationMonitoringReport,PolicyPaper24.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002437/243713E.pdf194KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016195MasennyaDikotla,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,18January2016196RosemarieSomaiah,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,1December2015197UNESCO(2016).Ifyoudon’tunderstand,howcanyoulearn?GlobalEducationMonitoringReport,PolicyPaper24.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002437/243713E.pdf198CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016199Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf200KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016


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Littlechildrengetmessagesaboutvalueoflanguages-whenyougotoschoolandsuddenlyyouhaveto(learnin)EnglishandFrenchandyoudon’tgetmaterialsinyourlanguage.201

Weakeducationsystems

Itisdifficulttogeneralizeaboutreadinginstructionandreadingpracticesindevelopedanddevelopingcountries,andthereismuchvariationbetweencountriesinhowtheytackleearlyliteracy.Nevertheless, in developing countries, there is often a lack of physical resources for schools. Inadditiontoashortageofbasicmaterialslikepencilsandpaper,textbooksandreadingmaterialsareofteninshortsupplyandareofpoorquality.202Additionalevidencesuggeststhat50%ofschoolsinAfricahavefewornobooksatall.203InAfrica,amajorityofchildrenhaveneverownedabookoftheirown,anditisnotuncommonforupto20learnerstoshareasingletextbookinschool.Astudyof16sub-SaharanAfricancountriesbyRoss(2010)foundthatmostprimaryschoolshavefewornobooks,andinmanycountriestheselowlevelsarenotimproving.Thisimpedesthedevelopmentofreadingskillsandconsequentlyaffectslearninginallotherschoolsubjects.204Further, statistics note that an estimated 250million children are not learning basic reading andmathematics skills,even thoughhalfof themhavespentat least fouryears in school.This ‘globallearningcrisis’costsdevelopingcountriesbillionsofdollarsayearinwastededucationfunding.205Whileaccesstoeducationisachallengeinmanycontexts,acompoundingchallengeisthepoorqualityofeducationwhichholdsbacklearningevenforthosewhomakeittoschool.Therearesomecommonchallengesthateducatorsfacewhenteachingreadingindevelopingcountries,whichisessentialtoacknowledgeinorderforliteracyeffortstobesuccessful.Thisincludeslargeclasssizes(inexcessof50learnersperteacher),genderinequitiesinaccesstoschoolingandeducationalopportunitiesandexpectations(indevelopingcountries,illiteracyamongfemalesstandsat45%versus25%formales,dueinparttogirls'lowerschoolattendance),lackofconsiderationforlearnerswithspecialphysicalandlearningneeds,andlearnerswhoarehungryorareinastateofphysicalthreat(forexample,inareasofconflict).206Further,teachers,particularlyinruralschoolsmayhavereceivedlimitedpreparationtoteach.Theymayhavelimitedknowledgeandskillsinthesubjectareastheyteach,withlimitedopportunitiesforongoingprofessionaldevelopment.207Arelatedchallengewithregardsto language,particulalrly inlinguistically diverse settings, is recruitment of teachers. Language policies may be difficult to

201CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016202Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf203Worldreader.WhatWeDo.Retrieved14March2016fromhttp://www.worldreader.org/what-we-do/204West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf205Provost,C.(2014).Oneinfouryoungpeopleindevelopingcountriesunabletoread,saysUN.Retrievedfromhttp://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2014/jan/29/illiteracy-education-young-people-developing-countries206Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf207Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf


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implement, particularlywhen there ismore than one language group in the same classroom andteachersarenotproficientinoneorseveralofthelocallanguages.208

Oftentheteachersdidn’tknowhowtoincorporate(books)intocurrent(teaching).Forthepastfewyears–wehavemoreofapushforlessonschedulingandplanning.Teachersfinditcomplextointegratereadingmaterialinto(a)lessonschedule…tointegratesomethingexternal…isnotthatsimple.SometimesECD(EarlyChildhoodDevelopment)teachersarenotfamiliarwithhowto teach reading (so) teacher trainingor teacher recruitmentarechallenges…Often teacherswhen they teach grade 3 (for example), they have a background in teachingmath and notreading.Sothereisoftenamismatchintermofcompetency.209Youhavetotrainteachers (toworkwiththereaders)andchildren insmallgroups.Teachersaren’ttrainedforthat.210

Theliteraturehighlightstheessentialroleoftheteacherinfacilitatingreadingdevelopment,includingskillmasterytoorganizeearlygradesreadinginstructionundertheconditionsoflargeclasssizesandlimitedresources.Further,ongoingsupportoftheteachingofreadingiscritical,andshouldnotbedelivered in training workshops alone, but rather actively supported through coaching in theimplementationofreadingprogrammes.211Oliviera(1996)notesthat,inmanydevelopingcountries,textbookexpenditureseldomamountstomorethan1%oftheeducationbudget,andtextbooksarescarce.Severalreasonsareprovidedforthetextbookshortage.First,aseducationalopportunityhasexpandedbeyondeconomicelites,manymorechildrenareattendingschool,buttheparentsofthesenewstudentsoftenlackthemoneytopurchasetextbooks.Second,whileoncethesametextbookcouldbeusedforseveralgenerations,therapid pace of curriculum change necessitates muchmore frequent textbook turnover. Third, theinfrastructurefortextbookproduction,whichcantakeaslongas15yearstodevelop,hasbeenstifledbyeconomicwoesandunfortunatepolicies.212

Readingculture

Insomecontexts,theremaynotbeacultureofreadingforpleasure.Forexample,itwaspointedoutbytwointervieweesthatSenegaldidnothaveacultureofreading,butratherthereismoreofanoralculture:

Senegaldoesn’thaveanotablereadingculture.Wehaveseveralsignificantauthorsanditdoesproducenewspapers.Andtheneverybodyhasamobilephoneandmanytextoneanother.Butthoughmanyreadforbroaderinformation,intermsofreadingforpleasure–thatisnotavaluethatishighlysignificanthere.Itisaveryoralculture.213

Arelatedchallengespecifictoearlyliteracyrelatestoteacherswhodonotread,whichimpactsonhowteachersteachliteracy(andfacilitateacultureofreading):

Oneofthebigproblemswithteachersisthattheydon’tread.(Theyneedtoknow)howtofindbooksandhowtousethemtoteachchildren…theissueishowweareteachingreading,areour

208UNESCO(2016).Ifyoudon’tunderstand,howcanyoulearn?GlobalEducationMonitoringReport,PolicyPaper24.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002437/243713E.pdf209GarryRosenberg,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,24February2016210KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016211Roskos,K.,Strickland,D.,Haase,J.,andMalik,S.(2009).FirstPrinciplesforEarlyGradesReadingProgramsinDevelopingCountries.USAID,TheInternationalReadingAssociationandtheAmericanInstitutes.Retrievedfromhttp://www.equip123.net/docs/e1-EarlyGradesToolkit.pdf212Jacobs,G.(1998).ReviewofGreaney,V.(Ed.).(1996).Promotingreadingindevelopingcountries:Viewsonmakingreadingmaterialsaccessibletoincreaseliteracylevels.Newark,DE:InternationalReadingAssociation.Retrievedfromhttp://extensivereading.net/docs/greaney.html213ChrisDarby,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016


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teachers reading – those will impact readingmore than the availability of books… The bigchallengewithbooksisthatteachersdon’treadthemselves.214Thechallengeistoshiftreadingbehavioursandreadingculturalpractices–weneedtotakeaveryholisticperspective…(Itis)notjustaboutsupplyingreadingmaterial.215

Thesignificanceofrolemodelswhoreadwasalsohighlighted:

…thecycleneedsinteractiverolemodelswhoinspire–peoplewithlotsofbooksinhomeshavereadingculturalpracticesaspartofregularlife–andaliterature–earlyandongoingisasignofsuchculturalpractices.216

Availabilityoflibraries

Inadditiontothelackoffinancetopurchasebooks,poorpeoplearedisadvantagedinotherways.According to Neuman (2007), school libraries in poor communities are often shuttered, whereasschoollibrariesinmiddle-incomeneighbourhoodsaregenerallythrivingcentresofreading,withoneormorefull-timelibrarians.Similarly,publiclibrariesinlow-incomeareasareopenlessregularlyandforfewerhoursthanlibrariesinmiddle-incomecommunities.217InmanypartsofAfrica,internationalorganizations,suchasRoomtoReadandCODE,haveestablishedandhelpmaintainlibraryprogrammesbecausenationalgovernmentseithercannotorwillnotdoso.Bythesametoken,internationalNGOshavelargelybeenresponsibleforstockinglibraryandotherbookshelves,withmixedresultsintermsofqualityandrelevance.

214KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016215CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016216CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,26June2016217West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf


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AppendixE:DemandandsupplyofearlyreadingmaterialThe case of Apple’s iPod illustrates a particular perspective on supply and demand. When firstlaunched,manyaskedwhetheraniPodwasnecessaryorwanted.ItturnedoutthatpeoplequicklygravitatedtoiPodsbecauseitmettwokeyneeds(portablestoragespaceformanysongsandlongbatterylifeforamusicplayer),thusrevolutionizingthewaywelistenedtomusic.But,inthecaseofliteracy, demand has typically led to the innovations that produced reading resources - oncehumankinddevelopedsystemstorepresentsyllablesandthenalphabets.Itisforthisreasonthatthisappendixistitled‘DemandandSupply’.

The issueofbookshortages isnotnew.Fromtheearliestclay tabletsandpapyrusscrolls tomodernon-demanddigitalprintingpresses, therehasalwaysbeenadearthofphysical text.Sincetheinventionofwrittenlanguage,bookshavebeentheprizedpossessionsoftherichandelite.Booksconveylearningandlearningtranslatesintopower.Empiresthroughouttimehavegonetogreatlengthstocreateandcollectbooks,butthereareneverenough;physicaltextisandremainsascarcecommodity218

Acrosstheworld,thereappearstobeademandforearlyreadingmaterial.Onecanarguethatthedemandforreadingmaterialcanbeevidencedbythenumerousdonororganizationsworkinginthisfield.Most organizations involved in reading and in supplying books highlight the need for earlyreadingmaterial.Forexample,RoomtoReadnotes:

Oneofthegreatestchallengestoearlyadoptionofthehabitofreadingindevelopingcountriesisalackofhigh-quality,age-appropriatechildren'sbooksinthelocallanguage.Often,thefewbooksthatareavailableareeithersecond-handbooksinforeignlanguagesorlow-quality,blackandwhitebooksformorematurereaders.RoomtoReadrespondedtothisneedbygoingintothepublishingbusiness.219

TheBigGiveintheUKalsohighlightsthisdemand:

In developing countries, most children don’t have access to children’s books in their locallanguage.Thefewbooksavailablearesecond-handbooksinforeignlanguagesorlowquality,blackandwhitebooks–notthetypeofliteraturethatwillsparkachild’simagination,curiosity,anddesiretolearntoread.Inthesestrugglingeconomies,oftenitissimplynotprofitableforpublisherstoprintchildren’sbooksbecauselocalfamiliescannotaffordtobuythem.Wearesignificantly increasing the quantity and diversity of children's books published in locallanguagesbysourcingandpublishingnewchildren'sliterature.Thebooksarecreatedentirelywithinthecountriesinwhichwework,supportingthelocalpublishingindustryandcreatingjobsforlocalauthorsandillustrators.Allbooksareprintedwithintherespectivecountries,wherewepublish5,000-10,000copiespernewtitleanddistributetoschools,librariesandotherNGOs.220

Anecdotalinformationgatheredduringinterviewsconductedforthisresearchreportrevealedthatdemand for children’s books is high in both developing and developed countries. In the latter, itappearsthatitismoreparentswhoaredemandinggoodreadingmaterial,andinthesemarketsthechallengeis‘togetreadersattention’:

218West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf219RoomtoRead.Alife-longloveofreadingstartswithgreatchildrens'books.Retrievedfromhttp://www.roomtoread.org/locallanguagepublishing220TheBigGive.org.uk.Children'sBookPublishinginDevelopingCountriesRetrievedfromhttps://secure.thebiggive.org.uk/projects/view/8893/childrens-book-publishing-in-developing-countries


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There are a lot of books out there, and it seems that people tend to stick with what theyknow…(Parentsbuybooks)but theyneed it rightunder theirnoseatagoodprice todo so.Gettingitundertheirnoseisthehardpart.221

Inmulti-lingualcountriessuchasCanada,thedemandforreadingmaterialisinalllanguages:

Everylanguageyoucanthinkof,eveninEnglishandFrench,people(are)lookingforallkindsoflanguage resources; (there is) interest in heritage languages, whether communities areindigenousornot,isimportantrightnow.222

Indevelopedcountries,peopletendtohaveaccesstolargeamountsofreadingmaterialvialibraries,bookstores, and the internet. In developed societies, we often hear about people suffering‘informationfatigue’fromallthecontentavailabletoread.However,asignificantproportionoftheworld’spopulationlacktheabilitytoread,inpartbecausetheylackaccesstosufficientmaterials:

Thesituationofinformationfatigueinthedevelopedworldandbookfamineinthedevelopingworldapproximatesthatofpeopleinthedevelopingworldspendinglargesumsofmoneyonpills,programmes,andequipmenttopreventtheilleffectsofconsumingthelargequantityoffoodavailable to them,whilesome in thedevelopingworldsufferandevendie from lackofaccesstofood.223

Evidencesuggeststhatpeopleinpoorcommunities,whetherindevelopedordevelopingcountries,generallydonothaveenoughreadingmaterial,letalonematerialsthatarecurrent,level-appropriate,andrelevanttoreaders’interests:

The expression ‘too many books, too little time’ signals, by global standards, a decidedly‘affluent’dilemma–theprivilegeofabundance.Formillionsofreadersandwould-bereaders,theexpressionismoreappropriateinreverse:‘toomuchtime,toofewbooks’.224

Thereisalsodemandforearlyreadersindevelopingcountriesthathaveexperiencedconflictwhichimpactedontheschoolingsystems.Ascountriesinthesecontextsrebuildtheirschoolingsystems,thedemandforqualifiededucators,school infrastructure,and learningmaterials isevident.AnecdotalevidencefromVietnamsuggeststhatthedemandforchildren’sbooksisincreasingasevidencedbypublishers releasingmore books and increasing their revenue. Interest in reading is attributed tochildrenbecomingmoreinterestedinreadingandtheparentsbecomingmoreawareoftheirneeds.225InSierraLeoneandinLiberia,childrenhavehadtodealwithbothpost-conflicttraumaanddisruptionscaused by the Ebola outbreaks. In Liberia, CODE and theWe-Care Foundation have createdReadLiberia226topublishchildren’sbooksforyoungsterssorely inneedofthem.Thispartnership istheonlysourceoflocallyproducedchildren’sliteratureinthecountry.InSierraLeone,CODE’saffiliate,PENSierraLeone,isdoingmuchthesamething.227,228Ithasalsobeenpointedoutthat,whilecountriesmaybefocussingonprovidingtextbookstomeetcurriculumneeds,lessfocusisplacedonsupplementaryreadingmaterialofpicturebooks:

221SpencerHanson,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,9and10February2016222CaylieGnyra,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,18January2016223Jacobs,G.(1998).ReviewofGreaney,V.(Ed.).(1996).Promotingreadingindevelopingcountries:Viewsonmakingreadingmaterialsaccessibletoincreaseliteracylevels.Retrievedfromhttp://extensivereading.net/docs/greaney.html224West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf225VietNamNews.(2005).Readingmatters:demandforchildren’sbooksontherise.RetrievedMarch142016fromhttp://vietnamnews.vn/social-issues/owners-of-the-future/145151/reading-matters-demand-for-childrens-books-on-the-rise.html226ReadingLiberia2020.Retrievedfromhttp://we-carefoundation.org/?page_id=46227CODEinSierraLeone.(2015).Retrievedfromhttp://www.codecan.org/program/code-in-sierra-leone228Anundatedcatalogueofthechildren’sbookspublishedbythetwoorganizationswillbefoundatReadingLiberia/ReadingSierraLeoneCollection.Retrieved9April2016,fromhttp://www.codecan.org/sites/default/files/ReadingLibera-SierraLeonepromotionalpiece_revised13_03_26.pdf


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Thereareno readers (relevant readingmaterial) in Sri Lanka. (There is) funding fromKorea(dedicatedto)buildinglibrariesandschoolsbuttheydon’thavebooks–Ineversawany.Theyhavetextbooksbutnotreaders. InZambia,theydon’thavereadersandthen language isanissue.229

Additionally,thereis‘apaucity’ofearlyreadingmaterialinAfricanlanguages,andmuchofthereadingmaterialthatdoesexistisatalevelthatistoohighforearlyreading.ThiswasafindingofareviewofreadingmaterialinAfricanlanguagesin11Africancountries:

Titlesareavailableforallageorgradelevelsofearlyprimary,butthereareveryfewtitlesfortheearlystagesofreadingdevelopmentincomparisontomoreadvancedlevels.Onethirdofsupplementary titles (31%) featuredmore than75wordsperpage,which is appropriate forreaderswhohavealreadyattainedfluency.230

Thisisimportanttodevelopingreadingcompetence:

Intownshipschoolsthereisusuallyonlyoneseriesof10-12books.Childrenneedtohavealotofpracticeinfoundationphasetoreading,andneedtohavemoreaccesstoalotofbooksatthesamelevel.231

Furtherevidencesuggeststhatthereisademandformaterialinlocallanguages:

InSenegalit(demand)isquitehigh…rightnowtheneedforqualityreadingmaterialparticularlyinlocallanguagesisontherise–readingmaterialthatspeakstothelocalmarket.ThemajorityofreadingmaterialisstillfromFrance.Wehavesomelocalpublishersdoingreadingmaterial,butitisnotnecessarilyofqualityorlikegradedorprogressivereadingmaterial.Thereisnotadiversity.232TheneedisverydireespeciallyforAfricanlanguages.IthinkEnglishiswelltakencareof,butthereisnopropermaterialinAfricanlanguagesforAfricanpeople.Whatwehaveistranslatedmaterials from English and they really do not address the problem that is there becauselanguageisalsoculture,soifyoutranslateyoucan’ttranslatethelanguageonly-youmayfindthatlanguageis(lost)tocorrectnessbutsendingwrongmessagetochildren.233

Thedemandforcontextuallyrelevantmaterialhasalsobeenhighlighted:

WellIthinkthatallthecountriesIworkedin;theydefinitelyneedmaterialsthatarecontextuallyrelevant…Because I think you engage better if you engagewith something you are familiarwith…Onehastobesensitiveaboutgoingintocountriesandbecontextuallyrelevant.234

NovelistandstorytellerChimamandaAdichietellsthestoryofhowshefoundherauthenticculturalvoice,andwarnsthat,ifwehearonlyasinglestoryaboutanotherpersonorcountry,weriskacriticalmisunderstanding.Shehighlightsthatchildrenarevulnerableandimpressionableand,beingexposedtoonlyBritishandAmericanbooksatayoungage(andcharacterswithblondehair,blueeyeswhoateapples,drankgingerbeer,andspokeabouttheweather),whileitdevelopedherimagination,hadunintendedconsequencesasshewasnotawarethatpeople likehercouldexist in literature.OnlyafterbeingintroducedtoAfricanwritersatalateragedidshebecomeawareofthemarginalizationofherculture:

229JanetCondy,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,28January2016230ReadingMaterialsSurvey:Findings,PreparedfortheGlobalBookFundMeeting,October22,2015,PreparedbyKaronHardenandAnaRobledo,RTIInternational,ResearchTrianglePark,NorthCarolina,USA231CarrieMashek,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,9February2016232KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016233MasennyaDikotla,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,18January2016234JanetCondy,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,28January2016


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Iwentthroughamentalshiftinmyperceptionofliterature.Irealizedthatpeoplelikeme,girlswithskinthecolourofchocolate,whosekinkyhaircouldnotformponytails,couldalsoexistinliterature.235

Herexperience,whileaddressingbroader issuesofstereotyping,alsohighlights thesignificanceofchildrenneedingtohaveaccesstodifferentstorieswithdifferentcharacterstoinspirethem.TsionKirosstartedpublishingstoriesinAmharicforherchildrenbecauseshewantedherchildrentoknowaboutEthiopiancustomsandlife.Usingthetoothfairyasanexample,shesaid:

Whenagirlpullsatooth,orboy,wethrowitontopoftheroof.Andthenabirdtakesit,oramousetakesit.Wehavethiswholeotherculture.Andthisisimportant.Ourchildrenhavetoknowhowwedothingsandseeourlives.236

ItwasoutofthisdesirethatKiorosandhersistercreatedMidakoPublishingandpublished‘WhoTooktheLittleGirl’sTooth?’,whichisavailableinprintandasanebook.237Given that there is a need and demand for contextually relevant books in local languages, it isimportanttoconsiderhowthesearegenerallysupplied.Datafrominterviewsrevealedthatphysicalbooksaremostoftensuppliedtothepublicintheseways:• Booksellers/bookshops(viadistributersordirectlyfrompublishers);• Governmentinschools(usuallytextbooks);• Libraries(governmentordonorsupported);• Donors, sometimes via NGOs, who supply books to community centres, schools and learning

centres;and• Publishersdirectlytothepublicviastoresorbookfairs(forexample,theFrankfurtBookFairor

theNewDelhiWorldBookFair,wherethepubliccanbuybooksdirectly).Withregardstobookshops/booksellers,bookscanbepurchasedonlineorviaphysicalbookshops(andsuppliedviadeliveryordirectly).However,itwashighlightedthatbooksareexpensive(intheAfricancontext).238InSouthAfrica,whilethechildren’sbookmarketmaybevibrant,itishighlypricesensitive,withhighprintingcostsandlowprintruns,andbooksarestillconsidereda luxuryforavery largeproportionofSouthAfricanswhohavelimitedaccesstobooks.239Thus,buyingbooksmaynotbeapriority when parents are trying tomake endsmeet and purchasing booksmay be considered a‘middleclass’activity:

Thesituationon lowereconomiccommunities. I thinktheneed ismoresurvival for foodandshelter,electricityandwater.Ifextracashthentheymightbuybooks240

ShineLiteracyrunsparentworkshopswheretheygiveparentsbooks,provideoptionsofwheretheycanbuyaffordablebooks,andprovidethemwithalibrarymaptoaccessbooks.Whiletheroleofparentsisalsoregardedasimportantinprovidingbookstochildrenanditwasarguedbytwointervieweesthattherewasaneedto‘createademand’forbooksbyparents:

Peopledon’tnecessarilyknowwhattheycoulddemandinmanysettings.That’sreallytheworkthatneedstobedone…advocacyonwhy isthisso importantthattinychildrenengagewith

235Adichie,C.N.(2009).ThedangerofasinglestoryTheDangerofaSingleStory.PresentedinJuly2009atTEDGlobal2009Retrievedfromhttps://www.ted.com/talks/chimamanda_adichie_the_danger_of_a_single_story?language=en236VanderWolf,M..SistersAimtoBuildEthiopia'sReadingCulture.Retrievedfromhttp://www.voanews.com/content/sisters-aim-to-build-ethiopia-reading-culture/3118720.html237MidakoPublishingStore.Retrievedfromhttp://www.midakobooks.com/shop/238CarrieMashek,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,9February2016239Barrouillet,S.(2015).Agent’sInsightintotheSouthAfrica’sChildren’sBookMarket.Retrievedfromhttp://publishingperspectives.com/2015/09/agents-insight-into-the-south-africas-childrens-book-market/240JanetCondy,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,28January2016


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stories,picturesand texts.Whyshould Ibotherwithbooksasamotherwhocan’teven findenoughfood?241Parentsbuybooksbecausechildrenaskforbooks.Childrenwillnotaskiftheyarenotexposedtobooks.242

Inothercontexts,parentsindiscriminatebuyingofbooksmayalsonotbebeneficial:

Parentsbuyalotofbooks(obsessively)acrossthespectrum...don’tnecessarilythinkitserveschild’s interest–readers,workbooks,assessment,studyguides.A lotof readingmaterial foryoungchildrenismeanttobesupportedbycaringadult–Idon’tthinkinSingapore,enoughpeoplehavetheideathataparentoradultneedstosupportthechildgentlyasheorshegoesthroughthebook.243

Withgovernments,thechallengeisthattheymayfocusmoreonprovisionoftextbooksasopposedtosupplementaryreadingmaterialorgradedreaders.Forexample,inSouthAfrica,booksselectedforuseinstateschoolshavetoconformtothespecificationsoftheDepartmentofBasicEducation(DBE). Many provinces prioritize core materials such as the numeracy workbook and languageworkbook,buttheyleaveoutgradedreaders.Thisalsohastodowithcostconsiderations,asgradedreadersgenerallycomeinpacksandaremoreexpensive.Theshortagesofreadingmaterialsinthiscontext has been described as being severewith very few schools having sufficient quantities ofadequate readingmaterial.244 Additionally, the cost and the logistics of getting physical books toschoolsissometimeschallenging.245Furthermore,theDBEismovingtowardsgreatercentralizationintheediting,printingandpublishingofbooks.246ThereisalsoaproposedsingletextbookpolicywhichtheDBEistryingtoforcethroughagainststrongopposition,couldthrowthepublishingindustryintoturmoil.247Anotherargumentisthat,whilethereisademand,andbooksmayhavebeensupplied,thereisalsotheissueofwhetherandhowthebooksareused.Therearerecordsofbooksbeingprovidedbutthenstoredinaboxinastoreroomattheschool.248

Itisonethingtosupplybooksandmaterialsbutit’sanotherforthosematerialstobeutilised–mostoftenwefindbookslockedinstoreroom.Thebooksalsoneedtobemediated.(Weneedto)showhowtousethemandgivethemmoretraining.Therearemanyreasonsforteacherslockingbooks–ifbooksaresuppliedwithoutanaccompanyingmessagewhatthebooksaretobeused for. If theyaresuppliedwithoutwarning theyalsoknowthat therecanbe financialconsequences–suppliermaydemandmoney.Thereisalsoalackofenthusiasmtowardsbooks.Lackofsophistication,whenyougetabookwithoutanoteandanoverwhelmedteacher,itisgoingtotakelongtofigurewhatthebookfor,andhowitfitsintootherbookthatarebeingused.249Everytimewehaveproject,wegive(books)totheheadofschool.Butmanytimes,theheadlocksthebooks.Sooutof15onlytwousethebooks.Manydon’thavespacetocreatelibrary.Themajorityofschoolsin2014-2015don’thaveaclasslibrary.250

241CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016242KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016243RosemarieSomaiah,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,1December2015244GarryRosenberg,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,24February2016245TessaWelch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,14December2015246Heale,J.(2015).YesterdayintoTomorrow.TheExcitingProgressofSouthAfricanLiteratureforYoungReaders.Retrievedfromhttp://library.ifla.org/1160/1/215-heale-en.pdf247Barrouillet,S.(2015).Agent’sInsightIntotheSouthAfrica’sChildren’sBookMarket.Retrievedfromhttp://publishingperspectives.com/2015/09/agents-insight-into-the-south-africas-childrens-book-market/248GarryRosenberg,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,24February2016249MasennyaDikotla,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,18January2016250KarimaGrant,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,8February2016


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Thecontinentisstrewnwithdeliveredbooks,andthentheysit incupboards,andinprincipaloffices.Theonlywaytochangethatistoengagewiththesocietyandcommunities-thebridgingofhome,school,andthecommunity.251

Thisillustratesthatjustprovidingabookisnotsufficient.Teachersneedtoknowhowtousethebookandfititintotheirteachingprogramme.Finally,WestandChew(2014)succinctlyhighlightthatliteracychallengeswillnotbeaddressedbysimplyprovidingbooks:

Itisimportanttoqualifythataccesstobooksdoesnot,byanymeans,assureornecessarilyevenpromote literacy. Parachuting books to people – whether through mobile phones or othermediums–isexactlythat:droppingbooksandleaving.Derivingmeaningfromtextisadeeplycomplexactthatdoesnothappenthroughexposurealone.Peoplewhothinkthatliteracycanbeachievedbymereproximitytoreadingmaterialshouldberemindedthat ittookthemosttalented linguistsontheplanetovera thousandyears todecipherEgyptianhieroglyphs.Thechallengewasn’taccesstohieroglyphs;itwasfiguringoutwhattheycommunicated.Humansmayhavealanguageinstinct,butthereisnothingnaturalaboutreading;itisaskillthatneedstobe taughtandpracticed,againandagainandagain.Nevertheless, theprimacyofaccesscannotbeoverstated.Whileitistruethatbooks,bythemselves,willnotremedythescourgeofilliteracy,withoutthemilliteracyisguaranteed.252

Wherearelargecollectionsofstorybookstobefoundandwhosuppliesthem?Librariesshouldbetheanswertothefirstquestionandgovernmenttheanswertothesecond.Butthisisnotalwaysthecaseinlow-incomecountries,asthisreportillustrates.InmanypartsofAfrica,internationalorganizations,suchasRoomtoReadandCODE,haveestablishedandhelpmaintainlibraryprogrammesbecausenationalgovernmentseithercannotorwillnotdoso.Bythesametoken,internationalNGOshavelargelybeenresponsibleforstockinglibraryandotherbookshelves,withmixedresultsintermsofqualityandrelevance.

251CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016252West,M.,andChew,H.E.(2014).Readinginthemobileera:Astudyofmobilereadingindevelopingcountries.UNESCO.Retrievedfromhttp://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002274/227436e.pdf


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AppendixF:Changesinthepublishingindustry

Introduction

Allmediaexistasaresultoftechnologicalinnovation–beitGutenberg’sprintingpress,cinema,radio, the telephone,TV,or the internet.Compared toother industries,media industriesarespecificallysensitivetotheinfluenceoftechnologyasitisnotonlytheproductionprocessthatisdigitized,butalsotheproductitself.253

The book publishing industry is in a period of rapid and significant change, and is a dynamic andevolvingindustry.Itisfacingthemostsignificantchangeinitshistorysincethe15thcentury,whenGutenberginventedthemovabletypeprintingpress.Innovationduringthesubsequentfivecenturiesmayberegardedaslargelyincremental,withsignificantshiftsbeginningtooccurasaresultoftheInternet and as newmodels of producing, distributing and consuming books emerge.254With theproliferationofmobiledevicesandtheInternet,thereadinghabitsofpeoplearechanging,andthecontent, format, and technical infrastructures of publishers are going through a lot of changes tomatchwiththeneedsofdigitalreaders.255Thesechangesarecloselyboundtotheemergenceofthedigitalworld.Althoughthepaceisunevenfromcountrytocountry,theinnovationsdiscussedinthisappendix have generally occurred more rapidly in the North rather than in the global South.Nevertheless, thepublishing industry in developing-world countries is not immune to change anddisruption.Evenifthetempoisnotasrapid,changesalongtheselineshavealreadybegun,andanumberofdeveloping-countryexamplesaregiven.

Goingdigital

Theadventoftechnologyhasopenedahugemarket,fullofnewopportunitiesforbooks,whichareno longerconfinedtoprint.The introductionofe-readershasalteredtheway inwhichbooksarepurchased,promoted,andread.Fromaproductionperspective,newtechnologiesnowallowbookstobewrittenandproducedinafully digital process.256 While digital technologies have been around for a while as tools used inpublishing-relatedtasks (suchaswriting,editing,proofreading, translating, illustration, layout,andprinting),their impact ismorerecentlyseenonareassuchasthemanagementofcommunication,promotion,marketing, sales, themediaonwhichcontent is soldandread,andon theveryactofreading.257 Digital content distribution is made possible through a simple download process,

253Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies254Rodrigues,M.A.D.S.,Chimenti,P.,Nogueira,A.R.R.,Hupsel,L.F.,andRepsold,A.(2014).Fromprinttoscreen:changesandchallengesfacingtheBrazilianpublishingindustry.R.Adm.,SãoPaulo,v.49,n.3,p.491-505,jul./ago./set.2014.Retrievedfromwww.rausp.usp.br/download.asp?file=RAUSP_v49n3_491-505.pdf255Raykor.(2015).TrendsDrivingtheChangesinPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.raykor.com/blog/2015/09/trends-driving-the-changes-in-publishing-industry256Rodrigues,M.A.D.S.,Chimenti,P.,Nogueira,A.R.R.,Hupsel,L.F.,andRepsold,A.(2014).Fromprinttoscreen:changesandchallengesfacingtheBrazilianpublishingindustry.R.Adm.,SãoPaulo,v.49,n.3,p.491-505,jul./ago./set.2014.Retrievedfromwww.rausp.usp.br/download.asp?file=RAUSP_v49n3_491-505.pdf257Gómez,M.(2015).ChallengesandOpportunitiesforthePublishingIndustry.CCCBLAB.Retrievedfromhttp://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_desafiaments-i-oportunitats-per-a-la-industria-editorial/


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overcoming traditional industry limitations, such as inventory and logistics, which previouslyrestrained publisher’s offerings bounded by the value chain perspective.With the advent of theInternet,bookscaneasilybesoldonlineanddeliveredphysically,ortheentireprocessofpurchasing,deliveringandreadingabookmayoccuronline.258Klein(2013)highlightssomesignificantdigitaldrivers259relevanttopublishing:Table6 Digitaldrivers

Digitaldriver Description

DecouplingofcontentandmediumContentisnolongerboundtoonespecificmedium,itcanbetransferredflexiblyfromonemediumtoanother–theinternetismultimedia,multipurposetransmitter

Mediacapacity Technologicalcapacityisgrowing:bandwidth,computingpower,storage(CloudComputingetc.)

CompressionCompressionratesaregrowing,whichinturnhelpstodistributeandstorelargeramountsofcontenteasily,althoughatthecostofreducedquality

MiniaturizationGrowingcompressionratesandgrowingmediacapacityallowfortheproductionandreceptionofcontentonphysicallysmallermediadevices.

Mobility Contentcanbetransportedmoreandmoreeasily(mobile,CloudComputing)

Automation Digitaltechnologiessupportthesubstitutionofhumansbymachines

Modularization,contextualization,individualization

Contentcanbematchedtothepreferencesofusersusingfiltertechnologies(HTML5,Metadata,semanticcontent)butalsonewprintingtechnologies(POD)

ebooks

Anebookisanelectronicversionofatraditionalprintbookoradigitalpublicationcontainingtext,images, or both, readable on computers or digital devices.260 Ebooks have practically no physicallimitations.Oncethe‘master’versionisfinalized,itiseasytoreplicatethebookontoanunlimitednumberofdevices,atanytimeandinanyplace.261Ebookshaveanumberofadvantages,suchasafasterandglobalpublicationprocess, lowercosts,greaterconvenience(becausethereisnoneedtostoreortophysicallylocateaproductinorderto

258Rodrigues,M.A.D.S.,Chimenti,P.,Nogueira,A.R.R.,Hupsel,L.F.,andRepsold,A.(2014).Fromprinttoscreen:changesandchallengesfacingtheBrazilianpublishingindustry.R.Adm.,SãoPaulo,v.49,n.3,p.491-505,jul./ago./set.2014.Retrievedfromwww.rausp.usp.br/download.asp?file=RAUSP_v49n3_491-505.pdf259Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies260Nagy,A.D.(2010).HowtoReadeBooksonYourSmartphone.Retrievedfromhttp://pocketnow.com/smartphone-news/how-to-read-ebooks-on-your-smartphone261Bacon,B.(2013).Ebooksareactuallynotbooks-schoolsamongfirsttorealizingthisfact.DigitalBookWorld.Retrievedfromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2013/ebooks-are-actually-not-books-schools-among-first-to-realize/


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sellit),simplerprocessesofcontentupdating,andgreateraccesstoadditionalfunctionalities,suchasmanuscriptsearchingandreaderparticipation.262In recognition of developments in ebooks, several businesses developed readers or apps to readbooks,includingiPad,Kindle,theNook,andtheSonyReader.Mobilee-readerdevicesareattractivetomanyconsumersbecause they fulfil thesamepurposeasphysicalbooksandallowa large titlestorage inanobject thatweighsnomore thana singlebook.The categoryofmobilee-readers istypicallydivided intotwotypesofdevices:ebookreaders,whichprimarilyoffertheabilitytoreadebooks, andmultipurposedevices, suchasApple’s iPad, tablets, laptops, andgameconsoleswithebookreadingcapabilities.263

Someprintstalwartsfinde-readersastepdown,butthefundamentalexperienceofimmersingyourselfinatextisnotboundupinanyparticularmediumorvenue.Readingneverdependedtoo much on sensual verisimilitude, only a mental leap from the words to the ideas theyrepresent.Thebookissolow-tech,it’shardfortechnologytodegradeit.264

Different formatshavebeenused forebooks, themost commonamong thembeingAdobe’sPDFformatandEPUB,astandardbackedbytheInternationalDigitalPublishingForum(IDPF).However,ebooksoftenfunctionwithinaproprietarysystem.Forexample,Amazonusesaproprietarystandard,AZW,whichisbasedonsoftwarecreatedbymobipocket,anAmazonsubsidiary. IfusersdecidetoquittheirAmazonaccounts,theebookstheyhaveboughtarenottransferable.265AnumberofbusinesseshavebeenestablishedinAfricathatfocusonsellingAfricanbooksinebookformat,amongthemeKitabuinKenya.eKitabu,whosenameisbasedonthewordbookinKiSwahili,Arabic,andHindi, isaneducationalpublisherthathasdevelopeditsownplatformtosell,manage,anddeliverbooksinEnglish,KiSwahilli,Arabic,Kinyarwanda,andotherlanguagestoover650schoolsacrossSub-SaharanAfrica:Kenya,Uganda,Rwanda,andGhana.AccordingtotheeKitabuwebsite,theyhavebeenabletolowerthecostofdeliveringbooksforeducationinlocallanguagesbyover50percent.266 eKitabu partners with publishers, network operators, device manufacturers, schoolnetworks,government,NGOs,anddonors.eKitabuebooksareinPDFformatand,thus,readableonmultipledevices.BookscanbepurchasedusingKenya’smobilecurrencysystem,m-Pesa.Withregardstochildren’sbooks,evidencesuggeststhattheystillcomprisealargerpartoftheprintmarket,meaningphysical storesare important to thatmarket (moreso thanadultbooks),and/orhaven’tassuccessfullytransitionedtodigital.267

Distribution

Untilrecently,bookdistributionhasalwaysmeant‘printbookdistribution’.Ashighlighted,thesheernumber of devices that can be used to read ebooks has exploded in recent years. In addition to262Rodrigues,M.A.D..S.,Chimenti,P.,Nogueira,A.R.R.,Hupsel,L.F.,andRepsold,A.(2014).Fromprinttoscreen:changesandchallengesfacingtheBrazilianpublishingindustry.R.Adm.,SãoPaulo,v.49,n.3,p.491-505,jul./ago./set.2014.Retrievedfromwww.rausp.usp.br/download.asp?file=RAUSP_v49n3_491-505.pdf263Frey,T.(2015).TheFutureOfLibraries:TheFallOfBookPublishing.Retrievedfromhttp://www.davinciinstitute.com/papers/the-fall-of-book-publishing-the-rise-of-new-e-book-business-models264Hughes,E.(2013).ThePublishingIndustryisThriving.BooksDon'tWanttoBeFreeHowpublishingescapedthecruelfateofothercultureindustries.TheNewRepublic.Retrievedfromhttp://www.newrepublic.com/article/115010/publishing-industry-thriving265Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies266EKitabu:Buyebooks.(n.d.).Retrieved15June2016,fromhttp://www.ekitabu.com/267NielsenBookscan,2004–2013,reportedonbyPublishersMarketplaceinFriedman,J.(2014).5ValuableChartsthatshowhowPublishingisChanging.Retrievedfromhttps://janefriedman.com/5-valuable-charts/


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dedicated e-readers, consumers in some parts of the world are using smartphones, tablets, andlaptopsfortheirimmersivereadingexperiences.268Asbooksarenowavailableinmultipleformats,theycanbedistributedthroughmanychannelssuchasweb-baseddelivery,ebookreadersandviaapps. Thus, the conventional distribution and retail channels are changing. With downloads thesupplieriseffectivelypaidinstantlyforcontentviaacreditcardorPayPal-typetransaction,andthereisnoinvestmentinphysicalstockordistribution.Thisisanattractivemodel,butpublishersmaynotbethepreferreddigitalshop,withAmazon,Redbook,andApplebeingthecurrentleaders.269Themostpressingissueforpublishersisnotonlyhowbesttodigitizeandstructurebookcontent,butincreasingly,howbesttostoretheircontent,manageiteffectively,andserveitinmultipleformatstoavarietyofplatforms.Thustheyfaceaccompanyingchallengeswithregardstothecostofbuildingadigital infrastructure that can serve an adequate volume of files, including server and bandwidthexpenses.Theyalsofacethelargerchallengeofthecostofengineeringandmaintainingasystemthatcanadapttokeepupwiththechangingformats,standards,anddeliveryrequirementsoftherapidlychangingdigitallandscape.

Theeconomicsofebooksales

ebooksalesrevenueintheUShasincreasedfrom$0.27billionintheyear2008toabout$3billionintheyear2014,andpredictionsarethattherevenuewillgrowto$8.69billionin2018.270Historically,asebooksreplacedprintbooks,revenuesdeclinedslightlyonatitlebytitlebasis.However,profitablyincreasessignificantly.Asdigitalaccountsformorebusiness,HarperCollinsexpectsthatitsworkingcapitalneedswilldecreaseduetofasterpaymentforebooksanddiminishinginventoryadvertisingreturnsfromprint.271In terms of economics, ebooks are significantly more profitable for publishers than print books,primarilybecauseebookroyaltiesfrommajorpublishersremainat25%.Generally,onahardcover,theauthorearns30%ofthepublisher’sgrossrevenue,and42.5%ofthetotalmargin(whattheauthorand publisher together earn).272 Below are Illustrative unit economics from a HarperCollinspresentation.273Table7 Illustrativeuniteconomics

Hardcovertitle Hardcover ebookAgencyRetailprice $27.99 $14.99Publisher’sshare 49.0% 70.0%Publisher’srevenue $13.72 $10.49Manufacturingcosts (1.92) Costofreturns (1.17) Royalty (4.20) (2.62)

268Adobe®eBookPlatform:AuthoringanddeliveringeBooksacrossdevices.Retrievedfromhttp://www.adobe.com/products/digitaleditions/pdfs/adobe_ebook_platform_whitepaper.pdf269SmithersPira.(2011).NewDevicesandMeansofConsumingContentareChangingtheFaceofthePublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.smitherspira.com/news/2011/may/the-changing-face-of-the-publishing-industry270Raykor.(2015).TrendsDrivingtheChangesinPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.raykor.com/blog/2015/09/trends-driving-the-changes-in-publishing-industry271HarperCollinspresentationtoNewsCorp.;reproducedatPublishersMarketplaceinFriedman,J.(2014).5ValuableChartsthatshowhowPublishingisChanging.Retrievedfromhttps://janefriedman.com/5-valuable-charts/272Friedman,J.(2014).5ValuableChartsthatshowhowPublishingisChanging.Retrievedfromhttps://janefriedman.com/5-valuable-charts/273HarperCollinspresentationtoNewsCorp.;reproducedatPublishersMarketplaceinFriedman,J.(2014).5ValuableChartsthatshowhowPublishingisChanging.Retrievedfromhttps://janefriedman.com/5-valuable-charts/


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Hardcovertitle Hardcover ebookAgencyDistribution/freight (0.76) Contributionprofit $5.67 $7.87Contributionmargin 41.4% 75%

Simon&SchusterreportedinFebruary,2013thatitsimprovedfortunesinrecentyearswereowedlargelyto‘thegrowthinmoreprofitabledigitalbooksalesasapercentageoftotalrevenues’.APower-Point slide presented by HarperCollins to investors also indicated the same thing: ‘historically, asebooksreplacedprintbooks,revenuesdeclinedslightlyonatitle-by-titlebasis.However,profitabilityincreasedsignificantly’.274

Reassessingbusinessmodels

Thechangesexperiencedbythepublishingindustryareaffectingitsmarketparadigmsandbusinessmodels.Basicprinciples,suchaseconomiesofscale,whichusedtobeamantraforthissector,islesssignificant.Digitalbooksareusuallysoldatalowerpriceincomparedtophysicalbooks.Thisreflectsthepricingschemesthatwereestablishedbythenewmarketcreator(Amazon)whenitsetdigitalbookpricesbelowtheirphysicalequivalents.Furthermore,thepublishing industryusuallyreleasesseveralversionsofthesamebook:firstahighlypricedhardcoverversionandmonthslateracheaperpaperbackrelease.Theincreasingavailabilityofdigitalbooksisresultinginconsumersdemandingthesimultaneousreleaseofphysicalanddigitalbooks,whichmay jeopardize the traditional skimmingstrategyandtheconsequentprofitabilitystrategy.Asfreepublicdomainbooksincreasinglybecomingavailable, this availability may further threaten the traditional business model of the publishingindustry.275Publishing industry actors are thus forced to reassess their business models and redefine theirproducts and services, in order to bring them into line with the changing conditions, needs andrequirementsofthenewplayingfield.Thisadjustmentprocessmayenduprevealingnewformsofgeneratingtheincomerequiredtoensuretheirprofitabilityandsustainabilityinthemid-andlong-term.Someconsiderationsinthisregardare:

• Theomnipresenceofmobiledevicesandinternetconnections,whichmeansthatwearenowexposedtoawiderangeofeasilyaccessiblecontentthatseekstoattractandholdourattention;

• The devaluation of books as a source of access to knowledge, entertainment, andleisureduetotheappeal,speed,agilityandinstant,short-livedgratificationthatotherlow-costor freeoptionssuchasvideogames,music,videosandsocialnetworkscanmoreeasilyprovide;

• Theriseinthenumberofconsumerswhoareonlypreparedtopayverysmallamountstoaccesscontent,orwhoareevenconvincedthataccessshouldbefree,anddemandthatitbeso;and

• Thechangeinthewaycontentisconsumedasaresultoftheincreasinglywidespreaduseoftwoalternativestothetraditionalmodelofpurchaseandownershipofculturalproductsinphysicalform,suchasbooks,magazines,filmsandrecords:ononehand,paying for licences to access content under terms of use that generally restrict the

274Hughes,E.(2013).ThePublishingIndustryisThriving.BooksDon'tWanttoBeFreeHowpublishingescapedthecruelfateofothercultureindustries.TheNewRepublic.Retrievedfromhttp://www.newrepublic.com/article/115010/publishing-industry-thriving275Rodrigues,M.A.D..S.,Chimenti,P.,Nogueira,A.R.R.,Hupsel,L.F.,andRepsold,A.(2014).Fromprinttoscreen:changesandchallengesfacingtheBrazilianpublishingindustry.R.Adm.,SãoPaulo,v.49,n.3,p.491-505,jul./ago./set.2014.Retrievedfromwww.rausp.usp.br/download.asp?file=RAUSP_v49n3_491-505.pdf


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mode,theamountoftime,andtheplaceofuse;andontheother,thelegalorillegaldownloadingofcontentfreeofcharge.276

Additionally,theboundariesbetweenthecreativeindustriesareinflux,asarethetraditionalrolesofthedifferentplayers.Thedistinctionsbetweenproduction,distributionandreceptionarebecomingblurred,withnewtechnologyplayerslikeAmazon,forexample,makingitclearthatdistributorsandretailerscanactasprintersandpublishersatthesametime,andthusassumeadominantpositioninthemarket.Withtheunbundlingofservicesthatweretraditionallyofferedbyoneplayer,valuechainsarereplacedbyvaluenetworks.277Consequently, new emerging business models mostly aim to provide publishing services to self-publishers,and/orplatformsfordirectinteractionsbetweenusergroups:

• They support the use of crowdfunding and crowdsourcing to complement the corefunctionsofpublishing,

• Theydeliverhighqualitymultimediabooksand/ordrawonnewsourcesof incomefrom marketing. The sources of income and the customer value propositions areconsiderablymorediverseindigitalpublishingthanintraditionalpublishingstructures.

• Corefunctionsofpublishing,suchasselection,aggregation,curationandmarketing,emergeasfunctionsthatarebeingexploredbyaplethoraofstart-ups.

• Reproduction and distribution, as well as transformation, are functions that willprobablybedisintermediatedinthefuture.

• The societal value of publishing will rise, with a larger number of players (NGOs,institutions,citizens)partakinginthepublishingprocess,andsocialvaluesprovidingimportantmotivationforstart-ups.278

Reconfigurationofmainactors

…the‘digital’indigitaldisruptionisn’trelegatedtoebooks.WhenPDFfilescanbeemailed,andbookscanbeprintedinminutesanywhereandthensoldinstantlyeverywhere,andthenshippedsame-day most places, the old chain of print-in-China and sell-in-B&N has been radicallyupturned.279

The dramatic changes in the publishing industry not only offer new and challenging businessopportunities,butalsoconstitutethreatstocurrentbusinessowners.Oneoftheconsequencesofthechanginglandscapeinbookpublishingisthereassessmentoftheroleofthemainactorsinthevaluechainofthepublishingindustry.280OneofthemajordisruptionsinpublishingwastheriseofAmazon,which influenced book distribution and changed the way in which books are priced, physically

276Gómez,M.(2015).ChallengesandOpportunitiesforthePublishingIndustry.CCCBLAB.Retrievedfromhttp://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_desafiaments-i-oportunitats-per-a-la-industria-editorial277Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies278Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies279Howey,H.(2015).ChangeKeepsHappening-TheWayfinder.Retrievedfromhttp://www.hughhowey.com/change-keeps-happening/280Gómez,M.(2015).ChallengesandOpportunitiesforthePublishingIndustry.CCCBLAB.Retrievedfromhttp://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_desafiaments-i-oportunitats-per-a-la-industria-editorial/


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distributed, marketed and reviewed.281 Amazon revolutionized book reading in 2007 when itintroduceditsKindlebookreader.Theexplosivesaleofbookreadershascausedamassivesurgeinthesaleofebooks.282Thechanginglandscapeisgeneratingdebatearoundthereconfigurationofthesector,withemergingnewactorswhoarebringingtheirownproductionandbusinessmodelsintoplay.Traditionalactorsinthepublishingindustry’svaluechainareincreasinglybeing‘forced’tofacemanyfactorsthatthreatentheirsurvival.Theseinclude:

• Thepartialorfulllossoftheirroleasintermediaries;• Themove intothesectorbyotheractorswhowerepreviouslyoutsideof it–digital

native content companies, software developers, telecommunications operators,Internetandonlineserviceproviders–thatcouldenduptakingtheirplace;and

• Being subject to the rules imposed by these new actors and losing their power tonegotiatewhenitcomestodefiningthegamerulesoftheirsector.283

Companies – often technology start-ups – are developing tools and services linked to the design,development, production, promotion, commercialisation, display, purchase, organization, andconsumptionofcontentinthedigitalsphere.Theseinitiatives,includingself-publishing,theloanofebooksinlibraries,ande-readingsubscriptionservicesareinfluencingthedirectionoftheindustry.284

Declineinlargechainbookstoresandinfluenceonbooksales

OneofthemajorresultsofthischangehasbeenthatBordersBooks,alargebookchainintheUSwentbankruptand closedall of its storesduring the recession. In addition,Barnes&Noblehashad toretrench.Ingeneral,bookpublishersinthepastdecadehaveseenadeclineinthenumberofbigboxbookstoresintheUnitedStates,although,asdiscussedelsewhere,independentbookstoresareseeingaresurgence.Librarieshavealsoseenadecreaseinfunding,withmorespacededicatestocomputers,moviesandmusic.Additionally,therearedisappearingbookshelfspaceatbookstores, leadingtoagrowingproblemof how readerswill discovernewauthors andbooks.285Moreover, researchhasindicatedthatreadersdon’tuseonlinebookstorestodiscoverbooks;theyusethemtopurchasetitlestheyfindoutaboutelsewhere-frequentlyatphysicalstores.Publishersfearthat,withfewerstorestobrowsein,booksalescouldbesignificantlyreduced.286Evenso,justasbigboxstoreslikeBordersboarduptheirwindows,othersopeninthemostunexpectedways.Amazon,thegiantoftheonlinebookworld,openeditsfirstwalk-inphysicalstorein2015andisplanningmore.287

Mergersinpublishing

Anotherbigchangeoccurringinpublishingismergersbetweenbigplayersinthefield–specifically,themergerofPenguinandRandomHouse.Thereismuchdebateonwhatthisconsolidationmeans

281Price,F.(2014).DramaticChangeintheBookPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttps://figtreebooks.net/dramatic-change-book-publishing-industry/282Frey,T.(2015).TheFutureOfLibraries:TheFallOfBookPublishing.Retrievedfromhttp://www.davinciinstitute.com/papers/the-fall-of-book-publishing-the-rise-of-new-e-book-business-models283Gómez,M.(2015).ChallengesandOpportunitiesforthePublishingIndustry.CCCBLAB.Retrievedfromhttp://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_desafiaments-i-oportunitats-per-a-la-industria-editorial/284Gómez,M.(2015).ChallengesandOpportunitiesforthePublishingIndustry.CCCBLAB.Retrievedfromhttp://blogs.cccb.org/lab/en/article_desafiaments-i-oportunitats-per-a-la-industria-editorial285DigitalBookWorld.(2014).BiggestProblemsFacingPublishing:DisappearingShelfSpace,Discovery,PaceofChange.Retrievedfromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2014/biggest-problems-facing-publishing-disappearing-shelf-space-discovery-pace-of-change/286Hughes,E.(2013).BookPublishersScrambletoRewriteTheirFuture|WIRED.Retrievedfromhttp://www.wired.com/2013/03/publishing-industry-next-chapter/287Lam,B.(2016,February3).TheAmazonStoreMystery.TheAtlantic.Retrieved15May2016,fromhttp://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/02/amazon-bookstores/459750/


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for the industry, with speculations that this will increase their ‘clout’, and create additionaldistributionchannelsthroughsubscriptionservices.288It isalsobelievedthatsuchamovecanhelpstanduptoAmazon’smarketpower.289

Self-publishingandindieauthors

Digitalprintingalsoallowsforbusinessmodelsbasedonself-publishing.Untilafewyearsago,self-publishingwasseenasalastresort.However,withtheavailabilityofeasy-to-usetechnologytoolsanduseful informationonline,self-publishinghasbecomemuchmorepopular–forexample,between2006and2011,thenumberofself-publishedbooksintheUSgrewby287%.BigplayerslikeAmazonhavedevelopedpublishingplatforms,andplayerslikeAppleandGooglearealsogivingtheindividualsaneasyentryintothepublishingworld.290HughHoweyisoneofthemostpopularandsuccessfulself-publishers.Howeystartedwritingaseriesofsci-finovellascalledWoolin2011.Hehadalreadypublishedabookwithasmallpress,butwantedtoretaincreativecontrol.HebegantoselldigitaldownloadsandprinteditionsthroughAmazon,andin the first sixmonths he sold 14,000 copies. By January 2012Howeywasmaking approximately$12,000amonth.ByMay,Woolwasbringingin$130,000.291HoweynowproducesauthorearningsreportsforindieauthorswhopublishthroughAmazon.292However,Hughes(2013)arguesthatHoweyandotherslikehimareexceptional.Ingeneral,Hughesbelieves, new writers gain muchmore than they lose by signing with a major house. Most self-publishedauthorshavetroublesellingacopyoutsideoftheirimmediatefamily.Nevertheless,arealdangertopublishersisthatmoreestablishedauthorswhohavealreadyestablishedanaudiencemaybetemptedbythis.

Atatimewhenawritercanpostanovelonlineandwatchtherevenuepour inbydirectdeposit, thepublishing industry’s skill at making books, selling them by hand to bookstores, and managing thedistributionoftheproductthreatenstobecomeirrelevant.293

AlthoughwriterslikeHoweymaybeunusual,Howey’sAuthorEarningsReportsdemonstratesthattheshare of certain segments of the reading market held by commercially-minded publishers isdiminishingasself-publishedauthorstaketheircontenttomarketontheirown.294Thisisparticularlytrueforsciencefiction,fantasies,mysteries,thrillers,andromancenovels.Thustechnologyisputtingthe‘middle-man’atrisk.Authorscangodirectlytoreaders.Forpublishers,thechallengeisthebringvaluetotheindustry;forexample,ascuratorswhocanproduceawell-editedbook.295Thewritermayneedafreelanceeditor,apublicist,andanagentwhofunctionsasakindofbusinessmanager,with

288NPRStaff.(2012).ChangeIsTheOnlyConstantInToday'sPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.npr.org/2012/12/27/167640733/change-is-the-only-constant-in-todays-publishing-industry289Hughes,E.(2013).BookPublishersScrambletoRewriteTheirFuture|WIRED.Retrievedfromhttp://www.wired.com/2013/03/publishing-industry-next-chapter/290Raykor.(2015).TrendsDrivingtheChangesinPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.raykor.com/blog/2015/09/trends-driving-the-changes-in-publishing-industry291Hughes,E.(2013).BookPublishersScrambletoRewriteTheirFuture|WIRED.Retrievedfromhttp://www.wired.com/2013/03/publishing-industry-next-chapter/292Berkowitz,D.(2016,April4).DBWInterviewwithHughHowey,Author.Retrieved15June2016,fromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2016/dbw-interview-with-hugh-howey-author/293Hughes,E.(2013).BookPublishersScrambletoRewriteTheirFuture|WIRED.Retrievedfromhttp://www.wired.com/2013/03/publishing-industry-next-chapter/294Shatzkin,M.(2015).Thepublishingworldischanging,butthereisonebigdogthathasnotyetbarked.TheShatzkinFiles.Retrievedfromhttp://www.idealog.com/blog/the-publishing-world-is-changing-but-there-is-one-big-dog-that-has-not-yet-barked/295HowwillthepublishingindustryrespondtochangeslikeeBooksandselfpublishing?Retrievedfromhttps://www.quora.com/How-will-the-publishing-industry-respond-to-changes-like-eBooks-and-self-publishing


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authorskeepingabiggershareoftheproceeds.296Ithasalsobeenarguedthatpublishersarebrandnameswhocanbetrustedtoputout(relatively)goodbooks,andthefuturethusliesinbrandingandmarketing.297Howey’s10January2016calculationoftheshareofdailyAmazonebookssold,segmentedbytypeofpublisherisindicativeofthepowerofindieauthorsonthemarketplace.Figure4 Dailyunitsalesofebookbestsellers(195,000books58%ofAmazonebooksales)298

AndnottobeupstagedbyinnovationsintheUnitedStates,OkadaBooksinNigeriaoperatesabookstoreforebookspublishedbyindieauthors.ThenameOkadaderivesfromthemotorcyclesusedforcommercialdeliveriesinNigeria.Thesiteis inEnglish;booksaresoldinNigeriannaira.Paymentisthrough Paypal, bank transfer, or Etisalat phone cards.299 Okada authors are like indie authorselsewhere-manyofthebestsellersareromancenovels,althoughthecomicbooksonthesiteleanheavilytowardsaction-basedthemes.Thesenewbusinessmodelshaveresulted inchanges inhowpublishersdobusiness.Forexample,F+WMedia,whichownsandoperatesDigitalBookWorld,seekstodobusinessonlywithauthorswhoalreadyhavetheirownonlinemarketingplatforms.300AnotherexampleisBookCountry,301aPenguininitiativeattemptingtousetheuntappedmarketofself-publishingtoobtainunsignedtalentandgainnewandpotentiallyexclusivecontent.Authorsstillretaintheirrights,butPenguinwouldhavethefirstoptiontosignanewauthor.Insteadofhavingtheexpenseofaneditor,theyusecrowdsourcingsuggestingeditsthatwouldbenefitthesubmitter.Themodelisarelativelyinexpensivewaytoobtainnewcontentwithoutthedifficultiesinherentinsiftingthroughsubmissions.302Inaddition,ratherthanrelyingonAmazon’sKindle,Apple’sibooks,orother

296Hughes,E.(2013).BookPublishersScrambletoRewriteTheirFuture|WIRED.Retrievedfromhttp://www.wired.com/2013/03/publishing-industry-next-chapter/297HowwillthepublishingindustryrespondtochangeslikeeBooksandselfpublishing?Retrievedfromhttps://www.quora.com/How-will-the-publishing-industry-respond-to-changes-like-eBooks-and-self-publishing298AuthorEarnings.February2016AuthorEarningsReport:Amazon’sEbook,Print,andAudioSales.(2016,February).Retrieved18June2016,fromhttp://authorearnings.com/report/february-2016-author-earnings-report/299OkadaBooksisanIndieAfricaneBookstore|TheDigitalReader.(2015,April11).Retrieved15June2016,fromhttp://the-digital-reader.com/2015/04/11/okada-books-is-an-indie-african-ebookstore/.TheOkadawebsitewillbefoundathttp://okadabooks.com.300DigitalBookWorld.(2014).BiggestProblemsFacingPublishing:DisappearingShelfSpace,Discovery,PaceofChange.DigitalBookWorld.Retrievedfromhttp://www.digitalbookworld.com/2014/biggest-problems-facing-publishing-disappearing-shelf-space-discovery-pace-of-change/301BookCountry.Retrievedfromhttp://bookcountry.com/302HowwillthepublishingindustryrespondtochangeslikeeBooksandselfpublishing?Retrievedfromhttps://www.quora.com/How-will-the-publishing-industry-respond-to-changes-like-eBooks-and-self-publishing


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apps,somepublishersaredirectlymarketinganddistributingebookstoreaders.DrivenbycontractdisputeswithAmazon,HarperCollinsnowhasanonlinestoreandreaderappforitsimprints.Children’spublishershavealsobeguntocapitalizeonthepossibilitiesofdigitalplatformstoconnectdirectly with readers. For example, Scholastic, which reaches into schools through teachers, iscreatinganebookreadingplatformcalledStoria.Storiawillbeacompleteenvironment,providingservicesforthepurchaseandreadingofebooksandtoolsforparentsandteacherstooverseetheirchildren’sreading.Inthismodel,powertransferstotheplatformownerfromtheindividualtitleorauthor.303Ourboox is a free simple platform for creating page flipping ebooks inminutes. Authors can addpictures,videosandsound,andcreatethebooksinanylanguage.Theirsystemisbasedontheideathat traditionalpublishers cutout theagent and signupwriterswho succeededwell onAmazon.SuccessonAmazondependsasmuchonthewriter’sabilitytomarkethisbooksasonthequalityofthebooks.PlatformslikeOurbooxcapitalizeonthesearchabilityofopenaccessbookstoseethemrisenaturallyinsearchengine,leadingreadertobookswhenthebookrelatestoatopicthatintereststhem.Arevenuesharesystemenableswriterstoearnmoneybasedonthenumberofviewstheirbookattracted,andreaderswillhavetheoptiontoorderaprintversionfromPODiftheypreferthegoodoldfashionpaperbookstothedigitalversion.Thisenablesbookstobediscovered,sharedandreadbyanaudienceagoodwriterbutpoormarketerwouldneverhavereachedotherwise.304Although pundits predicted that Amazon and bookstore chains like Barnes & Noble would putindependent bookstores out-of-business in the United States, this has not been the case, asindependentbookstoresarebeginning to flourishagain.This isbecausethechainsmayhaveoverexpanded.Moreover,manybookpurchasersbelievethatthe‘indies’offerservicesmoreeffectively.It is easy to browse and handle books; staff know their books; they curate and make personalrecommendations; book shelves are filled with old and new titles, as well as those from smallerpublishers;theindiesfostercommunitiesthroughbookreadingsandotheractivities;andtobringinextrarevenue,theysellmerchandise,everythingfromt-shirtstomugs. Illustratedchildren’sbooksareamongthebestsellers.305

Marketingandthegrowthofsocialmedia

Althoughpublishersstillarrangebookstoursandmediainterviewsforestablishedauthorsandthosewhosebooksarewell-reviewed,marketingisnowinthehandsofadditionalplayers.Onlinemarketingandsavvyuseofsocialmediaareessential.

Booksellersdon'twalkpeopleovertoabookandputitinbuyers'hands.Otherreadersdoit-theywritereviewsandbuygiftsandtellpeoplewhentheyloveabook.Publishersshouldstopworryingaboutthemiddlemanandworryaboutthereaders.306

303NPRStaff.(2012).ChangeIsTheOnlyConstantInToday'sPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.npr.org/2012/12/27/167640733/change-is-the-only-constant-in-todays-publishing-industry304HowwillthepublishingindustryrespondtochangeslikeeBooksandselfpublishing?Retrievedfromhttps://www.quora.com/How-will-the-publishing-industry-respond-to-changes-like-eBooks-and-self-publishing305Karabell,Z.(2014,September9).WhyIndieBookstoresAreontheRiseAgain.Slate.Retrievedfromhttp://www.slate.com/articles/business/the_edgy_optimist/2014/09/independent_bookstores_rising_they_can_t_compete_with_amazon_and_don_t_have.htmlInaddition,seeAmericanBooksellersAssociation.AmericanBookstoresareThriving.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bookweb.org/for-the-record.306HowwillthepublishingindustryrespondtochangeslikeeBooksandselfpublishing?Retrievedfromhttps://www.quora.com/How-will-the-publishing-industry-respond-to-changes-like-eBooks-and-self-publishing


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Socialmediahas changed thewaypeople connect and communicatewitheachother,with socialplatformsallowing themtobe in touchwith their familyand friends, share information, consumenews,andseekentertainment,whichopensupopportunitiesforpublisherstopushoutrelevantandtailoredcontentforthem.307TwitterandFacebookaretwomassiveandpowerfulmediaplatformsthat are enabling the discovery of long-form content.308 There are also social media tools aimedexpresslyatthebookindustry,suchasGoodreads,whichisownedbyAmazon;Shelfari,alsoownedbyAmazonand“merged”withGoodreads;LibraryThing,whichisindependent,althoughAbeBooks(nowownedbyAmazon)hasa40percentshare;andRiffle,309whichwascreatedbytheFacebookmarketingplatform,Odyl,andworksthroughpastreadsandalsothereviewsoffriendsandexperts.NotcontentwithowningGoodreadsoutright,eliminatingShelfari,andowningasizableminoritystakeinLibraryThing,Amazonhasnowbeguntoallowthird-partyblogs,sites,andappstoembedKindleinstant book previews that provide userswith the ability to browse excerpts frombookswithoutleavingtheirsitesorapps.310

Printondemand

Theprintondemand(POD)model isperhapsoneofthemostsignificantchangesoccurring inthedistributionofprintbooks.Whilebuildtoorderhasbeenanestablishedbusinessmodelinmanyotherindustries,PODdevelopedonlyafterdigitalprintingbegan,becauseitwasnoteconomicaltoprintsinglecopiesusingtraditionalprintingtechnologysuchasletterpressandoffsetprinting.311Duetothecapabilitiesofdigitalprinting,PODiscapableoffillinganorderforonebookprofitably.312Withdigitaltechnology,itisusedasawayofprintingitemsforafixedcostpercopy,regardlessofthesizeoftheorder.Whiletheunitpriceofeachphysicalcopyprintedishigherthanwithoffsetprinting,theaveragecostislowerforverysmallprintruns,becausesetupcostsaremuchhigherforoffsetprinting.313Friedlander (2009) explains how POD works from the supplier’s perspective: POD suppliers, forexampleLightningSource,maintaindatabasesofbooksonbehalfoftheirpublisherclients.Publisherssubmitbookstotheprintondemandsupplier(PODS)intheformoftwofilesforeachbook:onedigitalfileforthebookinteriorandoneforthecover.WhenthefilesfirstarrivetheyareloggedintothePODS’ssystem,examinedfortechnicalerrors,andaproofcopyofthebookiscreatedforthepublishertoreview.Oncethepublishersignsoffontheproof,thebookis listedbythePODSthroughoutitsdistribution channels including booksellers, other offline and online retailers, chain stores, librarysuppliers,andinsomecasesexporters.314Inthesamearticle,FriedlanderlaysoutboththeadvantagesanddisadvantagesofPODfromtheperspectiveofthepublisher:

307Raykor.(2015).TrendsDrivingtheChangesinPublishingIndustry.Retrievedfromhttp://www.raykor.com/blog/2015/09/trends-driving-the-changes-in-publishing-industry308Hyrkin,J.(2014).Thepublishingindustryisn’tdead–butitisevolving.Retrievedfromhttp://thenextweb.com/dd/2014/06/21/publishing-industry-isnt-dead-evolving/309Bausells,M.(2014,May10).Topbook-recommendationplatforms:Whatareyourfavourites?Retrieved18June2016,fromhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/booksblog/2014/may/10/top-book-recommendation-platforms-what-are-your-favourites(Thisarticlealsosuggestsadditionalreviewplatforms.)310Bishop,T.(2016,January05).Embedabook?AmazonstartsofferingKindlebookpreviewsforthird-partysitesandapps.Retrieved18June2016,fromhttp://www.geekwire.com/2016/embed-a-book-amazon-starts-offering-kindle-book-previews-for-third-party-websites/311Wikipedia.PrintonDemand,Retrieved14March2016fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print_on_demand312Friedlander,J.(2009).HowPrint-On-Demanddistributionworks.TheBookDesigner.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookdesigner.com/2009/12/how-print-on-demand-works/313Wikipedia.PrintonDemand,Retrieved14March2016https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print_on_demand314Friedlander,J.(2009).HowPrint-On-Demanddistributionworks.TheBookDesigner.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookdesigner.com/2009/12/how-print-on-demand-works/


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Advantages:

• Lowercosts(forsmallruns);• Technicalset-upisusuallyquickerthanforoffsetprinting;• Eliminatestheneedtokeepbooksininventory,reducingstorage,handlingcostsandinventory

accountingcosts;• Allowsbookswithoutsubstantialsalestostayinprint;• Vastlyreducestheinvestmentneededtomaintainalargebacklist;• Eliminatesthewasteandexpenseofpulpingthousandsofunsoldbooks.Disadvantages:• Booksprinteddigitallycostmoreperunitthanbooksprintedoffset;• Digitalprintingisnotefficientforbooksthatwillsellinvolume;• Thequalityandflexibilityofdigitalprintingformatsisnotasgoodasoffsetprinting.FriedlanderalsoaddressesPOD fromthecustomer’sperspective.Thecustomer typically finds thebookonlineatabooksellersuchasAmazonorBarnes&Noble,andordersthebook.Ifthebookisnotphysicallystockedattheretailer’swarehouse,theorderissentbackupthedistributionchaintothePODS,wherecomputerspull thecorrect filesandsend themto theappropriatedigitalprinters.Asinglecopyisprinted,shipped,anddeliveredtothecustomerinapproximatelysevendays.ThistightlyintegratedsupplychainisabasicfeatureofthePODbookdistributionmodel.Itallowsbookstobeprinted for a consistent unit cost regardless of howmany are ordered.315 He concludes by tyingtogethertheimpactofPODandebooksontheindustry:

For small publishers, independent publishers and self publishers, print on demand bookdistributionhasdemocratizedthepublishingprocess.Asmorebookbuyingmovesonline,thiseffectshouldbemoreandmorepronounced.Combinedwitharapidacceptanceofebooks,printondemandpromisestochangethebookpublishinglandscapeforever.316

Dataanalytics

Thedigitaltransformationofthepublishingindustryiscreatingnewopportunitiesforpublisherstouse data and analytics to drive their business strategy. Publishing companies can now practisesophisticated database management, including data mining in large quantities, owing to searchtechnologiesandcloudcomputing.‘Bigdata’hasbeenheraldedthenextbigthinginpublishing.Thisincludes not only metadata to make content searchable, but also the use of customer data formarketingpurposes.317

315Friedlander,J.(2009).HowPrint-On-Demanddistributionworks.TheBookDesigner.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookdesigner.com/2009/12/how-print-on-demand-works/316Friedlander,J.(2009).HowPrint-On-Demanddistributionworks.TheBookDesigner.Retrievedfromhttp://www.thebookdesigner.com/2009/12/how-print-on-demand-works/317Klein,N.A.(2013).Newbusinessmodelsinbookpublishing:Ananalysisofstart-upsandtheirstrategies.MasterThesis-MastersofBusinessAdministration(MBA).Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/6306101/New_business_models_in_book_publishing_An_analysis_of_start-ups_and_their_strategies


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AppendixG:ExamplesofearlyliteracydistributioninitiativesThisappendixfocusesonsomeoftheplayersinearlyliteracy.Sometimesthereareintersections,suchas commercial publishers that supply books and libraries that are responsible for making themavailable. Other times, programmes can work at cross purposes. This is sometimes true of bookdonationprogrammesthatcandepress localpublishingefforts.Allhavearole intheearly literacyecosystem.

Bookdonationprogrammes

Bookdonationprogrammesexist fordifferentreasonsandhavemixedreviews.Somemakeeveryeffort to provide books in a demand-driven effort. Others focus more on sending books to thedevelopingworld,with little attention to quality, suitability, or the book’s condition. These lattereffortsareoftenreferredtoasbookdumping.Bookdumping,inparticular,bypassesonesectororanotherof ‘the local book chain, disempoweringAfricanpublishers, book retailers, and librarians,sincemostdonationsarenotspecificallyrequestedbytheirrecipients’.318Bookcharities,particularlythose that donate children’s books, militate against government responsibility to support bookpurchases.Whybuystorybookslocallywhentheyaredonatedfromabroad?Some programmes provide specific instructions onwhat types of books theywill accept and thecondition theymust be in - not always new.US book charities have been fuelled by the InternalRevenueService(IRS)taxcodes.USpublisherscanreceiveataxdeductionbydonatingtheirexcessinventory,andbookdonationprogrammeshavebeeneagertoreceiveunwantedstock.Thereisanassumption in some organizations that ‘most books that appeal to Americanswill also appeal toAfricans’.319Thissectionisnotanexhaustivelistingofbookdonationprogrammes.Ratherwehaveprofiledafewinitiativesinaneffortatunderstandingthemotivationsandmethodologyunderpinningthem.BookAidInternational(BAI)andtheIntra-AfricaBookSupportScheme(IABSS)aretwonoteworthyeffortsthathavebeenentirelydemand-driven.Oneconcentratesprimarilyonbookspublishedintheglobalnorth,andtheotherworkedsolelywithlocalpublishersacrossAfrica.Inbothinstances,thebooksarenew.

BookAidInternational

BookAidinternational(BAI)320wasestablishedintheUKin1954throughtheeffortsoftheCountessofRanfurly,whobelievedinthepowerofbookstochangelives.Africanlibrariesin11countriesarethelynchpinofBAI’swork.Innovationsincludechildren’scornerslocatedingovernmentlibrariesinKenya,Tanzania,andnowUganda;aresourcecentreinacommunitylibraryinaruralpartofSouthern

318Cox,J.(March,2016).‘Intra-AfricanBookDistribution’.TheAcademicBookintheSouth.ConferenceconvenedbytheBritishLibrary,London,UK.Unpublishedabstract319AfricanLibraryProject.SortYourBooks.Retrievedfromhttps://www.africanlibraryproject.org/book-drives/book-drive-guidelines/sort-your-books.SeealsoZell,H.M.(2015).BookDonationProgrammesforAfrica:TimeforaReappraisal?PartI.Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/13165497/Book_Donation_Programmes_for_Africa_Time_for_a_Reappraisal_Part_Iell.320BookAidInternational.Bookschangelives.Retrievedfromhttp://www.bookaid.org/


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Uganda;andamobilelibraryinZambiaincollaborationwiththeZambianchapterofthegroup,ForumforAfricanWomenEducationalists(FAWE).BookAidInternationaldonatesbooksfromtheprimarythroughthetertiarylevels.IthasdevelopeddetailedguidelinesforpublishersandmaintainsaninventoryofavailablebooksforthelibrarieswithwhichBAIworks.Althoughmostdonatedbooksarepublishedby internationalpublishinghouses,somebookshavebeenpublishedinAfrica,suchasthroughtheIntra-AfricaBookSupportScheme,whichisdiscussedbelow.

Intra-AfricaBookSupportScheme

TheIntra-AfricaBookSupportScheme(IABSS),whichwasaninitiativeoftheAfricanBooksCollective(ABC)andBookAidInternational,ranfrom1991-2004inanefforttomakebookspublishedinAfricavisibleandavailableacrosstheContinent.IABSSwasnecessarybecausetheintra-Africabooktradewas rifewithproblems - customsbarriers, currency regulations, lackof informationaboutAfricanpublishing,andthevicissitudesofAfricanlibraryandeducationalbudgets,tonamefour…andtherewerecertainlyothers.Adultfictionandchildren’sbooksweresenttoschoolsandlibraries;scholarlymonographs,thecoreoftheABCcatalogue,wenttouniversitylibraries.Theprogrammewasdemanddriventhroughout.AccordingtoZell (2015),anaverageof12,000 literaryandchildren’s titlesand7,000scholarlytitlesweredonatedeachyear.321In an evaluation of IABSS and Book Aid International’s implementation of the programme, GuyBenthamoftheCommonwealthSecretariatquotedalibrarianinCameroonwhocommentedabouttheutilityofthechildren’sbooks:‘ReadersforyounglearnersboughtaremorefocusedwithpicturesofAfricanchildrenin[southern]Africancountriesandotherwar-torncountries.NamesofcharactersandplacesreflectapartlyAfricansocietyandallAfricanchildrenidentifywiththebooksmore’. Inseveralpartsoftheevaluation,BenthamalsonotedthatIABSSraisedtheawarenessoflibrariansandusers to African publishing.322 Interestingly, First Book, which is discussed below obtained similarresultsinoneofitssurveys:

90 percent of respondents agreed that the children in their programmes would be moreenthusiasticreadersiftheyhadaccesstobookswithcharacters,storiesandimagesthatreflecttheirlivesandtheirneighbourhoods.323

TheprogrammewassupportedbyanumberofEuropeandonorsandUSfoundations.InadditiontopromotingtheIABSSobjectivesvis-à-visAfricanpublishing,theincomegeneratedwasimportanttoABCduringaperiodwhenitwastryingtomovefromdependenceondonorfundingtoself-sufficiency.PublisherswhoalsosoldbooksthroughIABSSalsobenefited.

Sometimesused,othertimesnew,manytimesnotrequested

Justasthetwoinitiativesprofiledabovearedemanddriven,otherprogrammesarestronglyorientedtowards thesupplyside. Inanarticlepublished in2005,ElizabethGilesassessed thedamage thatsomebookdonationprogrammescanprecipitate.324Bookscanbeused,notnew,sometimesreferredtoas ‘gentlyused’.Theshelf lifeofusedbooks is limited.Donatedbooksfromabroadcanalsobeinappropriate to local cultures, dress, and language.Are theseusedbooks andbooks donatedbypublishersaspartoftheirexcessinventorythebooksthatlibraries,schools,andparentswouldchoose

321Zell,H.M.(2015).BookDonationProgrammesforAfrica:TimeforaReappraisal?PartI.Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/13165497/Book_Donation_Programmes_for_Africa_Time_for_a_Reappraisal_Part_I.322Bentham,G.(April,2005).IndependentEvaluationofIABSSProject2001-2004.(Unpublishedreport)323FirstBook.TheStoriesforAllProject.Retrievedfromhttps://www.firstbook.org/first-book-story/the-stories-for-all-project324Giles,E.(2015).EvaluatingLubutoLibraryCollections:ACaseStudyinDynamicandStrategicChildren’sCollectionDevelopment.Retrievedfromhttp://library.ifla.org/1095/1/162-giles-en.pdf


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fortheirchildreniftheyhadtheirchoice?ForthecostofshippingoneboxtoAfrica,whynothelpequipalibraryorhomewithbookspublishedinAfrica?Theremightbefewerbooks,buttheymightalsobemorepertinenttotheneedsofthechildren.325

AU.S.model

Outsideofthedevelopingworldandfocusedentirelyonchildren’sbooks,thereisoneUSdonationprogramme worth mentioning because components of these initiatives might be pertinent. FirstBook326 concentrates on providing books to children in need through the First Bookmarketplace,which sellsbooks,manyof themawardwinnersatdiscountsofbetween50and90percent. ThisallowsFirstBooktoaggregatewhatitterms‘apreviouslyfragmentedmarketforthefirsttime’.Themarketplaceisavailableonlytocommunityprogrammesandschoolsservingchildreninneed,andtheymust register to participate in the programme. Schools or programmes serving at least 70%children from low-income families are eligible. It also operates a national book bank, which is aclearinghouse for large-scale book donations. Participants receive an email any time a new bookbecomes available. Considering the low prices and sizable discounts for bulk orders that Africanpublishersofchildren’sbooksprovide,mighttheFirstBookmarketplacebeapplicableintheSouth?Schoolsandlibrariesthathaveanybudgetatallforbookpurchasesmightbenefitfromthiskindofaggregatedpurchase.Shouldamarketplacebetrialledwithanaimtoscaleupifitissuccessful?

ebookdistribution

The growth of ebooks is transforming the means of circulating texts. This is evident in thedevelopment of e-readers (electronic reader), tablets andmobile phoneswhich allow for readingebooks.Writersandpublishershavemanyoptionswhenitcomestochoosingaformatforpublication,andoneofthechallengeswithinthecommercialebookworldistheproliferationofdifferingformats,eachofwhichrequiresitsownreaderapplication,referredtoasthe“TowerofE-Babel”.327Amajorreasonforthisisexclusivity,allowingpublisherstolockusersintotheirplatform.eBookfilescanbeeitherunprotectedorprotectedbyaDRM(digitalrightsmanagement)wrapper.DRM,orDigitalRightsManagement,referstoanumberoftechnologiesusedtolimittheuseofdigitalmediaafterpurchase.Thesetechnologiesseektomanagecopyrightedcontentandlimitpiracythroughaccesscontrol.328In the interactionswith the variousexperts consulted, it appears thatwhileebooksmaybemorepopularindevelopedcountries,theyarenotyetconsideredpopularindevelopingcontexts.ThisisparticularlybecauseInternetconnectivityinareasoutsideofurbancentresisgenerallynotgoodinmanydevelopingcountries.Forexample:

Inreality if I lookatchildreninIndiaorThailandorVietnam,ontheonehandgovernmentiskeentopushfortechnology,butrealityinvillages,thereisnoelectricityandpowerbreaksdown

325BooksforAfricaestimatesthatitcostsabout50centsperbookforshippingcosts.SeeBooksforAfrica.DonateBooks..Retrievedfromhttps://www.booksforafrica.org/books-computers/donate-books.html.DevelopAfricaputsthecostat50dollarstoshipanddeliveranaverage-sizedbox.SeeWhatDoesItCosttoShipBooksorSchoolSuppliestoAfrica?HowMuchDoINeedtoDonatetoCoverTheseCosts?|DevelopAfrica.Retrievedfromhttp://www.developafrica.org/faq/what-does-it-cost-ship-books-or-school-supplies-africa-how-much-do-i-need-donate-cover-these.Thesecostsdonotincludeanyincurredatthereceivingend-suchasclearingchargesandsortinganddiscardingunwantedbooks.326FirstBook.Retrievedfromhttps://www.firstbook.org/327DRMmakese-BabelofEPUB(2010).Retrievedfromhttp://www.teleread.com/drm/drm-makes-e-babel-of-epub/328eBookstypicallyuseDRMtechnologytolimitcopying,printing,andsharingofe-books.Itaffordsdifferentbooksvariousrightsasdeterminedbythepublisherandseller.Somecanbereadonmorethanonedevice.Otherswillallowforpartialcopyingandprinting.Simplyput,DRMrestrictswhatuserscandowithane-book.Itcankeepdeviceownerslockedintoonespecificretailerforalltheirpurchases,evenifthatretailerstopscarryingcertaintitles.Anye-bookwithDRMcannotbeconvertedtoadifferentformat.ThisisbecauseconversionitselfwouldrequiretheremovaloftheDRM.Notalle-bookformatssupportDRManddifferente-bookformatssupportdifferentsetsofprivilegesgrantedbytheDRM.


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very often…Apart from difficulty with power/electricity, the other issue with technology iscompatibility of hardware and software.With the increasing pace of change, the constantupdates/changescanpresentmanyproblems.329

In addition, if the experiencewith at the African Books Collective is true elsewhere in theacademicsector,ebookscanbeuseful,butnotnecessarilyforreading.ABCpublishersderiveincomefrominclusioninebookcollections,but:

ABCfeedbackfromourmainUSlibrarypartnersisthatwhetherornottheybuy(ebooks),theywant print irrespective. Interestingly a couple of universities have recently told us that theirimposed“e-preference”purchasepolicieshavebeenremoved,given(thattheyare)notworking.PrintisstillthedriverinEurope.330

Dataplansarealsoexpensiveandsmartphonesarenotyetthenorminmanyruralcommunities.Evenso,mobilepenetrationisgrowingthroughoutthedevelopingworld,asnewsubscribersenterthemarket.AccordingtotheJune2015EricssonMobilityReport:

ThisgrowthisexpectedtobeparticularlystrongintheMiddleEastandAfricaduetoayoungandgrowingpopulationandrisingGDP–aswellasthecurrentpenetrationbeinglowcomparedto the restof theworld. Several countries in theAsiaPacific regionwill experiencea strongsubscriptionuptakeoverthenextfiveyears,whilemorematureregionslikeNorthAmericaandEuropewillhavemoremoderategrowth.331

Therearenowefforts toprovideebooks indeveloping contexts, themostpopularexamplebeingWorldreader. Worldreader started in 2009 as a charity aimed at providing books and Kindles tochildren in thedevelopingworld.WorldreaderMobile is anebook readingapplication that allowspeople to have ebooks on their mobile phones.332 Such an initiative is regarded as significant incontexts where books are scarce but mobile phones are plentiful. Self-published authors andpublisherscanuploadtheirbookstotheWorldreaderplatform.Worldreaderpaystoconvertcontenttotherightformat,animportantconsiderationforauthorsandpublisherswithoutsufficienttechnicalskillstodothejobthemselves.Worldreaderbuystherightstothesebooksandpaysacommissionforeverybooksold.333Therearealsoseveralprovidersofferingfreeebooks.Theseinclude:• InternationalChildren’sDigitalLibrarywhichprovidesalargecollectionofchildren’sbooks(over

4,600books)inover54languages.334• OxfordOwlprovidesaccesstoarangeoffreeebooksinEnglish.Usersneedtoregisterwiththe

sitetoaccessthebooks.335• StoryPlace-DevelopedintheUnitedStatesinEnglishandinSpanish,andprovideschildrenwith

avirtualexperienceofgoingtothelibrary.Thestoriesareaccompaniedbyinteractiveactivitiesandvideos.336

• Children’s Books Forever – a website created by the American children’s book author, HansWilhelm,Children’sBooksForeverallowsuserstoaccessallhisoutofprintbooksforfreeaslongastheyarenotusedforcommercialpurposes.337

329RosemarieSomaiah,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,1December2015.330JustinCox,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,18May2016.331Ericsson.(2015,June).EricssonMobilityReport:onthePulseoftheNetworkedSociety.page8.Retrieved23April2016,fromEricssonwebsite:http://www.ericsson.com/res/docs/2015/ericsson-mobility-report-june-2015.pdf332Worldreader.Frequentlyaskedquestions.Retrievedfromhttp://www.worldreader.org/about-us/faq/333Worldreader:E-booksonCellPhonesandKindlesinSchools.Retrieved18April2016fromhttp://www.worldreader.org/334InternationalChildren’sLibrary,Retrievedfromhttp://en.childrenslibrary.org/335OxfordOwl.Retrieved23April2016fromhttp://www.oxfordowl.co.uk/for-home/reading-owl/find-a-book/library-page#336StoryPlace.Retrievedfromhttps://www.storyplace.org/front337Children’sBooksForever.Retrievedfromhttp://www.childrensbooksforever.com/


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Severalbooksuppliershavealsobeenexperimentingwithebookofferings.Forexample,SkoobeisaGermane-subscriptionservice thatmarkets itselfa ‘ticket to theworldofbooks’. It chargesusers€9.99amonth toborrowup to two titles for30days.338Thee-bookscanbe readvia theApponSmartphonesandTabletsaswellasontheKindleFire.Thereisnoreturnsdeadlinefortheuser,normusttheywait for thebookstheywanttoreadasthenumberofcopiesavailable isunlimited.339However,itisnotyetclearhowsuccessfultheirbusinessmodelis.Inanotherexample,OnleiheisasubscriptionserviceapplicationreleasedbyLibraryserviceproviderDiViBib. Also based in Germany, this offering involves the participation of public libraries. For anannualsubscription,userscanborrowbooksforalimitedperiod.Whenthetimelimitisreached,thee-bookisthenautomaticallydeletedfromtheuseraccount.Therangeoftitlesonofferdependsonthesizeandbudgetofthelibrary.Thedrawbackisthatmosttitlesonlyhaveasinglelicencewhichmeansthatane-bookcanneverbeborrowedbymorethanoneusersimultaneously.340Whentheloanperiodexpires,theuser’slicenceexpiresandthetitlethenautomaticallybecomesavailableforthenextdownload.Themodelwasdevelopedtogivelibrariesawaytoretaincustomersandattractyounger ones and provide publisherswith an opportunity to expand their presence in the digitalmarketplace.341USlibrarieshavealsodevelopedveryactiveprogramstopermitmemberstoborrowebooks,aswellasthoseinprint.342YetanotherexampleisadistributionmodelfromayoungIsraelicompanyTotalBooX,whichoffersa“Readfirst–Paylater”,modelinwhichthecustomeronlypaysforthepagesofthee-bookthattheyactuallyread.343Theirservicebringsindependentself-publishedebookproviders,librariesandreaderstogether. The platform offers a frictionless servicewith no limitations, holds, or expirations, thuseliminatingfrustrationslibrariesandpatronshavefacedwithebooks.Theirbooksmaybeaccessedonallmajorportabledevices-includingmobilephonesandtablets.344Theservicereliesonpeoplereadingtosustainitsbusinessmodel.345

Libraries:theviewfromSub-SaharanAfrica

Literacybegins inthehomewhenparentsreadtoandplaywiththeirchildren. Inmanycountries,librariesplayakeyroleinencouragingtheseinteractionsandhelpingchildrentolovereading.Theoneplacewherebookshavealwaysbeenfreeislibraries.Inmanycommunities,publiclibrariesare

338Baddeley,A.(2012).Skoobe:thenewwordinebooklibraries.Retrievedfromhttp://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/mar/16/skoobe-ebooks-library-launch-baddeley339Nikola,B.(2014).Top3ofthemostinnovativedistributionmodelsfore-books:willbookshavetobesoldindividuallyinthefutureatall?Retrievedfromhttp://www.i-q-i.net/en/top-3-of-the-most-innovative-distribution-models-for-e-books-will-books-have-to-be-sold-individually-in-the-future-at-all/340Nikola,B.(2014).Top3ofthemostinnovativedistributionmodelsfore-books:willbookshavetobesoldindividuallyinthefutureatall?Retrievedfromhttp://www.i-q-i.net/en/top-3-of-the-most-innovative-distribution-models-for-e-books-will-books-have-to-be-sold-individually-in-the-future-at-all/341O’Leary,S.(2011).MobileLibrary‘Onleihe’BringsE-bookLendingtoGermany.Retrievedfromhttp://publishingperspectives.com/2011/05/mobile-library-onleihe-brings-e-book-lending-to-germany/#.VuK4E85OJy0342nouye,A.S.(2016,January4).What'sinStoreforEbooks?AmericanLibraries.Retrieved21May2016fromhttps://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2016/01/04/whats-store-ebooks/343Nikola,B.(2014).Top3ofthemostinnovativedistributionmodelsfore-books:willbookshavetobesoldindividuallyinthefutureatall?Retrievedfromhttp://www.i-q-i.net/en/top-3-of-the-most-innovative-distribution-models-for-e-books-will-books-have-to-be-sold-individually-in-the-future-at-all/344Callari,R.(2015)TotalBooxExtends‘PayAsYouRead’ModelToLibraries&IndieAuthorshttps://www.bookworks.com/2015/05/total-boox-extends-pay-as-you-read-model-to-libraries-indie-authors/#sthash.yyZe4wWq.dpuf345Pressrelease-TotalBooxEmergesasaMajorPlayerintheLibraryEbookMarket(2016).Retrievedfromhttp://2016.alamidwinter.org/sites/default/files/Total_Boox_Growth_January%202016_Final.pdf


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theonlyplacewhereanyperson,regardlessofeducationorskilllevel,canhaveaccesstoinformationand the Internet freeof charge.346 Librariesconstituteakey sourceof readingmaterial,especiallywhenbookstoresdonotexistoraretooexpensive.IntheUnitedStates,publiclibrariesplayacentralrole in early literacy programmes. The American Library Association (ALA) and other professionallibrarygroupsbelievethatit’snevertooearlytostart.Programmingforbabiesandtheirparentshavebeenintroducedacrossthecountry;theseactivitiesthenseguetoactivitiesforpre-schoolersandsoon.TheALAhasdescriptionsofalloftheseinitiativesinitssectiononadvocacy.347Publiclibrarieshaveseparatesectionsforchildren;insomecitiesthereareevenspecialbranchesforthem.Mostcountrieshavepubliclibraries.Therearemorethan320,000librariesworldwide,73percentofthemindevelopingandtransitioningcountries.348However,withtheexceptionofSouthAfrica,publiclibrariesinAfricaarefewandfarbetween,especiallyoutsideofurbanareas.Theinformationbelowon a handful of African countries is extrapolated from a database on public libraries worldwidemaintained by the International Federation of Library Associations (IFLA). Unfortunately, the IFLAdatabasedidnotincludedatafromNigeria,themostpopulouscountryinAfrica,norfromKenya,oneof themost developed countries in Africa. Thus, for Kenya, figureswere sourced from the KenyaNational Library Service, and for Nigeria, figures were sourced from the database of librariesworldwidemaintainedbytheOnlineComputerLibraryCentre(OCLC).Table8 NumberofpubliclibrariesinsevenAfricancountries349

Country NumberofPublicLibraries

Côted’Ivoire

Morethan83,whichare located inareasthatwerebadlyaffectedbythesocio-politicalcrisisinthecountryin2002,when24resourcecentreswere almost totally destroyed. By comparison, there were only ninepubliclibrariesin2007.

Ghana 10regionallibraries;52branchlibraries;195communitylibrariesKenya350 57Nigeria351 62SouthAfrica 1,800Tanzania Approximately37(includingZanzibar)Uganda 24

InastudycommissionedbyEIFLonperceptionsofpubliclibrariesinsixAfricancountries-Ethiopia,Ghana,Kenya,Tanzania,Uganda,andZimbabwe-respondentsreportedthattheybelieve librariesareessentialtotheirindividualwellbeingandthatoftheircommunities,thattheyweresatisfiedwiththeservicestheyreceivedinlibraries,butthattheyweredissatisfiedwiththeresourcesavailabletothemandthatlibrariesdeservemorefunding.Perhapsmostimportantforconsiderationinthispaper,isthattheresearchersalsofoundthattheexposureofyoungchildrentolibrarieswaslimitedandfeltthatmorecouldbedonetoenhancetheutilizationoflibrariesbythesechildren.ThepercentageofrespondentswhotalkedaboutlibrarieswiththeirchildrenrangedfromalowoftwopercentinGhana

346BillandMelindaGatesFoundation.GlobalLibrariesStrategyOverview.Retrievedfromhttp://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Development/Global-Libraries347EarlyLiteracy&Libraries.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ala.org/advocacy/literacy/earlyliteracy348BillandMelindaGatesFoundation.GlobalLibrariesStrategyOverview.Retrievedfromhttp://www.gatesfoundation.org/What-We-Do/Global-Development/Global-Libraries349IFLAWorldReports.Retrievedfromhttp://db.ifla-world-report.org/home/map#/2/4/T0CDUPUZG2XMB8P(TheIFLAdatabasewasusedforCôted’Ivoire,Ghana,SouthAfrica,Tanzania,andUganda).350KenyaNationalLibraryServicePublicLibraries.Retrievedfromhttp://www.knls.ac.ke/public-library351OCLC.(n.d.).GlobalLibraryStatistics(Kenya).Retrievedfromhttps://ww5w.oclc.org/global-library-statistics.en.html


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toahighof16percent inUganda.Overall,only14percentof libraryusersvisiteda librarywithachild.352Itispossible,however,thatparentsdonotexposesmallchildrentopubliclibrariesbecausetherearesofewage-appropriatetitlestobefoundinthem.Schoollibrariesfareevenworsethanpubliclibraries.AWorldBankstudyofsecondaryschoollibrariesandtextbookprovisionnotedthat:

Of the18countries reviewed,onlyBotswanamanagedtoachieveabasic levelof secondaryschoollibraryprovisionforallsecondaryschools.Allothercountrieswerecharacterizedbythewidespreadabsenceofeffectiveschoollibraries,exceptforafeweliteandprestigioussecondaryschoolsfromboththestateaidedandprivatesectors.353

Thesituationvis-à-visschoollibrariesinprimaryschoolsisworse,eveninSouthAfrica,whichisfarbetterresourcedthanothercountriesontheContinent.Ina2015studyonprimaryschoollibrariesinGautengProvince,MargiePaton-AshandDiWilmotoftheRhodesUniversityEducationDepartmentwrotethat:

There is no national policy for school libraries which compels school governing bodies andprincipalstohavealibraryintheirschools. It isthusnotsurprisingthat in2011,only21%ofstateschoolshadlibraries,only7%hadstockedlibrariesand79%ofschoolshadnolibraryatall354

WithmanyAfricangovernmentsunabletomaintainsufficientpubliclibraries,particularlylibrariestoserve the needs of rural districts, local communities haveworked to establish their own, as haveunderservedslumandperi-urbancommunities.Manyofthese librarieshavebeenestablishedandmaintained by donors and international NGOs. Some of the organizations supporting communitylibrariesaresmall-scaleefforts,suchastheOsuChildren’sLibraryFundinGhana.Obtainingcurrentandaccurateinformationonthenumberofcommunitylibrariesmaybeimpossibleornearlyso.WhenFriendsofAfricanVillageLibrarieswererequestedtohelpinidentifyingthenumberofcommunitylibrariesinthecountriesinwhichtheorganizationworks,theresponsereceivedfromDeborahGarveywas:

Thedefinitionof"community"libraryvaries,soI'mnotsurewhichdefinitionyourstudyisusing.I'mabitsurprisedthatIFLAreportsonly195communitylibrariesinGhana,becausethecountryisapproachingmiddle-incomestatus.FAVLalonehasthreevillagelibraries,allintheUpperEastregionnearBolgatanga.355

Ugandahasawell-knownandwelldevelopedanddocumentedcommunitylibrarysystem,inpartduetotheeffortsoftheUgandaCommunityLibraryAssociation(UgCLA).UgCLA,forexample,isoneofthecollaboratingorganizationsworkingontheASbpilot inUganda.AccordingtoUgCLA,thereare101communitylibraries,locatedalloverthecountry.356TwelveoftheselibrarieswereinvolvedintheASbproject.TheKitengesaCommunityLibrary,whichhelpedfoundUgCLAandwhoseactivitieshavebeenwelldocumented,isanexampleofacommunitylibrarythatworkswell,includingforsmallchildrenjust

352TNSRMSEastAfrica.(2011).PerceptionsofpubliclibrariesinAfrica(Rep.).Retrieved11April2016,fromEIFLwebsite:http://www.eifl.net/system/files/resources/201408/perceptions_of_public_libraries_in_africa_-_full_report_hi.pdf353TextbooksandSchoolLibraryProvisioninSecondaryEducationinSub-SaharanAfrica(Rep.).(2008).Retrieved12April2016,fromTheWorldBankwebsite:http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2008/02/18/000333037_20080218061111/Rendered/PDF/425410PUB0ISBN101OFFICIAL0USE0ONLY1.pdf354Paton-Ash,M.,&Wilmot,D.(2015).IssuesandchallengesfacingschoollibrariesinselectedprimaryschoolsinGautengProvince,SouthAfrica.SAJESouthAfricanJournalofEducation,35(1),1-10.doi:10.15700/201503062342355DeborahGarvey,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,12April2016356UgandaCommunityLibraryAssociationListofMembers.(2012).Retrievedfromhttps://espensj.wordpress.com/members/list-of-members/


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startingouttoread,andhasstrongsupportfromlocalresidents.AlmostallofthebookspurchasedforthelibrarywereacquiredfromUgandanpublishersandbooksellersandincludeallavailablebooksin Luganda, themother tongue ofmost people living in the Kitengesa catchment area. Althoughsecondaryschoolstudentsconstitutealargeportionofthelibrary’susers,therearealsoactivitiesforyoungchildren.Thelibraryorganizeschildren’sstorytellingtimes,workswithparentstodeveloptheirchildren’sreadingskills,andstocksaselectionofstoryandotherbooksthatareageappropriate.357Therearethreeothereffortsthatareworthdiscussinginthispaperbecauseeachbringssomethingdifferenttothetable.TheyareFriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries,LubutoLibraryPartners,andOsuChildren’sLibraryFund.

FriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries

The Friends of African Village Libraries (FAVL),358 which is located in Santa Clara, California, wasestablished in 2001 in order to increase access to readingmaterials and other resources in ruralvillages in Sub-SaharanAfrica. FAVLprovides long-termassistance to small community libraries inBurkinaFaso(32libraries),Ghana(3libraries),Tanzania(onelibrary),andUganda(onelibrary).FAVLalsoassiststheUgandaCommunityLibraryAssociation.Eachlibraryisinaruralpartofthecountry,belongstotheruralcommunitywhereitislocated,andisundertheauthorityofthelocally-electedmayorandruralcouncilorsomeotherlocalentity.ThelibrariansarelocalandtrainedbyFAVL,andFAVLprovidesfortheirsalaries.LibrariesintheFAVLnetworkreceiveregularvisitsfromFAVLstafforaffiliatedrepresentatives.FAVLbelievesthatlong-termfinancialcommitmentandsupporttothelibrarieswilldependondonorsupport.ItsfundingcomesfromIndividualdonorsandsmallgrants.FAVLisalsoapartnerwithSantaClaraUniversity'sReadingWestAfricastudyabroadprogramme.Fivethousanddollarsissufficienttoestablish a new library. FAVL policy is not to establish new libraries until an endowment goal of$15,000 has been reached: $5,000 for start-up and $10,000 for librarian salaries, managementoversight,bookstockrenewal,andmaintenanceoverthefollowingyears.359FAVL emphasizes books that are in high demandby local readers: African novels and storybooks,children'sbookswithvillagethemes,andlocallanguagematerialsforthenewlyliteratereader,bothchildrenandadults.FAVLalsoattendsrelevantconferences.Forexample,inJanuary2016FAVLwasrepresentedattheAfricanLanguagesBookFairinBamako,Mali.360FAVLwasapproachedtoexplainabout theAfricanstorybookssuppliedto the libraries, theuseofmothertongue,andAfricanpublishers.Basedonaseriesofemailcorrespondence,FAVLrepliesareoutlinedinthetablebelow:Table9 FAVLcollectiondevelopment361

Country FAVLcollectiondevelopment

BurkinaFaso Languages:French;Mòoré(Mossi),Dioula,andFula(Peuhl)locallanguages

357SeeParry,K.,Kirabo,E.,&Nakyato,G.(2014).Workingwithparentstopromotechildren’sliteracy:AfamilyliteracyprojectinUganda.Multiling.Ed.MultilingualEducation,4(1).doi:10.1186/s13616-014-0013-2AlsoseeDent,V.F.,Goodman,G.,&Kevane,M.(2014).RuralcommunitylibrariesinAfrica:Challengesandimpacts.Hersey,Pa.:IGIGlobal.358FriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries.Retrievedfromhttp://www.favl.org/index.html359FriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries.Retrievedfromhttp://www.favl.org/donate.html360AfricanLanguagesBookFair–SAELLA,Bamako,20-23January2016.Retrievedfromhttp://www.alliance-editeurs.org/african-languages-book-fair-saella,1067?lang=fr361DeborahGarvey,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey.6April2016


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Country FAVLcollectiondevelopmentPublishers:HarmattaninOuagadougou;CentreMultimediaHoundé362

GhanaLanguage:EnglishPublishers:OsuChildren’sLibraryFundBookstore;EPPBookstore;andLegonBookstore(allinAccra)

UgandaUgCLAisproducingitsownstoriesandworkingwithASb.Publishers:Fountain,Kampala;MpolyabigereRCRICEDCentreLtd(anUgCLAmemberlibrary)

Inaddition,FAVLusesFastPencilinCampbell,California363toself-publishbooksinEnglishforGhanaandFrenchforBurkinaFasowrittenbyPeaceCorpsvolunteers,study-abroadstudents,andstudy-abroadfaculty.MpolyabigereRCRICEDCentreLtd.isanot-for-profitorganizationwhichcollaborateswithFAVLandcarriesoutamultitudeofactivities,bothlibrariesandpublishing,undertheleadershipofCorneliusGulere.Mpolyabigere,whichmeans’coolingoffthefeet’inLusoga,referstoabigshadetreewheretravellerspausetorestoravillagecommunitysitstodiscussitsbusiness.CorneliusGulereadoptedthetermfortheRuralCommunityRecreationInformationCommunicationEducationDevelopment(RC RICED) Centre that he established in 1995 in Eastern Uganda, in what is now NamutumbaDistrict.364

Thelibrariespromotequalityearlychildhoodeducationandfunctionalliteracythroughcreatingandmaking books available to children. In order to do this, I develop stories in the LusogalanguagewhichIhavetranslatedintootherlocallanguagesandEnglish.Imostlycirculatethestoriesaspamphlets,looseboundcopiesandonlinematerialspostedonmypersonalacademiablog,AfricanStorybook,Clarkness,GoogleBooksandMakerereUniversityOPAC(onlinepublicaccesscatalogue)365Thishashelpedlearnersandparentsin"hardtoreachareas"intermsofliteracymaterials in Lusoga to freely access books as conveniently as possible. For the ASbactivity,Iworkedwith12UgCLAmemberlibrariesandschoolsinBusogatodevelop120stories.Readersintheurbanareas,outsideBusogaandUganda,forexample,accessthebooksonlinewhilethoseinthevillagesusethehardcopieseithersuppliedtoschoolsormobileboxlibraryatthebackofacaroronabicycle,throughBookAidInternational.Ihavebeendoingthissince1991,whenIgotthefirstconsignmentof4,000textbooksfromBAI.ThisopenedtheflowofBAIbookdonationsintoUganda.366

LubutoLibraryPartners

LubutoLibraryPartners,367whichwasestablishedinZambiain2005,isheadquarteredinWashington,DC, where its President, Jane KinneyMeyers lives, and operates a regional office in Lusaka. Theorganization’sgoalsaretobuildcapacityamongcommunitiesandeducators;toensureaccesstohigh-qualityeducationalinformationandsocialservices;supportholisticdevelopmentandempowermentofchildrenandyouth;andtoadvocateforchildren’srights.Lubutowasfoundedbecause:

…at-riskchildreninZambia-includingout-of-schoolandstreetkids-criticallyneedsafepublicspaces to learnandgrow.OfZambianyouthaged15-24,only70.3%ofmalesand58.5%of

362AmultimediacenterfundedbyFAVLandRotary.See:FAVLandRotaryfundedmultimediacenterofHoundé.Retrievedfromhttp://www.slideshare.net/favlafrica/favl-and-rotary-funded-multimedia-center-of-hound363FastPencil.Retrievedfromhttp://www.fastpencil.com/364FriendsofAfricanVillageLibraries.(2010).Mpolyabigere:FAVLBlog.Retrievedfromhttp://www.favl.org/blog/archives/2010/06/mpolyabigere.html365Thereare36storiesandfoureBooksinLusogaontheClarknessWebsite.Scrolldowntothebottomofthehomepage: FreeStoriesandeBooksfortheBeginningReader.).Retrievedfromhttp://www.clarkness.com/ItispossibletofindGulere’sASbstoriesonhisAcademiapage,aswellashisotherpublications:Gulere,C.(n.d.).CorneliusGulerePublicationsonAcademia.Retrievedfromhttps://muele.academia.edu/CorneliusGulere366CorneliusGulere,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,15April2016367LubutoLibraryPartners.Retrievedfromhttp://www.lubuto.org/


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females are literate. Rather than offering regimented literacy programs, the Lubuto Librarymodel builds an adaptable and inclusive nexus of services and support for young people. Itaddressesafullrangeofliteracychallenges,informedbycollaborationwithlibraryexpertsanda deep understanding of local culture. The model is flexible and thus replicable in othercommunities.368

Lubutoworkstomeetitsgoalsthroughitslibrarysystem;therearethreeinoperation,withothersscheduledtoopenin2017and2018.ItworkswiththeZambianMinistryofEducation,theZambiaLibraryService,andtheUniversityofZambia.Lubutolibrariesaremulti-buildingcomplexesthatareowned,sustained,andstaffedbylocalhostorganizations.Libraryactivitiesincludestorytime,literacyprogrammes,arts,andmentoring.JaneKinneyMeyershasbeena librarianforoverthirtyyears;shehasworked inbothMalawiandZambia. Books for each library are carefully selected in a number ofways - for example throughcatalogues(bothUSandAfricanpublishers)andattendanceatAmericanLibraryAssociationmeetings,where the exhibit area hasmany stands devoted to children’s books. Lubuto also receives booksthrough Biblionef South Africa. Jane Kinney Meyers believes that ‘children in a challengedenvironmenthaveastrongerneedforquality’.Eachlibraryreceivesa4,000-volumechildren’slibrary,whichiscataloguedandclassifiedaccordingtoaspecially-designedchild-friendlyclassificationsystemdevelopedbyJaneKinneyMeyers.369Levelsoneandtwoofstoriesandfictionarepertinenttochildrenlearning to read and at early stages of reading, as are informational books, such as those in the“conceptssections”ofthelibrary’scatalogue.TheyarebothinEnglishandinZambianlanguages.370MostofthebooksintheLubutocollectionareinEnglish,althoughthelibrarymakesanactiveefforttocollectmultiplecopiesoftitlesinthesevenZambianlanguages.JaneKinneynotedhowtoretrieveZambianlanguagebooks,eitherbypublisherorbylanguage:

Ifyousearchthecatalogfor“Bookworld”…you’llretrieve8oftheirtitles.“ZambiaEducationalPublishingHouse”retrieves20titles,mostwithmultipleholdings ineachcollection.“ZambiaEducationalPub”retrievesanadditional13.“CambridgeUniversityPress”willretrieverecordsformanyearlyreaderstheyproducedin7Zambianlanguages(alongwithsomeotherbooksbyCambridge).Butifyousearchthecatalogbyindividuallanguagename–Bemba,Tonga,Lozi,Kiikaonde,Nyanja,LundaandLuvale–youwillretrievecitationsforallofthebookspublishedinthoselanguagesthatareinourcollections.Many,ifnotmost(excepttheCambridgetitles),ofthebooksarenot“earlyreaders,”buttheyspanthefullspectrumofreadinglevelsofusersofLubuto’slibraries,soofcoursewecollectthem.371

Lubutomakes activeuseof technology. In addition toproviding readerswithprint resources, thelibrarieshaveanumberofcomputersanddevices,includingthosedevelopedbyOneLaptopPerChild(OLPC).TechnologyisverypopulartomembersofLubuto.LubutoalsomakesuseofZeduPads,touch-screentabletsloadedwithinteractivelessonsfortheZambianprimarycurriculum.372Inanimaginativeinnovationtopromotereadingtochildren,LubutoistranslatingstorybooksintoZambianlanguagesand partnering with Sparkup, the magical book reader, starting with translations into threelanguages.373TheSparkupdevice,whichcontainsasmallcameraandcomputerchip,clipsdirectlyontoanypicturebookandreadsitaloudinanylanguagethatisrecorded.Sparkup’sinternalmemory

368MichaelFrigand,ProgrammeAssociate,quotedinJaneKinneyMeyers,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey6May2016.369ThecollectionsareonlineatLubuto.Collections.Retrieved21May2016fromhttp://www.lubuto.org/scanned-volumes-1370Giles,E.(2015).EvaluatingLubutoLibraryCollections:ACaseStudyinDynamicandStrategicChildren’sCollectionDevelopment.Retrievedfromhttp://library.ifla.org/1095/1/162-giles-en.pdf371JaneKinneyMeyers,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey6May2016.372ZeduPads:Aneducationrevolution.Retrievedfromhttp://www.zedupad.com/373Sparkup.Retrievedfromhttp://sparkup.com


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holdsupto50bookswith250minutesofrecordingspace.Thecamerarecognizespagesbypictures.Sparkupisnotcheap-itissoldonAmazonfor$50.00.Lubuto also works intensively to create digital Zambian language learning materials, which areavailable through its library system and to anyone with a computer. With the help of a localprogrammingexpert, tworeadingteachersandthreeyouthwhoregularlyusetheLubuto librariesandknowcomputers,workedtogethertodevelopcomputer-basedprogrammesforteachingchildrentoread intheirmothertongues,usingOLPCXO-15 laptopsandEtoys,a freeeducationalsoftwareplatform that works on any operating system.374 The teachers had subject expertise, but littlecomputerexperience;buttheyoungpeopleandthetechiewereabletohelpthem.OtherteachersservedasprojecttranslatorsinsixZambianlanguages(Bemba,Lunda-Ndembu,Luvale,Kiikaonde,LoziandTonga).Finally,inordertoensurethatillustrationswererelevanttothechildrenwhowouldusetheseprogrammes,Lubutoenlistedtheassistanceofparticipants intheLubutoArtsprogramme.375Thelessonsarebeingupdated,asof21May2016,theywerenotavailableontheLubutowebsite.LubutoCollectionsalsocontainsstoriesinPDFformat,ofout-of-printandinthepublicdomainbooksthatwerecopiedandscannedfromtheLibraryofCongressintheUnitedStatesandothersources.Inaddition,LubutopartneredwiththeZambiaLibraryAssociationtoestablishtheZambianBoardonBooksforYoungPeople,whichaimstobringtogetherwriters,illustrators,publishers,andeducatorstoproducehigh-qualitybilingualliteratureforchildrenandyouth.LubutowouldliketoworkwithZambianeducationalpublishersbyinstallingasaleskioskatthelibraryinLusakafortheZambianEducationalPublishingHouse(ZEPH),asawayofsellingZEPHtextbooksandstorybooks.SuchanapproachisbasedonthebeliefthatitisimportanttoworkwithpublishersratherthanthroughanNGOsystemtoensurethatbookscanreceivethewidestcirculationpossible.LubutoLibraryPartnershasreceivedgrantsfromUSAID,eIFL(Electronic InformationforLibraries),ComicRelief,theOpenSocietyInitiativeofSouthernAfrica,andotherdonors.AnumberofZambianorganizationshavealsocollaboratedwithLubuto,includingBarefeetTheatre,whichwasfoundedbyformerstreetchildrenandworkswithatriskchildren.

OsuChildren’sLibraryFund

KathyKnowles,who isCanadianand lived inAccra for severalyearswithher family, foundedanddirects the Osu Children’s Library Fund (OCLF).376 The first library was established in 1990 in theKnowlesfamilygardeninordertomakebooksavailabletotheneighbourhoodchildrenandhelpthemwithreading.Sincethen,eightcommunitylibrarieshavebeenestablishedintheGreaterAccraregionwithsupporttomorethan200librariesinGhana,primarilysmall(lessthan500books)school-basedfacilities.KnowleshasalsoworkedinpartnershipwithcommunitylibrariesinZimbabwe,BurkinaFaso(withFAVL)andthePhilippines.OCLFconstructedaone-roomlibraryinArkatan,Tanzaniain2014.Thelibrariesfocusonteachingchildrentoread,buttherearealsoanumberofotheractivities,suchasdrama.OsuChildren’sLibraryFundreceivesdonationsforlibraryinfrastructureandbooks.ThegovernmentofGhanapayslibrariansalaries.Intwoinstances,librariesarelocatedinschoolcompoundsandtheGhanaEducationServicepaysfortheteacherswhostaffthem.Inaddition,theAccraMetropolitanAssemblypays fornon-teachingstaff for librarieswithin itsdistrict.OCLF is responsible forLibrarymaintenance.374Squeakland:HomeofE-toys.Retrievedfromhttp://www.squeakland.org/375EIFL.(2011,March).OneLaptopPerChildZambianLanguageLiteracyProgamming.Retrievedfromhttp://www.eifl.net/sites/default/files/resources/201411/case_study_zambia_2.pdf376OsuChildren'sLibraryFund.Retrievedfromhttp://www.osuchildrenslibraryfund.ca/


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Inadditiontoco-publishingwithsub-SaharanPublisherstheOsuChildren’sLibraryFundisapublisherin its own right,mainly very simple concept bookswith photographs taken by Kathy Knowles forbeginningreaders.Therearebookstoteachthealphabet,numbers,colours,shapes,etc.Therearealsobooksforadultlearners.Althoughseveralofthebooksco-publishedwithSub-SaharanPublishershavebeentranslatedintootherlanguages,theOsuChildren’sLibraryFundonlyliststhosebooksinEnglish(buttherearealsotwobooksinKiswahiliforTanzaniaandKenya).377FatiandtheHoneyTree,forexamplewaspublishedinfourGhanaianlanguagesandFrench.

Internationalnon-governmentalorganizations

TheroleofinternationalNGOsiscomplicated.Manyofthemreceivegrantsandcontractstocarryouttheirmission.Atthesametime,someofthemusethefundsthattheyreceivetosupportorganizationsinthecountrieswheretheywork.Therearetoomanyorganizationsthatworkonliteracyissuesinthe developing world to list them all.378 Instead, we are limiting ourselves to four of the majororganizationsinthisfield,eachofwhichrepresentsadifferentaspectofthiswork.

BiblionefInternational

Biblionefisaninternationalorganization,whichwasfoundedinFrancein1989,aimstogivechildrenwithoutsufficientaccesstobooks‘thejoyofreading’.379ItisnowanetworkofindependentBiblioneforganizationsinEurope(France,theNetherlands,andBelgium),Suriname,SouthAfrica,andGhana.TheDutchofficeisresponsibleforestablishinglocalandself-supportingbranches.Biblionefbelievesthatitisimportanttostimulatethelocalpublishingindustry.Thisofficealsohelpswithsupporttothetwo African branches for library, reading, and literature projects, as well as translation into locallanguagesandproductionofBrailleandlarge-printbooksforthevisuallyimpaired.BbiblionefSouthAfrica380hasaverywell-developedprogramme.TheSouthAfricanBiblionefofficesreceiverequestsfromchildren’sorganizationsonadailybasistoassistthemwithdonationsofbooks.ThereisademandforearlyreadersotherthanthosetheygetfromtheDepartmentofEducation.Thedemandisforbooksinallofficiallanguages,butespeciallyXhosa,ZuluandAfrikaans.Each request is then assessed, according tomerit and needs.When the request is approved, theorganizationisinformedandtheywillreceiveasimplegrantagreementformtoread,signandreturntoBiblionef.Once the signed grant agreement reaches theBiblionef office, thebooks arepackedaccording to the children’s needs and despatched. Beneficiaries usually receive their booksapproximatelythreeweeksafterapplying.Theyhavearollingbookstockofmorethan300booksavailable.Each beneficiary organization has to commit to keep the Biblionef books in a safe and secureenvironmentandtosharethebooksbyreadingtothechildren.Beneficiariesarealsoexpectedto

377OsuChildren'sLibraryFund.BookCatalogue.Retrievedfromhttp://www.osuchildrenslibraryfund.ca/publications/book-catalogue/378AblogintheUKpublishedanexhaustivelistofreadingandliteracycharitiesworldwidein2012:Worldwidelistofreading/literacycharities.(2012).Retrieved1April2016,fromhttp://www.playingbythebook.net/2012/01/09/worldwide-list-of-readingliteracy-charities-2012/379Biblionef:Englishsummary.Retrievedfromhttp://biblionef.org/english-summary/380BiblionefSouthAfrica.1MillionBooksCampaign.).Retrievedfromhttp://biblionefsa.org.za


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writeashortreporttoBiblionefafterreceiptofthedonationofthebooks.ThisgivesBiblionefanindicationoftheimpactofthedonation.Biblionefalsorequeststhatbeneficiariescompleteacommunityproject,suchasreadingtoelderlypeopleorpaintingtheirschool,asawayofexpressingtheirthanksby‘payingitforward’.Asecond,and sometimes a third donation,may bemade to organizations that prove their commitment topromotingreadingandkeepingtotheseconditions.Theirbooks contain stories that children inAfrica can relate toand themajorityof thebooksarewritten,illustratedandpublishedinSouthAfrica.BiblioneftriestoensurethataswidearangeoftitlesaspossibleisavailableinallofSouthAfrica’selevenlanguages,asmanyofthesetitlesarenotreadilyavailablefromanyothersources.TheyalsohavetitlesinBraille,LargePrintandTactilebooksforthevisually impaired, as well as some titles in Portuguese and some titles in Sesotho sa Lesotho forbeneficiaries in Lesotho. In addition, Biblionef plans to print and distribute a selection of AfricanStorybooktitlesinSesothoforLesotho.381Biblionefacquiresbooksby:1. Purchasingtitlesfrompublishers(suchaslikeNewAfricabooks,Macmillan,Garamond,Anansi,

Oxford)andbooksellersatadiscountedprice;2. Receivingbookdonationsfrompublishers,booksellersandindividuals;3. Commissioning the publishing of appropriate titles - Biblionef has been instrumental in

commissioningthepublishingandreprintingofmorethan98titlesinindigenousSouthAfricanlanguages.382

BiblionefraisesfundingfromDonorsinthenon-corporateandcorporateworldbothnationallyandinternationally.Donatedbooksorthosethatarepurchasedmustbenewandrelevant.BooksinSouthAfricanlanguagesareakeytoBiblionef’swork.

CODE(formerlytheCanadianOrganizationforDevelopmentthroughEducation)

CODE,383whichislocatedinCanada,hasasitsmissionadvancingliteracyandeducationbysupportingthe publication and distribution of ‘engaging books’ for children around the world; professionaldevelopmentforteachersandlibrariansonteachingliteracy;andschoolandcommunitylibrariesandreadingcorners.CODE supports local publishers in order to facilitate the availability of learning and readingmaterials.384 CODE’s overall approach is one of subsidizing demand (guaranteed purchases), asopposed to subsidingproduction,which tends to stifleboth the initiativeand theperformanceofprivate-sector publishers. A good example of this approach is CODE’s Burt Literary Award, whichrecognizes excellence in young adult fiction from Tanzania, Ethiopia, Ghana, and Kenya. Separatecompetitionsareheldforcitizensofeachcountry.Theawardencouragesauthorstowriterelevant,high-quality novels in English (themediumof instruction of high schools) for young people, agedbetweentwelveandeighteenyears.WinningauthorsshareCAD$21Kinannualprizesineachcountry.Publishers are willing to publish the winning titles because CODE guarantees the purchase of 60percent of the initial print run, which is distributed to schools and libraries, on condition thatpublisherspay forandactivelymarket theremaining40percent.Thegoalof theBurtAward is topromotealoveofreadingbypublishingengagingbooksthatreflectyoungpeople’sreality.Thebooks

381TessaWelch,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,16March2016382JeanWilliams,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,11and12February2016383CODE.Retrieved21May2016fromhttp://www.codecan.org/384ScottWalter,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,27January2016


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arealsodigitizedandmadeavailableonline through theAfricanBooksCollective.CODEorganizessimilarBurtAwardsintheCaribbeanaswellasinCanadaforFirstNations,InuitandMétispeoples.385InadditiontotheBurtAwardinitiative,CODE’slocalpartnerssupporttheproductionofhigh-qualityreadingmaterialsaimedattheprimary-schoolmarketthroughworkshopsforillustratorsandauthors.CODEalsosubsidizesbookproductioncostsincountrieswherenoprivate-sectorpublishingexistsinorder tobuild localpublishingcapacity. Incountrieswhereapublishingsectorexists,CODEworksthroughguaranteedpurchases(subsidizationofdemand).Anannualcallisissuedtosubmitproposalsforchildren’sfictionornonfictionbooks.Eachproposalisreviewedbyanindependentcommittee,withrepresentationbyparents,teachers, linguistsreadingspecialists,etc.,afterwhicheachtitle isrejected,acceptedwithmodifications,oracceptedunconditionally.AswiththeBurtAwards,winningpublishersarerequiredtoproduceaminimumoffivethousandcopiesofthetitle.ThreethousandcopiesarepurchasedbytheCODEpartnerwithafortypercentdiscount;thepublisherisresponsiblefor marketing and selling the remaining two thousand copies in this initial print run. Winningpublishersarealsorequiredtosubmitamarketingandsalesstrategy.Asisthecaseanywhereintheworld,anindicatorofsuccessiswhenthepublishermustorderadditionalprintrunsinordertokeepthebook“inprint”.Thisismainlytrueforbooksusedinprivatesecondaryschools.Usingthe25-yearhistoryoftheChildren’sBookProject(CBP)ofTanzaniaasanexample,morethan300 children’s book titles in Kiswahili have beenpublished and some25private sector Tanzanianpublishersstrengthened.386AswithallCODEpartners,CBPalsoorganizesprofessionaldevelopmenttrainingforauthors,illustrators,publishers,booksellers,teachers,andlibrarians.(CBPisdiscussedinmoredetailinthesectiononnationalNGOs.)InadditiontoTanzania,CODEworksinsevenotherAfricancountries-Ethiopia,Ghana,Kenya,Liberia,Mali,Mozambique,andSierraLeone.387ItsprogrammesinthesecountriesformthebasisofCODE’sactivities,alloftheminvolvinglocalpartners.Thesepartnerorganizationscarryoutactivitiessimilarto the ones that CBP organizes. In addition, publishers with which CODE has had a relationshipsometimes help in other countries. Akoss Ofori-Mensah of Sub-Saharan Publishers in Ghana, forexample,hasassistedwithtraininginSierraLeoneandLiberia,twocountrieswithverylittlepublishingcapacity.

RoomtoRead

Room to Read is an NGO headquartered in San Francisco, which works in collaboration withcommunitiesand localgovernmentsacrossAsiaandAfrica todevelop literacyskillsandahabitofreadingamongprimaryschoolchildren.388Promotinggirls’educationatthesecondarylevelisalsoanimportantcomponentofRoomtoRead’swork.CountriesincludesixinAsia(Bangladesh,Cambodia,India,Laos,Nepal,andSriLanka)andthreeinAfrica(SouthAfrica,Tanzania,andZambia).There are three components to Room to Read’s comprehensive literacy strategy – learningenvironments,includingtheselectionofchild-friendlyfurnitureforlibrariesandschools,publishingandteachertrainingandsupport.RoomtoReadsupportforschoolslastsforfouryears,afterwhichschoolsareexpectedtocovertheirowncosts.RoomtoRead’slibraryprogrammeisvaried.SometimesRoomtoReadbuildsafree-standinglibraryoutsideofschools;othertimesanunusedclassroomisturnedintoalibraryoralibraryiscreatedin

385CODE'sBurtAward.(2015).Retrieved21May2016fromhttp://www.codecan.org/burt-award386Children'sBookProjectforTanzania.Retrievedfromhttp://www.cbp.or.tz/index.php?option=com_content387Acountrylistwithlinkswillbefoundat:CODE.(2015).WhereWeWork.Retrieved21May2016fromhttp://www.codecan.org/where-we-work388RoomtoRead.Retrievedon21May2016fromhttp://www.roomtoread.org/


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anexistingclassroom.Intheselatertwoinstances,localschoolauthoritiesguaranteethattheroomsorcornerswillremaindedicatedtolibraryuse.RoomtoReadalsohelpswithschoolrenovationswhennecessary.RoomtoRead,whichbelievesstronglyintheimportanceofprintforyoungchildren,isapublisherinits own right, although it buys books from commercial publishers. To date, Room to Read haspublished1,200books.Booksarewritten inmother tongues,and illustrated locally inorder tobeculturally and linguistically relevant to the children who will read them. Training workshops forauthorsand illustratorsareorganized ineachcountry fromwhichRoomtoReadwantstoacquirebooks.Layout,design,andprintingarealldonebyRoomtoRead,whichholds thecopyright.Thisapproach can lead to challenges. Books are mostly distributed to Room to Read libraries, whichconstrictstheircirculationandwidespreadavailability.BecausestoragespaceatRoomtoReadofficesislimited,printrunscanbeverysmall,sometimesasfewas600copies,althoughbooksarereprintedwhen necessary. Because Room to Read would like to grow its publishing outreach, it would beinterested in exploring the possibility of co-publishing and collaborationwith other organizations,suchasinTanzania.Inadditiontoreachingawideraudience,co-publishingwouldresultineconomiesofscaleandgreatersustainabilityforbooktitles.Largerprintrunswouldbefeasible,particularlyifthe in-country publisherwould take onwarehousing the books. Room toRead’s storageproblemcouldalsobeaddressedbecausethepublisherwouldberesponsibleforwarehousingthebooks.389Teachertrainingentailsanumberofstreams.Teachers learnhowtosetupandmaintaina libraryaccording to Room to Read classification systems. Room to Read libraries classify storybooks,nonfiction texts and chapter books by reading level (primary one through six) using very simple“GROWBY”390labelscolouredbylevelofdifficulty,sothatreaderscanfindmaterialsattheirlevel.Astheirskillsimprove,studentscanmoveupthescaleandfindmorechallengingbooks.Teachersalsolearnhowtousethebooksintheirclassroomwork.Therearefourtypesofreadingactivities-theteacherreadsastorytothechildren;thechildrenshareabook,usuallyabigbook;thereispairedreading;andthechildrenreadindependently.Teachersreceivetraininginalloftheseactivities.Theyalsolearnhowtoassesstheirpupils’readingskills.RoomtoReadhas just receiveda sub-contract fromUSAID,whichwill requireCreativeCommonslicensingforanybookspublishedthroughthisfunding.RoomtoReadmightalsobereceptivetoopenlicensingforsomeoftheolderbooksinitscollection.

NationalNGOsprovidingliteracysupport

TherearenationalNGOsofferingsupportforliteracydevelopmentinyoungchildreninanumberofcountries.OneexampleisgivenforEthiopia,twoforSouthAfrica,andoneforTanzania.Eachtakesaslightlydifferentapproachinachievingtheobjectiveofofferingsupportforliteracydevelopmentinyoungchildren.

CODEEthiopia

CODEEthiopia(CE),whichreceivesthebulkofitsfundingfromCODECanada,isanot-for-profitandnongovernmental organization,which has been operating in Ethiopia since 1994. Itsmission is tocreate an enabling environment to promote literacy in Ethiopia’s rural population, particularly bystimulatingchildren’sabilitytoreadandtheirpleasureindoingso.Tothisend,CODEEthiopiaisa

389AlishaBerger,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,28January2016390Green,red,orange,white,black,andyellow.Manysmallchildren’slibrariesusethissystem.AgoodexplanationcanbefoundontheRotaryClubwebsite.Retrievedfromhttp://rotaryteach.org/library/Library%20Creation.pptx


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publisherofsupplementarybooksandreaders;developscommunitylibraries;andprovidestrainingto authors, illustrators, editors, and librarians. CE also receives donated books from Book AidInternational (BAI)andthe InternationalBookBank (IBB).BothgroupssendCE listsofbooks fromwhichtoselect.BAI,whichdonatesusefulbooksfromearlychildhoodthroughtouniversityschooling,isespeciallyhelpfulwithbooksatthetertiarylevel.CE collaborates closelywith theMinistry of Education and the regional educational bureaus. TheMinistryalsoprovideswarehousespaceonitscompoundinAddisAbabaandrentsCODEofficespacenearbyataheavilysubsidizedpriceThebooksCEpublishesarecloselyalignedwithschoolcurricula;36newtitlesandsomereprintsarepublishedannuallyforCEestablishedlibrariesandattachedschools,1,100copiespertitle.Manymorecopiesareneeded,however,forpartsofthecountrywithlargepopulations.Forexample,theDireDawaandHarariregionsrequirerelativelysmallnumbersofcopies,perhaps1,000-1,200ofeachtitle.Populousregions,suchasOromiaandAmharawouldbeabletousebetween5,000and6,000copiesofeachtitleinordertoreachatleast1,000schoolswithfivecopiesofeachtitle.Generally,speaking,theAmhara,Oromia,andSouthernNations,NationalitiesandPeoples’regions(SNNPR),whicharequite populous, have large numbers of schools and could use the most books, if they wereavailable.391.Over theyears,CODEEthiopiahasbecomeamajoreducationalpublisher,ofboth supplementarybooks and readers, inAmharic and six other local languages, aswell as in English. ChildrenbeginlearningEnglishinthefirstformandaretaughtentirelyinEnglishstartingin9thform,althoughSNNPRandGambellasometimesbeginasearlyas5th form. It isclear,however, thatyoungchildrenneedpicturebooks in theirownmother tonguemore than those in anyother languagewhen theyarebeginningtoread.ThisiswhatsetstheCEbooksapartfromthebooksitreceivesthroughdonations.Thedonatedbooksarefarmoreusefulforstudentsinsecondaryschoolandatthetertiarylevel.Theimportanceofmother-tonguechildren’sbookswasemphasizedina2012assessmentofCODEEthiopia when the evaluators contrasted the limited role of the donated materials with theimportanceofCE’sownpublications.

ThereisoverwhelmingevidencethatthevariousCODE-EthiopiapublicationsarehavingamajorimpactontheliteracyandlearningofchildrenandyouththroughoutEthiopia.Repeatedly,theresearch teamheardstoriesofhowthebooksproduced in local languagesarepopularwithchildren.392

The authors therefore recommended that CODE Ethiopia increase its publishing output in locallanguages.Inadditiontoattentiontolanguage,CODEbookspaycloseattentiontooverallappropriateness.ItisnotenoughtotranslateastoryfromoneEthiopianlanguagetoanother.CODEmustalsoensurethattheillustrationsareacceptable.Forexample,onavisittoCODEEthiopia,LisbethLeveywasgivenacopyofabook inAmharicand inSomali,which is loosely translated intoEnglishasNewYearandChildren.NoteFigureFivebelow-thefemalesintheSomaliversionontheleftarecovered,whiletheAmharagirlsarenot.Theillustrationsinthestoryareequallyappropriateineachlanguage.

391YalewZeleke,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,17May2016.392Asselin,M.,Doiron,R.,Kassman,Y.,&McPerson,K.(2012,March).AssessmentofCODE'sPartnershipProgramwithCODE-Ethiopia,2007-2012(Rep.).Retrieved10May2016,fromCODECanadawebsite:http://www.codecan.org/sites/default/files/CODE-EthiopiaAssessmentApril182012.pdf,p.40


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Figure5 “NewYearandChildren”inSomaliandinAmhara

CODE Ethiopia has also produced outsize picture books in a number of Ethiopian languages andsubjects-eachgearedtothecurriculum.These“bigbooks,”suchastheoneonsanitationathome,are suitable for children and for adults, who are either illiterate or have difficulty reading in anylanguage.Theillustrationshelptellthestory.BookscanbepublishedmorecheaplybecauseCEhasbeenabletoconvincewriters,illustrators,andeditorstolowertheircharges.TheycontributetheirtimeandtalentbecausetheyknowthatCEdoesnotchargeforthebooksitpublishes.Forexample,whenthelargeformatbooksmentionedabovewerepublished,CODEEthiopiapaid200birr(US$9.2)perpagetothewriters,500birr(US$23)perpage to the illustrators and 100 birr (US$3.6) per page to the editors, a fraction of what otherorganizationswouldpay.OnepictureforacommercialpublisherwouldcostmorethanwhatCODEEthiopiapaysforauthors, illustrators,andeditorscombined.CE’schallenge,however, isthatlivingcostsinEthiopiaarerisingandthereisaconcomitantdemandbythewriters,illustrators,editors,andotherstoincreasetheirfees.DevelopingcommunitylibrariesisanimportantpartoftheCODEEthiopiamission.Todate,CEhasdeveloped97librariesin97ruraldistrictsofEthiopia.CEsupportconcentratesonprovisionofbooks,furniture,ICTequipmentandotherrelatedequipmentforfour-fiveyearsandsometimesafewyearslonger.Afterthat,thelocalcommunityisresponsibleformaintainingthelibrary,includingpayingthelibrarian’ssalary,althoughCEcontinuestoaddbookstothelibrary’scollection.What setsCODEEthiopiaapart fromeducationalpublishers inEthiopiaandelsewhere inmuchofAfricaisthefactthatsince2014manyCODEEthiopiapublicationsbearaCreativeCommonsLicense.This includes both books and trainingmaterials. CEwas introduced to open licensing through itscollaborationwith EIFL, theprogram topromoteelectronic information for libraries. TheEIFL linkbegan,inpartthroughCE’sinterestinbringingparentstothelibrarytoreadwiththeirchildren.CE


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was one of ten organizations to win a one-year innovation program grant aimed at using ICT topromote family literacy programs in three rural community libraries (Durbetie, Fiche, and DireDawe).393CEcontinuestoexperimentwithdigitaltechnologies.Inanewone-yearprogramincollaborationwithIREX/Beyond Access.394 CEwill produce 12 local language digital books, and three apps - one forletters,oneforwordsandoneforstories.CEisalsocollaboratingwithASbontheInternetcomponentof itswork.OnestoryisontheASbwebsiteandmoreareplanned.ThereisalsoarecentlysignedMemorandumofUnderstandingbetweenCEandASb.CODE Ethiopia also stresses the importance of training. As a part of its community libraryprogramming,CEhasimplementedanextensivetrainingprogramofthree-weekworkshopsforlibrarystaff on librarymanagement and collection development as well as the principles and strategiesassociatedwithreadingpromotionandliteracysupport.ThesetrainingresourcesweredevelopedincollaborationwithCODECanadavolunteers,andareavailableonlinefreeofcharge.395

ShineLiteracy,SouthAfrica

Shineisanearlyliteracyinterventionforchildrenfromdisadvantagedcommunities.ItstartedinCapeTown to support childrenwhodonot speakEnglish as a first languageandattend schoolswhereEnglishisthelanguageofinstruction.ShineoffersEnglishlanguageandliteracysupportprogrammesin46primary schools. It runs literacycentres (a room ina school)usingavolunteermodel.ShineCentresprovideindividualisedsupporttochildreninGradesTwoandThreetostrengthentheirEnglishreading,writing and speaking skills. Childrenworkwith trained volunteers once or twice aweek,duringtheschoolday,foratleastoneyear.396Volunteersofferaminimumof1andhalfhoursaweekprovidingliteracysupport.Thereare16ShineChapters(socialfranchises)inthreeprovincesinSouthAfricawhichareindependentlyrunandfunded.397Shine also developed a ‘Book Buddies’ model which pairs older and younger children in schoolstogethertoenhancethereadingskillsofboth.Theymeettwotothreetimesaweekfor15minutesanddopairedandsharedreading–methodologyalsousedinallShineCentresduringtheLiteracyHourprogramme.398Theinitiativeisfundedbylocalfunders,trusts,orbycompaniesaspartoftheirCSIprojects.ShinepurchasesbooksfrompublisherssuchasOxford,Cambridge,JutaandBiblionef.WhilethefocusisonEnglish,attimes,theyprovidesupport/resourcestochildreninlocallanguages.399

Nal’iBali,SouthAfrica

Nal’ibali(isiXhosafor“here’sthestory”)isaSouthAfricannationalreading-for-enjoymentcampaigntosparkchildren’spotentialthroughstorytellingandreading.400Thecampaignstartedin2012bytheDGMurrayTrustandPRAESA (TheProject for theStudyofAlternativeEducation inSouthAfrica),combining a national mass media and awareness campaign with a programme of face-to-face

393EIFL.(n.d.).Rurallibrariesimprovingearlyliteracylevelsofpre-schoolchildren|EIFL.Retrieved21May2016,fromhttp://www.eifl.net/eifl-in-action/rural-libraries-improving-early-literacy-levels-pre-school-children394IREX.BeyondAccess.Retrievedfromhttps://www.irex.org/projects/beyond-access(BeyondAccessisworkingwithlocalorganizationsineightcountriestosupportlibraries).395CODEEthiopia.ItTakesaVillagetoRaiseaReader.Retrieved14May2016,fromhttps://codelibraries.wordpress.com/396Shine.ShineCentres.Retrievedfromhttp://www.shineliteracy.org.za/what-we-do/397CarrieMashek,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,9February2016398Shine.ShineCentres.Retrievedfromhttp://www.shineliteracy.org.za/what-we-do/399CarrieMashek,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,9February2016400Nal’ibali.AboutUs.Retrievedfromhttp://nalibali.org/about-us/


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mentoringandsupport facilitated throughanetworkofClusterMentorsandStorySparkers in sixprovincesacrossSouthAfricaThe campaign includes collaborating with Times Media, to produce a weekly bilingual Nal’ibalireading-for-enjoymentnewspapersupplement.Theseareproducedandcirculatedthroughinsertionintonewspapersandarealsodirectlydistributedtoschools,readingclubs,literacyprogrammesandNGOs.401Thesematerialsarescaffolded(andincludesstories,withideasandsuggestiontoadultsonhowtousethematerials)sothatadultsareabletousethemtorunareadingprogramme.Nal’ibaliworkswithpublisherstoallowthemtoabridgetheirpicturestories.

Oneoftheelements…isthatweworkwithpublisherstoallowustoabridgetheirpicturebooks…wemakethemalwaysbilingual,soit’sEnglishandoneAfricanlanguage.Wedoalotofworkontranslation.Sothismeansthatchildrencancollecttheirownlibraryofstorybooks,althoughtheyareabridgedversionsofthesestorybooks.402Workingwithpublishersallowstheiravailablestockofstoriestobecomeknown.Ithinkthatthesolution to creating children’s literature in Africa is towork in a combination ofways,withpublishersonboard.Because if youdon’tworkwithpublishers, there isno sustainability forbooksinAfrica.Mybeliefisverystrongly(that)atthesametimewearegrowingthedesiretoread,wehavetobethinkingintothefuture–wehavearesponsibilitytoworkwithpublishersandnottodivideorweakenthem.403

Nal’ibalialsooffersachildren’sradioprogrammeinallofficiallanguagesthreetimesaweekonSABCpublic radio stations, in partnership with SABC Education.404 Further, it has a mobi site to allowresourcestobedownloaded.405Thecampaignalsofocusesondeveloping,producingandprovidingaregular supply of reading andwritingmaterials to it reading clubs,workingwith partners such asBiblioneftoprovidebooksandtheLittleHandsTrustandpublisherstocreateandtranslaterelevant,good-qualityreadingmaterialsforchildreninEnglishandAfricanlanguages.406Attheprovinciallevel,theprogrammeinvolvesestablishingaNal’ibalipresenceregionally,enlistingandsupportingthedevelopmentofreadingclubsandcommunityactiongroupstosupportreadingforenjoyment,andconductingworkshopsandmentorshipprogrammes.407

Children’sBookProjectforTanzania

TheChildren’sBookProjectforTanzania,whichisaninitiativeofCODECanada,wasestablishedin1991inresponsetoTanzania’sacuteshortageofchildren’sbooksandlackofcapacity inthebooksectortoproducerelevantresources.Atthetime,therewereonlytwopublishers,bothownedbythegovernmentandneitherpublishingbooks foryoungchildren.CBP’smission is todevelopastrongreadingculturethroughtheprovisionofhigh-qualityreadingresourcesinKiswahili.Atthetimeofitsfounding,CBP’simmediateobjectivesweretwofold:tocoordinatebookproductionintheearlychildhoodsectorandtotrainbookstakeholders.InCBP’sfirstyears,writers,illustrators,editors,andprintersweresenttoKenya,Zimbabwe,andtheUK.Forthekindoftrainingthatthey

401Nal’ibali.Ourmediaplatforms&readingmaterials.Retrievedfromhttp://nalibali.org/about-us/our-programmes-platforms/402CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016403CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016404Nal’ibali.Ourmediaplatforms&readingmaterials.Retrievedfromhttp://nalibali.org/about-us/our-programmes-platforms/405CaroleBloch,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,19February2016406Nal’ibali.Ourmediaplatforms&readingmaterials.Retrievedfromhttp://nalibali.org/about-us/our-programmes-platforms/407Nal’ibali.Ourtraining,mentoring&supportprogramme.Retrievedfromhttp://nalibali.org/about-us/our-training-research/


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could not receive at home. In Africa, Kenya and Zimbabwe were particularly advanced in bookpublishing.Althoughoutputattheoutsetwaslowquality,slowlyqualitybegantoimproveasmoreexperiencewasgainedathome.CBPbegan to focusonmore than thesupplysidewhen, in1996,a study revealed that thebooksproducedthroughCBPeffortswerebeingstoredinschoolcupboardsorwerestillunpackedintheboxesinwhichtheyarrived.Providingbookswasnotenough.Trainingteachershowtoteachreadingandwritingwasessential,aswasestablishingschoolandclassroomlibraries.Withtheestablishmentof the reading program in 1997, CBP added bookmanagement and utilization to its portfolio ofactivities,whichcontinuedtoincludethebooksector.Thereadingprogrambeganinasmallnumberofpilotschools;todayitisbeingcarriedoutin271schoolsinfourregionsandtwelvedistricts.Throughworkshopsandothermechanisms,CBPhastrainedmorethan5,000teachers,someofwhomhave gone on to train other teachers, within the school system and at teacher training colleges.Because many children arrive at school without Kiswahili language ability, CBP has developed amethodologytotrainteacherstoteachthesechildrenKiswahilireadingskills,eventhoughthisisnottheirmothertongue.

Equalattention isgivento trainingandworkingwith school and classroom librarians. CBP alsopromotes reading clubs, reading competitions,and other activities to instill a love of reading.Parents and other family members areencouragedtovisitthe libraryandparticipateinactivities.When someone borrows a book fromanyoftheschoollibraries,itwillcirculatewithin

thefamily,toneighbors,andtootherslivingnearby.CBPcontinuestopromotechildren’spublishingthroughRequestsforProposals(RFPs).Publishersareinvitedtosubmitbookproposals,whicharethenreviewedbyteamsofexperts.Winningpublishersare expected to produce a print run of 5,000 copies. CBP purchases 3,000 for distribution to theschoolsandlibrarieswithwhichitcollaborates;theremaining2,000aresoldbythepublishersontheopenmarket. Todate, CBPhas facilitated thepublicationofmore than350 titles, stories, novels,poetry,andfournonfictiontitles.

Commercialpublishers

Publishers have traditionally been the lynchpin of the publishing industry supply chain. They payauthorsandillustrators,eitherthroughaflatfeeorroyalties;theyareresponsibleforediting,designand layout, production, marketing, and distribution. This section focuses mainly on the Africanexperience,with two examples of smaller commercial publishing houses that are known for theirchildren’sbooks.TheNationalBookTrustofUgandaisalsoincludedinthissection,inpartbecauseofits experience in an IDRC-funded research project on alternative licensing models for books.Additionally,acommercialpublisherfromIndiaisdescribedhere.Africanpublishinghasbeenbuffetedbydecliningeconomies,compromisedfundingforeducationalsystemsandresourcesfromprimarytothetertiarylevel,donorpoliciesthathavefavouredprovisionof foreign educational materials over those that can be produced locally, and book donationprogrammes,whicharediscussedindetailabove.Butstarting inthe1990s,donorshelpedinitiatethreeinitiativestostrengthenpublishinginAfricaoverall.ThesearetheAfricanPublishersNetwork

Reading100booksandwinningawrapperIn a CBP reading competition, one motherread100booksandwonawrappertowear.Whenaskedhowshehadmanagedtoreadsomanybooks, she replied that she read aftercompleting chores on her farm, with herchildren,andwithotherfamilymembers.


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(APNET),whichwasestablished in1992and remainedactive forabout twodecades.TheBellagioPublishingNetwork,inauguratedin1991andwounddownactivitiesin2007;408andtheAfricanBooksCollective(ABC),establishedin1985andstillgoingstrong.WithheadquartersinHarare,Zimbabwe,APNETwassetupbySwedishSiDAandnineotherdonorsto strengthen and promote 23 indigenous publishing. It regularly convened capacity-buildingworkshopsandat leastoneannual indaba at theZimbabwe InternationalBookFair (ZIBF).APNETcollaboratedwith ZIBF tomake the fair one of themost vibrant literary activities on the Africancontinent.Inadditiontoworkshops,thetwoorganizationscollaboratedon“Africa’s100BestBooksofthe20thCentury”tocelebrateAfricanliteraryachievement.APNETalsosponsoredAfricanpublisherstoattendbookfairs,bothinAfricaandEurope,andsuppliedfunds for computers and other equipment at national publishers’ association secretariats. TainieMundodo, the APNET Trade Promotion Officer always exhibited African-published books at theBolognaandFrankfurtBookFairs,andevenattheTaipeiBookFair.There are a number of reasons why APNET was ultimately unsustainable. As a Pan-Continentalorganizationofmemberpublishers’organizationsacrossAfrica,itwasimpossibletosatisfytheneedsofeverycountrybecauseconditionsvariedsomuch. Inaddition,APNETwastotallydependentondonorsupport,withfewattemptstoexploresustainabilitypossibilities.409AkossOfori-MensahofSub-SaharanPublishersrecallsthat:

APNET paid to send its members to workshops, book fairs, conferences, etc. Thus Africanpublishersreallyneverlearnttopayforthemselves.Membersevenrenegedonthe$100annualmembershipfee.Indefinitetotaldependencyondonorsupportwasunrealistic.Moreover,thehastyrelocationfromHararetoAbidjan[justasthecountry’spoliticalcrisiswasbeginning]didnothelpthecauseoftheorganization.410

TheBellagioPublishingNetwork (BPN)wasalsoestablishedbydonors, in cooperationwithABCinordertobringtogetherkeypractitioners(publishers,NGOs,etc.)withEuropeanandUSdonors.Itsname is derived from the Rockefeller Foundation Bellagio centre, where the organization wasfounded.TheactiveparticipationofpublishersintheinauguralmeetingandthereafterensuredthatBPNwasnotperceivedasadonor-drivenexercise.Initsheyday,thenetworkpublishedanumberofstudiesonpublishingintheSouth,primarilyinAfrica;organizedadiscussionforum;andproducedanewsletter.ItceasedoperationaftertheestablishmentofAPNETandthediversionofdonorresourcestothisorganization.411However,itspublishingoutputisstillavailableontheBPNwebsite.412

AfricanBooksCollective

ABCistheonlyoneofthethreeorganizationsdiscussedabovetosurviveandthrive.Itwasestablishedin 1985 in London by 17 active sub-Saharan African publishers. Start-up funding came from theSwedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). ABC is located in Oxford, UK forlogistical reasons associatedwith international shipping andbecause theUK is such an importantpublishing center. It is a not-forprofit organization,which is ownedandgovernedby itsmember

408BellagioPublishingNetwork.Retrieved15May2016fromhttp://www.bellagiopublishingnetwork.com/409CapacityBuildingintheAfricanBookIndustry.(1999).Retrievedfromhttp://www.sida.se/contentassets/908dabcbfe65424ab0b2784b22feba7b/sida-evaluations-newsletter8_1811.pdf410AkossOfori-Mensah.PersonalCommunicationtoLisbethLevey,4May2016.411MuchoftheinformationontheBellagioPublishingNetwork,APNET,andABCcomesfromBgoya,W.,&Jay,M..(2013).PublishinginAfricafromIndependencetothePresentDay.ResearchinAfricanLiteratures,44(2),17–34.http://doi.org/10.2979/reseafrilite.44.2.17;Jay,M.(1994).AfricanBooksCollectiveItsContributiontoAfricanPublishing.AfricaBibliographyAfr.Bibliogr,1992,Vi-Xviii.DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S0266673100005699.;andfromJustinCox,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,4and15December2015412BellagioPublishingNetwork.Retrieved15May2016,fromhttp://www.bellagiopublishingnetwork.com/index


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publishersofwhichtherearenow155in24countries.Tobecomeamember,publishersoncepaidaone-timefeeof£500.However,thefeewaseliminatedin2000.ABChasalwaysremittedsalesincometo member publishers, holding some sales income back to cover ABC’s own costs, which aredelineatedinABC’sFAQ’s.413ABC’sgoalistoreturn55percentofsalesincometomemberpublishers.ABCissuccessfulbecauseitfulfillsitsmembers’needtopromote,market,andselltheirbookstoaninternationalcommunityofscholars.Italsoremitsfundsinatimelymanner.ABCfocusesonscholarlybooksandliterature,which isthesourceofmostof its income,althoughthereare somechildren’sbook titles included in its catalogue.414Thesearecategorizedunder thecollectionfor‘childrenandteens’.ABCisparticularlyinterestedinpromotingbooksaimedatteens,andpartnerswithCanadianCODEontheBurtAwardforyoungadultliteraturebydigitizing,marketinganddistributingprize-winningbooks.ABCsellsworldwide,includinginAfrica,butnotinthepublisher’sowncountryunlesspermissionisgiven.WithinAfrica,theIntra-AfricaBooksSupportScheme(IABSS),launchedbyABCandBookAidInternationalin1991enabledtheflowofAfricanpublicationsacrossAfrica.IABSSisdiscussedindetailinthesectiononbookdonationprogramsabove.Atthestart,allpublishersmailedahardcopyoftheirbookstotheUK,wherebookswerewarehoused,andthenmailedtobuyers.ABCnowusesprintondemand(POD)andebookstothemaximumextentpossible,althoughsometitles,suchasillustratedartbooksorverylongcasedvolumesmaynotbesuitableforPOD.Inaddition,occasionallydonorsrequirepublisherstoproduceaspecificprintrun.ABCusesPODmachinesallovertheworldaspartofan integratedsolutionthat isofferedbytwodifferentwholesalers. AlthoughABC finds that unit costs for PODaremore expensive thanoffsetprinting,ABConlyprintswhenanorderisreceivedandpaidfor.Thus,thepublisherincursnoupfrontcostsandbooksnevergooutofprint.ebook sales are more cost-effective because there are no shipping costs. ABC has differentmechanismsforsellingebooks,eitherlibraryplatformsforacademicbooksorreadersfortradebooks.AcademiclibrariesworldwidesubscribetovariousABCcollectionsthroughJohnsHopkinsUniversity’snot-forprofitProjectMuse415orthroughanumberofcommerciallibraryplatforms,suchasEBSCOHost.Academicreadersandlibrariesfrequentlyorderprintcopiesinadditiontohavingdigitalaccessbecauseebooksaremoreusefulfordiscoverabilityatherthanforreading.RetailebookvendorslistingtitlesmarketedbyABCincludeKindleandiBook.

MkukinaNyota,Tanzania

Located in Dar es Salaam and established in 1991 by Walter Bgoya, Mkuki na Nyota416 is anindependentpublisherthatfocusesoneducational,children’s,scholarly,art,andtradebooks.Manyarepublished inKiswahili,bothchildren’sandadulttitles.BeforefoundingMkukinaNyota,BgoyawasthegeneralmanageroftheTanzaniaPublishingHouse,apositionheheldfor18years.BgoyawasalsothefoundingchairoftheAfricanBooksCollectiveandcontinuestoretainthatposition.Bgoyahasalsowrittenandtranslatedchildren’spicturebooks.MkukinaNyotameans‘spearandstar’inKiswahili.AccordingtoWalterBgoya,hismotivationis‘toproducebeautiful,relevantandaffordablebooks’.Heexplainedthathestartedwithafewchildren’sbooks before adding scholarly books and fiction. He publishes some textbooks, but not many.Heretofore,textbookpublishingwasthemostlucrativepartoftheindustry,butprofitsmightdecline413AfricanBooksCollective.FAQs.Retrievedfromhttp://www.africanbookscollective.com/faq414About125titlesoutofabooklistofmorethan1,500titles.415ProjectMUSE.Retrievedfromhttps://muse.jhu.edu/416MkukinaNyotaPublishers.Retrievedfromhttp://www.mkukinanyota.com/


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nowbecausethegovernmentplanstocreateitsowntextbookmonopoly.AccordingtoBgoya,thegovernment does not generally purchase children’s books, except when they are designed as asupplementalreader.417InadditiontomarketingitsbooksinternationallythroughABC,MkukinaNyotaimprintsaresoldinbookstoresinTanzaniaandKenyaandonlinethroughAmazon,Foyles,andKalahari,tonamethreeservices.Thereare52EnglishandKiswahilichildren’stitlespublishedbyMkukinaNyota,37oftheminKiswahili. In2014,MkukinaNyotawontwoawardsasapartofCODE’sBurtAward forAfricanLiterature,Tanzania.ItwonfirstplaceforTheDetectivesofShangani:theMysteryofLostRubiesbyNahidaEsmailandthirdplaceforTheWishbyMwamgwiraniJ.Mwakimatu.418

NationalBookTrustofUganda

The National Book Trust of Uganda (NABOTU)419 was established in 1997 to promote authors,publishing, and the development of a reading culture in Uganda. NABOTU works with partnerorganizations,suchas theReadingAssociationofUgandaandtheUgandanChildren’sWritersandIllustrators Association,420 and with publishers to organize book donations (80 percent of themstorybooks),bookfairsandweeks,andreadingtentsforchildren.NABOTUalsocoordinatesworkonbook policies, copyright, and other issues pertinent to publishers. Finally,NABOTU is an affiliatedinstitutionofCreativeCommonsUganda.Most books published in Uganda are printed overseas to reduce costs. Batambuze, NABOTU’sExecutiveSecretary,estimatedthatevenso,paper,production,andshippingtoUgandaaccountforabout70percentofabook’sproductioncosts.Editorialcosts (writing,editing, illustration,design,layout,andformatting)accountsfortheremaining30percent.421AccordingtoBatambuze,thegovernmentbuysmostschoolbooks,mainlytextbooks,althoughitalsopurchasedstorybooksuntil2008; since thenvery fewstorybookshavebeenpurchased.But someparentsbuy them, sometimesbecause theywant their children to read these kindsof books andsometimes because the private schools their children attend require them. Batambuze alsocommentedontheUSAID-fundedUgandaSchoolHealthandReadingProgramme(SHRP),422whichisledbyRTI Internationalandcarriedoutwith theMinistryofEducationofUganda423andNGOs toproducebooksinmother-tonguelanguagesandtrainteachers.Batambuzethoughtthatpublishersshouldhavebeeninvolved.Heaskedaboutwherecapacity,competency,andthebooksthemselveswouldbehousedaftertheprogramme’scompletion.ThiscorrespondswithinformationprovidedbyAkossOfori-MensahinGhana(seebelow.)

417WalterBgoya,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,21January2016418CODE.(2014).BurtAwardforAfricanLiterature.Retrieved15May2016,fromhttp://www.codecan.org/book-type/burt-award-for-african-literature419NationalBookTrustofUganda.ReadingisKey.Retrievedfromhttp://nabotu.or.ug/420UgandaChildren'sWriters&IllustratorsAssociation.Retrievedfromhttp://www.ucwia.or.ug/UCIAistheUgandanchapteroftheInternationalBoardonBooksforYoungpeople,discussedinthesectiononinternationalNGOs.Itisalsoabookpublisher.421Batambuze,W,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,15December2015422RTIInternational.InternationalEducationProjects:Uganda-UgandaSchoolHealthandReadingProgram(UgandaSHRP)Project(2012-2017).Retrievedfromhttp://www.rti.org/page.cfm?obj=39BFD6D0-5056-B100-0CC4429A093082DEandCentreforEducationInnovations.UgandaSchoolHealthandReadingProgram(SHRP).Retrievedfromhttp://www.educationinnovations.org/program/uganda-school-health-and-reading-program-shrp.423BatambuzespecificallymentionedtheNationalCurriculumDevelopmentCentre(http://www.ncdc.go.ug),whichisanarmofthegovernment.


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Sub-SaharanPublishers,Ghana

Sub-SaharanPublishers424 focusesonpublishingbooksonenvironmental issues, thehistoryof thetrans-Atlantic slave trade,African literature andother scholarly subjects. In addition, Sub-SaharanPublishershasastrongcommitmenttoproducingchildren’sstorybooks.AkossOfori-MensahisthedirectorofSub-SaharanPublishers.SheisacouncilmemberoftheAfricanBooksCollective,anexecutivecommitteememberoftheInternationalBoardforBooksfortheYoung(IBBY),andwasanexecutiveboardmemberoftheAfricanPublishersNetwork(APNET).Sub-Saharan Publishers has a catalogue of children’s books, including picture books for the veryyoung.425Internationally-recognizedillustrators,suchasMeshackAsare,havewrittenandillustratedSub-Saharan titles.Asarewon the prestigious Neustadt Prize for Children’s Literature in 2015 forKwajoandtheBrassman’sSecret,whichhealsowrote.426TwotitlespublishedbySub-SaharanAfricaPublisherswerealsorecipientsofCODE’sBurtAwardforAfricanLiteraturein2010.Inaddition,manystories are about other countries - Mimi Mystery, for example, is about an Ethiopian child.Empowerment of women and the girl child are important themes; many of the picture bookprotagonistsaregirls.Most of the list is sold within Ghana because shipping elsewhere in Africa is difficult. Books arepurchased by ‘educated parents, visitors to the country, and occasionally by the Ministry ofEducation’.427ABCisresponsibleforfulfillingordersinternationally,includingafewinAfrica,butthereareveryfewordersviaABCforthechildren’sbooks.Sub-SaharanPublishersalsosellsitsbooksonKindlethroughWorldreader.BooksorderedthroughWorldreadercost$3.99.Ofori-MensahlikestheWorldreaderconnectionbecausetitlesaretypicallyorderedforalloftheKindlesinaclass;thusmorethanonecopyissoldatatime.Shedoesn’tthinkthatmoretrafficcomestothewebsiteasaresultofexposureonAmazon.Sub-SaharanPublishersregularlyexhibitsatinternationalbookfairs,suchasBologna,Frankfurt,andCapeTown.AccordingtoOfori-Mensah,mostbooksareinEnglishbecause‘itiseasiertoselltheminEnglishthaninlocallanguages.Thesnagisthattheeducatedelitedonotallowtheirchildrentospeaktheirmothertongue:theyspeakEnglishwiththem.Unfortunately, theteachingof local languages inthepublicschoolshasgonedowndrastically’428Ofori-MensahhasworkedwithKathyKnowles,DirectoroftheOsuChildren’sLibraryFund429toco-publishstoriesinEnglishandinGhanaianlanguages.Onechildtold Kathy Knowles the stories, which Kathy then wrote, and Ofori-Mensah was responsible forillustrations,layout,andproduction.ThefourbooksintheFatiserieshavesoldverywell,withFatiandtheHoneyTreebeingthemostpopular.Ofori-Mensahestimatesthateachbookhashadaprintrunofover5,000.FatiandtheHoneyTreewasalsotranslatedintosomeGhanaianlanguages.TheDagaareeditionwasselected for inclusion inaUSAID/GhanaEducationServiceproject,and9,600bookswereorderedthroughthiscontract.430

424Sub-SaharanPublishers.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sub-saharanpublishers.com/425Inaddition,CODEpresentsanannualawardforyoungpeople’sfiction,withwinningtitlesdistributedbyABC.Sub-SaharanPublisherswonthisawardfortwotitlesin2010.426MeshackAsareAnnouncedasthe2015WinnerofthePrestigiousNSKNeustadtPrizeforChildren'sLiterature-TheNeustadtPrize.(2014).Retrieved11March2016fromhttp://www.neustadtprize.org/meshack-asare-announced-2015-winner-prestigious-nsk-neustadt-prize-childrens-literature-2/427AkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,17December2015428AkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,17December2015429OsuChildren'sLibraryFund.Retrievedfromhttp://www.osuchildrenslibraryfund.ca/TheOsuChildren'sLibraryFundisdiscussedinthesectiononLibraries.430AkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,8January2016


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Inaddition,FatiandtheHoneyTreeandSosu’sCallweretranslatedintoFrenchin2002,withsupportfromtheFrenchMinistryofForeignAffairs.TheprojectwashandledbyLaJoieparleslivres,aFrenchNGO that supports the development of children’s literature and reading in the developingworld,particularlyformerFrenchcolonies.431FatoumataKeita,anIvorianaward-winningwriterofchildren’sstoriesandaprofessorattheUniversityofCocodyinAbidjan,didthetranslation.Ofori-MensahisalsopayinghertotranslateYennenga,theDagombaPrincess intoFrench.Yennengaisthematriarchoftribes innorthernGhanaand inBurkinaFaso.Ofori-MensahthereforebelievesthatthisstorybookwouldbeparticularlyrelevantinFrancophoneAfrica.432LikeBatambuze,Ofori-Mensahbelievesthatpublishersshouldbethelinchpinforprojectsandpilotsinproductionofchildren’sbooksbecausethereismorecontinuityandbetterdisseminationofbooksnationally,throughoutAfrica,andinternationally.Forexample,someofthebookspublishedbySub-SaharanPublishersareavailablethroughitscatalogue,ABC,OsuChildren’sLibraryFund,onAmazonKindle, and through Waterstones and other publishers. In addition, as Figure Three shows, it ispossibletofindtheMeshackAsarestoriesbysearchingGoogleandfollowingthelinkstoSub-SaharanPublishers.ThiskindofcirculationmightnothavehappenedifdonorshadworkedexclusivelywithNGOs, as after funding and projects end, books can get lost. She mentioned that USAID booksproducedwiththeGhanaEducationServicearenotalwaysavailableafterprojectsconclude.433

AmalionPublishing,Senegal

AmalionPublishing,434establishedin2009,isbasedinSenegal.Itproducespublicationsundergeneraltrade,academicbooksaswellasliteraryfiction.TheypublishinEnglish,FrenchandhopetopublishinPortugueseandlocallanguages(ifthemarketallows).Thefocusismainlyonpublishingscholarlyworkforawiderreadershipandsomehighereducationtextbooks.Theyarelookingtopublishyoungadultandchildren’sbooksinthefuture.Amalionfollowsatraditionaldistributionmodel,andithasagreementswithafewdistributorswhodealwiththemarket.Initially,Amaliontriedtodistributedirectly,buttheyfacedmanyobstacles–forexample,whenpeoplepurchaseintheUS,themoneycameinsmallamountwhichwasswallowedbybankcharges,andonlinesystemssuchasPayPalwasnotfeasibleforsellerswithbankaccountsinSenegalandmostotherAfricancountries.Withdistributors,theyreceivethemoneyinalumpsum(anddidnotloseasmuchfundsonbankcharges),butpaymentschedulestakelongertimeframes.Distributorsaregivenalumpsumcommissiontoplacetitleswithothersellersandbookshopsandtheyalsoworkwithonlinestores.AmalionhasdistributorsinFrance,Belgium,Switzerland,UKandnon-UKmarket,US,andNigeria.InKenya,Amaliondealsdirectlywithabookshopandtriestogetthematerialdirectlytothem.

Attimes,inAfricaitispartlyformal,partlyinformal.Wetakebookswhenweorauthorsgoformeetings.Thecostoftransportationandcustomsclearing,couldbeabigimpedimentforsomebookshopstosellthematerial.Sowhenbooksareavailablelocallytheygrabit.Iftheyorder,withinadistributionagreement,wepayfortransportation.435

Printing,warehousinganddistribution isdone in theUK,becauseAmalion'sDirectorhashad longbusinessrelationswithprintersthereforseveraldecades,andtheprinterhasawarehousefacility.Itsmainchallengeistransportationanddistributioncosts.

431BnF.Retrievedfromhttp://lajoieparleslivres.bnf.fr/masc/432AkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,19January2016433AkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,8December2015434AmalionPublishersRetrievedfromhttp://www.amalion.net/en/435SulaimanAdebowale,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,2February2016.


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Mostofitsprintingisdoneinbulk,particularlyforscholarlybooksbetween300and500pages.ItalsousesLighteningSourceforshorterworkswherelessthan500copiesarerequired.However,therearehighcostsassociatedwithprintingaswellastransportationusingthismodel:

TheproblemisthatalltheirshipmentstomostcountriesaresentthroughDHL.Wecan’teventellthemtouseothershipmentoptions(because)theyhaveaonesizefitsallmodel.TheDHLiscostlyinourpartoftheworld,anditisdifficulttopassonallthecosttothebuyingconsumer,makesthebookpricemorecostly.436

SterlingPublishers,India

SterlingPublishers437isoneofapproximately17,000publishersinIndia.Itpublishes99%ofitsbooksin English and exports many of its books for international markets. In some instances, it buysinternationallicencestousecharacterslikeBarbie,BarneyandWarnerBrother’scharactersandtheycreatematerialbasedonthesecharactersforthelocalmarket.Sometimelicensorsprovidetheirowntext,andatothertimesSterlingPublisherscreatesnewtext,whichisapprovedbylicensorsbeforeprinting.Mostofthecontentiscreatedin-housebyateamofwriters,researchersandeditors.Italsoproducesandexportsstorybooksandcraftsandgames.SterlingPublisherstriestokeepthepricingoftheirbookslowasthereisn’tmuchbuyingpowerinIndia.Usuallythefinalproductisthreeorfourtimesthecost.Thechallengeistokeepthepriceslowsothattheproductreachesmorehandsandtheyareabletodosoastheyhavetheirownproductionfacility-ithasitsownprintingunitandmaterialsareprintedin-house.Itpreferstodobigprintruns(theprintrunsstartfrom3,000).Ithasitsownwarehousesandallinvoicingandcheckingofthestockisdoneusingtechnology–soatanyonetimetheyareabletochecktheavailabilityofstock.SterlingPublisherssellswhateveritproduces.SterlingPublishersusesbooksdistributors,butalsosuppliesbooksdirectlytobooksellers,parentsand schools, but noted the challenge in gaining space in bookstores for books. Book sellers areincreasinglybecomingstationarystores,giftstoresandthespaceforbooksisreducing:

Wehaveourownrepresentativeswhogotobooksellers,andtoschools.Manyschoolshaveexhibitions.Wehaveinvestedthemoney,andproducedtheproduct,sowecan’tsitandwaitfordistributorsorwholesalers,becausethey(only)takeinterestifthereisademand.438

Itmainlysupplieskeyretailchainstores.Inshoppingmalls–thereareabout10-15keyretailchainstores,whodonotonly sellbooks.Sterlingpublishers supplies themwithbooks in largenumbers(3,000-5,000copies).Ithasanonlinesystemtoverifythatdeliveryhastakenplace.Itusuallyusestransportcompanies,thepostofficeoracourierservicefordelivery(dependingonthesizeoftheshipment),andwithinNewDelhiitsuppliesmaterialsusingitsownvehicle.

BookClubs

Commercialpublishersarealsomakingprovisionfordirecttoconsumermarketingofchildren’sbooks.An example from South Africa is Kids Book Club,439 which offers ‘bestselling age appropriateeducational,activity&readingbooks’,deliveredtocustomers.ThecostisR160permonth($11.21)fortwobooks.Theycoverchildrenagedfrom0-9yearsold,andprovidearangeofbooktypesfromtouchandfeelforbabiesandtoddlersthroughtoactivityandreadingbooksforolderchildren.

436SulaimanAdebowale,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,2February2016.437SterlingPublishers.Retrievedfromhttp://www.sterlingpublishers.com/438SurinderKumarGhai,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,3March2016439KidsBookClub.co.za.BestSellingKidsBooksDeliveredMonthlytoYourDoor.Retrievedfromhttp://www.kidsbookclub.co.za/


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SimilarlyintheUS,ScholasticoffersReadingClub440inwhichmanyprimaryandsecondarychildreninAmericabringhomeamonthlyflyer.Theflyersaredistributedonnewsprintthroughthechild'sschoolandcomehomeintheirbackpack.Theflyersarealsodistributedtoparentsviaemail.Parentsdecidewhat,ifanything,topurchasefromtheflierandsendachecktoschoolorpayonline.Theshippinganddeliveryiscoordinatedthroughtheschool.Sothisbringsdownpricesbyeliminatingtheneedforretailspaceandshelving,byconsolidatingdelivery,andbypushingalimitednumberoftitlesatatimetobestrealizeprintingeconomiesofscale.Thismodelalsolikelyencouragesfamiliestospendmoreonbooksthantheyotherwisewould.Itisveryeasyfortheparentstodo,theydon'thavetotaketheinitiativetogotoabookstore,thereisaregularmonthlyreminder,andthenot-so-subtleangleof"Don't letyourchildbeleftoutwhenalltheirfriendsaregettingnewbooks!"Theseareallstrongfactorsforpushingdemand.Mostlythebooksarepaperback,tolowerthecost.441

Iimaginethatfamilieswithoutincomefromemploymentarenotreallyparticipatinginthis.Butforworking-classandmiddle-classAmericanfamilies,thisisamajorwaythatstorybooksbooksarepurchased.Totheextentthatasocietyhassomedisposableincometobuybooks,thisseemslikeaverycost-effectivedistributionmodel.442

Scholastic is also a major children’s publisher called Scholastic Trade Publishing. It releases bothoriginal titles and also franchises well-known books, such as Harry Potter for older children andClifford,theBigRedDogforbeginningreaders.

Onlinefree,hardcopyforafee

There are a number of examples of online free, hard copy for a fee in scholarly and scientificpublishing. The US National Academies Press (NAP) publishes its books in several formats. AFrameworkforK-12ScienceEducationcosts$39.95forthepaperbackand$29.95fortheebook.ButitisfreetoreadonlineortodownloadasaPDFfile.443Insettingthispricingmodel,NAPneededtoheedthecallofmanyAcademymemberstoopenupresearchtothepublic,whileatthesametimerecognizingNAP’sfiduciaryresponsibilitytothePressanditssustainability.Tocreateabusinessmodelthat satisfied these twocompetingdemandswasnoteasy,butenough readerswant toownNAPpublicationsinprintorasanebooktomeetthesetwoobjectives.444Thus,onlineandPDFforfreeandotherformatsforafee.InSouthAfrica,theCentreforHigherEducationTransformation(CHET)hasasimilarpolicy.Onlineisfree;thereisafeeforhardcopies.OnlinePDFscanbedownloadedfromtheCHETwebsiteorthroughGoogleBooks.Bookscanbeorderedinanumberofways–includingthroughbookstores,ABC,andAmazon.445CHET’spolicyisdifferentinonewayfromtheothers,however–itsonlinebooksareopenaccess,withaCreativeCommonslicence.AnotherexampleistheHSRCPress,whichisresponsiblefordisseminatingtheHSRC’sresearchoutputsthroughprintandelectronicmedia.Itactsasanot-for-profitpublisher,andcollaborateswith internationalpublishersandbookdistributorstomeettheir

440ScholasticReadingClubOnline.Retrieved14March2016fromhttps://clubs2.scholastic.com/441LeaShaver,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcherandLisbethLevey,12December2015442LeaShaver,personalcommunicationtoNeilButcherandLisbethLevey,12December2015443AFrameworkforK-12ScienceEducation:Practices,CrosscuttingConcepts,andCoreIdeas.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nap.edu/catalog/13165/a-framework-for-k-12-science-education-practices-crosscutting-concepts444Adetailedexplanationwillbefoundin:Kannan,P.,Pope,B.K.,&Jain,S.(2009,May19).PricingDigitalContentProductLines:AModelandApplicationfortheNationalAcademiesPress.MarketingScience.28(4).Retrieved6March2016,fromhttp://pubsonline.informs.org/doi/abs/10.1287/mksc.1080.0481445CHETBooks.Retrievedfromhttp://chet.org.za/publications


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dissemination goal.446 HSRC Press prides itself as pioneering anOpen Accessmodel allowing freedownloadsofmanyofitsbooksworldwide.447

Our books are scholarly books in the social sciences and humanities (as opposed to trade,educational textbook, reference,generalbooks).Ouropenaccessenabledus tobecome theleading scholarly bookpublisher inAfrica though citationandothermeasures, aswell as tobecomewellknowngloballyasapublisherofdistinctiveAfrican-leadresearch.448

Itoffersbooksinprint,openaccess,andase-booksavailablefromonlinebookstoreslikeAmazonandBarnesandNoble.Thismodelisbelievedtobeimportantforknowledgebuilding.Notallbooksareavailableunderanopenlicence–andtheintellectualpropertyrightsaredeterminedonabook-by-bookbasisandarecoveredinthecontractwithauthors.449TheCouncilfortheDevelopmentforSocialScienceResearchinAfrica(CODESRIA)inSenegalmountsmanyofitspublicationsfree-of-chargeonitswebsite.ABC,whichsellsCODESRIApublications,doesnotthinkthattherehasbeenanydiminutionofsalesrevenueforprintcopies.450Donorrequirementsthattheresearchforwhichtheypaymustbemadepubliclyavailable,usuallywithin 12months, has upended the commercial journal publishing industry. Theymust nowofferauthorsanumberofpossiblewaystomeettheserequirements.TheserangefrompublishingwithaCreativeCommons licenceto freelyavailableafteranembargoperiod.AuthorswhowishCreativeCommons licensingand immediateaccessmustpay thepublisheranextra fee.Thesechargesaretypicallypassedontothedonorandgranteesareencouragedtoincludealineitemintheirbudgetforpublishingcharges.Thereareanumberoforganizationsthattrackpublisheranddonorpolicies,mostnotablySHERPA/RoMEO,adatabasemaintainedbytheUniversityofNottinghamintheUK.451AresearchstudyfundedbyIDRC-PublishingandAlternativeLicensingModelsinAfrica(PALM)-isanotherexampleofflexiblelicensingmodels.Thestudy,whichwascarriedoutinSouthAfricaandUganda,452isworthdescribingatlengthbecauseitisoneofthefewinstancesinwhichaconcertedattemptwasmadetoexperimentwithCreativeCommonslicencesforscholarlypublicationsoutsideofSouthAfrica.PALMdifferedfromotherresearchprojectsfocusedpublishingbecauseoftwomajorreasons - it experimentedwith amix of paper andprint aswell as online free, hard copy for feemodalities.EveGraywasoverall lead investigatorand responsible forSouthAfrica.Grayhasabackground inpublishing,witha specialty inutilizingopen licensing to increase theaccessand impactofAfricanscholarship.SheislocatedintheScholarlyCommunicationinAfricaprogrammeoftheUniversityofCape Town. NABOTU, under the direction of Charles Batambuze, led PALM’s Uganda portion.Batambuzehasabackgroundinpublishingandlibrarysciences.InadditiontohispostasDirectoroftheNationalBookTrustofUganda(NABOTU),heisExecutiveDirectoroftheUgandaReproduction

446HumanSciencesResearchCouncil.HSRCPress.Retrievedfromhttp://www.hsrc.ac.za/en/ria/about-us/HSRC-press447HSRCPress.Retrievedfromhttp://www.hsrcpress.ac.za/448JeremyWightman,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,25February2016449JeremyWightman,personalcommunicationtoSarahHoosen,11May2016450CODESRIA.CODESRIAPublicationsinfulltext.Retrievedfromhttp://www.codesria.org/spip.php?rubrique65451SHERPA/RoMEO-Publishercopyrightpolicies&self-archiving.(n.d.).Retrievedfromhttp://www.sherpa.ac.uk/romeo/index.php?la=en452Batambuze,C.,&Ikon-Odongo,J.(2010).PublishingandAlternativeLicensingModelsforAfrica(pp.19-21;28).InternationalDevelopmentResearchCentre.Retrievedfromhttps://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/handle/10625/46275.SeealsoIkoja-Odongo,J.R.PublishinginUgandawithNotesfromAfrica:AReview.(n.d.).NationalBookTrustofUganda.Retrieved10March2016fromhttp://nabotu.or.ug/wp-content/uploads/ikoja.pdf.TheentirereportwillbefoundatGray,E.,Rens,A.,&Bruns,K.(2010).PublishingandalternativelicensingmodelsinAfrica:ComparativeanalysisoftheSouthAfricanandUgandanPALMstudies.Retrieved29March2016,fromhttps://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/handle/10625/45649(ThePALMresearchquestionquotedonthefollowingpageisonpage10ofthePALMreport.)


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RightsOrganization(URRO)aCollectiveManagementOrganization,hewasanofficeroftheUgandaLibraryAssociation,andpreviouslywasprojectmanageroftheNationalLibraryofUganda’sMobileDigital Bookmobile, which is described in detail in the section on Print on Demand. BatambuzecollaboratedwithJohnRobert Ikoja-Odongo,aprofessorofLibraryand InformationScience intheEastAfricanSchoolofLibraryandInformationScienceatMakerereUniversity.The PALM project sought to address two serious weaknesses inherent in African publishing: Theconventional book trade does not reach a large enough audience, and it does not operate undersustainablebusinessmodels.Becausebandwidthcapacityonthecontinentisimproving,theprojectbuiltitsresearchquestionwithtechnologyasthefoundation:

How can flexible licences, innovative publishing models and the use of ICTs enable Africanresearch institutions, development organizations and book publishing businesses to increaseaccesstoandproductionofknowledgeandlearning?453

Publishers ineachcountryrequiredbriefingsonalternativemodelsof licensingbecausetheywereonlyfamiliarwithallrightsreservedcopyrights.TheworldofCreativeCommonsandflexiblelicenceswasnewtothem.itwasconsequentlynecessarytoovercometheirfearsofbookpiracy,plagiarismandthepossibilityofsaleserosion.Eachcountryformulateddemonstrationprojects,buttheUgandaexperiencemostcloselyparallelstheoverallsituationinSub-SaharanAfrica.ThepublishingsectorandonlinecapacityinSouthAfricaarefarmoredevelopedthanelsewhereontheContinent.In Uganda, both commercial and not-for-profit publishers participated in the workshops and thedemonstration,butonlyonepublisheschildren’sbooks-FountainPublishing.PALMworkinUgandawashamperedbythreemajorproblems:• Publishers did not understand open access concepts and consequently feared book piracy.

Therefore,agreatdealofsensitizationwasnecessary.• Publishers lacked ICT skills themselves andwere unfamiliarwith epublishingmechanisms and

technologies.Poorbandwidthwasacontributingfactor.• Given the twochallengesoutlinedabove, therewas insufficient time to carryout theanalysis

necessaryandthedemonstrationproject.In the end, three publishers agreed to carry out a demonstration activity - Fountain Publishers;Femrite, theUgandanWomen’sWritersAssociation; andMastermindPublishers, a smallbusinesspress.Theexperimentinvolvedmakingdigitalcopiesfree,usingdifferenttypesofCreativeCommonslicences.FountainusedCCBYNDNC(freetosharewithattribution, fornon-commercialpurposesonly, and no attribution).Mastermind’s licensing, CC-BY, permitted everything, but only for non-commercialuses.Femritewasmostflexible,withaCC-BYlicence,requiringattribution,butallelsepermissible.Thepublishersagreedtochargeforprintcopies.FountainandFemritewereaidedbythefactthattheyaremembersofABCandwerethusabletouseABCservicestoshipprintcopiesofthetitlesinternationally.Fountain mounted three titles and Femrite mounted two titles on their websites. In the end,Mastermind did not participate due to lack of ICT skills andpoor infrastructure. The resultsweremeagre - web traffic wasmonitored imprecisely; timewas insufficient; lack of ICT skills were animpediment;theexperimentwasunder-powered;anditwasnotpublicized.ItmighthavebeenbetterifthetwopublishershadtriedtousetheABCwebsitefortheexperiment.

453Gray,E.,Rens,A.,&Bruns,K.(2010,March31).PublishingandAlternativeLicensingModelsinAfrica(Rep.).https://idl-bnc.idrc.ca/dspace/bitstream/10625/45649/1/132110.pdfpage10


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FollowingthePALMstudy,BatambuzesubmittedaproposaltoCreativeCommonsforasmallgrantto provide necessary tools to Ugandan publishers to create ebooks with a Creative Commonslicence.454Unfortunately,itwasnotfunded.Howmighttheexamplesaboveresonateinchildren’spublishinginthedevelopingworld?Examplesaresparser,butthereareafew.AfricanStorybook,whichisdiscussedinthesectiononopenlicensing,has begun to work with children’s book publishers to make selected titles freely available. Forinstance,TheRainBird,455whichwaspublishedbytheNal’ibaliinitiativeoftheProjectfortheStudyofAlternativeEducationinSouthAfrica(PRAESA)456demonstratesthepowerofopenlicensing.Thebookhas also been translated into French; two versions of Lugbarati,which is spoken in parts ofUgandaandtheDemocraticRepublicoftheCongo,withbothofficialandunofficialorthographies;andNg’aturkanaforKenya.Inaddition,thereisalsoalevelthreeadaptationinEnglish,whichwasthentranslatedintoSesothoforLesotho.457PrathamBooksisanotherexampleofhowchildren’spublishersusethe‘onlinefree,hardcopyforafee’model. In 2008-9, this publisher began a process of releasing its titles online under an openlicence,usingtheCreativeCommonsAttributionlicence.Inthefirst12monthsofimplementinganopenlicence,PrathamdiscoveredthatthesebookstendedtooutselltheprintversionofthosethatwerestillsubjecttoanAll-RightsReservedlicencebytwotoone.TherecanalsobecomplicationswithopenlicensingwhenpublishersdonatebooksthatarepublishedunderonelicenceandthebookisthenpublishedontheAfricanStorybookwebsite,usingitsmoreliberallicence.ThisisthecasewithstoriespublishedbyREADandtheUniversityofKwaZulu-Natal.LookattheAnimals isacaseinpoint.EventhoughtheASbwebsiteclearlystatesthetermsunderwhichthebookcanbeused(CreativeCommonsAttributionNon-CommercialLicence),usersofthewebsitemightbeconfusedbecausetheASbwebsiteasawholeusesaCreativeCommonsAttributionlicence,whichpermitsadaptationandcommercialuses.TheASblicensingstorybecomesevenmoreconvolutedbecauseASbhasimprovedandre-illustratedsomeoftheKwaZulu-Natalstories.458ASbisprobablynottheonlyorganizationtoconfrontmixed-messagelicensingdilemmas.

Another example fromASb is a newexperimentwithPrint onDemand (POD).ASb compiled fourexisting stories in isiZulu into an anthology of 64 pages for KwaZulu-Natal school libraries. Fivethousandcopiesinfullcolourwereprinted,atacostofabout$1.00each.Blackandwhitecopiesofeachbookwereprintedforthechildreninpacksoftenperclass,forabout15centseach.Thus,amixture of full colour and black and white are being used in the KwaZulu-Natal schools thatparticipatedinthisexperiment.ASbhopesthattheseschoolswilluseamixtureofonlineandprintintheirclassrooms.459Expansionpossibilitieswouldbe topairwithadditionalgroups.For instance,wouldorganizations,suchaspublishers,librariesandinternationalNGOs,whichproduceandpublishbooksbeinterestedinsomesortofarrangementwithASbtowidencirculationthroughdigitalaccessinthesamewaysasmentioned above? TheASb collection includesmany titles in African languages, but just asmanylanguagesareunder-represented.Ifdonorsrequirefreeonlineaccessforresearchtheyfund,couldthismodelbebroughttobearforthechildren’sbookspublishedwiththeirsupport?Theavailabilityoftrainingmaterialsisanotherareathatcouldbemademoreefficientiftherewerecollaborationand454Batambuze,C.(2010).Grants/Publishingopene-booksinUganda.Retrievedfromhttps://wiki.creativecommons.org/wiki/Grants/Publishing_open_e-books_in_Uganda455PRAESA–Growingbiliteracyandmultilingualism.Retrievedfromhttp://www.praesa.org.za/456Bloch,Joanne.(n.d.).TheRainBird.Retrievedfromhttp://my.africanstorybook.org/stories/rain-bird-level-3457TessaWelch,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,16March2016458TessaWelch,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,16March2016459JennyGlennie,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,8March2016


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coordination. Some organizations have written training materials for authors, illustrators, andteachers,but theyareonlyavailable to thegroupswithwhich theywork.Otherorganizationsaremoreopen.AfricanStorybook,forexample,haspreparedaGuideforMakingandUsingStories,whichisonlinewithaCreativeCommonslicence.460Inaddition,theOsuChildren’sLibraryFundhasaguideonestablishingcommunitylibraries.461Therearecertainlyotherusefulguides.AsimpleGooglesearchturnedupseveralexamplesofguidesthatarefreelyavailable.Twoinclude:HowtoCreateaFantasticPictureBook462andWritingPictureBooksforChildren.463Asastart,organizationsproducingresourcesclosedtooutsidereadersmightbeencouragedtomakethemfreelyavailable.Secondly,itwouldbehelpful to have a place to mount information about available guides, including those identifiedthroughsearchenginesandprovidelinkstothem.

Theroleofdonorsinopenlicensing

The international donor community, ranging from the multilaterals and bi-laterals to privatefoundations are all heavily involved in funding efforts focused on early literacy in the developingworld,bothinpublishingandalsosupporttolibraries.464Untilnow,however,encouragingtheuseofopenlicencesforearlyliteracymaterialshasnotbeenapriority.Thisnowmaybechanging.Aspartof US government policy, the Agency for International Development (USAID) now requires thatresources produced with its funding, including early reading materials, be openly licensed. Therationalebehind this decision is thatpublicly funded resources shouldbemade freely andwidelyavailable.465Although open licencing for materials in early childhood education is not yet widespread, mostdonors,bothgovernmentsandprivatefoundations,nowrequirethattheresearchtheysupportbepublishedinopenaccessformats.Additionally,withdonorsupport,severalcountriesarealsomovingtowardswidespreadusageofOERandopentextbooks intheclassroom.These includetheUnitedStatesinNorthAmerica,466PolandinEurope,467andSouthAfricainAfrica.468Couldthismovementtowardsopennessbeexpandedtoincludechildren’sbookpublishinginthesamewaythatUSAIDhasdone?

460AfricanStorybook.Retrievedfromhttp://www.africanstorybook.org/(GototheASbhomepage,clickonhelpandnotes.YouwillbereferredtotheGuide).461OsuChildren'sLibraryFund.HowtoSetUpCommunityLibrariesforChildren.Retrievedfromhttp://www.osuchildrenslibraryfund.ca/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/How-to-Set-Up1.pdf462Blackburn,E.(n.d.).HowToCreateAFantasticPictureBook.Retrievedfromhttps://www.writersandartists.co.uk/writers/advice/327/dedicated-genre-advice/writing-for-children/463CambridgeCenterforAdultEducation.WritingPictureBooksforChildren.Retrievedfromhttp://www.writingpicturebooksforchildren.com/464Althoughtheyalsoreceivegovernmentandlocalsupport,asdiscussedinthesectiononlibrariesabove,schoolandcommunitylibrariesreceivemuchoftheirfundingfromdonors.465OpenLicensingPolicyRationale.(n.d.).Retrieved4March2016fromhttps://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/NW2-CCBY-HO4-Open_Licensing_Policy_Rationale.pdf466TheWilliamandFloraHewlettFoundationhasbeenaleaderinallformsofopen,fromkindergartenthroughuniversity.SeeitsDecember2015policystatement:OpenEducationalResources:AdvancingWidespreadAdoptiontoImproveInstructionandLearning.December2015.Retrievedfromhttp://www.hewlett.org/sites/default/files/Open_Educational_Resources_December_2015.pdf467SeeEuropeanOpenEduPolicyProject.PolishMinistryofEducationreleasesanopenprimertextbookunderCCBY.Retrievedfromhttp://oerpolicy.eu/polish-ministry-of-education-releases-an-open-primer-textbook/andŚliwowski,K.,&Grodecka,K.(2013).OpenEducationalResourcesinPoland:ChallengesandOpportunities(Rep.).Retrievedfrom:http://iite.unesco.org/pics/publications/en/files/3214727.pdf468ThepromotionofOERandopenaccessstartedattheuniversitylevelinSouthAfrica,asitdidintheUnitedStates.Buttherearesomenoteworthyinitiativesattheprimaryschoollevel.TheseincludeNolwazi,adigitalrepositoryofOERteachingandlearningresourcesfundedbytheCoZaCaresFoundation(Nolwazi.Retrievedfromhttp://nolwazi.co.za);initiallyfundedbytheShuttleworthFoundation,SiyavulahasproducedOERscienceandmathtextbooksattheprimaryandsecondarylevels(Siyavula.Retrievedfromhttp://www.siyavula.com/index.html).


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Butopennesscomeswithapricetag,evenifthereaderisnotcharged.OpenAccessjournalsthatarenot subsidized by a government, institution, or foundation typically charge the author an articleprocessing charge to cover publisher costs.469 Although using OER can reduce costs and improvequality, OER content creation and production costs are not insignificant. Authors, illustrators,instructionaldesigners,andwebspecialistsmustbepaid for their time, ifnot fromthe institutionwhere they work, then from someplace else. Someone must be also responsible for copyrightclearance,ifnecessary,andtechnicalsupport.Althoughgovernmentshouldberesponsibleforthesecostsiftheyarecommittedtoopenlicensingforearlyliteracyreadingmaterials,thisisnotarealisticexpectationformanycountriesintheshort-andmedium-term.Donorsupportisrequiredbothtoinitiateprogrammestomakeearlychildhoodeducationresourcesfreelyavailableandtoworkwithministriesofeducationtomapoutin-countrysupportforthesematerialsinthefuture.Inaddition,donorscanplayanotherimportantrole-helpingto improve capacity to create, produce, and distributematerials using local talent, expertise, andinfrastructure.Finally,effectivedonorfundingmustalsobeadjustedinlightofdifferentcircumstances.Thereisnosuchthingasonesizefitsall.SomeNGOscannotmeetdonortenderingorreportingrequirements,forexample:

WhileIknoweveryonealwayswantstoscale,organizationslikeour,thatdosubstantialworkwith very limited funds, are often constrained by the huge reporting requirements of largedonors,andtheusualrefusalofsuchdonorstoactuallypaysalariestoeditorsandwriters.Ifwehad$10,000ayearthatwecouldusetopaytwostaffmembers,wecouldprobablyproduce50-100titlesayear.470

Furthermore:

WeindeedprintthebooksprimarilyforthelibrariesthatwesupportinBurkina-currently34-andthosearepaidfromgrantfundsanddonations.Eachofthelibrarieshasabout50-100ofthoseFastpencilbooks.ThemarketforbooksinBurkinaistiny.A$5book=2500FCFA,orabout3daysofworkforatypicalvillager.AtaminimumwageintheUS,thatwouldmeanthebookwouldcosttheequivalentof$10x8x3=$240!Howmanybookswouldyoubuyiftheycost$240?SoaGlobal Fundwoulddefinitelybe very important if it could lower the cost (orhelp stocklibraries).471

Exploringopen-accessbusinessmodels

Exploring the business models associated with the above examples is critical if they are to besuccessfullyharnessedinawaythatbuildslocalcontentcreationcapacity.Ofcourse,someonealwayshastopayforcontentcreationinsomeform,whetheritisOER,journals,orbooks.Insomeoftheexamplesabove,though,thecostcentreshiftsandcanbecomemoreopaque.Inordertoanalyseandsuggest anopen-accessbusinessmodel for early literacy readers, it helps to knowhowchildren’spublishershavecostedtheirproduction.First,whataretypicalprintpublishingcostcomponents?Theyinclude:472

469Openaccessjournal.(2016,February16).InWikipedia,TheFreeEncyclopedia.Retrieved5March2016,fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_access_journal&oldid=705196134470MichaelKevane,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,15April2016471MichaelKevanepersonalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,16April162016472HansZellhelpedwithcostdelineations.PersonalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,3March2016


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1) Author and illustrator fees - either a flat fee or a royalty. Bothmight vary, depending on thereputationofthepersoncommissionedtodothework.Inaddition,whoownsthecopyright?

2) Editing-eitherin-housecopyandcontenteditingorfreelance.Attentionalsoneedstofocusontheimportanceofcopywritingandproofreading,“whichisespeciallycriticalforemergingreadersandcanbeparticularlychallengingincountrieswheregovernmentalbodiesarestillagreeingonanorthography”.473

3) Designandlayout-typographyandlayoutofpagestogetherwithcoverandrearcoverartwork.Thiscanbeachallengeincountrieswherethevarietyofprogramsislimitedandtheskilllevelsofdesignersisweak.

4) Production-frompre-presstoprintinganddelivery.5) Warehousingofprintcopiesanddigitalstorageofdesignfiles.6) Marketing.7) Publisherhuman-resourcecosts.There are other cost considerations such as training for the resource producers – the authors,illustrators,designers,andeditors–aswellasteachersandlibrarians.474Translationfeesalsoneedtobefactoredintodeterminingpublishingcosts.Whenaskedwhethershewouldbeinterestedinfreelocallanguagepublicationofherbooksonline,KathyKnowles,DirectoroftheOsuChildren’sLibraryFundnoted:

I would be interested in free local language publication of our books online but only if theresponsibilityofthetranslation,filepreparationandsoonwasnotonmyshoulders.Iworksolelyasavolunteer.Writingandpublishingbooks is inaddition toOCLF’smandateof supportingliteracyandcreatinglibraries.Takingonadditionaltaskswouldbedifficultatthistime475

Belowareexamplesfromtwosmallcommercialpublishers,oneinGhanaandtheotherinEthiopia,onhowtheycostandpricetheirchildren’sbooks.

Ghana:FatiandtheHoneyTree

Anexampleofpublishingcostsinadevelopingcountrycontext,isthebook,FatiandtheHoneyTree,whichwasco-publishedwiththeOsuChildren’sLibraryFund(OCLF).IthasgonethroughtwoprintrunsandhasbeentranslatedintovariousGhanaianlanguages.476TheideaforFatiandtheHoneyTreecamefroma12-yearoldGhanaiangirllivingwiththeKnowlesfamilyinCanada.ItwaswrittenandeditedbyafriendoftheKnowlesfamily,withapprovalfromthegirlwhotoldthestory.FatiandheradventuresinsubsequentbookstellthestoryofatypicalgirlfromGhana’sUpperWestregion.Therewerenoauthororeditorialfeesinvolvedinthiscommunitywritingeffort.TheeditingwasdonebySub-SaharanPublishers.ThisandotherFatibooksareillustratedbyThersonBaadu,aGhanaianillustrator.Hereceivedaflatfee,with thecopyrightownedbySub-SaharanPublishersandOsuChildren’s LibraryFund.477 Sub-SaharanPublisherswasresponsibleforthecostsassociatedwithdesignandlayoutforthefirstedition

473AlishaBerger,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,10May2016474YalewZeleke,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,9May2016475KathyKnowles,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,1May2016476InformationonFatiandtheHoneyTreecomesfromKathyKnowles,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,25January2016and7March2016)andfromAkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,10March2016477ThisisthecaseformostoftheillustratorscommissionedbySub-SaharanPublishers.ThereisaseparatearrangementwithMeshackAsare,anaward-winningillustrator.Asareproducesbothcontentandillustratrations,andownsthecopyright.Heispaidroyaltiesforhisworkaswellassupporttoparticipateinconferences.(Asarewonthe2015NSKNeustadtPrizeforChildren’sLiterature,forexample.(MeshackAsareAnnouncedasthe2015WinnerofthePrestigiousNSKNeustadtPrizeforChildren'sLiterature-TheNeustadtPrize.(2014).Retrieved11March2016,fromhttp://www.neustadtprize.org/meshack-asare-announced-2015-winner-prestigious-nsk-neustadt-prize-childrens-literature-2/)


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ofFatiandtheHoneyTree,whiletheOsuChildren’sLibraryFundpaidagraphicdesignertomakecorrectionsforthesecondprintrun,particularlyforcoloursaturation.Sub-SaharanPublishersandtheOCLFdonotprintinGhana.ThisfirstFatibookwasexperimentalaspartofa2002cooperationprojectwithVagnPlengeoftheDanishForlagetHjulet(WheelPress)topublish the book in Belgium.478 About 4,500 copies were printed at this time, for a cost ofapproximately $3,000, with expenses paid evenly by Sub-Saharan Publishers and OCLF. OCLFproduced the secondedition in2008,whichwasprinted inCanada,andwithaprint runof5,000copies.Thecostwas$9,250Canadian(US$6,995),whichwassharedequally.Inaddition,USAIDhasordered9,600copiesoftheDagaretranslationofFatiandtheHoneyTree,aspartofacooperationprogrammewiththeGhanaEducationService.479480AlthoughOfori-Mensahnotedthatpricingshouldbesixtimestheproductioncost,thisisnotthecasebecausethebookswouldbetooexpensiveinGhana.BothSub-SaharanPublishersandOCLFhaveasliding scale, depending on where books are purchased. Fati and the Honey Tree costs $10internationally(USorCanadian),butGhanaiansonlypaytenCedi($2.60).Thehopeisthatlargeorderswillmakeupforanylosses.

MidakoPublishing,Ethiopia

MidakoPublishingwasestablished in2015bytwosisterswhowantedtoreadstories inEthiopianlanguages to their children.481 Thus far it has only produced six titles, one inOromifa and five inAmharic.MidakoPublishingiscurrentlydeveloping182titlesinAmharic,Oromifa,Hadissa,Wolayita,andSomalifortheMinistryofEducation,withacontractfromSavetheChildren.AllbooksareprintedinfullcolourinEthiopia.Theprintrunis5,000copiesforeachbook.Therehavebeennoreprintsyetbecause the publishing house is new. Like Sub-Saharan publishers, prices are low for print - 29EthiopianBirr($1.36)perbook.Therewillalsobeanonlineshopinthefuture.482

ItwouldseemforthesetwoAfricanpublishers,andprobablyothersontheContinent,thatthebusiness model is more closely akin tostructuringapricethatisconsistentwithabilitytopayincountryratherthanhowmuchitcoststoproducethesebooks.Onehopesthatnoneofthesepublishersislosingmoney,buttheirprofitmargin is probably not large. Contracts from

donorsandInternationalNGOs,suchasUSAID,CODEandSavetheChildrenallowforlargerprintrunsandsometimescoverallthecosts.

Promotingregionalcollaboration

TheAfricanBooksCollective(IABSS)distributedprintcopieschildren’sbooksacrosstheContinent.CouldadigitalbusinessmodelbeconstructedsomewhatliketheIABSSinitiative?Ina2005evaluationofIABSSbyGuyBentham,henotedthatencouragingintra-Africantradewasoneareathatwasmore478AkossOfori-Mensahseeksoutbothgoodcostandgoodquality,andnowprintsinHungary,afterusingprinthousesinMauritius,India,andDubai.(personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,25January2016)479AkossOfori-Mensah,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,8January2016480FatiandtheHoneyTreeandanotherchildren’sbookweretranslatedintoFrenchin2002,withfundingfromtheFrenchMinistryofForeignAffairsandhandledbyJoieparleslivres,aFrenchNGO,agroupthat‘supportsthedevelopmentofchildren’sliteratureandreadingindevelopingcountries,especiallyformerFrenchcolonies’.(personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,19January2016)481VanderWolf,M.(2015,December25).SistersAimtoBuildEthiopia'sReadingCulture.Retrievedfromhttp://www.voanews.com/content/sisters-aim-to-build-ethiopia-reading-culture/3118720.html482TsionKiros,personalcommunicationstoLisbethLevey,8and9March2016

Children’sbooks:breakingeven,butperhapsnotmuchmore.Priceperbook:

• Sub-SaharanPublishers:$2.60• MidakoPublishing:$1.36• MkukinaNyota:$2.00


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difficulttoachieve.483ButBenthamwaswritingaboutintra-Africansalesforprintmaterials.Digitalbookswouldbefarmoreeasytocrossborders.CouldanIABSSconstructbecreated,withfundingtocoverpublishercosts?JustinCoxatABCtoldLisbethLeveythathewouldbeinterestedinusingABCas a convening mechanism for children’s book publishers to lay out the parameters of CreativeCommonslicensingfortheirwork.CharlesBatambuzeatNABOTUremainsinterestedinalternativelicensing.Theremightbeanucleusoforganizationsintriguedbydifferentlicensingoptions.Alisha Berger took this idea one step further when she inquired about the idea of co-editionpublishing,whereresourcescouldbepooled,aconceptthatcomeswithitsownsetofpossibilitiesandchallenges:

Thisofcoursedoesnotaddressculturalrelevanceorlocalidentity,butmyphilosophyisthatweneedamulti-prongedapproachtogettingmorebooksinkids’hands.Ifweproduceeverything...locally,it’snotmakingthemostoutofallthoseresources-whataboutregionalcollaborationsthatcouldbeadaptedintomorethanonelanguage?Ifwesharedresourcesinthisway,thenmore$$couldbespentonthedevelopmentofeachtitle(withinlocalpublishers)withtheresultthatculturesofmanyplacescouldbeshared.Illustratingstorieswithnon-specificpicturesfromastandardlibraryisn’tgoingtospreadthekindofqualitylevelthatIwouldlikeforchildrentoexperience.Butit’snoteither-or,let’stryforboth.484

This,ofcourse,iswhatopenlicensingismeanttoachieve,asevidencedinnot-for-profitinitiativessuch as African Storybook. But how to bring on board publishers of children’s books? There arenumerouschallenges related to thepublishing industry tobeexploredandovercome.Bergeralsopointedtoanumberofissuesinherentinworkingwithinthechildren’sbooks’publishingindustry,whichwehaveshowntohavedifficultymakingendsmeet:

Publishersappreciatethecostsinherentintheindustrymorethanoutsidersdo…andmightbereceptivetopayingasmallfeetoanotherpublishertousetheircontent.

Inthesameemail,sheaskedthemostimportantquestionifwewanttoensurethatlocalindustriesandorganizationscanbesustainedandthrive:

Doweultimatelyimagineapublishing‘industry’todevelopinthesecountrieswithoutanyprofitmotive? When an aid project or NGO makes a free book, what does that say to localentrepreneurs about the value of a book or books as business? How does that stimulatecreativity...Ithinkoveralltherearemanycountrieswherewecouldandshouldhopeformoreinthe nascent industry than a dependence on donor money and an expectation within thecommunitythatbooksarefree.

Thus,wemustaskourselveshowcanwepromotesustainabilityandopen licensingasmuchas isfeasible.Whatkindofflexibilityinlicensingmodelscanbebuiltintothesystemtoensurethatlocalindustriesareencouragedtogrow?Howcanweencouragecreativitynationallyandacrossregions?

483Bentham,G.(April,2005)IndependentEvaluationofIBSSProject2001-2004(unpublishedreport),page8484AlishaBerger,personalcommunicationtoLisbethLevey,10May2016.(Thisquoteandthetwobelowitcomefromthesameemail.)

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