The Image of European Culture as

Presented in the Arabic History School textbooks.

By

Mustafa El-Halougi

Professor, Faculty of Languages and Translation. Al-Azhar University

In most Arab countries History schoolbooks, present Europeans and Americans as developed people who live in a civilization that has reached its peak. These schoolbooks published in Egypt, Morocco, Mauritania, United Arab Emirates, Kuwait and Yemen give this positive image through a presentation of the intellectual movements in Britain and France in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. These books refer to the democratic systems which control life in these countries. They also throw light on the Crusades, imperialism and Arab-Israeli conflict as well as on the Image of Christians and Jews in the Arabic History schoolbooks.

This paper attempts a discussion of these topics as they appear in the available history books which are taught at preparatory and secondary school levels. However, this study does not cover all the history books taught at the different levels in the countries mentioned above. This study analyzes the topics and the way in which these topics are presented to the readers. This study covers some points which call attention to the policies used some Western countries towards the Arab countries and how these policies affected the images of the Europeans and the Americans in these countries.

The Intellectual Movement in Europe:

Arabic History schoolbooks highlight the role played by the British and French thinkers at the time of the European Renaissance in the seventeenth and the eighteenth centuries. These thinkers’ criticism of the social and political situation as well as of the Church’s interference in the governmental affairs caused the appearance of so many reformations in Britain and also paved the way for the rise of the French Revolution which granted freedom to the French people.

Arab students read that Movements which call on human rights to freedom, life and possession appeared in Europe. These movements also defended the peoples’ right to choose their governments and the way they are ruled. Prior to these movements, European kings were believed to be the shadows of God on earth and they had a divine right to govern the people. They were thought to be responsible to God not to their peoples.

Students read about the four great thinkers in 17th and 18th centuries. British John Locke (1632 – 1704 ) stated that all human beings have natural right to life, freedom and possession. He made no distinction between the rich and the poor. He also emphasizes the fact that the state has to defend these human rights and all members of the community have to abide by the laws of the government as long as the state provides them with these rights. The books also speak about French Montesquieu (1689-1755) who was influenced by the free and constitutional rule in England. He called for the people’s participation in ruling their country. The books also mention Philosopher Voltaire who satire to write about the “despotic rule in France and the privileges given to the churchmen and the high class

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members of his time vitriolic criticism and with great enthusiasm. The books finally speak about Jean Jack Rousseau (1712 - 1778) who pointed out that Ruling the people is a kind of contract between the people and the ruler. The people provide the ruler with his powers. According to this contract the people have the right to depose the ruler and deprive him of all the powers given to him by the people if he abuses the powers conferred upon him under this contract. These thinkers were affected by Greek philosophers.

Some books link these democratic ideas of these European Philosophers with what Abu-Bakr, the first Muslim Caliph said in the seventh century. In his inauguration speech, Abu-Bakr said: “I am assigned to rule you, but I am not the best of you. You have to obey me as long as I obey God. If I do not, you are not obliged to obey me". From this statement, it is obvious that Abu Bakr was influenced by Islamic teachings that give the people the right to ordain the ruler and to depose him. Some books claim that Rousseau might have been influenced by the Islamic instructions when he wrote about democracy. Rousseau might have been influenced by Islam when he wrote about his notion of the ‘social contract.

Before the American and the French Revolutions, the kings ruled their peoples on the basis of the divine right of kings. Kings were thought to be God’s representatives on earth. The books explain that Islam rejects this idea of the divine right of kings. Rulers in Islam govern their countries on the basis of ‘consultation’. This rule is mentioned in the Qur’an when it speaks about good Muslims who “conduct their affairs by mutual consultation” (42 / 38). The books speak favorably about Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean Jacques Rousseau and John Locke, the European thinkers who played an important role in changing this notion of the divine right of Kings.

In the 2005 History schoolbook taught at the secondary schools in Morocco we read about the European thinkers mentioned above. In this book written by Muhammad Ezz-Edin Quadiri and others, we also read about the British philosopher Thomas Hobbes and the French Turgot and about their attempts to establish democracy in Europe (p.114-120). The book says “Turgot wrote to King Louis XVI that the people do not have to follow the religion of their kings. Every person can follow the creed which he things right. Kings do not have the right to impose their beliefs on their subjects” (p.118). This book is entitled “In the Shade of History” and it is taught at different levels in the secondary schools, departments of Humanities and Literature. It is obvious that Turgot’s words to King Louis XVI echo the idea in Verse 256 of Sura 2 in the Qur’an which reads: “No Compulsion in religion”.�

Arab students notice that the European progress at the time of the Renaissance is due to the ideas introduced by the British and French thinkers of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. They defended freedom and democracy which are the real motives for progress. When these European countries applied democracy in their countries, they adhered to it until the present time. This European belief and application of democracy and freedom led to the unity of Europe. This European union gathered twenty five countries at the present time and opens its doors to others to follow. The peoples in these European countries are attached to their heritage, language and cultural identity. They enjoy the prosperity which resulted from the economic co-operation. This economic prosperity aims at social peace and security for the people. Arab students might get confused when they read about the application of real democracy when the Prophet Muhammad died since 14 centuries and compare this application with the modern hollow slogans of democracy in the Arab countries of the Arab world. Students can easily relate progress to freedom and democracy. In the Middle Ages, Arab Islamic culture flourished when Arabs and Muslims applied the

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democratic systems and when they related work to knowledge. The west made use of the Arab Islamic culture during the past centuries. The Arabs in their turn forgot their history for a long time. However, they started to wake up or rather most of them started to move slowly two centuries ago.

Some history books refer to the democratic way in which the Muslim Caliph were elected in Islam. They also refer to the Declaration of Al-Madina which is similar to a constitution in the modern age. These books also refer to the cooperation between Muslims and non-Muslims and to the tolerance at the time of the Prophet Muhammad and his four successors. They also refer to the political systems in the Islamic culture and the principles of consultation and the choice of rulers at that time. They also refer to the responsibility, freedom, equality, tolerance and coexistence, and forbidding injustice and the rule of law and justice. (Abdel-Majied Ghalib Al-Mukhlafi: History of the Arab Islamic Culture for Grade Eight, in Yemen: 2002 Part: I: p.79-85). The book also encourages students to find the verses from the Qur’an which refer to consultation and freedom as well as co-operation and justice. On Page 84, Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi asks the following question: Can we say that there is no contradiction between Islam and democracy on the basis of the information he mentions in the book? These History books give this positive image of Islam at the same time while it introduces Christianity and Judaism to the students. It also presents Christians and Jews to the Muslim students.

The Images of Christians and Jews in Arabic History books:

Students at primary and secondary schools study texts related to the definitions of Christianity and Judaism. They also study some texts which discuss how the two religions got to spread in the different Arab countries. Some of the texts throw light on the difference between Christianity, as a tolerant religion, and the Crusades which used religion for political and economic reasons. From these texts, we can understand that these Arabic History books introduce Christianity and Judaism as religions revealed from God, sacred and recognized by Islam Verses from the Qur’an point out that the Qur’an recognizes the Torah and the Bible and it invites the people of the Book to worship Almighty God, which is the aim of the three monotheistic religions. Islam respects other religions, especially Christianity and Judaism which are revealed from the same God who revealed Islam to his prophet Muhammad.

Some verses from the Qur’an require Muslims to respect other religions. They prevent Muslims from forcing non-Muslims to convert to Islam. Verse 256 from Chapter 2 of the Qur’an says: “No compulsion in religion”. Verse 6 of Chapter 109 reads: “To you is your religion and to me is mine”. The last verse which was revealed in Mecca, addresses the infidels of Mecca who worshipped idols.

Some books ask students to show the difference between Christianity as a religion and the attitude used by those who manipulate it for their own interests. In the second edition of his book History of the Arab Islamic Culture for Grade Eight, in Yemen, Part II , Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi says: “There is a difference between the Oriental Christian religion in which Muslims believe and the Crusades which pretended to be Christian for non-religious aims” (p.78). Al-Mukhlafi continues: “Arab Muslims and Christians discovered that the Crusades was the cover for an imperialistic project clothed in a religious robe” (p.82). The book further emphasizes that Islam and Muslims respect Christianity and Christians. It explains that Muslims should learn from Salah ud-Din how he distinguished between Christianity as

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a religion recognized by Islam and the Crusaders as an imperialistic movement. Al-Mukhlafi says that Muslims appreciate Christian Arabs who resisted the Crusaders as much as they do those who resist Zionism at the present time (p.83). We should note that the writer’s use of the word ‘Zionism’ refers to the differentiation between Jews and those who use religion for their own political and colonialist interests. The writer of the book refers to the Muslim-Christian cooperation in some Arab countries throughout history. He wrote: “Cooperation between Muslim and Christian Arabs in Egypt, Syria and Iraq was an important factor for the victory over the Crusaders ” (p.83).

In their History class fifth students in Yemen read a chapter entitled “Judaism and Christianity”. The book states that:

Judaism started to spread in Yemen in the first century after the Romans had destroyed Solomon temple in the year 70 A.D. So many of the Jews traveled to Hijaz and Yemen. Christianity, on the other hand, entered Yemen, in about the fourth century A.D. by the Christian missionaries. It also entered Yemen through trade between the people in Yemen and the people of Syria and Abyssinia. There was a competition at that time between Paganism, Judaism and Christianity. But more competition was between Judaism and Christianity. Thou-Nawas, King of Hemiar punished, tortured and burned the Christians of Nagran who enraged the Christian king of Abyssinia. Supported by Byzantium, the Abyssinian king defeated Thou-Nawas and the Abyssinians invaded Yemen (p.28).

The book also asks the students to comment on the results of this conflict between Judaism and Christianity in Yemen (p.32). We must observe that the writer should have spoken of conflict between Christians and Jews of Najran, rather than Christianity and Judaism, for the two religions do not conflict with each other. Conflicts between believers in two different religions do not, necessarily mean that the two religions conflict with each other. All divine religions call for tolerance which is against the principle of conflict. This conflict is against the essence of religions and the instructions of religions and cultures.

Clash between people start when they ignore their religions and cultures and they start to use religions for non-religious and non-cultural reasons. What Thou-Nawas did is nothing less than brutal works done under the name of religion. Some History books also refer to the honor which is bestowed on the Arab world when Almighty God chose their area as a place for the revelation of the three divine religions. In the third edition 2002 of his book The Arab World (Second Prep, Kuwaiti Ministry of Education), Ghanim Sultan wrote: “The Arab world is the locale for the three divine religions, Judaism, Christianity and Islam. It is from there that the three religions spread all over the world. This fact honored this area and granted it a kind of unique international spiritual perspective. The book refers to the three religions as follows:

1) Judaism: The book of Judaism is the Torah which was revealed from Almighty God on Moses on 13th century B.C while he was going out of Egypt with the Israelis. They were fleeing the Egyptian Pharaoh. This flight was in compliance with the commands of God. According to the Qur’an, God said to Moses: “Oh Moses, I have chosen you above men by my Messages, and by my speaking to you. So hold that which I have given you and be of the grateful” (9/ 144).

2) Christianity: The book of Christianity is the Bible which was revealed to Jesus Christ when Almighty God revealed it to him to bring the Israelis to the true and right way to God. Jesus, according to the Qur’an, said to his people: “Truly, God is my Lord and your Lord, so worship him (Alone). This is the Straight Path” (3/51). Christianity was

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named after Christ ( p. 42-43). Next to this text, there is a beautiful picture of Bethlehem Church in Jerusalem.

3) Islam: Islam is the last of divine religions. Its book is Al-Qur’an ( p. 42-43).

Students will notice that the two religions are related to Moses and Jesus the two great prophets and to the two divine books, the Torah and the Bible. Islam recognizes the two religions as religion revealed from God. We also notice that the writer spoke about the three religions chronologically. The writer spoke in about four lines about each of the two religions of Judaism and Christianity. He spoke about Islam in a whole page. The writer should have spoken in more detail about Judaism and Christianity. As a matter of fact this problem of the space available in a textbook is a common problem that exists in Europe as well as in the Arab world especially when the writers deal with the local culture or local religion in contrast with the other cultures.

In Morocco, students work on the book In the Light of History which is taught at different departments especially Humanities and Literature. In the 2005 edition of the book we read about the Renaissance and the religious information in Europe in the sixteenth century. The book states that “Renaissance and the Protestant religious Reformation are the two sources of modern history” (p.29). The book warns against misuse of religion for other reasons. This warning is based on Martin Luther’s statement that tithes will not save human beings in the afterlife.

Egyptian students study Christians and Jews through reference to the People of the Book who are Jews, Christians and non Muslims. In his 2001 edition of his book History for Third Grade secondary Schools, Atia El-Quosi deals with the People of the Book in Islam (p.28).

According to the Islamic point of view, the People of the Book are the Christians and Jews. They are the people of the covenant who settled in the Muslim countries according to a pact with Muslims. They are so named because they agreed to settle in the Muslim countries after paying a certain amount of money in return for protecting them.. At the time of Omar Ibn El-Khattab, they were joined by some pagans and at the time of Othman, the fourth Caliph they were joined by some Barbers. They were also joined by some other non-Muslims at the time of Al-Ma’moun. This money they paid to Muslims is equal to what we know as taxes which are paid by all in return for the different services people get from the governments. Muslims used to pay alms giving to the house of treasury.

Some History books taught in Arab countries deal with problems Muslims face in Western countries. In his book Muslims in the World, taught at third Prep. Schools in Kuwait 2003, Hassan Abdel-Hamid Jabr refers to some of the problems in the West and in some Asian countries. Under the subheading ‘Muslim minorities and how the Organization of the Islamic Conference deals with them’ Jabr wrote:

Some minorities have some cultural and social requirements as attachment to the Islamic identity. This is especially clear in Britain, France, Bulgaria, China, India and Russia. The Organization of the Islamic Conference helps them build mosques and cultural and educational centers. This organization is keen that its members do not meddle with the internal affairs of the countries in which Muslim minorities live (p.132).

The Organization of the Islamic Conference, which includes some ministers from many Muslim countries, helps these Muslim minorities in non-Muslim countries. They solve their problems on the bases of the laws at the countries they live in. The Human Rights

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Declaration issued by the United Nations on which all constitutions of the world are based, emphasize the freedom of belief. European Muslims are European natives who have equal rights to others. They have every right to ask for their equal rights with others. The solution of these problems may take some time, but they have to keep working on asserting these rights as long as they do not interfere in the internal affairs of the country they live in.

In addition to these religious subjects, Arab students study other subjects like the Palestinian Issue, Imperialism and the Crusades.

The Crusades:

The crusades were the most problematic wars in which Arabs and Muslims were involved between 1095 and 1290.The book History of Arab and Islamic Culture ,taught at Eighth Grade in Yemen , resembles the Crusades to the Israeli War against Palestinians. Both the Imperialistic Zionist war against Palestinians and the Crusades are similar in that each of them used religion for political reasons. On Page 78, the book refers to the difference between Christianity as a religion in which Muslims believe and the Crusades which used Christianity for political reasons. On Page 82, the book above mentioned explains that Muslims and Christians in Arab and Muslim countries discovered that “the Crusades used Christianity for imperialistic reasons and they aimed at solving the aggravating problems in Europe through these crusades. On page 83 the book encourages students to differentiate between Christianity as a religion and the Crusaders as imperialists. It says that Muslims appreciate the role played by Christian Arabs in resisting the Crusaders in the past and in resisting Zionists at the modern times. Egyptian students also read in the History Book for Third Grade Secondary Schools 2001 by Atia El-Quosi that students have to know the difference between Christianity as a religion recognized by Muslims and the imperialistic Crusades. The book points out that “Salah-ud-Din did not fight Christianity but he fought the imperialistic European policy” (p.91).

These wars were termed ‘the Crusades” because the Europeans “carried the Cross as a symbol and claimed that they wanted to free the Holy Christian lands from Muslims so that they secure the way for Christian Pilgrims to Jerusalem. The development of these wars indicated that their aim was to control the heart of the Muslim world through occupying the Arab peninsula and Egypt” see also Ahmed Mukhtar El-Abbadi, The Islamic History Book for Third Grade Secondary Schools published in Kuwait in 2002: P.167 .

History books taught in Arab Emirates, Egypt, Yemen, and Kuwait refer to the causes of these wars. In Emirates, the book taught at the Second grade Prep. Schools which was written by Abdallah Salim Emara et gives some political, economic and military reasons for these wars (Sixth edition: P.111, 2003). It also states that these wars aimed at ending the civil wars in Europe of that time. They used religion to quench these civil wars in their countries. People of Byzantium asked the Pope for help after they were defeated by the Suljukes in 1071. In 1095 Pope Urbain II held a conference in Clermont in 1095. In this conference he said:

It is high time for you to direct your weapons toward Muslims, not to each other. You will be able to occupy not only one city but different rich regions in Asia. Save the Holy lands from those who occupy them. Get these lands for yourselves. These lands produce so much milk and honey. If you conquer your enemies, you will have the whole east under your control. If you are killed you are martyrs because you die at the same place in which Jesus died. The Pope then raised the Cross and said: ‘carry it on your shoulders (p.111).

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On page 112, the book adds some more reasons for the crusades. They feared the spread of Islam in Europe. The absence of the Islamic unity at that time encouraged them to start their wars against Islam.

In his book History of the Arab Islamic Culture for Grade Eight, in Yemen part II, 2001 , Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi says: “ Europe witnessed so many political, religious, social, economic and cultural problems which forced it to look for solutions for these problems out of Europe. They made of the Arab world an enemy so as to unite itself against these internal problems ( p.78).

In his book History for Third Grade Secondary Schools Atia El-Quosi speaks in some details about the causes of the Crusades. In the 2001 edition of the book El-Quosi wrote:

Europeans announced the religious cause as the aim of the Crusades after Christian pilgrims to Jerusalem had complained about some annoyances from the Muslim Turks while they were performing their pilgrimage. They also announced that they wanted to regain the Holy Cross which was owned by the Muslims in Jerusalem. Beside these announced reasons for the war, Europeans had some major political and economic reasons as getting hold of the riches in the Muslim East and to ease the conditions of the European farmers who suffered under feudalism in Europe. Nobles and Knights in Europe also wanted to solve their social and economic problems. They gathered the common people and responded to the Pope’s appeal for war against Muslims. Politically speaking, the European West responded to Romanos IV’s call for help against Muslims who defeated him under the leadership of Alb Arslan, the Turkish Sultan in 1071 in the battle of Manzikreet. Pope Oroban II also called for help in response to the Byzantine Emperor Alexius Komnien in 1095 (p.81-82).

In his book The Islamic History Book for Third Grade Secondary Schools (published in Kuwait in 2002) Ahmed Mukhtar El-Abbadi says: Europeans claimed that they wanted to free the Holy Christian lands from Muslims in Palestine to safeguard their pilgrims, but later events proved that they wanted to occupy the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt and Red Sea” (p.176). On the next page, the book continues with stating the following reasons for the Crusades. They were actually motivated by

the Catholic Pope’s desire to dominate the Orthodox domain over the Eastern church. The Pope also promised those who participated in the war against Muslims with rewards in both this life and the next. In Europe there were famines, diseases, debts and unemployment. Europeans also had an eye on the riches and trade of the Arabs. Italian cities wanted also to control the trade in the middle. European farmers also wanted to get rid of the dominance of the nobles and knights. The Pope also wanted to have a stronger hold on the European kings. The knights and nobles also aspired for more riches in the area. The Byzantine Emperor Alexius Komnien called also for help from pope Urbain II (p.168).

Students in Egypt, United Arab Emirates and Yemen study the Crusades as mainly a work of Politics and economy. The next motive is religious. Finally these wars are studied as a result of the social causes. The Egyptian book presents these wars as results of the political and economic situation in Europe whereas they are under religious cover. They announced religious motives after the Popes claimed receiving complaints from pilgrims for being mistreated by Seljukes. But the events have proved that their aim was to control the heart of Islamic World as the history book taught in Kuwait points out.

The Crusades are presented in the above mentioned History books as imperialistic wars under religious cover. They used religion to motivate the common people in Europe to participate in these wars. Christianity and Islam do not support such wars. However, we

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should note that the Pope tried to safeguard the Christian pilgrims, but the political and economic reasons for these wars were stronger. Authors and students realize that the spirit of Islam and Christianity is against wars. They are religions of freedom, tolerance, co-operation and peace.

Some of the books above mentioned make clear that these Crusades were between the European Christians on one side and the Muslim and Christian Arabs on the other side. Some Students understand that these wars were a kind of world Wars which involved the Balkans, Syria, Egypt, Morocco and Spain as mentioned by Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi in his book History of the Arab Islamic Culture for Grade 8 , in Yemen, part II p..77 . It is noticed that the above mentioned book speaks of the Crusades on a wider scale than the books studied in Egypt, Kuwait, and Emirates which are mentioned earlier. These books state that these wars took place between 1095 and 1290 and they involved Europe, Syria and Egypt. The book studied in Kuwait estimates the number of the battles as around a hundred in which no less than two million Europeans participated (p.167). These numbers show how destructive and fatal these wars were. They continued for about two hundred years. The book studied in Egypt indicates that the first European campaign included about 25,000 men. From this number only 3000 survived. (p.28). The book studied in Egypt also refers to the cruelty of the Europeans in dealing with Muslims. It refers to the number of victims which were caused by the wars. They killed Muslims, Jews and Christians who sided with the Arabs. They made no distinction between men or women, children or elders. They killed all of those who resorted to Al-Aqsa mosque. There was so much blood in the streets of the Holy city of Jerusalem. The leader of the European forces shed so much of Muslim, Jewish and Christian blood in the city. On the day and night of the invasion, they massacred every Arab in the streets of Jerusalem” (p.84). The book quotes a European historian who mentioned that “when Prince Raymond went to the mosque, he waded through corpses which were crowded in the streets. Nobody was in the streets of the city” (p.87). This was not by any means a religious war; it used religion only as a cover for the real intentions of the leaders. In a religious war no Christian is expected to kill a fellow Christian. Students wonder how such barbaric wars use Christianity which is a religion of peace as a cover for political and economic reasons. Muslims defended their countries against the Crusaders. Muslims succeeded in defeating the Europeans in the first campaign. They even restored some of their lands under the leadership of the Turks at Alraha in 1144. Muslims also defended themselves against the second campaign in 1147 (p.28). Muslim Ayyoubides signed a treaty with the Europeans, the European side did not respect the treaty. The two sides got into war in Hettien in 1187. Muslims won the battle and Jerusalem was captured by Muslims. The two sides signed a covenant of peace for three years. The fourth European campaign attacked Constantinople and they attacked Domyatta in Egypt in 1218. They then asked for peace with King Al-Kamel who defeated the Crusaders in Egypt. In the seventh campaign, Muslims captured Louis IX in Mansura, Egypt in 1249. Finally in 1291, Muslims could open Akka and other Eastern coastal cities of the Mediterranean sea.

Muslim victories, as Al-Mukhlafi says were due to “coordination between Muslims and Christian Arabs in Egypt, Syria and Iraq. When united they conquered their enemies (p.83). In his book History for Third Grade Secondary Schools: 2001, Atia El-Quosi states that Emad Ed-din Zinki Al-Suljuki, governor of Halab and Al-Mousel captured the stronghold of the Crusaders in Alraha in 1144. Salah-ud -din also defeated the Crusaders in Hettien in 1187. Touran Shah, son of As-Saleh also defeated Louis IX and captured him.

The Egyptian and the Kuwaiti books referred to above use the word ‘Jihad’ to refer to defending oneself not to invading the other as some European schoolbooks state. Salah Ed-

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din signed a truce with the King of Jerusalem in 1178. One of the important articles of this truce was to safeguard the trade road between Egypt and Syria. It was the European leader who broke this truce and attacked Muslim harbors and the Muslims pilgrims on their way to Jerusalem. He also attacked Muslims in their way from Cairo to Damascus and got hold of their possessions. Salah- Ud-Din, then announced religious Jihad and his forces defeated the Crusaders in Hettein in 1178 (History for Third Grade Secondary Schools Atia El-Quosi p. 89 and The Islamic History Book for Third Grade Secondary Schools , published in Kuwait in 2002) Ahmed Mukhtar El-Abbadi p. 172).

Under the subheading “the roles played by the parties in Jihad against the Crusaders” El-Abbadi says in his above mentioned book : “There were three different roles of Jihad against the Crusaders, the roles played by the Turkish Suljukes, by the Iyyoubides, and by the Mamlukes” (p.171). On the next page, the writer continues: “Salah-Ud-Din continued his efforts against the Crusades; he united the Islamic forces under his leadership and so he could surround the Crusaders. Sometimes, he fought with them on limited grounds and he sometimes had truces with them” (p.172).

History books in Emirates, Egypt, Kuwait and Yemen throw light on Salah ud-din’s great works and show that he distinguished between religion and those who use it for their own aims. He treated them with mercy. In his book History of the Arab Islamic Culture for Grade Eight Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi says: “It is our duty to learn form Salah-Ud-Din and distinguish between Christianity as a religion recognized by Islam and the Crusades as an imperialistic movement” (p.83). He was so merciful to them when he entered Jerusalem. He freed the King of Jerusalem. He mercifully safeguarded them provided they leave Jerusalem in 40 days. No criminal act of theft or burglary was committed then (Atia El-Quosi p. 89) and The Islamic History Book for Third Grade Secondary Schools p.89-90). El-Qousi quotes a European historian who wrote: “Salah-Ud-Din’s greatness manifested itself most remarkably at the time of the Crusader’s giving the keys of the city to him” (p.91). El-Qousi continues stating that Salah-Ud-Din let his enemies leave the city with their properties after paying a reasonable amount of money. The poor left without even paying this little money” (p.91). The History book taught in Emirates also refers to Salah-Ud-Din’s mercy towards the Crusaders, especially the poor (Abdallah Salim Emara Sixth edition 2003 p. 121). The book states that: “the Crusades asked Salah-ud-din to safeguard them, their money and gave them forty days to leave”. Salah-Ud-Din is only an example of the Muslim leaders who were kind to the defeated Crusaders. “Toran Shah is another leader who defeated Louis IX and his army. Shah was so kind to the French king who paid a ransom (Ibid p. 94-95) and Ahmed Mukhtar El-Abbadi The Islamic History Book for Third Grade Secondary Schools published in Kuwait in 2001 p. 174)).

The Aftermath of the Crusades:

In his History book taught in Emirates, Abdallah Salim Emara and others , Sixth edition 2003 , refer to the positive results of the Crusades on both sides saying that these wars exposed the West to different aspects of the Islamic civilization. This exposition led to developing Europe and to end the feudal system in Europe. These wars also united the Muslim. The writers refer briefly to the negative results of the wars which are manifested in the destruction and killings on both sides. They also refer to the failure of the Crusaders to achieve their aims (p.123).

The History book on the Islamic and Arabic culture taught in the Eighth Grade in Yemen ,2nd Part , refers to the negative results of the Crusades on the Arab Islamic world and to the positive results of the war on the European side. Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi says “The negative results of the Crusades are manifested in occupying some Arab areas and starting

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new temporal kingdoms. The wars also wasted the Arab Muslim riches on armament. Some of this money was plundered by the Crusaders. The Crusades also led to the appearance of a new military feudal state in the Arab Islamic world. The progressing Civilization in the area also came to a hold. These wars still have some influence on the way some modern Western leaders think” (p.84-85).

The book taught in Egypt for secondary schools 2001, speaks about the Crusades on 16 pages. However, it does not speak about the results of these wars. We hope that in the next editions, the authors will add this section on the results of the wars so that students will learn the lessons from the Crusades. In Kuwait, the Islamic history book taught to the third grade of secondary, arts section, sixth edition 2002, page 176, mentioned the positive and negative consequences in Islamic East side and mentioned only positive results in West Europe. In Islamic World, the author mentions political, intellectual, economic and social results. He says that these Crusades wars united the Muslims together to face the common threat while the Muslims benefited from the idea of using castles to defend their cities. Also, enthusiastic literature, speeches and preaching about Jihad appeared. The Qur'an was also translated to Latin Languages. At the same time, skilled manpower engaged in the army, production declined and the price of commodities increased. Muslims were also affected by some habits of the Crusaders and their social traditions. If the negatives are here on the economic side, on the contrary, Europeans benefited in all areas of political, intellectual, economic and social. These wars contributed in uniting the Europeans with their rules and enabled them to transfer Arabic Books of medicine and engineering. Also, the wars opened the doors of trade between East and West which contributed in increasing of navigation movements between two sides. Besides that, Crusades transferred several types of Eastern plants and industries to Europe. Also, feudalism collapsed. The Europeans were impressed by Eastern food, methods of cleanliness and many Arab customs and traditions which had a large effects on refining their morals.

We can notice that the results did not point to the terrible human toll in the massacre of Jerusalem whereby the Crusaders killed citizens of the city including men, women and children, Muslims, Christians and Jews. In other battles, twenty two thousand Crusaders were killed in the first battle.

Crusaders have a negative effect on the ideas and actions of some people from modern Europe and America. Over the centuries, wrong judgments about Arabs and Muslims have moved to them. Some of them thinks that Islam is the reason for backwardness, ignorance and brutality of Muslims. These features are shown in the Western Media and in European and American school textbooks. The history textbooks in the West, present Jihad as an illegal aggression to propagate Islam and Quran by force. These textbooks point that Quran orders the Muslims to fight non Muslims in order to force them to engage in Islam and that the Prophet Muhammad was a man of war.

The Quranic verses as well as the wars that Prophet Muhammad led them, should be read in its historical, geographical, military, cultural, religious and economic circumstances. The verses that urge the Muslims to fight, have military circumstances whereby the Muslims were in the position of defense of themselves. Students will know that Muslims fought in defense of themselves and of their country. They should learn that the verses in the Qur’an which speak about fighting the enemy refer to fighting those who start fighting Muslims and who invade Muslim’s countries. Verse 190 of Chapter 2 says: “And fight in the Way of God those who fight you, but don’t transgress. Truly, God likes not the transgressors”. The Qur’an states that Non-Muslims should not be forced to believe in Islam: “There is not compulsion in religion” (2 / 256). When Prophet Muhammad conquered Meccans only

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after they disrespected the truce they had with Muslims. This was also the case with the Jews in Medina. Some of these Jews sided with the Meccans when the Jews attacked Medina in the Battle of Al-Ahzab, the Confederates.

Jihad appeared during the Crusades to resist the Crusaders who invaded the Arab countries. Westerners should distinguish between Jihad as stated in Quran and some of the wars which are started in the name of religion. Some of these wars took place between Muslims and their fellow Muslims as was the case with the wars between the Omayyads and Alawyees. Or between the Omayyads and Abbasides or between Iraq and Kuwait at the end of the twentieth century. It is recommended that books dealing with the Crusades should give the verses from the Qur’an which speak about Jihad, when the word is mentioned. It is also preferable not to quote selectively. Some verses in the Qur’an are limited to a specific situation or time when they speak about Jihad and when they ask Muslims to fight non-Muslims. Authors of these books may also quote some of the knowledgeable interpreters of the Qur’an who speak about the situations and causes of the verses. Some fanatic Muslims mention parts of the verses out of their contexts. Some of them do not actually understand the verses. Students, who are tomorrow’s men may understand these verses mistakenly. As a matter of fact Islam is against all kinds of violence as much as it is against fanaticism. Verse 125 of Chapter 16 of the Qur’an reads: “Invite mankind, O Muhammad, to the Way of your Lord with wisdom and fair preaching, and argue with them in a way that is better”. Verse 6 of Chapter 109 of the Qur’an reads: “To you is your religion and to me is mine”. Verses 21-22 of Chapter 88 read: “So, remind them ,O, Muhammad, you are only a one who reminds. You are not a dictator over them”. Early Muslims understood these principles and so they lived in peace with the Jews and Christians as well as with believers in other creeds. Their culture was an open door culture which welcomed people from other cultures. This was the case with Muslims until imperialism started to take its hold over Arab and Muslim countries.

Imperialism:

Imperialism is occupying a weaker country by the stronger one to get hold of the financial sources of the weaker one. Imperialists will also occupy a country for its geographical locale or to use the man-power in such countries. This imperialism can be through direct or indirect means. The occupiers usually direct the economic, cultural and political policies of these countries based on the occupier’s interests.

European imperialism started in the Middle East since the Crusades. Europeans established weak states and emirates on the coast of the Mediterranean Sea such as Al-Raha, Intaqia, Tripoli and the Kingdom of Jerusalem. After the Crusades, the Europeans came back as imperialists at the end of 15th century. This return took place after the Geographic discoveries and the occupation of north and south Americas. At the end of the 18th century they had their eyes on the Arab countries. They started the French campaign against Egypt which continued for three years. This campaign was faced with strong internal resistance and external resistance from England and the Ottomans. After the departure of the French forces The British tried to occupy Egypt in 1807. They also failed because of the strong resistance of the people. In 1882 the British army succeeded in occupying Egypt. Europeans, then, occupied other Arab countries. In the twentieth century Arab countries got their freedom from the Europeans. Efforts are done nowadays to free Gaza and the West bank of the Israeli occupation. Nowadays, the economic imperialism has replaced the political and military occupation. Rich and highly developed Western countries try to subjugate poor and weaker countries. They try to keep the economy of these weak

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countries dependent on their economy through controlling their production and preventing them to industrialize their raw materials. Some of these rich countries try to spark wars here and there to keep these undeveloped countries busy with their wars and prevent cooperation between these countries. Such wars will consume their economy and become indebted to these rich countries as a result of buying weapons and ammunition necessary for the wars. At times of war, the economic production is always weak. Such states will always be indebted to the rich countries and will always be bound to their conditions.

What do Arab students study in History books in chapters on Imperialism? Do they relate Imperialism to the modern European policy? Do they think that their countries are really independent? What is real independence? What is the role expected to be played by governments in poor and developed countries about this dangerous catastrophe? Do peoples in rich countries accept the old and the new forms of imperialism? Do students need to distinguish between the policies of governments in rich countries and the feelings of the peoples regarding exploitation of other countries? What do Arab and developing governments and peoples should do to get out of the present dilemma? Do History books taught in Arab countries address these questions? What is the reaction of the Arab student in the light of the books he studies?

History books taught in Egypt, Emirates, Kuwait, Mauritania and Yemen highlight the role played by the European imperialism and its role in these countries. Some of these books relate the European imperialism, with the implications of political and economic exploitation with the Israeli occupation of Gaza and the West Bank. Some of these refer to the different names given to the same exploitative imperialism, whether it is mandate, or occupation or imperialism. These are different names for the same thing aiming at exploiting the weaker countries.

The History book taught to third year students secondary school ,Literary Section in Kuwait 6th edition, 2002 , studies the European imperialism of the Islamic world. Chapter five of the books points out that “After the discovery of the Cape of Good Hope in South Africa in towards the end of the 15th century, the Muslim countries were subjects to a fierce imperialistic campaign led by Portugal, Spain, Holland, England and France. The book describes the Dutch imperialism as “the cruelest kinds of economic exploitation in India. They also were so repressive to Muslims in so many ways. They also sent missionaries and established schools which aim at defending their positions (p.196). The book speaks of the British and French occupations of Arab and Muslim countries. Those occupiers used the riches of these countries for their own interests and they ignored educations. They also put the seeds of hate between the different sects in the same countries. (p.196-97). The British imperialists created the problem of Palestine to keep the Muslim world busy while the French tried to establish their Culture and language in the countries they occupied (p.197). The book speaks about the Italian, Spanish and Russian occupations with no reference to their imperialistic policies (p.199).

In their History book taught at 3rd Year Prep. Schools in Emirates, Abdallah Salim Emara and others, refer to the following causes of the European occupation of the Arab countries:

1) The excellent geographical location of the Arab countries. These countries also include some of the important water ways, coastal harbors and gulfs.

2) The weakness of the Ottoman Empire and disunity which spread in the Islamic world.

3) Important raw materials were available in these countries.

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4) The religious position of the Arab world.

5) European fear of the unity of the Arabs. (Sixth edition 2003 p. 35-36).

In Mauritania, the History book taught at second year, Secondary school education, speaks about the causes of imperialism in the Arab world under the title: “Imperialistic Expansion”. These causes as mentioned in the book are as follows:

1) Economic competition between European countries to open new markets for their products.

2) Competition between European countries to control the world locations which have important raw materials.

3) Investment of the surplus money in their countries.

4) A means to solve the problem of overpopulation in Europe.

5) The rise of some new nationalistic powers in 19th century as Germany, Italy and Belgium which tried to compete with other European countries, especially, England.

6) Their use of these countries in the war which they started in Europe. These Muslim countries included some important military bases and they provided the European countries with men power necessary for the war.

7) Europeans claimed that they had a cultural and religious responsibility towards these countries in Asia, Africa etc, which they considered undeveloped. This is what they called ‘The white man’s burden’. Unfortunately these countries made no actual efforts to enlighten the peoples of these countries. In the same way the missionaries in India, China and Japan were also used for imperialistic reasons (1982 , p. 95-97).

Under The title “Forms and results of imperialism”, the book mentioned above speaks about the following forms of imperialism:

1) Immigration and settlement.

2) Racial discrimination in South Africa

3) Military occupation.

4) Trade

5) Deceitful agreement.

6) Capitals

7) Privileges to foreign countries.

8) Cultural and religious aspirations. Some of the European countries used this cause to establish the political and military occupation of the Muslim countries as did France in Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco.

9) Mandate ( p.138).

The book refers to the results of imperialistic occupation of these countries saying: “The European imperialism left bad effects on the countries they occupied, especially in the political, economic and social fields” (p.139). Imperialism deprived these peoples of their political freedom and of its national products for its own interests. Imperialists encouraged immigration to these Muslim countries and so they established a new aristocratic foreign class in these countries. They ignored education and imposed their culture and language on

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the people of these occupied countries. They despised the peoples of these occupied countries.

Students in Kuwait also read about the forms of imperialism in their History books. These books speak about military occupation, settlements, treaties, mandate and racial discrimination based on religion, sex and color. They deprived these countries from their natural human rights as justice, equality and freedom of speech as was the case with South Africa and as it is still practiced in Palestine by Zionists (Modern and Contemporary History of the World for 4th Grade, 6th edition, secondary Schools in Kuwait: 2002, p. 40). The same book adds that the Geographic discoveries led to controlling the riches of peoples from different countries by force. These discoveries led to the appearance of the imperialistic forces which dominated weaker countries.

The History book taught at the 3rd Grade, Prep. Schools in Emirates speaks about the causes of these imperialistic forces. The authors of the book speak about settlement, military occupation, mandates as the most important forms of imperialism (p.34-35).

In Mauritania, the History book taught at 2nd Grade, secondary schools gives a quotation from a French newspaper which expresses the French imperialistic point of view about Tunisians. The quotation speaks of Muslims and Arabs as “lowly to the strong and vulgar to the weak. Their freedom is nothing but a show and their humanitarianism is nothing but a joke. They are nothing but copycats. They are nothing but subjects to the stronger countries” (p.141). Students as well as probably all readers wonder how could such a non-human attitude can be approved by the French people who started the French Revolution and who defended human rights since the end of the 18th century. This is a derogatory attitude which presents Muslims and Arabs as disgraceful people and even non-humans.

It is not fair to judge a whole culture based on the attitude of an individual. Writers should put the words of speakers in context and should see them from the right perspective. Do these words express the French people’s attitude towards Muslims and Arabs at that time or at present. Writers of history books should mention the historical situation at the time of writing these words.

The French Campaign Against Egypt

The Egyptian national resistance of the French Campaign resulted in the French departure only after three years of their occupation of Egypt. This resistance encouraged the Ottomans and the English to bother the French who had to fight on more than one front.

History books taught in Egypt, Emirates, Yemen, Mauritania and Kuwait study the French Crusade against Egypt. These books vary in the space they give to this topic. The Egyptian book covers the topic in fifteen pages whereas the book taught in Yemen deals with the topic in nine pages. In Emirates, the History book covers the topic in six pages and the one taught in Kuwait presents it in few lines. The History book dealing with the topic in Mauritania also covers the topic in few lines. However, we must note that other history books in Kuwait and Mauritania which are not available to us might have covered the topic in more detail. I could not get hold of all the History books taught at the different levels in the countries under consideration. The Egyptian book spoke in detail about the French Campaign on Egypt. It is useful to give an idea about the book’s presentation of the topic.

In his book History for Third Grade Secondary Schools Atia El-Quosi speaks about the French Campaign as part of the imperialistic competition between England and France. The two countries were in a state of war as a result of the European kings’ fear of the

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French Revolution. El-Quosi wrote: “The French thought of hurting the British trade through occupying Egypt” (p.102). The economic situation in Egypt was very bad. Poor farmers suffered a lot from the high taxes levied by “the Mamlukes, the military forces, the mayors of villages and traders. Governors belonged to the Aristocratic Turkish class, high class Egyptians and Mamlukes. Religious leaders, employees and traders constituted the middle class. Among farmers and the common people ignorance, superstitions, and beggary were dominant. However, they had some light of knowledge shining from Al-Azhar” (p.104). In such an atmosphere Napoleon and his forces came to Egypt. Napoleon was well informed about the social conditions in Egypt. He tried to make use of these bad conditions in Egypt and issued a declaration in June 27, 1798 which he had it distributed to Egyptians before the arrival of the French forces to the Egyptian coasts. In this declaration Napoleon wrote:

“I came to save you from the unfair governors. I pray to God more than the Mamlukes. I respect your prophet and the Holy Qur’an. I believe that all human beings are equal to God. What makes a difference is their use of their minds and their practice of virtues and their knowledge. If the Egyptian land is owned by the Mamlukes, let us see the proof. On the other hand he warned that he will burn any village or area which will resist the French forces”(p.105-106).

It is noticeable that Napoleon uses the religion of Islam not to attack non-Muslims but to control Egyptian Muslims and Christians. He used this approach to get closer to Egyptians and to occupy the country with no resistance. However, he was not sure that Egyptians will believe him so he threatened that he will use force if Egyptians resisted.

Though Napoleon used the different ways of threatening and promises, yet Egyptians in Alexandria resisted him in July, 1798. The French arrested and shot to death Mohamed Kurayem, the leader of the resistance (p.106). On their way to Cairo, the French were faced with very strong resistance from Egyptians under the leadership of Mamlukes in Behira and in Embaba. In Upper Egypt, resistance continued for about ten months (p.106). In October, 1798 revolution against the French rule started in Cairo. The causes of the revolution are so many. The French levied high taxes especially on merchants. This was against their promises to rid the country of the injustices and the high taxes of the Mamlukes. They inspected houses and shops in search of money. They also destroyed so many houses and mosques pretending that they are protecting Cairo. Al-Azhar led the revolution against the French and the Egyptians under the leadership of Al-Azhar men killed about two hundred French men. Around two thousand Egyptians were killed in this revolution. The French used cruel means to suppress the revolution. They even entered Al-Azhar mosque riding on their horses which enraged Egyptians. This French cruelty and terrorism created more anger in the areas adjacent to Cairo (p.108). The situation worsened inside Egypt and England got into war with the French and destroyed the French fleet in the battle of Abi-Qier in August 1798. Napoleon then defeated the Ottomans in July 1799 and destroyed their fleet. In August 18, 1�99 Napoleon decided to return to France secretly and leave the Campaign in trouble under the leadership of his deputy Kleaber (p.108). The French Campaign faced fierce resistance from Egyptians inside and faced the Ottoman attacks from the outside. Kleaber wanted to have a truce with the Ottomans according to which the Campaign will leave Egypt peacefully, but the British forces accepted nothing less than a complete surrender on the French side. Kleaber refused this. The French could not resist the British and the Ottomans at the same time. So they left Egypt in September 1801 (p.109).

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The book mentioned above speaks about the results of the French Campaign on the political, economic and educational levels. They constructed governmental institutions in Cairo and other districts of the country. They levied taxes from Egyptians on equal grounds. They studied the course of the Nile and they introduced some of the new plantations into the country like peaches, apricots, pears, and apples. They focused on growing wheat and rice. They constructed a factory textile and opened new markets for Egyptian products in Jeddah in collaboration with the governor of Mecca. They also constructed sanitary masonries. They also built a new military hospital. Napoleon also constructed an new Egyptian Scientific institution which included departments of Mathematics, Physics, Economical Science, Literature and Arts. The scientists accompanying the Campaign made sure they introduce so many sciences to the Egyptians. The French Campaign also tried to dig a canal which joins the Red and Mediterranean Seas. They published the famous book entitled “The Description of Egypt. They also discovered the Rosette Stone which was read by Champellion, the French Egyptologist (p.110-114). Egyptian Third Year Prep school students study the book Social Studies: The Geography of the World and the History of Modern Egypt. In this book which is published in 2004 and taught in the first term, students read about the French Campaign and its causes. They study how the Campaign entered Egypt and how the Egyptians resisted it in Alexandria, Behira and Embaba. They study how the French forces entered Cairo. They also study the battle of Abu-Qier and the Cairo Revolution only three months after the French had landed in Cairo. Students also study how the Forces of the French Campaign arrived at Syria. They also study the second Cairo Revolution on march1800, which resulted in the departure of the French from Egypt. The book reaches the conclusion that the Campaign failed to achieve its aims. The Campaign only drew the British attention to the importance of the location of Egypt. The book also refers to the French scientists’ study of Egypt and how they discovered and read the Rosette Stone. The book does not ignore the bravery of the Egyptians and how they defended their country. It also refers to the interest which so many Egyptians showed in the modern aspects in the economic and cultural aspects of life (p.83-88).

The Modern History book for second year Secondary Schools in Yemen speaks about the French Campaign on Egypt and Syria. The book refers to overloading Egyptians with taxes prior to the beginning of the French campaign. The book mentions that the causes of the Campaign are political, imperialistic and personal. The French administration thought that they will force the English government to sign a treaty with them after occupying Egypt and threatening the British Indian trade (p.104). England was against the French Revolutionists who threatened the Royal system in Europe. From the political point of view, France wanted to establish an empire in the Middle East (p.104). Napoleon also had some personal ambitions. He wanted to establish an empire similar to that one established by Alexander, the Macedonian (p.104). From the economic point of view, the Mamlukes in Egypt signed a treaty with the British. According to this treaty, the British had so many privileges in Egypt and the Red sea. The Mamlukes refused to do the same with the French (p.104). When the Campaign reached Alexandria in the first of July, 1798, Egyptians resisted it bravely, but they could not defeat it. The city was then occupied by the French in 3rd of July (p.105).

The historic book written by A. S. Amarah and others which is taught at Third Grade (prep. Schools in Emirates) speaks about the motives for the French as follows: “The French wanted to threaten the British trade in the East. They wanted to occupy new lands. They had an eye on the Arab lands in the Ottoman Empire, especially the latter had become a weak one by then (Abdallah Salim Emara, Sixth ed, 2003 p. 40).

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It is worth noting here that the Egyptian History book mentioned above, says that Napoleon explained to the Egyptians in the announcement he made before the arrival of the Campaign that he respected the Qur’an and the Prophet Muhammad and that he worships God (p.105). But the Emarati book (p.41) and the Yemeni one (p.105) mention that Napoleon started his announcement with the words “In the Name of God the Most Merciful, the Most Gracious” which is commonly used by Muslims to start such publications. He also included some verses from the Qur’an and some cordial statements which explain that he came to Egypt to force the Mamlukes to be good to Egyptians. The book taught in Yemen refers to the bravery of Egyptians in defending their country (p.106). The book taught in Emirates also refers to the Egyptian people’s brave defense of their country (p.41).

The book taught in Emirates (p.42-44) and the one taught in Yemen (p.106-109) refer to the two Cairo revolutions against the French Campaign and the French failure to reach Syria. They also refer to the murder of Kleaber after Napoleon had returned to France. They also state that Menou was forced to leave Egypt as a result of the brave Egyptian resistance and to the threats of the British and the Ottomans to the French forces in the area.

The political, social, economic and scientific results of the Campaign as mentioned in the books taught in Egypt, Emirates and Yemen seem to be identical.

In Mauritania, the book of history taught at the 2nd Grade, secondary schools gives a positive picture of the French Campaign. The book quotes Butros Al-Bustani who wrote: “Napoleon entered Cairo in 1797 while it was suffering from ignorance and confusion. He freed Egyptians from the Mamlukes. Napoleon was accompanied by a specialized men of knowledge in Languages, Monuments, Geography, Engineering, Structuring, Chemistry, Physics, Painting and Photography. These men established laboratories, factories, fun places and astronomical institutions, hospitals and gardens. They used cars and established two schools to educate the French who were born in Egypt. They also established a modern scientific institution and an open University-library. They also established a publishing house which used Arabic letters which was named, the national publishing house. They also established a new Arabic newspaper named ‘At-Tanbieh’. These activities made the Egyptians aware of their ignorance and inactivity (p.109).

In this book the student reads about the positive side of the French Campaign which presents Napoleon as a liberator of Egyptians. He freed Egyptians from the Mamlukes. The book also emphasizes the scientific consequences of the French Campaign. The Campaign awakened Egyptians and opened their eyes to the European Renaissance. It is noticed that the book, mistakenly gives the date 1797, instead of 1798 at the beginning of the last quotation. The book did not refer to the resistance of the Egyptians in Alexandria, Cairo and other places. It also did not refer to the Cairo Revolutions and the resistance of the Upper Egyptians.

However, The French Campaign had so many negative consequences as well. The French occupied Egypt by force and levied taxes which overburdened Egyptians. Their objectives were mainly imperialistic. They aimed at exploiting the Egyptian economy and the strategic Egyptian location. Napoleon’s ambition to establish a new empire with Egypt as its center, was a great motive for him. He established administrative centers in which some Egyptians had jobs. The Campaign concentrated on establishing an Egyptian scientific center which included so many French scientists who accompanied the Campaign. They established modern schools and gave some attention to agriculture and introduced some new crops. They also built new hospitals and some factories and they found and read the Rosette Stone. Egyptians also knew about the advanced French administrative abilities and they know how important are the sciences, industry and agriculture. Egyptians made use of

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these elements of advancement. Muhammad Aly gave, from 1805 to 1848, much attention to agriculture, industry, and science. He sent missions to France and gave attention also to the Egyptian army. The French Campaign awakened Egyptians and enlightened them to modern civilization. This age of enlightenment started with Muhammad Aly .

The book of Islamic History taught at the 3rd grade, secondary schools in Kuwait speaks in the 5th chapter about the European Imperialism in the Islamic world. Under the subheading: “The French Imperialism” the book speaks about the French Campaign on Egypt only in few lines. It reads: “The French looked forward to North Africa after they failed in their attempts to occupy Egypt in 1798.-1801. Algeria was the first of the Muslim countries which were occupied by France. Algeria was followed by Morocco, Middle Africa, Dahomi, Chad, Ivory Coast, Senegal and Gabon. Then they occupied Lebanon and Syria” (p.97).

France aimed at Algeria after its army left Egypt. The Algerians defended their country against the French imperialism. The military superiority of the French resulted in the occupation of Algeria. In May 1830, the French army headed to Algeria and in July, 1830 the French occupied Algeria (Modern History for 2nd Year secondary schools in Yemen p. 148 and History book for 3rd year Preparatory Schools in Emirates by Emara and others ,2003 6th edition p. 45. After their success in Algeria, the French forces occupied Wahran and Enaba and they failed to occupy Constantinople which resisted the French up to 1837. In the Western areas, resistance continued for about 14 years (History book in Yemeni second grade secondary school p. 148). Abdel-Quadir Al-Jazaeri played an important role in defending Algeria against the French. He was arrested in 1847 .

The Imperialism:

The Secondary school Yemeni student studies the British, French and Italian occupation of the following Arab countries: Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Algeria, Libya, Sudan, Arabian Gulf and Yemen. The book Modern History for second year secondary schools speaks about the brutal way in which the British occupied Egypt: “In 11 July 1882, the British fleet bombarded Alexandria and changed the flourishing city in a heap of destruction. This barbaric act raised anger in the world. Egyptians defended their country against the British army in the Battle of El-Tal El-Kabier. In spite of their great struggle, the Egyptians and Orabi forces were defeated in 13 September 1882” (p.141). The Egyptian army was defeated after Ahmed Orabi, its leader was captured. The British army was also much superior to the Egyptian fighters.

The History book taught at third year secondary schools in Egypt refers to the British bombardment of Alexandria saying: “Alexandria was bombarded in 11 July, claiming the Egyptians are closing the port and fortifying it. The British forces announced that the Egyptians age taking the British ships hostages in the port. The British forces landed in Alexandria and the Egyptians were confused. The Egyptian army was led by Orabi who was preparing his forces in El-Tal-El-Kabier in the Sharqiaa Governorate. When the forces met, the Egyptians were defeated and the way to Cairo was open to the British forces. They entered Cairo in 14 September, 1882” (2001p. 166-67). The same book also speaks about the European occupation of the Arabian Gulf countries, Algeria and the other Arab countries. The book also speaks about the resistance the imperialists faced in these countries.

Under the title “The British Imperialism” Ahmed Husein Al-Liqani says: “The British army took the chance of the Egyptians’ fortification of Alexandria and they warned the Egyptians

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that they have to give up some of the city’s forts to the British in twenty four hours or they will bombard the city. Egyptians refused to comply with this warning and in the next day, the British fleet bombarded Alexandria. They bombarded so many of the city’s house and burnt them, fire was everywhere” (Social Studies: Geography of the World and Studies in Modern Egyptian History. 2003: p.49- 50). The book also mentions the battles of Kafr Ed-Dawar and El-Tal El-Kabier and it also explains how the British forces entered Cairo after conquering the Egyptian resistance.

The History book taught at the 3rd class Prep. Schools in Emirates speaks about the British occupation of Egypt as a result of the national debts and “Gamal Ed-Din El-Afghani’s ideas of unifying the world of Islam and defending it against foreign forces” (p.51). The book also speaks about the British opposition to the Orabi-Revolution and the British occupation of Egypt after defeating Egyptians in El-Tal-El-Kabier in 1882 because of the British superiority in military power. Khedive Tawfiq sided with the British. The British also were so cruel to the national uprisings. They blocked the legal system in the country and they spread their language and culture (p.52-53). The book also adds that Britain occupied the Southern part of Yemen by force in 1839. Thus they separated Yemen’s south from its north. They had complete dominance of the Indian Ocean (p.153).

Arab countries suffered a lot from the European Imperialism in the last centuries and they could only get their independence in the twentieth century. Arabs did not accept the presence of the European imperialism since it landed on the Arab lands. They resisted until they got their independence in the 20th century. But the Europeans replaced this military occupation with the economic imperialism which is known as the new form of imperialism. To liberate themselves, developing countries have to put plans for education and they must use technology properly. They need to industrialize the raw materials themselves. They need to live in peace with the neighboring countries and co-operate together in fighting poverty, disease and ignorance They need to co-operate with European and other countries .

The Arab Israeli Conflict:

At the beginning of the twenty first century, no Arab lands are occupied except Gaza, the West Bank and the Syrian Golan Heights. History books taught at schools in Egypt, Yemen, Mauritania, Emirates and Kuwait mention the history of the Israeli occupation of the Palestinian lands since its beginning under the following titles: “The Arab Israeli Conflict”, “The Palestinian Cause”, “Balfour’s Promise of 1917”, “The policy of enabling Zionists of occupying Palestine” and “The Zionist Movement”.

In these books students know about the beginnings of the state of Israel. They also study how Israel change facts about the history of Palestine and how Palestinians are deprived of their legal rights. These books explain how the Jewish groups won the support of English and American military, political and economic support before the establishment of the state of Israel. They also won the media in these countries. Balfour note of 1917 promised these Zionist groups that they will get the land of Palestine. Arabs explain that this promise was given by those who do not own the land to those who do not have the right to own it. However, this Balfour was not the beginning of the Zionist activities and aspirations in the area.

In Kuwait, the book History of the Modern and contemporary World taught at 4th grade secondary schools gives an introduction to the Arab Israeli conflict. It says: “The Zionist imperialism of Palestine is probably the most brutal kind of imperialism the Arabs have witnessed. Zionism is a racial idea under religious cover. It is a political movement based

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on violence, terrorism and expansion. This movement started in Europe as a result of the European mistreatment of the Jews. They aimed at keeping the Jewish entity and doing all they can to occupy Palestine” (p.119-120). The Zionists did their best to safeguard their aims through study and following up. Theodore Hertzl, one of the early Jewish Zionists held the first Zionist conference in Bazel, Switzerland between 29-31 of August 1897. This conference defined the aims of Zionism as follows: The creation of a new country and state for the Jewish people in Palestine. This state will be guaranteed by the international law. The conference defined the steps required to achieve this aim as follows:

1) Occupying Palestine through the migration of the Jewish farmers and industry workers to that country according to the appropriate bases of those countries..

2) Organizing the Jewish movements in the different countries of the world compatible with the practice in each country.

3) Strengthening the ties and national awareness among the Jews of the world.

4) Taking the necessary steps to guarantee the governmental agreements to achieve the aims of Zionism (p.119).

The above mentioned book speaks about the strategy used by Zionists to achieve their aims (p.119). This strategy was mainly based on the support of the imperialistic powers which had the authority at that time to impose its conception of the international law. Zionism considered itself a nationalistic imperialist movement. It allied itself with the imperialistic powers of that time. Zionists realized that without this alliance, they will not reach their aims. The Jews established the National Jewish Fund so as to buy lands and register these lands as permanent possessions of the Jews. They also used donations to pay for the immigration and settlement of the Jews in Palestine (p.119). The Jews had their plans and sought the help of the imperialistic powers throughout thirty years between 1917 and 1948 when they declared the emergence of the state of Israel.

The book mentioned above points out that

Zionism worked hard to get the Balfour note in 1917 from England. England put this note into action after the end of the First World War. Palestine at that time was under the British mandate according to the San Rimon Accord in 1920. They appointed Herbert Samuel, the first Jewish representative of the British government in Palestine. This representative encouraged the Jewish immigration to Palestine. He put no conditions on this migration. He gave the Palestinian nationality to the Jews. He allowed them to own their own economic institutions. He facilitated the process of buying the Palestinian lands by the Jews. He also encouraged the establishment of Jewish settlements. Besides, the Jews used the armed force to occupy the Palestinian lands. They thought that weapons will make up for the Palestinian overpopulation. They also killed the Palestinians and destroyed their wealth so that they move to other places and leave these lands to the oncoming Jews. This Jewish policy was supported by the imperialist powers in the world, but especially by the British and the Americans who wanted to destroy the Arab unity and weakening them continuously. They had common aims. This support of the Jews resulted in the establishment of the Zionist state on the Palestinian land in 1948 (p.120).

The book also refers to the Zionist attempts to expand in the Arab world. In 1956, for example they joined war against Egypt. In 1967 also they declared war against the Arabs and they occupied the rest of Palestine, Sinai and the Syrian Golan Heights. In 1982, they occupied parts of the Lebanese lands. The book adds “and in the future we will see that this Zionist regime will continue its expansive strategy until it achieves its big hope in establishing the big Israeli project from the Nile to the Euphrates” (p.120).

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In Kuwait, the book The Arab World which is taught at second year secondary schools, mentions that Hertzl’s attempt to look for a land for the Jews was not the first. Napoleon gave such a promise to the Jews when he sought their help and support to face the Turks on the coasts of Palestine. He promised them that he will hand them Jerusalem and will help them to build. Solomon temple in return for their help. The book refers to the Ottoman's Sultan Abdel-Hamid’s rejection of Napoleon’s offer saying: “I cannot give you a single piece of the land; it is not mine; it is the people’s” (1st edition, p.187). In reference to the Balfour’s note, the book says that

Britain wanted to put this Zionist state in the middle of the Arabs, so that they can end the Arab unity. Arabs will always need the help of Britain. At the same time, Israel will function as an imperialistic base in the Middle East. They also supported the Jews because they needed their help in the First World War (p.189).

In the same book taught in Kuwait, students read about the Arab resistance of the imperialistic projects through uprisings and revolutions from 1920 to 1937. Arabs rejected the project of dividing Palestine between the Jewish state and the Palestinian one. It also refers to Britain’s project of the White Book in 1939 which was rejected by both Arabs and Jews. The book also refers to the emergence of USA as a super power after the end of the World War II . It also refers to the permission given by Truman, the vice president of the USA to 100,000 Jews to migrate to Palestine. The book refers to the UN decision to divide Palestine between the Jews and Arabs. It also refers to Britain’s withdrawal from Palestine and to the Declaration of the state of Israel in 15 may 1948 (p.190-191). The same book refers to the history of the wars which Israel had with the Arabs in 1948, 1956 and 1967. In the 1967 war, the Israelis occupied the Egyptian Sinai, the Syrian Golan Heights and the Palestinian West Bank and Gaza. In the last part of the chapter the book refers to the Kuwaiti support of the Palestinian cause and the steps toward peace between the Arabs and Israel, starting with Camp David’s accords between Egypt and Israel, through Madrid and Oslo’s accords, to the Jordanian-Israeli peace accords and the suggested Israeli-Syrian-Lebanese negotiations. Finally, the book speaks about the challenges of just peace and the new economic aspirations (p.192-202).

In Yemen, 9th Grade preparatory schools students study the book Modern and Contemporary History of the Arabs. In this book students cover the imperialistic policies of Western countries in the Middle East during the two World Wars (p.34-44). In this book, Abdel-Majied Al-Mukhlafi talks about the following under the subheading: “Balfour’s Note (1917) and the Policy of allowing the Zionists to settle in Palestine”:

Balfour Note is a declaration announced by Lord Balfour, the British Foreign Minister, in Nov. 2nd, 1917. It took the form of a message sent to Baron Rotchild the leader of the Jewish minority in Britain. This minority was so influential in Britain. In this note Balfour stated that ‘his government sympathizes with the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine. The British government will do all it can to put this project into action’. Britain declared this note hoping that USA will support it in the First World War. This note was in compliance with the American desires. America was to a great extent, under the influence of the Zionist media. The British government also wanted to get the sympathy and the support of the Zionist in Germany, Austria, Turkey and Russia during the War. The British also sought the safety of their fleet in the Middle East through its passages in the Suez Canal. They also needed the Jewish money in the War. They also feared the unity of the Arabs. This Balfour Note was catastrophic to the Arabs till today. This note was given by those do not own to those who do not have a right to own. It was against article number twenty of the UN Charter. This article describes as ‘invalid’ any accord which is signed

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outside and prior to the establishment of the United Nations. This note was against the charter of the UN also because it was against the principle of self determination of independence. It was also against the British to the Arabs as mentioned in the correspondence between Ash-Sharif Hussein and the British statesman Mac-Mahon which stated that Palestine is part of the Arab countries which will get their independence after the War (2002 p. 39).

In this Yemeni book students read about an imperialistic play of treachery acted by Europeans, Americans and Israel. These actors have very negative images in the book. However, the Western governments are still in complete support of the illegal Israeli occupation of Gaza, the West Bank and the Golan Heights.

In Mauritania, students read about the Palestinian cause in the History Book for 8th grade, secondary schools published in 1982. Under the title “The Palestinian Cause” students read the following lines:

The British entered Palestine through Egypt and they occupied Jerusalem in 1917. After that they occupied the rest of the Palestinian cities. The Jews put to action the British promises in the Balfour Note of 1917. Zionism is a political policy which aims at occupying Palestine the Arab country and establishing a Jewish state from the Nile to the Euphrates (p.167).

The book, then, mentions what Hertzl and the Jewish committee did to facilitate the Jewish migration to Palestine. The book also mentions the Arab resistance which started peacefully then turned into organized armed resistance. The book mentions the Arab revolutions against the Jewish migration to Palestine. It also speaks about the UN decision to divide Palestine between the Jews and the Arabs. The book also speaks about the British White Book Project (1939) which was rejected by both the Arabs and the Jews. About Balfour Note the book says:

The Government of his Majesty, the King of Britain, looks with sympathy at the idea of establishing a native land for the Jews in Palestine. The government will hereby do all it can to achieve this end. It will be understood that the British government will not allow for any act that disrupts the civil and religious rights of non-Jewish sects living in Palestine. This declaration will not affect the civil or the political rights of the Jews in other countries (p.172).

In Emirates, third year Prep. School students cover the history of imperialism in the Arab world. The book refers to the imperialistic conspiracies against the Arabs at the beginning of the twentieth century. It refers to the French and British occupation of the Arab lands in the Sikes-Pico accord in 16 May 1916 and to the Balfour Note in 1917. The book gives the text of the Balfour Note (p.78) and the causes of this note. The British needed the Jewish support in Germany, Austria and USA in the World War I. Britain also needed to protect its interests in Egypt and in the Suez Canal in particular. When Arabs protested and Ash-Sharif Hussein requested an explanation from Britain, the British and the French tricked him by telling him that they are still honest to their promises. He bought this trick as he did the Sikes-Pico accord before (6th edition 2003 p.78).

The Palestinian or Arab or Muslim or even European students will wonder how such two countries claim the rights to share other countries between them. They will wonder about the response of the British regarding the promises they gave to the Arabs of that time. Did Britain have a right to declare the Balfour Note? What will happen when the British authorities do not give convincing answers? At the same time, Israelis in Palestine bombard civilians and civilian areas in Palestine with tanks and planes.

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In the History Book for third year secondary schools in Egypt, students read the text of the Balfour Note. The book refers to the historical fact that Palestine is an Arab country. Zionists and the European countries did their best to erase this fact from history and to convince the world of Israel’s right to the Palestinian land. What the Israelis claim is against the rights of human beings to the lands on which their grandparents lived for thousand of years. They encourage immigration from the different countries of the world to Palestine, to empower the state of Israel (p.267).

This book taught in Egypt refers to the activities of the Jewish writers and to the Zionist movement and to the establishment of the International Zionist Organization and to the Zionist fund which pays for the immigration of the Jews to Palestine and to the Jews who do their best to buy the Arab lands (p.266). In its comment on the Balfour Note the book states that the number of Arabs in Palestine in 1918 was 644,000 people while the number of the Jews was 56,000 people, that is about 8% of the population. The book also points out the Britain granted a land which she does not own to those who have no right without the permission of the owners (p.266). The book also refers to the request made by King Faisal Ibn Al-Hussein to the Allies to give independence of all Arab countries including Palestine. This request was dated 29th of January, 1919. On the other hand, the Zionists requested a recognition of their right to the Palestinian land. They requested that the Balfour Note put into action.

The British mandate policy in Palestine helped the Jews immigrate to Palestine. Arabs disagreed with the British projects in favor of Israel in 1922 and 1930. The book speaks about the Arab revolutions in 1936 and 1939. The British were so cruel in dealing with the Arabs. They used fierce plane bombardment and destroyed the houses of the freedom fighters. They used mass punishment policy in the villages (p.270). The British suggested a division of Palestine into a Jewish section and an Arab section. The Jews accepted this suggestion and the Arabs refused it. After this suggestion, the British side introduced the White Book in 1939 which “emphasizes the Balfour Note and protects and limits the number of the Jewish immigrants to Palestine. It did not allow for the illegal immigration to Palestine. It suggested a government from both the Arabs and the Jews as a step towards the establishment of a Palestinian state. The book also put some restrictions on selling Arab lands to the Jews. The articles of this White Book were not put to action due to the beginning of World War II and to the British cruel and unfair treatment of Arabs in Palestine to extinguish the uprising. USA also sided with the Jews against Arabs. Besides, in Baltimore Conference the American and European Jewish organizations in Palestine issued the decrees which legalized the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine and the structuring of an armed force to defend this state. This conference was attended by Harry Truman, the American President who was in office after the death of Roosevelt. The conference allowed for unrestricted Jewish immigration to Palestine. It also cancelled the White book of 1939” (p.272).

The book highlights the British and the American support of the Zionist organizations in 1946, 1947, 1948 and on. It refers to the UN decision of dividing Palestine into two parts, one for Palestinians and another for the Arabs. The book also refers to the British withdrawal from Palestine and the declaration of the state of Israel. The book mentions that the Zionist forces performed so many terrorist attacks against Palestinians as Der Yassin massacre in order to terrify Palestinians. As expected, so many Palestinians left their country in terror, filled with hope that some day they will return to their land (p.275).

This Western attitude led also to the Israeli occupation of the lands allotted by the UN decision to the Arabs. Israelis even occupied more lands. In 1949, Egypt, Jordan, Syria

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and Lebanon had a truce with Israel. In 1950, USA, France and England endorsed the occupation and approved of the new Israeli boundaries. (p.275).

Students wonder how the USA, France and England approve of and support the Israeli illegal occupation of the Palestinian lands. Do these countries, (but especially, USA and England, which still support Israel), expect that the Arab student will respect them. Do they expect that he will have pleasant feelings towards them?

In above mentioned book the Egyptian student studies the Arab-Israeli conflict after the 1948 War in Palestine. They study the 1956 Israel, French and British aggression against Egypt. The book does not ignore the part played by the Egyptian Gorilla fighters and the Egyptian army in defending Egypt. Students also cover the American and Russian pressure on the aggressors who withdrew from Egypt. The book also covers the 1967 War between Israel and the Arabs. The book refers to the Zionist expansive plans for a Jewish country that extends from the Nile to the Euphrates. The book explains that the Zionists had plans ready till at least the end of the 20th century. The book also explains that the imperialistic countries, especially the USA have their aims in ending the communist Movement in the strategic areas in the world, especially the Arab world (p.288). The book highlights the Egyptian preparation for the October 1973 War which ended with the Egyptian crossing of the Suez Canal and the destruction of the BarLiv- Line, and consequently the end of the notion of the invincible Israeli army. (p.282-298).

The book ends this chapter with reference to president Sadat’s initiative to travel to Israel in 19th of November, 1977 in an attempt to establish peace in the area. It also speaks about the following steps of the Camp David and the Egyptian-Israeli Treaty which emphasizes the legal rights of Palestinians. This treaty, as the book says led to some procedures which led the Palestinian Israeli meeting in Oslo, Norway. In Madrid also there was some kind of dialogue between some Arab parties and Israel. Finally, a new nationalistic authority was established in Gaza, and the West Bank in Palestine. Still there is a long way to take before a just and durable permanent peace in Middle East (p.310).

Egyptian third year Prep. school students also study the Arab-Israeli conflict in the second term. In the book Social Studies: The Geography of the World and the History of Modern Egypt. Under the sub-heading, “Palestine as an Arab Country” Ahmed Hussein Al-Liqani says “Palestine is a cherished part of the Arab world. It comprises the grand Aqsa Mosque, the first mosque to which Muslims directed their faces and the third in degree of the Muslims’ great mosques. In Palestine, Jesus was born. On Palestine’s land lived Muslims, Christians and a little number of Jews until the beginning of the First World War in 1914 - 1918” (2003 p. 78). The author also refers to the Balfour Note and the British mandate on Palestine and the division of the country and the Palestine war in 1948. The book also tackles the Israeli war with Egypt in 1956 and with the Arab countries in 1967. The book also cover the war, known as ‘the draining war’ between Egypt and Israel between 1969 and 1970. It also presents the October, 1973 war between the Arabs and Israel. The book also tackles Sadat’s Peace Initiative and the Camp David Conference as well as the Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel. The book also mentions Madrid Conference in 1991 and the Oslo Accord in 1993.

The Arab students, who will generate the future politicians, learn that permanent and stable peace between Israel and the Arabs, as is the case with all parts of the world, is based on respect of the international accords and the establishment of the legal human rights of all sects in a country. To establish enduring peace in the area, the legal rights of Palestinians, recognized by UN, should be given back to them. The United Nations, with the endorsement of Russia and the Western countries agreed to the establishment of an

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independent Palestinian country in Gaza and the West Bank. Palestinians and the Israeli accepted the Road Map, which works on solving the conflict and the establishment of just peace in the area. The Israelis create excuses for postponement of the enactment of the Road Map, as they did previously with the Oslo Accord. One wonders how this delay could be good for either the Palestinians or the Israelis.

The Israelis and Palestinian, as well as the Arab and the international community realized the importance of the establishment of a Palestinian country to live in peace next to Israel. All indications attest to the establishment of such a country sooner or later. Is it high time for the international community under the leadership of USA to act in the same way as they did when Iraq invaded Kuwait to stop the continuing bleeding in Palestine and Israel? Such an act will be good for both peoples in Palestine and Israel. Why does the USA continue its support of the Israeli aggression on the Palestinians and why does it keep vetoing decisions condemning Israel in the UN Security Council?

The Arab students who keep watching the Israeli bombardment of Palestinian unarmed civilians and the destruction of populated areas with tanks and heavy artillery, cannot help hating such regimes as the Israeli one and even those who support it blindly like the Americans. Killing innocent women, children and helpless old people will produce nothing but feelings of hate of Israel and those who support its government politically, economically and even militarily. Do the American people accept that? Is there any good for the Americans out of such a policy? Students study the imperialistic policy in the past and they realize that it is still continuing at the present time. This realization comes out of watching the Israeli attitude towards Palestinians on TV. It is important even strange to note that some of the European politicians and the USA allies realize that such imperialistic policies in the area result in creating an anti-Western feeling among the people in the Middle East. Berlusconi, the Italian Prime minister expressed is belief that the solution of the Palestinian crisis will establish peace in the area. He stated that the Palestinian Israel conflict created feelings of hate not only towards Israel, but towards USA and other countries as well. This problem has to be solved. This solution will be within the framework of the Road Map (Al-Ahram Newspaper, 13th of October, 2004 p. 1).

For how long will the Palestinian blood and the Israeli blood continue to be shed? For whose good does the war continue when peace is the hope of all peoples of the world? Will the American people and leaders hear what the Italian prime minister, their ally, says?

So many questions relating to the Arab-Israel conflict and the new forms of imperialism which replaced the old ones, rise in the minds of the Arab students when they read their books of History. They think of the new economic imperialism which encourages corruption in the underdeveloped countries. It also traps these countries into debts after selling armaments to use in wars which are created by these very imperialistic forces. Students think of the ways of resisting such a new form of imperialism. Is it better to use the old ways or resistance or to start new ones?

Do the Arab students realize the importance of the economic unity between the Arab countries? Do they know the importance of possessing modern hi-tech institutions which will help a lot in making the world hear their voice while dealing with other international entities? Arab students ask why do not the Arab countries take some actions to start this economic unity and some steps toward the establishment of real advancement in their countries.

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Conclusion

This study has covered some History books in some Arab countries. These books positively dealt with the three Heavenly religions and with the Western thinkers. They had nearly the same approach in presenting the Crusades imperialism and the Arab Israeli conflict. These books distinguished between the tolerant attitude of the three religions and the exploitative attitude of the Western imperialism which worked for political, economic and aggressive ends. Will the Arab student be able to distinguish between the imperialistic economic policy of a certain modern state and the nature of the people of this country which rejects the imperialism and exploitation? So many European demonstrations rejected the policies of their countries in the Iraqi war. Some European governments, like France, followed the example of their people and rejected the USA approach in dealing with the Iraqi war and exploiting the Iraqi oil. So many demonstrations in different European countries and other parts of the world defend the Palestinian legal rights to their land.

Do the Arab students really learn from their study of history or do they learn the subject merely for getting high marks in their exams? Should Arab educators improve their strategies and follow the European example which teaches students how to comment on the ideas and historical facts they work on? Should the ministries of education in Arab countries work harder on educating teachers and preparing them on academic bases so that they work on teaching their students properly? Should these educators work on giving information in these History schoolbooks in a way that teaches students how to analyze and give his opinion and comments on historical facts? Will such improvements of the textbooks generate new generations of students who will be their countries’ leaders in the near future?

Advanced countries of the world should help the developing countries, within the frame of mutual interests, to improve their image in the Arab world. Economic interests are related in a way or another with the improvement of such an image. In such a way Arab students will study the imperialistic history of the West in its right context of the past and will separate his understanding of imperialism from the modern Western attitude in the Arab world. This approach will be rewarding to both sides. If the West did not improve its image in the Arab world, students will associate the modern Western attitude with that of the imperialistic past and this attitude will aggravate hate of the West and will create new generations of terrorists. In such conditions all the countries of the world, both developed and undeveloped will be endangered by this irrational attitude of terrorists. It will endanger peace in the world.

Historical facts should be mentioned in History books in its right context, historically, geographically, politically, culturally, religiously, socially, economically or militarily without confusing it with the present conditions of the world. It is preferable that the offensive historical facts are not crossed out of history books, but they need only to be put in their right context. Crossing out these facts will give reason to extremists to use such facts for their own purposes. For example, the verses from the Qur’an which encourage Muslims to fight non-believers of Jews should be put in the right context, so that students will understand them properly. Crossing out these verses from History books will help extremists and will boost terrorism.

Families, and media together with the proper building up of a student’s personality will help schools function properly on the educational and the cultural levels.

Changing the curricula at schools or developing them is not enough to change the growing anti-Western feelings. What is actually needed is a change in the Western

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policy towards the Arab world for the good of the Western and the Arab world. Changing or developing curricula at schools is an educational process which is performed by experienced educationalists who do their job on the basis of the educational aims which serve their countries.

Some analysts wonder about what is going on in the minds of Arab students who compare the advanced Islamic culture in the Middle Ages with the Modern Western culture. They will notice that students will observe that the two cultures were based on advancement in the scientific field as well as on hard work and an atmosphere of freedom and democracy. Arab students want real political reformation in their countries. They understand that advancement in science should be accompanied with hard work. They know that their countries should improve themselves the field of technology. They also realize that Arabs have to have their open door economic policy accompanied with exposition to the cultural and economic advancement in the world. Arab students know that if these steps are taken, their countries will have their own place in the advanced world of today.

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