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THE IDEALS OF THE RENAISSANCE IN URBAN PLANNING

AN ANALYSIS OF THREE CENTERS OF THE RENAISSANCE

ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY THESIS | JULIA SCHUTTEN | 4678397

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Table of Contents

Abstract 3

Introduction 4

Chapter 1: Urban planning in Renaissance Italy 5 1.1 The emergence of Renaissance urban planning 5 1.2ThecharacteristicsofRenaissanceurbanplanning 6 1.3 Ferrara, Mantua and Sabbioneta 8

Chapter 2: Ferrara 9 2.1Introduction 9 2.2UrbandevelopmentuntiltheRenaissance 9 2.3 Urban development in the Renaissance 12 2.4 Ferrara the Renaissance city 13

Chapter 3: Mantua 14 3.1Introduction 14 3.2UrbandevelopmentuntiltheRenaissance 14 3.3 Urban development in the Renaissance 15 3.4MantuatheRenaissancecity 16

Chapter 4: Sabbioneta 17 4.1Introduction 17 4.2UrbandevelopmentintheRenaissance 17 4.3 Sabbioneta the Renaissance city 18

Conclusion 19

Glossary: General and Architectural Terms 21

Notes 21

Sources: Text 22 Sources:Illustrations 23

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Abstract

With the Renaissance a new way of thinking emerged that would heavily impact the built environ-ment.Artistsstartedenvisioningtheiridealcitiesasorderedandgeometricallyperfectentitiesandinurbanplanningprojectsmoreattentionwaspaidtothehumanexperience.AlthoughthecitiesofFer-rara, Mantua and Sabbioneta are all revered for their Renaissance town planning, the way that the Renaissancehasmanifesteditselfinthesecitiesisquitedifferent.TheAddizione Erculea of Ferrara does notresemblethetypicalRenaissanceadditionasithasaquiteirregularlayout.However,itistheHu-manistic approach tourbandevelopmentwithwhich the additionwasdesigned thatmakes Ferraraa true Renaissance city. Also, the urban structures of Mantua don’t immediately reveal why the city is so revered for its Renaissance town planning as both the outlines and layout of the city are mostly irregular. For Mantua, it is the way that the ruling Gonzaga family displayed their power that is typical fortheRenaissance:theywereconstantlydevelopingMantua,astheyfeltthattheirownmagnificen-cewouldbe reflected through their city and they created an environmentof architects, artists andartisans thatestablishedanewartistic language there.Finally, theurban fabricof Sabbioneta is themostliteralmanifestationoftheidealcityoftheRenaissance.TheentiredesignofthecityisheavilyinfluencedbyclassicalRoman townplanningpracticesand,although theoutlineof thecityand thegridlayoutseemtobeirregular,theyaredeliberatelyplannedthiswaythroughcomplexcalculations.

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Introduction

TheidealcityoftheRenaissanceisaconceptthatnotonlyemergedinfamouspaintingsofthe15thcentury(fig.1),butinrealityaswell.WhereartistslikePierodellaFrancescashapedtheiridealcitiesinpaintings,architectslikeBiagioRossettiandBernardoRossellinosoughttoimplementthesenewideasofHumanismintheactualcitiesofItaly.However,thewaystheseideaswererealizedhavedifferedquitealot.Ferrara,MantuaandSabbionetaarecitiesthataredefinedbytheRenaissance,astheyhadtheirmostsignificantdevelopmentsduringthistimeperiod.Nevertheless,eachofthesecitiesrepre-sentstheidealsoftheRenaissanceinadifferentway.Themainquestionofthisthesiswillbe:How do thecitiesofFerrara,MantuaandSabbionetadifferfromeachotherinthewaytheyrepresenttheyidealsoftheRenaissance?AsthisresearchalsoincludeswhythesecitiesareregardedasRenaissancecities,weneedtounderstandtheirurbandevelopmentduringtheRenaissanceaswellandbeforetheRenaissance.

ThesethreecitieswerechosenforthisresearchbecausetheyareallrenownedfortheirurbanplanningduringtheRenaissance,althoughtheideasthereofhavemanifestedthemselvesinquitedifferentways.ThecityofMantuahascontinuouslybeeninhabitedsincetheRomaneraandtherefo-re has a very long history of urban development. During the Renaissance, the development was very gradual. The urban structure of Sabbioneta on the other hand was established all at once in the second halfonthe16thcenturyandthecitycanthereforeberegardedasasingle-periodcity.Lastly,Ferrarahasahistorythatbeganinthemiddleageswherethecitydevelopedgraduallyuntil1492,whenBiagioRossetticamewithhisurbanplanthatwoulddoubletheareaofthecity.

ThevalueoftheurbanstructuresofFerrara,MantuaandSabbionetaisconfirmedbyUNES-CO,whichhaslistedthemasworldheritage.ThefactthatthesecitiesareUNESCOworldheritageisanadvantageforthisresearch,asUNESCOprovidesalotofinformation,includingcomparativeana-lyseswithotherItaliancities.AcomparisonontherepresentationoftheRenaissanceidealsbetweenFerrara, Mantua and Sabbioneta has however not been undertaken yet to my knowledge. Apart from UNESCOresources,suchastheICOMOSreports,alsodigitalmapsonthesecitieswillbeusedforthisresearch,astheyfacilitatetheanalysesoftheurbanstructures.Books,articles,andotherdocumentsontheurbanstructuresofthesecitieswillbeusedassecondarysources.AsIhavelivedinFerraraforhalfayear,myownexperiencescanalsocontributetothisresearch.

Thethesiswillbestructuredindifferentsectionsthatwillallassistinansweringtheresearchquestion.FirstanoverallunderstandingofurbandevelopmentintheRenaissanceisneededtounder-standitsidealsandcharacteristics.ThentheurbandevelopmentofeachcitythroughtheRenaissanceisexplained,togetherwithinwhatwaytheyrepresenttheidealsoftheRenaissance.

Figure 1: The Ideal City (unknown Florentine artist, c 1480)

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Chapter1:UrbanPlanninginRenaissanceItaly

1.1 The emergence of Renaissance urban planningThecitiesofFerrara,MantuaandSabbionetahaveallhadtheirmostsubstantialurbandevelopmentsduringtheRenaissance.Buttounderstandthesedevelopments,wemustfirstunderstandtheRe-naissanceitselfandhowthistimecouldbecomesoremarkablydifferenttowhatcamebefore.Ac-cordingtoBalchin(2008,p.157),theemergenceofHumanisminlatemedievalItalywasthemainreasonClassicismwouldbere-adoptedinbuildingdesign.RenaissanceHumanismwasamovementin thought, literature, and art, represented by a revival in interest in the classical world which did not focusonreligion,aswasstandardinmedievaltimes,butonwhatitmeanstobehuman.Humanistshadaspecialinterestinstudyingliteratureandartfromantiquityandtheybelievedthatpoets,writers,andartistscouldleadhumanitytoabetterwayofliving.Thisnewwayofthinkingalsoheavilyinfluen-ced architecture. AsstatedbyCartwright(2020)Renaissancebuildingsweredesignedwithelegance,symme-tryandfunctionalityandwereharmoniouswiththeirsurroundings,justastheyhadbeeninancientRome.Aboveall,buildingsdisplayedtheclassicalratiosoflengthandheight.Thisapplicationofclassi-calratio’scanbeattributedtotherediscoveryofthemostimportantRomantreatiseonarchitectureand town planning: Vitruvius’ De architectura (c27BC)in1416.TheVitruvianimpactonarchitecturein the Quattrocentowasnotimmediatehowever.AccordingtoBalchin(2008,p.158)itwasonlyafterLeonBattistaAlberti(1404–72)publishedhisDe re Aedificatoria in 1452 and Filarete (Antonio Alve-rino, c1400–69)completedhisTrattato d’architetturaintheearly1460’sthatthefullimportanceofVitruvius’ work was recognized, at least in much of Italy.

Onanurbanscale,PienzawasthefirstcitythathaditsmedievalcoretransformedinanEarlyRenaissancecentre.Between1459and1462BernardoRossellino(1409–64)appliedtheprinciplesofhismentorAlbertitodeveloptheurbanplanofPienza,whichwouldultimatelybecomethebasisforurbanplanninginItalythroughoutthefollowingcenturyandahalf.IfPienzawouldhaveexpandedintoatownofsomesize,italmostcertainlywouldhaveacquiredthegrid-ironstreetpatternthatbecamethenorminmuchofEarlyRenaissancedevelopment,asithadbeenthroughoutmuchoftheRomanEmpire(Balchin,2008,p.181). However,thistraditionalformofdevelop-mentdidnotgowithrenownedarchitectatthattimeFilarete,whosuggestedanalternativeapproachtourban design. In one of his books that was a part of his Trattato d’architettura(1460),FilaretesetouttheattributesofhisidealcitywhichhecalledSforzinda(Fig.2).Thiscitywouldbebasedonaneight-point,star-shaped plan within a circle and contain: three central piazze with a cathedral and ruler’s palace around the main piazza; a town hall in the centre of the second piazza with a treasury and prison around itsedges;andamarketplaceandheadquartersforthe chief of police in the third piazza.However,hismostinnovativeproposalwasthat,insteadofagrid-ironpatternofsquaresandstreets,therewouldbeeightradialavenuesconnectingthepiazze with the gatewaysoftheouterwallsofthecity(Balchin,2008,pp.179–184).

Figure 2: Plan of Sforzinda with its radial avenues (Alverino, 1464)

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1.2ThecharacteristicsofRenaissanceurbanplanningDuringtheRenaissance,manymoreidealcitieshavebeenenvisionedofwhichveryfewhaveactuallybeenrealized.Althougheachdesignwasdifferent,therearecertainlyparticularcharacteristicstobefoundinRenaissancecityplanning.InaccordancewiththeHumanisticwayofthinking,thecreatorswereinterestedindevelopingideallivingconditionsforhumanity,forwhichtheyturnedtotheim-portanceoforderandorganization(Bielas,2016).However,therewasalsoapoliticalstrategybehindthispriorityfororder.AccordingtoBosch(2010),thesinglemostimportantdrivingforceintheurbanrenewalofcitieswasthepowerandidealsofonemaninpowerwhowasabletopushfororderinhisparticularcity.Suchmendidthisasameansofassuringaphysicalstructurethatwouldbringthecityevengreaterinfluenceandgrowth,totheirbenefit,andasanexpressionofwhattheypersonallyowedthe city for their power. Thepreferenceoforderandorganizationtranslatedinthecentralroleforgeometricstructu-res in urban plans, whether they be rectangular, circular, or polygonal, and in the desire for symmetry. Likewise,thehumanscalegainedimportance,whichcomesfromtheHumanisticapproachwheremanisatthecenterofallthings.Hencetheideaofacitymadeforman,tohismeasure,andwhichmeetshisneedsineveryaspect.(Cocchi,n.d). MainaxeswerealsoessentialforRenaissanceurbanplanning,aswasthecaseinRomancityplanning.InRomancitiestheCardo Maximuswasthecentralnorth–south-orientedstreetandtheDecumanus Maximuswasthecentraleast-west-orientedstreet.Alberti’sviewonmainstreetsislaidout in his De re Aedificatoria(1452):Within the city, the main street should not be laid out straight, but gently curved. Such a curved street will increase the size of the city. It is also of great significance when a new cityscape emerges at every step for the traveler. Slowly and one by one, the buildings appear in front of him. The street can be widened locally for this purpose. In contrast, a street leading to a listed building must be straight.1 Just as Filarete deviated from classical customs by making his city radial, Al-bertitransformsthestraightmainstreetinacurvedonetoimprovetheexperienceofthosewhowalkthrough. Furthermore, streets became wider and straighter, as governments set the minimum width for streets to increase public safety and wanted to facilitate access to markets, fountains, and impor-tantbuildings(Balchin,2008,pp.88-89). BelowwehaveanexampleofasettlementthatembodiesthecharacteristicstheRenaissancecity(fig.3andfig.4).ItistheFortresstownofPalmanova,foundedin1596bytheVenetiansandoneofthefewidealcitiesthatwasbuiltfromscratchandbasedonthestudyofaperfectmodelwithradialsymmetry.Palmanovaexemplifiesthepowerthatanurbandesigncanhave:thecitywasplannedtobea‘perfectfortress’,butthisambitionwasneverputtothetestasitsshapewassothreateningthatnobodydaredtoattackit.

Figure 3: Plan of Palmanova from 17th century (Museo Civico Palmanova, n.d.)

Figure 4: Aerial view of Palmanova today (Panoramio, 2018)

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To fully comprehend the novelty of the Renaissance view on urban planning, a general understanding ofmedievaltownsisneeded.BrieflyanalyzingthehistoricalcentreofSanGimignano(fig.5)willgivean insight of the typical medieval town, as this city has not gone through any urban renewal and there-fore has treasured its architectural homogeneity and its original urban layout from the middle ages. Asisvisibleinfig.6,thecityofSanGimignanodoesnothaveanorganized,butanorganicurbanplan.Theoutlineofthecitydoesnotfollowaspecificgeometricalstructureandtheurbanplanisinnowaysymmetrical.Thisisbecausetheoutlinesofmedievaltownsweremostoftenfixedbytheircitywallsandthereforeanyincreaseofpopulationhadtobesolvedwithintheselimits.ThemoreimportantstreetsofSanGimignanoarealsoalotnarrowerthanthecommonmainaxesofRenaissan-cecitieswouldbe.UnliketheRenaissance,inmedievaltimesthemostcharacteristicdisplayofpowerwasthetower.SanGimignanowasandstillisanultimatetestimonytothis,astherivalrybetweentwofamiliesresultedintheconstructionof72fortifiedtowerhouses(fig.5),ofwhich14arestillstanding(UNESCO,1989).DuringtheRenaissance,privatepatronsnolongerdisplayedtheirwealthandpowerbyerectingtowers,butbycommissioningsumptuouspalazzi,religiousbuildings,anddistinctivescuole (Balchin,2008,pp.231–232).

Figure 5: Historic centre of San Gimignano with some of its famous medieval towers (Fruneau, 2008)

Figure 6: Plan of San Gimignano Historic centre. The or-ganic urban plan and irregular outlines are cleary visible (UNESCO, 2008)

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1.3 Ferrara, Mantua and SabbionetaFerrara,MantuaandSabbioneta(fig.7)arethreeItaliancitiesthathadtheirmostsignificanturbande-velopmentsduringtheRenaissance.However,eachofthesecitiesrepresentsdifferentaspectsofcityplanningduringthisperiod.FerraradepictsacitythathadaradicalRenaissanceextensionbutdidnotalteritsexistingmedievalcore.MantuaontheotherhandshowsacitythatgraduallyexpandedduringtheRenaissance,whilealsorenewingitsexistingcity.Andfinally,Sabbionetarepresentstheimplemen-tationoftheRenaissance’stheoriesaboutplanningtheidealcity. ThefollowingchapterswillcovertheurbandevelopmentsofeachofthesecitiesthroughtheRenaissance,includinghowthesedevelopmentscametobeandinwhatwaythesecitiesaredefinedbytheidealsoftheRenaissance.ItisimportanttonotehoweverthatalthoughthechaptersdistinguishurbandevelopmentuntiltheRenaissancefromurbandevelopmentintheRenaissance,thisdoesnotmeanthatthereisaspecificmomentintimewhentheRenaissancestartedinallofItaly.Itisgenerallyrecognized that the Renaissance started in the beginning of the 15th century and ended at the end of the16thcentury,butitdifferspercitywhentheRenaissancestartedtohaveanimpactonthebuiltenvironment.

Figure 7: Ferrara (dark red), Mantua (bright red) and Sabbioneta (pink) highlighted on the Italian map of 1495. Edited by author. Underlayer (Balchin, 2008a, p. 132)

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Chapter 2: Ferrara

2.1IntroductionToday,thebiggestofthethreecitiesisFerrara(fig.8&9),withmorethan130.000inhabitants.FerraraislocatedintheprovinceofEmilia-RomagnaandliesinthePo-delta,justafewkilometerssouthoftheriverPo.Belowthecityabranchofthisriverflows,whichhaslongservedasaborder.ThehistoryofFerraraiscloselylinkedtotheEstefamilyandtheirrule.Thecityhadbeenanimportantmedievalcen-ter,butonlyundertheEste’swoulditbecomeaninternationallyrenownedcapitalwithgreatimpor-tanceforart,economy,ideology,andreligion.In1995thecityofFerrarawaslistedasUNESCOworldheritageforitsoutstandingRenaissanceurbanstructuresthatarestillalmostcompletelyintactandtheinfluencethatitsurbandevelopmenthadonurbanplanninginthefollowingcenturies.In1999alsothe delizieoftheEstefamilyinthePo-deltawereincludedinFerrara’snominationontheUNESCOlist.Becauseofits1492addition,FerraraisregardedasthefirstmoderncityinEurope(ICOMOS,1994).

2.2UrbandevelopmentuntiltheRenaissanceThegenesisofFerraraisunknown.Accordingtolegend,theRomanswouldhavesettledhereandcal-led it Forum Alieni,howeverthereisnohistoricalevidenceforthis.ThefirsttimeFerraraismentionedinliteratureisintheyear753/754anditisfromhereonthatthedatesinthehistoryofFerrarabegintobereliable(Zevi,1960,p.140).Backthen,theurbandevelopmentofFerrarawasmuchmorecon-trolled by the water, as it was a very marshy environment and great amounts of sand were necessary toformthefirstroads(ISCOFerrara,2017). The city began to develop along the river between two cornerstones : Castel Tedaldo, a medieval castle which nolongerexists,andtheCastrum Bizantino,aByzantinefortressofwhichthepatternisstillvisibleintheurbanlayoutofFerrara(fig.10).Asthecitybegantoflourishduetothecommercialactivitiesthattookplaceontheriver,itexpandednorthward. In 1135 the city was even prosperous enough tostartconstructiononthecathedral,whichthereafterhadurbanconsequences:thepre-existingroad-networkstartstoorientonthecathedralsquareandnewroadsheadedforthecathedralareformed(Zevi,1960,p.141).Figure11showsthe urban plan of Ferrara in the 13th century. At this point the Castel Tedaldo and the Castrum Bizantinoarestillthelimitsofthecity,whichisalreadyexpandingnorth.Thesouthern

Figure 8: Impression of Ferrara, the spaces along the Cathedral still have its market / shop function (Penna, 2020)

Figure 9: Map of Ferrara today, UNESCO heritage outlined. Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

Figure 10: Castrum of Ferrara displayed in the cur-rent urban fabric (Ardondi, n.d.)

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border of the city is the river, along which the Via Ripagranderuns.Nowadaysthecourseoftheriverhas been diverted further south and this street has become an important artery in this part of the city. Thenewcitycenteraroundthecathedralsquaresoontookonreligious,political,andcom-mercialfunctions.OppositetothecathedralthePalazzo del Signore(completedin1283)wasbuiltwhichwouldbecomethehomeoftheEstefamily.Onthemarketsquarealongthecathedral,theheadquartersoftheguilds,warehousesandtavernswereestablished(fig.8).Inthesecondhalfofthe13thcenturytheurban‘heart’ofFerrarawasdefinitelyconfigured(Zevi,1960,p.141). ItisalsofromthispointintimethattheEstefamilygainscontinuouspoweroverFerrara,whicheventuallycametobeoneofthelongestrulingfamiliesofEurope.AlthoughFerrarawasapartofthepapalstatesandtheEsteSignori were feudal lords (they had to pay annual dues and owed mili-taryservicetothepope),inpracticetheywereindependentandexercisedabsolutepowerovertheircity(Balchin,2008,p.136).

Around1386afirstaddition(fig.12)iscommissionedthat,accordingtothedocumentscompoundedbyZevi(1960,p.142),consistedoftheconstructionofawalltothenorthbecauseoftherisingim-portanceofthecathedralsquare,andashiftoftheurbanboundariestowardsthenorth-east.TothislocationthePratum Bestiarium(fig.11)(placeofcollectionandslaughterofcattle)ismovedfromtheriverport,whichconsequentlylosesitsfunction(ISCOFerrara,2017). ThesecondadditionofFerrara(fig.13),commissionedbyBorsod’Este(1413–71)in1450,joins the island of S.Antonio di Polesine(fig.11)withtherestofthecity.ThereisalsonowtheVia Lar-ga in the north that connects the city with the Barco(huntingareaanddefenseoutpost),theDelizia di Belfioreandotherbuildingsbuilttothenorth(ISCOFerrara,2017).

Figure 11: Plan of Ferrara in the 13th century, future additions are visible as well in dashed lines. Relevant spaces: Castel Tedaldo (CT), Via Ripagrande (VG), Pratum Bestiarium (PB), Castello dei Cortesi (where the Castrum Bizantino used to be) (CC) and Sant’Antonio di Polesine (IA). Edited by author (Comune di Ferrara, 1958)

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Figure 12: First addition of Ferrara (c 1386). As the map shows, there is much more water than in the current situation. The pink lines show the added roads to which the Pratum Bestiarium is moved. Upper red figure: Delizia di Belfiore. Lower red figure: Castello Estense (1385), which now forms the center of the city. Edited by author. Underlayer (ISCO, 2017b)

Figure 13: Second addition Ferrara (c 1450). The pink lines show the addition and the Via Larga. The red figure shows the most important palazzo built during that time: Palazzo Tassoni (today the university department of architecture). Edited by author. Underlayer (ISCO, 2017c)

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2.3 Urban development in the RenaissanceDespite the preceding planned urban projects, it is only from the Addizione ErculeaofBiagioRossetti(c1447–1516),commissionedbyErcoleId’Este(1431–1505)in1492thatwecanspeakofurbanplanninginamodernsense,astheformerexpansionsdidnothaveanintimateartisticlink,butreflec-tedpolitical,military,andeconomiceventsinthedevelopmentofthecity.WalkingthroughFerrara,itbecomes clear that the Addizione Erculeaisphenomenologicallydifferentfromthemedievaltown,asis it now the urban plan that gives meaning to the architecture instead of the other way around (Zevi, 1960,p.143). The Addizione Erculeaderivedfromamultitudeofreasons.Firstly,amilitaryone,astheresidenciesabovethenorthernwallhadbeendefenselessduringthewarwithVenice(1482-84).Se-condly,fromapoliticalandeconomicpointofview,Signored’Estewantedtofacilitateaseveredemo-graphicgrowthforthelargegroupofJewsthathadrecentlyfledtoFerrara,toultimatelymakeFerraraacitywithanumericallystrongeconomyofexchange.HewantedFerraratobeabletorivalothercitiesthatwereenrichingthemselveswithsplendidchurchesandsumptuouspalazzi, and the noble families did not want to live anymore in the narrow and twisted streets of the medieval mesh (Zevi, 1960,p.144). TheadditionofBiagioRossettimorethandoubledtheareaoftheexistingFerrara.JustliketheRomans,heimplemented2mainaxes(fig.14),thecardo(north-south)andthedecumanus(east-west).WhereasAlbertisuggestedtheseaxestobeslightlycurved,Rossettimadethemstraight,buthedidthiswithoutnarrowingthestreetscenesbyalternatingthebuildingsalongthestreetwithgreenopenspaces.Withthistoolhewasabletocreateimpressiveperspectives,whichwasaconceptthatwasjustreinventedbyBrunelleschi(1377–1446)inthebeginningoftheQuattrocento.Rossettialsomadesureto merge the old roads into the new ones at as many places as possible so there would not be a clear distinctionbetweentheoldandthenewcity.

Figure 14: Addizione Erculea (1492). The pink lines show the new roads that were created, which connect with the existing city at several points. The decumanus runs exactly from east to west, but the cardo is not placed orthogo-nally on the decumanus. The red figure shows the Piazza Ariostea, which was designated to be the new marketplace. Edited by author. Underlayer (ISCO, 2017a)

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The outline of Ferrara can be regarded as a pentagon, although it is by no means a perfect geometric shape.ThisisbecauseRosettideterminedtheoutlinebasedontheplacesthatneededtobeinclu-ded,insteadoflettingthespaceswithinthecitybedeterminedbyaperfectgeometricalshape.Hedecidedtoincludeportionsofthecountrysidewithintheurbancore,whichisanotherfundamentalreasonwhyFerraracanberegardedasthefirstEuropeancity:ithasanopenplan.Andeventhewallsthatsurroundthiscitywereprogressive,asthesearepartoftheperspectivesbynotabruptlyendingliketheydofromtheoutside(fig.16),butbyfadingintogreenery(fig.15),whichaddstotheirhumanscale(fig.17).Finally,Rosxsettididnotcreateanyhierarchybetweenrichandpoorneighborhoodsinhisplanandhemadesurethattheminorroadsaddedtotheclarityofthemajorroads(Zevi,1960,p.147).

2.4 Ferrara the Renaissance cityAnalyzing the urban structure of Ferrara, it is clear that the structure does not resemble the typical idealcityoftheRenaissance.Notjustbecauseithasamedievalarea,butbecausetheadditiondoesnothaveasimplegeometricaloutlineoraclearrigidscheme.ButitmaybebecauseofthisdefiancetofollowtheschemesofthetheocratizedidealcitiesthatFerrara’surbanstructurebecomestrulyHuma-nistic.ThisiswhatarchitectZevi(1960,p.145)hastosayaboutRossetti’sdecisionsasurbanplanner:

Which Renaissance architect would have had the humility and the courage to give up linking his name to a city with a rigid scheme, a star, an octagonal perimeter, or a regular checkerboard? All treatises of the time aimed at these ideological schemes, graphically elementary and memorable such as to make text, to be handed down, repeated, praised for generations and generations. Rossetti owes his immortality to the great refusal to adopt one of the ideal cities theorized and promulgated in his time, and to the commitment to invent a real one.2

Inmyview,itisnotnecessarilythecharacteristicsofFerrarathatmakeitatrueRenaissancecity,buttheHumanisticideabehindit,asRossettihegaveuphisownfametocreateacitythatwascreated for the people, not for the ruler. Instead of focusing the plan on the central castle or favoring the interests of the nobility, he constructed a city without class-hierarchy and focused on human-scale. ItisthisHumanisticapproachthatmakesFerrarathefirstmoderncityofEurope.

Figure 15: The walls of Ferrara from the inside. Greenery enhances human scale of the walls. (Google Streetview, 2016)

Figure 16: The walls of Ferrara from the outside, which are higher and end abrubtly (Google Streetview, 2019)

Figure 17: Explanatory dra-wing of the human scale of the Ferrara walls (Zevi, 1960, p. 157)

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Chapter 3: Mantua

3.1IntroductionQuitesmalleristhecityofMantua(fig.18&19)withabout50.000inhabitants.Mantuaislocatedsou-th-easternLombardyinthemarshyterritoryoftheMincioriver.MantuawasoneofthemaincentersoftheRenaissanceinEuropeunderthereignoftheGonzagafamilyandalthoughitstracesstemfromtheRomanperiod,itisthedevelopmentduringtheRenaissancethatgotthecitylistedasUNESCOheritage.

3.2UrbandevelopmentuntiltheRenaissanceLikeFerraratheoriginofMantuaisuncertain,butitisknownthatMantuahascontinuouslybeeninhabitedsincetheRomanera.Duringthistime,Mantuawasnotacityofgreatimportance,asitwasovershadowedbyneighboringcitieslikeVeronaandCremona.However,arecentarchaeologicaldisco-very in Piazza Sordello,namelythefloorofasumptuousRomandomus from the 1st or 2nd century AD (fig.20),seemstore-evaluatetheimportanceoftheMantuaintheRomanera(MLO,n.d.). RomanMantua(fig.20)wasonlyasmallsectionofcurrentMantua,locatedinthenorth-eastpartofthecity.Untilthe18thcentury,theareathatisnowtheGiardini di Piazza Virgiliana used to be part of the Lago Mezzo,sotheRomansettlementwasflankedbywaterfromthreesides.Theonlyedge that did not border water had a wall to protect the city. Some traces of the Roman walls and the Romanlay-outcanstillbefoundintoday’surbanfabric,suchastheoriginalRomancardo and decuma-nus, which are the current Via Cairoli and street from Voltone de San Pietro(Fallinietal,2007,p.93).

LAGO SUPERIORE LAGO MEZZO

LAGO INFERIORE

During the urban development of Mantua, its city walls havebeenexpandedthreetimes;thus,wespeakofthethreeringsofdevelopment.Thefirstring(fig.21),which corresponds with the area of the Roman city, was establishedaroundtheyear1000whenthedemolishedcitywallswererebuilt.However,thecitysoondevelo-ped further as Mantua became one of the most sacred placesintheChristianworldbecausethecityhousedthe presumed blood of Christ(Fallinietal,2007,p.93). Thesecondring(fig,22)wasestablishedwheninthe13thcenturyacanal(theRio)wasdugsouthofthe city and this new border commenced a rapid surge inbuildingactivities.AsMantuahadbecomearepublicin1115,thesedevelopmentswerefocusedonsatisfyingtheneedsofthecitizens,somunicipalbuildingsandsquareswerecreated,whichbecamethenewheartofthecity(Balchin,2008,p.30).

Figure 18: Impression of Mantua. View on the Palazzo Ducale from the Mincio (Lloyd, 2020)

Figure 19: Map of Mantua today. UNESCO heritage outlined. Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

Figure 20: Traces of Roman Mantua over map of today. Arrows: decumanus and cardo. Red figure: Roman domus. Pink line: Roman city walls. Pink area: current Giardini di Piazza Virgiliana that used to be water (and therefore a natural border). Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

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Therepublicaneradidnotlasthowever,asin1272theBonacolsifamilyseizedpowerandin1328 the Gonzaga family staged a coup that would leave them in power for centuries. Under the signo-rialgovernmentthetypeofconstructionworkchanged:newtownhallsandtheirlikeweresupersededby castles and sumptuous palazzi as centers of urban power and spaces that formerly belonged to the popolo were gradually bought over and transformed by the signori(Fallinietal,2007,p.97).Duetoariseinagriculturalproductivityandtradethecitygainedmorewealthandattheendofthe14thcen-turytheterritoryexpandedtoanewwaterway:theFossa Magistrale, which became the border of the thirdringofMantua(fig.23).ItisduringthisperiodthatFrancesoIGonzaga(1388-1407)producesavast series of religious and secular works and buildings, which began to characterize the urban plan-ningandfurtherarchitecturaldevelopmentofthecity(Fallinietal,2007,p.99).

3.3 Urban development in the RenaissanceIn contrast to Ferrara, the borders of Mantua did not alter during the Renaissance; it was within the citylimitsthatthedevelopmentstookplace.TheruleofGianfrancescoGonzaga(1395-1444)prepa-redthewayfortheRenaissanceashebroughtinnewideasthroughHumaniststudiesfromBrunelle-schiandAlberti.Duringhisrule,thefamousHumanistboardingschoolCasa Giocosa was established, whichwasanunusualinstituteastheyeducatedgirlsalongwiththeboysandofferededucationtothepoor. Inthe1430sGianfrancescostartedaperiodofurbanrenewal,withtheplanningofurbanspaces as a way of organizing the city, and urban development in the new area to the south. Although thearchitecturelingeredonaGothiclanguage,theideaofusingtownplanningasarationalizationofspace brought Mantua to the forefront in the development of Renaissance town planning. In compari-son,projectstorenewurbanfabricarementionedinRome(1447),Pienza(1459),Urbino(1447–65),Ferrara(1451–91),Padua(1453),andBrescia(1492)(Fallinietal,2007,p.101). ItwasnotuntilthesecondhalfoftheQuattrocento however that Mantua, under the rule of LudovicoGonzaga(1412–78),gainedapremierroleintheRenaissance;architects,artistsandartisansarrivedinthecityandestablishedanewartisticlanguage(ICOMOS,2008,p.176).Ludovicoattendedthe Casa Giocosa,wherehewaseducatedwithHumanistidealsthatwouldinfluencehimfortherestof his life. During his rule he was dedicated to improving the city, much like the other small Renaissan-cecitiesofnorthernItalywhowantedtopromotetheprestigeoftheirsmallcourtsasrivalstothemorepowerfulstates.InthelesserprincipalitiessuchasMantua,astheywereconstantlyovershado-wedbylargerandpredatoryneighbours,therewasoftenevenagreaterneedtoconstructimposingedificesassymbolsofabsolutepowerandauthority(Balchin,2008,p.138). WhereassignorialpatronageinMantuacontinuedrapidlythroughouttheQuattrocento, inFerrarathispracticewasfarmoremoderate.Almosttheonlybuildingofnotetobeconstructedthroughd’EstefamilywasthePalazzo Schifanoia(commissionedbyBorsaIin1462).InMantuaonthe

Figure 21: First ring of development: city walls (dark red) built on the place of the Roman walls. Building activities take place outside the walls (arrows). The map shows waterstructures of the Renaissance. Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

Figure 22: Second ring of development: the Rio is dug (pink) and new city walls are esta-blished (dark red). Red figures show the new municipal buildings and squares. The map shows waterstructures of the Renaissance. Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

Figure 23: Third ring of development: the Fossa Magistrale (pink) is founded and new city walls are established (dark red). Con-struction works towards the South begin. The map shows waterstructures of the Renaissan-ce. Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

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otherhand,theGonzagacommissionedmanybuildingsofarchitecturalimportance,particularlythetwoAlbertichurchesofSan Sebastiano (c1460)andSant’Andrea(1472)(fig.24&25).TheworksofAlbertiinMantuabecameveryinfluentialandbasedonhisworksanewclassicalarchitecturallangua-gedevelopedinMantuathatspreadtotherestofItaly(ICOMOS,2008,p.178). Especiallyduringthe1460sand70stherewasabigsurgeinurbandevelopmentinMantuaafterthevisitofPopePiusII(1405-64)forthegreatchurchcongressof1459,whichwasapoliticaltriumph for the Gonzaga: many new palazziandotherbuildingswereerectedandalterationsweremade to the old ones to transform them to the Renaissance style. Streets and open spaces were pa-ved,anewsewersystemwasestablished,andacentralaxiswascreatedthroughthecitytothesouth(fig.26),whichtransformedtheurbanisticandsymbolicorientationofthecitysothatitwasnolongerfounded on the older network of Roman and medieval roads, but instead followed the monumental pointsofsignorialpower.TheaxisbeganwiththeGonzagacourtandtheCastello di San Giorgio in the north,thenfollowedwiththeAlbertichurchesandthePalazzo della Ragione further south and ended with the enormous suburban villa Palazzo Te.Togetherwiththeseambitiousbuildingprojects,theimprovement of urban infrastructure in the second half of the century (achieved by paving the streets andinstallinganewsewersystem)revealstheconstantattentionpaidbytheGonzagatotheimageoftheircity(Lazzarini,2002,p.319).

3.4 Mantua the Renaissance cityLikeFerrara,analyzingtheurbanstructuresofMantuadoesn’timmediatelyrevealwhythecityissorevered for its Renaissance town planning. The outline of Mantua is mostly determined by the natural borders of the water and therefore does not resemble a geometrical shape, and the layout of the city ismostlyirregularwithonlysomeregularparts.TorecognizetheinfluenceoftheRenaissanceinMan-tua we must look on a smaller scale: the urban fabric of Mantua is not the result of one overarching urbanplan,butofagradualtransformationthroughmanyambitiousbuildingprojects. Alongtheurbanaxiswefindarchitecturalmasterpiecesthatwereheavilyinfluentialthroug-houtItalyandthatconsolidatedMantuaasaRenaissancecenterofgreatprestige.TheGonzagawereconstantlydevelopingtheircitynotonlybyaddingtoit,butalsobyimprovingtheexistingpartsandtheir urban renewal projects in the beginning of the Quattrocento brought Mantua to the forefront inthedevelopmentofRenaissancetownplanning.Afterall,theGonzagafeltthattheirownmagnifi-cencewouldbereflectedthroughthestateoftheircityandbecauseofthisattitude,asHollingsworthexplains(2014,p.235),the Gonzaga achieved a level of distinction for their city out of all proportion to its size.

Figure 25: Alberti church of Sant’ Andrea (Sokolovsky, 2012)

Figure 24: Alberti church of San Sebastiano (Sailko, 2017)

Figure 26: The main urban axis of Mantua follows the monumental points of signorial power: from the Gonzaga court (A) to Palazzo Te (G). (Lazzarini, 2002)

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Chapter 4: Sabbioneta

4.1IntroductionThelastRenaissancetownthatwillbediscussedisSabbioneta(fig.27&28),whichislocatedinsou-thernLombardyandonlyhasaround4000inhabitants.Sabbionetawasbuiltbetween1556and1591byorderofVespasianoGonzaga(1531–91)onthelocationofaformertownthatwasdemolishedforit.Becausetherearenoremainsofthispriortown,Sabbionetaisconsideredtobethefirstcomplete-ly newly founded city in the Renaissance. Sabbioneta can also be described as a single-period city as itwasentirelycreatedinthesecondhalfoftheCinquecento and is one of the few constructed ideal citiesthatistrulypreservedovertime(ICOMOS,2008,p.178).

4.2 Urban development in the RenaissanceDuring the Renaissance the Gonzaga family did not only rule the cityofMantua,butthewholeprovinceofMantua(fig.7).In1478the territory was, however, divided into several small independent statestoberuledbydifferentbranchesoftheGonzagafamily,thearea of Sabbioneta being one of these. When Vespasiano Gonzaga (1531-91)cameintopowerofthisstate,hewantedtobuildanewcapitalforit.Accordingtotradition,Vespasianodesignedtheplanofthecityhimselfwiththehelpofmilitaryexperts.Hehadstudiedthewritingsandtheoriesonidealcityplanningandwantedtocombinethisknowledgewithcreatinganimpregnablefortressasthecityheldapositionofgreatstrategicvaluewithitscontroloveranimportanttraderoute(ComunediSabbioneta,2019). Vespasiano’sdesignforSabbionetawasheavilyinfluencedbyRomancityplanning.UnlikeSforzindaorPalmanova,theurbanplan was not radial but a right-angular grid layout, which was com-monly used by the Romans. Although this grid seems irregular, it is entirelybasedongeometryandastronomy.Sabbioneta’soutline,whichcanbedescribedasanirregularstarshapedhexagon,isexact-lyinscribedintoasquare,whosecornerspointexactlytowardsthefourcompasspoints,sothatthediagonalsrunexactlyfromnorthtosouthandfromwesttoeast(fig.29).Thissquarecanbedividedintoagridof34x34smallersquaresofwhichthemeasurementsarebased on the Roman foot. Gonzaga emphasized the ideal center of the city, which was found on the decumanus of the city, by placing a Palladium(columnwiththestatueoftheGreekgoddessAthena)on

Figure 27: Impresstion of Sabbioneta, aerial view (Borghi, n.d.) Figure 28: Map of Sabbioneta today. UNESCO herita-ge outlined. Edited by author with Milviusmap (n.d.)

Figure 29: Design of Sabbioneta, outline is de-termined by the square grid (Pieper, 2012b)

Figure 30: Design of Sabbioneta, the axes have a slight inclination (Pieper, 2012b)

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thatlocation.UsingRomantechniques,theycoulddefinethispointtothemillimeter(Pieper,2012). Besidestheoutlineofthecity,thegridalsodeterminesthelocationofallthemajorbuildingssuch as the Palazzo Ducale, the churches, the theater, the gallery, and the city gates and, most impor-tantly,definesthedirectionsofthemainaxesofallstreetsandsquares.However,theseaxesarenotalignedwiththemeasuringshapeofthe34x34squares,buthaveaslightinclination(fig.30):308,46°degreesfromtheastronomicalnorth-southdirection,whichisthesouthazimuthofthesunriseonthe6thofDecember.VespasianoGonzaga,beingbornonthisexactday‘shortlyaftersunrise’,herebydirectedtheinternalstructuresoftheentirecitytowardshisbirthday;apracticewhichwascommonforRomancityfounders(Pieper,2012). Gonzagaalsoappliedthetheoryofperspectivetohisplanbyvaryingthewidthofthestreetsso that the two rows of houses were not perfectly parallel but tended to meet. This way he could make the streets of this small city seem longer and make the city appear larger than it actually was (Comune diSabbioneta,2019). Sabbionetaispolycentric;thereare2mainsquaresthatarelocatedinanasymmetricalanddecentralizedpositionandaroundwhichthemostrepresentativebuildingsarise(fig.31).Firstly,thereis the Piazza d’Armiwhichwasthecenterofthelord’sprivatelife.HerethePalazzo del Giardino can befound,whichfitsthetypologyofasuburbanvilla(likeMantua’sPalazzo Te),buthereisestablishedwithin the city walls. The fortress of Sabbioneta was also located here, but this has since been demolis-hed. The Piazza Ducalewasinsteadthecentreofpolitical,administrative,andreligiouslifeandhousedthemarketplaceofSabbioneta.Thesquareisperfectlyrectangularinshapeandissurroundedbythreeimportant buildings: the Palazzo Grande(seatofthepoliticalandadministrativecommitments),thePalazzo della Ragione(seatofthetwocitycouncils,theRuralandtheCivilian)andthechurchofSanta Maria Assunta(ICOMOS,2008,p.175).

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4.3 Sabbioneta the Renaissance cityAlthoughSabbionetaisoftenportrayedasanidealcitythatwasthedreamofalord,thecitydoesnotfullfitthismodelbecausepracticalreasonsforitscreationwereundoubtedlyinvolved.However,thisdoesnottakeawayfromthefactthatSabbionetaisanexceptionaltestimonytoRenaissancecityplan-ningwithcarefulconsiderationforHumanisticinterventionssuchastheuseofperspectiveandthetangibleinfluenceofclassicalRomancityplanningmethods.Theoutlineofthecityandthegridlayoutseemtobeirregularbutareactuallytheresultofcomplexgeometricalandastronomicalcalculations.Becauseofthis,theurbanplanofSabbionetacanberegardedastheurbanexpressionoftheRe-naissance art concept of Sprezzatura, meaning that must be considered as the highest form of art what does not seem to be art at all.

AlthoughSabbionetawascertainlyequippedwithanelaborate defense system (there were barracks, sta-bles, hangars, and granaries to get through any possible siege),thecitywasaboveallintheperspectiveofitslordaplaceofpolitics,intellectuality,andrepresentationofpower(Fallinietal,2007,p.140).Throughseveralculturalandscientificinstitutions,itbecomesclearthatVespasianoaspiredforhiscitytobeaHumanisticcenter;anacademyoftheGreekandLatinlanguageswasesta-blished,aswellasaprintinghouseand,mostextraordi-nary of all, the Teatro all’Antica. This theater, designed by therenownedarchitectVincenzoScamozzi(1548-1616)whowouldlaterdesignthecityofPalmanova,wasthefirstexampleofamoderneratheaterbuiltfromscratchandnotboundinthestructuretopre-existingbuildings.SabbionetathereforehousesoneofthejewelsofEuro-peantheaterhistory(Fallinietal,2007,pp.117-118).

Figure 31: Urban plan of Sabbioneta. Red figures show impor-tant buildings. Pink figures show important squares. A: Piazza Ducale. B: Teatro all’Antica. C Piazza d’Armi

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Conclusion

With the Renaissance a new way of thinking emerged that would heavily impact the built environment. Artistsstartedenvisioningtheiridealcitiesasorderedandgeometricallyperfectentitiesandinurbanplanningprojectsmoreattentionwaspaidtothehumanexperience.ThroughouttheRenaissance,urbandevelopmentbecameawayforrulerstoreflecttheirownmagnificenceandthusbecomeim-mortalthroughtheenhancementstheymadeforthecity.Andforthewealthyandpowerfulcitizenstheir preferred way of displaying power changed as well; instead of building towers like they did in the middle ages, private patrons now commissioned sumptuous palazzi,religiousbuildings,anddistinctivescuoletodisplaytheirpowerortoconfirmtheirspiritualityandsocialresponsibility.

AlthoughthecitiesofFerrara,MantuaandSabbionetaareallreveredfortheirRenaissancetownplanning,thewaythattheRenaissancehasmanifesteditselfinthesecitiesisquitedifferent.Ana-lyzing the Addizione Erculea of Ferrara, it is clear that the urban structures don’t resemble the typical characteristicsoftheidealcitywithitsirregularlayout.However,itisRossetti’sHumanisticapproachtourbandevelopmentthatmakesFerraraanexemplaryRenaissancecity;hesacrificedhisownfametocreateacitythatwascreatedforthepeople,notfortheruler.Inaddition,hefavoredtheinterestsofthecitizensovertheinterestsofthenobilitybycreatingaplanwithoutclass-hierarchyandhecreatedperspectivesandwallsfadingintogreenerytoimprovetheexperienceofallwhowouldwalkthrough. SincetheRenaissance,thecityhasundergonesomechanges;anearthquakein1570andabombardmentduringWWIIhaveledtothedestructionofmanyhistoricbuildings,butconsideringthecircumstancesthecityhassurvivedreasonablywell.Mostimportantly,anextensivecomparativestudyfromFerrara’scityplanningofficeshowsthattheurbanfabrichasmaintainedallitssignificantfeaturesoverthecenturies(ICOMOS,1994,p.39).Therefore,despitethelossofsomehistoricbuildings,theessenceofBiagioRossetti’sRenaissanceplancanstillbeexperiencedthroughoutFerrara.

LikeFerrara,theurbanstructuresofMantuadon’timmediatelyrevealwhythecityissovalued for its Renaissance town planning. The outlines in which developments took place during the Renaissance had already been established beforehand and the layout of the city is mostly irregular withonlysomeregularparts.However,Mantuawasaforerunnerinurbanrenewalinthe1430sandthenewarchitecturallanguagethatAlbertidevelopedinMantuaheavilyinfluencedRenaissancearchi-tecturethroughoutItaly.Incontrasttod’Estefamily,theGonzagacommisionedmanymorebuildingsof architectural impotance throughout the Quattrocento. In a true Renaissance manner, they displayed theirwealththroughconstantimprovementoftheircitywhichultimatelyculminatedinthedeve-lopmentofamainaxisthatfollowedthemonumentalpointsofsignorialpowerandtransformedtheurbanisticandsymbolicorientationofthecity. WhereasinFerrarathereisacleardistinctionbetweenthemedievalpartandtheRenaissancepart,inMantuatheGonzagaalsotransformedtheexistingroadsandfacadestocreateaRenaissancecity.Themedievalurbanfabrichoweverwasmostlyleftintact,asisstillvisibleintheirregularandcompactstructuresabovetheRio(fig.19).SincetheRenaissance,Mantuahaspreserveditsexistingurbanplanandcityhasdevelopedevenfurtherbydemolishingthefortifications,fillinguptheFossa Magistraleandexpandingsouthward.Insomeplacesnewbuildingshavereplacedtheoldones,butthecitystillhassomanytestimoniestotheRenaissancethatitcanbeconsideredtobeoneofthemostprominentcapitalcitiesoftheRenaissanceculture(ICOMOS,2008,p.177).

Finally,theurbanfabricofSabbionetaismostclearlyofthethreecitiesamanifestationoftheidealcityoftheRenaissance.TheentiredesignofthecityisheavilyinfluencedbyclassicalRomantownplanningpracticesand,althoughtheoutlineofthecityandthegridlayoutseemtobeirregular,theyareactuallydeliberatelyplannedthiswaythroughcomplexcalculations,whereastheoutlineofFerrarawas based on the places that needed to be included and the outline of Mantua was mostly determined bynaturalborders.Witheventheurbanaxesorientedinawaythathonoursthecity’sfounder,the

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entireurbanfabricofSabbionetacanberegardedasadisplayofpowerofVespasianoGonzaga. SinceitsfoundationonlysomenegligiblechangeshavebeencarriedoutinSabbioneta.Thestreetpatternisstillintact,aswellasthesquares,thepublicpalazzi, and the defense system around thecity.Sabbioneta,beingoneofthebest-preservedidealcitiesoftheRenaissance,canthereforeberegardedasanincredibletestimonytotheCinquecento architecture and ideal town planning (ICOMOS, 2008,p.177).

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Glossary: General and Architectural Terms

Cinquecento-the1500sor16thcentury Classical - style of architecture derived from ancient Greece or, more commonly, from ancient Rome, as promulgatedbythetreatisesofVitruviusandAlbertiDelizia (pl. Delizie)–atermthattheEstecourtusedfortheirplacesofleisure(theirvilla’s,gardens,castles,islandsorparks)Domus–ancientRomandwellingFossa–Italianwordforditch,moatLago–ItalianwordforlakePalazzo (pl. Palazzi)–correspondingeithertoatownhouse,largerofficialresidenceorbuildingofmunicipal or state government Palazzo Ducale-DucalPalace Palazzo della Ragione - law courtPiazza (pl. Piazze)–ItalianwordforsquarePopolo–comprisedofmerchantandmaster-artisaninterestedgroupsQuattrocento-the1400sor15thcentury Scuola (pl. Scuole)-ReligiousconfraternityanditsheadquartersSignore (pl. Signori)–defactopoliticalheadofacity’sgovernmentVia–ItalianwordforstreetVolta (Voltone,bigVolta)–Italianwordforvault,anarchedmasonryceiling

Notes

1 De hoofdstraat moet binnen de stad niet rechtlijnig worden aangelegd, maar zacht gebogen. Zulk een gebogen straat zal de omvang van de stad groter doen schijnen. Verder is het van grote betekenis als voor de reiziger bij iedere schrede een nieuw stadsbeeld opdoemt. Langzaam en stuk voor stuk komen de gebouwen voor hem tevoorschijn. De straat is daartoe plaatselijk te verbreden. Daarentegen moet een straat die naar een monumentaal gebouw leidt, recht zijn.(Norbruis,2015)

2 Quale architetto del Rinascimento avrebbe avuto l’umilità e il coraggio di rinunciare a legare il suo nome ad una città a schema rigido, a stella, a perimetro ottagonale, o a scacchiera regolare? Tutta la trattatistica dell’epoca mirava a questi schemi ideologici, graficamente elementari e memorabilia, tali da far testo, da essere tramandati, ripetuti, elogiati per generazioni e generazioni. Il Rossetti deve la sua immortalità al gran rifiuto di adottare una delle città ideali teorizzate e promulgate nel suo tempo, e all’impegno di inventarne una reale. (Zevi,1960,p.145)

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