1 Study Skills

The How, When, and Why of Study Skills

Many teachers will agree that effectively educating students has become more

complicated and complex in recent years. Teachers cannot only focus on facts and

information to be learned in specific content areas, but must also be aware of several

“hidden curriculum” items. Such topics include character education, classroom

management, non-verbal communication, parent communication, and student study

skills.

The purpose of this paper is to research study skills as it applies to classroom

learning, provide an overview of study skill needs, and offer suggestions to the teacher

in how, when, and to whom study skills should be taught. The rationale behind this

research and presentation of results is that without conscious thought toward teaching

study skills, classroom teachers are ignoring an area where all students could improve

information retention to improve future school efforts as well career success. Teachers

must identify study skill needs, identify which students need what skills, and provide

opportunities for the students to gain and practice the skills.

Study skills, in this paper, can be defined as abilities and approaches to learning

material, whether through reading, writing, listening, or speaking. Metacognitive

monitoring is defined as the act of thinking about thinking.

Review of Literature

There are several helpful websites available that provide an overview of skills

needed as well as suggestions for improving student skills. Most websites are

addressed directly to students and attempt to engage the learner in recognizing where

their skills are lacking and providing interactive, helpful strategies. Sites like, Study

Skills and Strategies (Landsberger, 1996), provide students many tools for improving

learning, including cooperative learning and writing technique suggestions. Another

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website, How-to-study.com (Mangrum & Strichart, 2010), includes test taking strategies

as well as content specific study skills. Education Atlas ("Study skills: A study guide for

students", 2004), looks at general study skills, providing step by step instructions for

improving skills, and emphasizes student knowledge of their Learning Style. Knowing

what their Learning Style is encourages study habits that will ensure successful

knowledge retention.

One area of interest that continued to surface in relation to study skills was

metacognitive monitoring. The ability to assess what is known versus what is not, is a

metacognitive one and for study skill education to be successful, students must also see

what they do know and what they don’t yet know. “Using Strategy Instruction and

Confidence Judgments to Improve Metacognitive Monitoring” was an informative article

about the metacognitive monitoring process.

Mary Ann Rafoth’s article, “Improving the Study Skills of Middle School

Students”, was particularly helpful, not only identifying some of the areas of need for the

students but also emphasizing the need to help students in a developmentally

appropriate manner. Her book, Study Skills. What Research Says to the Teacher, was

also useful, again showing that student ability is often tied to developmental readiness

to use the skill.

Another important text, Children by John Santrock, was also used to gain insight

into the cognitive development of students. Using both Jean Piaget and Leo Vygotsky’s

work in developmental psychology, teachers can decide what skills are developmentally

appropriate for students to know and learn.

Several books and websites were also reviewed as they provided direct

application to classroom use. Some resources are provided for teacher support as a

teacher only resource and perspective, while other resources are geared for student

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support and are formatted as a curriculum for purchase. Brain-Friendly Study

Strategies and Texts and Tests provide information and activities for the teacher looking

to expand their knowledge on study skills. The “Mangrum-Strichart Learning

Resources”, on the other hand, offers a developed and research proven curriculum that

educators or parents may purchase and implement in the classroom.

Research Methodology

The research in this paper was done through a bibliographic survey and content

analysis. By reading books, articles, and surveying websites, the research was

compiled into a combination of a status update on study skills, as well as a

recommendation for using developmentally appropriate study skills.

Study Skills Overview

There are several skills that were identified by all sources as necessary for

learning success: note taking, listening, learning style identification, study time and

space, study groups, word problems, textbook strategies, reading comprehension,

memory improvement, building vocabulary, and test anxiety. In addition to these basic

skills, metacognitive monitoring is also necessary for continued educational and career

success.

Note taking skills, both during reading and listening, require preparedness and

attention. There are several strategies that can be taught, Talking to the Text, Cornell

Notes, SQ3R, Outlining, Mapping, Charting, and the Sentence Method ("Learning

services. Note-taking style", 2010). Students must take clear and accurate notes,

regardless of method used, and be able to organize notes for effective review and

studying later ("Study skills: A study guide for students", 2004). Related to note taking

is effective listening skills. Students must understand that there is a difference between

listening and hearing, listening being the processing of what is heard. Students must

4 Study Skills

learn to listen for meaning, identifying the main idea and focusing on the details of the

main idea (Landsberger, 1996).

Learning style preferences can affect study skills, as students need to input

information in the most effective manner for retention and later retrieval. There are

several resources or perspectives on learning styles or intelligences. The simplest

perspective, however, includes visual, auditory, kinesthetic, logical, social, and solitary

learners (advanogy.com, 2004). Visual learners learn best when ideas or subjects are

presented in a visual format. Visual learners frequently take detailed notes in class,

when studying from a textbook or listening to lectures. They also create diagrams and

use pictures to understand and remember concepts and ideas. Auditory learners learn

best by participating in class discussion, by listening to the teacher lecture, listening to

audio tapes. Tactile or kinesthetic learners are hands-on learners. They learn best

when they are able to physically participate directly in what they are required to learn or

understand. Logical learners recognize patterns easily and are good at making logical

connections between what would appear to most people to be meaningless content.

They learn best by classifying and grouping information. Social learners communicate

well with others, both verbally and non-verbally, tend to be good listeners and are able

to understand other's views. They prefer learning in groups. Solitary learners tend to

be private, introspective and/or independent. They are self aware and able to analyze

the different ways they think and feel.

Helping students understand the way in which they learn best not only helps them to

modify information to the best understood format (audio lectures for auditory learners,

graphic organizers for visual learners), but also helps students find a study time and

place that is most effective for gaining and retaining information ("Study skills: A study

guide for students", 2004). Students must learn to create a study routine, deciding the

5 Study Skills

best time of day, and whether some distractions are acceptable or none at all. They

must also learn to study at the same time every day, choosing a place that is

comfortable and based on their specific learning style. The most important part is

sticking to the study routine, using it daily to complete homework or review for tests.

Part of identifying ideal studying time and space is the option of using study groups. For

some students, cooperative learning in a group is the most effective manner in which to

review for a test or ensure that information is understood.

Word problems are often a source of anxiety for students, even before they see the

problem on a test. There are several reasons for anxiety, words instead of symbols,

unfamiliar words, and unneeded information given. Students should be exposed to

common mathematic words in written format (versus symbol format) such as: increased

by, added to, sum, more than, less than, fewer than, decreased by, reduced by,

difference of (Landsberger, 1996). These unfamiliar words cause student confusion as

to what operation is needed but unneeded information given in the problem also causes

confusion. Students must be given multiple opportunities to see and manipulate the

various word problems to guarantee success.

Reading textbooks can also provide a source of anxiety and confusion for students.

Teachers must recognize that textbook formats vary by content and can be information

dense. To ensure successful reading comprehension and use of the textbook as a

resource, teachers must activate prior content knowledge, teach vocabulary separate

from textual readings, make connections with prior and present knowledge, apply

knowledge to other settings, and help students to self-assess knowledge gained and

questions remaining (Abdullah, 2003).

Many tests and activities in school rely on memory retention of information.

Unfortunately, many teachers do not use effective strategies for helping students retain

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information in a way that is retrievable. Mnemonics is a popular, useful way of

rehearsing information, but there are other things to keep in mind when helping students

retain information in long term memory rather than short term memory ("Study skills: A

study guide for students", 2004). The information should be made meaningful to each

student and organized into a personally meaningful order. Often times, pictures or

images can help students remember information, especially vocabulary. Students must

also be taught to frequently review items to be remembered, using rehearsal

techniques, rather than cramming immediately prior. Flash cards are also helpful for

retaining information, particularly formulas or history facts.

Finally, test taking anxiety must be addressed with students. This is the summation

of effective study habits and is often when teachers see poor study habit results. The

cause of test anxiety might, however, be caused by several things unrelated to study

skills and the root cause should be assessed and appropriately addressed to ensure

student learning success. Teachers should think about the classroom atmosphere,

making certain that test performance is not of the utmost importance. Teachers can

also use a variety of assessments that more accurately assess what students know and

can do, alleviating the testing pressure. In some cases, though, testing cannot be

avoided and students should be prepared to take timed tests in a quiet environment.

Teachers should help students practice test taking in relaxed settings, guaranteeing

successful products, while also teaching test vocabulary and strategies, such as

process of elimination, skipping the question, and inference (Cizek & Burg, 2006).

Metacognition

Metacognition is often referred to simply as thinking about thinking, but in reality

is more complicated. In classroom use, metacognitive monitoring is a tool that students

can learn and use to become effective, successful learners. In other words, students

7 Study Skills

must be able to look at what they know or are doing and evaluate their understanding of

the task at hand. This is an intrinsic quality that enables the student to recognize where

they are lacking and, hopefully, what strategies can be used to improve their

understanding or knowledge.

Metacognitive monitoring is essential in any discussion of study skills as the use

of study skills is directly tied to identifying what is already known and deciding how to

learn what isn’t (Rafoth, 1993). Therefore, teaching such monitoring to students, in the

process of teaching effective study skills, is imperative. Students must first be taught

various study strategies and then be taught how to evaluate their learning and

information intake. In turn, students can then apply the appropriate strategy when it is

needed.

Students must also learn to accurately gauge their level of understanding and

use of helpful study strategies. Without this knowledge, perceived ability and actual

ability can vary, causing frustration when performance does not match perceived efforts

(Huff & Nietfeld, 2009). When students are taught to accurately gauge their knowledge

and ability, they can successfully attempt strategies that might improve their knowledge

retention.

Students should be taught to periodically stop, when taking notes, listening,

reading textbooks, etc, to assess their understanding and decide whether they need to

use a new strategy or outside assistance. Students can be taught self-monitoring or

metacognitive skills directly by asking a few questions:

1. How do you know if you understand or don’t understand?

2. How can you better understand?

3. Why is it important to think about understanding while working?

(Huff & Nietfeld, 2009)

8 Study Skills

Developmental Psychology

In considering the process of teaching study skills to students, the students’

cognitive development must be considered. For example, teaching note taking skills, in

a lecture format, would not be cognitively appropriate for first grade students. Learning

is a constructive activity and, therefore, Jean Piaget’s views on cognitive development

are useful. Piaget contended that human development progressed in stages, and while

many developmental psychologists have refuted the strictness of the phase

progression, the basis is still informative.

Piaget’s phases of development are sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete

operational, and formal operational (Santrock, 1995). The sensorimotor phase (ages

birth to 2) is related to developing and responding to sense stimulation with motor

development while during the preoperational phase (ages 2-7), mental reasoning begins

and students begin to categorize items. The concrete operational phase (ages 7-10)

shows students beginning to mentally perform actions that previously required physical

attention as well as categorizing items into a variety of sets or subsets (Santrock, 1995).

The formal operational thought phase (ages 10 and up) begins when students can

participate in abstract thinking, metacognitive monitoring, and critical thinking (Santrock,

1995).

Piaget’s research shows that there are cognitive limitations on a student’s

learning, connected to their developmental process. In early childhood, students have

limited attention and memory abilities. They attend mostly to flashy items and react to

items mainly in their short term memory database (Santrock, 1995). In middle and late

childhood, short term memory ability wanes and students begin to build long term

memory storage and categorization, through rehearsal, organization techniques, and

imagery (Santrock, 1995). Students in this phase also begin to develop self-regulation

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strategies, though these must be explicitly taught as they are not just “picked up”.

Organization of the long term memory, at this stage, also indicates that teaching

schemas is valuable. Students can recognize repetitive schemas in several content

areas and can be taught to organize themselves in this manner.

Another useful developmental perspective is that of Leo Vygotsky. Vygotsky

emphasized scaffolding more than phase development and the power of social

education (Santrock, 1995). The Zone of Proximal Development is where tasks are too

difficult for a child alone but can be mastered with modeling, guidance, and assistance.

Vygotsky’s view highlights the positive effects of peer tutoring and adult modeling.

Skills should be modeled and practiced with those attempting to gain the skills. Also,

practicing skills should be done socially so that students internalize the process through

the effort of externally communicating about it.

Study Skills for Purchase

A quick survey of several internet sites shows viewers numerous strategies and

tips for self-improvement of study skills. There are, however, many options for

purchasing, by parents, teachers, or schools, a study skills curriculum. Most emphasize

student organization and setting study or learning goals. The Mangrum-Strichart

Learning Resources, for example, provides parents and educators with various tools to

improve study skills from Kindergarten through high school with added references for

students with learning disabilities (Mangrum & Strichart, 2009). The S.O.A.R program,

on the other hand, emphasizes effective, time-efficient, and interdisciplinary applications

of study skills (Krugar, 2009). An additional curriculum, You Can Take Charge!,

provides student workbooks, with organizing strategies and self-assessments, at

multiple ability levels.

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[Learning Goals, grades k-2] [Learning Goals, grades 3-6]

(You can take charge! a study skills curriculum, 1998)

A teacher may decide, however, not to purchase a curriculum or workbook set.

They may, instead, choose to select various lesson plans that incorporate learning

study skill strategies. Rona Flippo’s Texts and Tests, offers teaching strategies such as

modeling, scaffolding, peer tutoring, cooperative learning, and metacognitive self-

questioning. Amy Schwed and Janice Melichar-Utter’s Brain Friendly Study Strategies,

presents activities founded in the multiple learning styles or intelligences, helping

teachers provide resources for individual student needs.

Whether viewed from the perspective of a parent, looking to support their child at

home, or as an educator, looking to incorporate study skills strategies into the content

curriculum, the key to improving student information retention and success is

consistency. Terms and strategies must frequently be referred to, encouraging students

to incorporate good study practices in their everyday efforts. Educators must also be

consistent in using and incorporating the strategies throughout the school year, not just

emphasizing them prior to certain tests.

11 Study Skills

Conclusions and Recommendations

After completing the research on study skills, and surveying the breadth of

applications improved strategies and skills can have, there are a number of

recommendations or suggestions for optimal teaching of study skill strategies. These

relate to questions on who should be taught study skills, when to start teaching them,

and how to implement a study skills curriculum.

To begin, variations in learning styles cannot be emphasized enough. Gaining

any skill is unavoidably linked to personality and learning style. While teachers must

keep in mind student ability and motivation, students should also be taught to identify

their style and encouraged to choose the strategy and tool that best fits them. Learning

style identification is not only important for teachers to consider in representing content

knowledge, but also for the continued practice of study skills by students. Successful

retention of information and academic success will inspire students to continue with

effective study skill strategies, especially if the strategies and tools feel natural and are

in alignment with learning style preferences.

Regarding the question of who should be taught study skills, the most common

response would be struggling students or students with learning disabilities. The truth

of the matter, however, is that all students could stand to gain from improved

metacognitive monitoring and an increase in strategy options. All students should be

aware of their learning style preferences and be able to effectively encode and recall

information. On top of successfully learning new information, all students would benefit

from learning test taking skills, especially in the current high-stakes testing environment.

In addition to teaching study skills to all students, teaching strategies and tools

should begin as early as possible. This does mean, however, that teachers must be

aware of student cognitive development and have a developmentally appropriate plan

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for introducing, implementing and encouraging independent practice. As previously

stated, emphasizing note taking skills at the first grade level would not be as effective as

stressing learning styles or task organization. It would also stand to reason that if the

foundation and framework of strategies were introduced early, students would feel

comfortable implementing the strategies later, independently, as needed.

For young students, who cannot attend to information that is not simple and

directly personal, learning reading comprehension techniques would be

developmentally appropriate. Teachers can help students with the practice of

interacting with the text, highlighting personal connections to the text as well as

emphasizing questioning and finding answers within the text. Students at this

developmental period, prior to middle and high school, can also practice active listening

skills, listening for meaning rather than just hearing. Another skill that could be

effectively implemented in early grades would be self-regulation and organization skills.

In later grades, when students begin to have more control over long term

memory functions, students can focus on building vocabulary and rehearsal and recall

skills. Cognitive monitoring abilities also expand at this stage and students should

continually practice this skill in relation to what they currently know and how to obtain

what they don’t know. Students in later childhood become more adept at creating and

understanding schemas and begin to have expectations about frequently viewed

material, making this an ideal time to emphasize various textbook formats and how to

independently access information.

Producing perpetual learners is a goal of education and therefore requires

creating independent learners. With this goal in mind, effective teaching of study skills

should not be relegated to a single unit of study or a separate discipline. For students

to completely internalize strategies and tools, thereby selecting and using them when

13 Study Skills

needed, the appropriate study skills must be taught in an integrated mini-lesson format.

Mini-lessons provide a format for learning information in a concise manner, generally

with an example, group practice, and independent practice. Using this framework

encourages all teachers to use it, regardless of discipline or content area, and highlights

learning a skill with immediate practice to follow. If students only learn study skills out of

context, with the promise or encouragement of later use, the skill is unlikely to be stored

in long term memory and will not be remembered as useful.

By teaching and using study skills as an integral aspect of education, teachers

promote long term retention of information as well as metacognitive monitoring and

strategy use, while also fostering the ability to assimilate new knowledge in the future.

In addition, education and skill learning should not be a stressful event; links between

high stress situations and overall skill attainment are inversely related, high stress

means low skills development and retention. Ensuring that skills are learned by all

students, as early as developmentally appropriate, will foster a community of college

and career ready students. Teaching effective study skills, integrated into all content

areas, encourages student success in all facets of learning and promotes a positive

sense of accomplishment and achievement. Knowledge of study skills strategies also

enables a sense of ownership over independent learning; students no longer have to

wait to be told how and where to access knowledge, they have the skills to obtain

knowledge on their own terms.

14 Study Skills

Works Cited

Abdullah, S. (2003). Helping students succeed in science. Washington DC: US Department of Education.

advanogy.com. (2004). learning-styles-online.com. Retrieved March 30,

2010, from http://www.learning-styles-online.com/overview/

Cizek, G. J., & Burg, S. S. (2006). Addressing test anxiety in a high-stakes

environment. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Huff, J. D., & Nietfeld, J. L. (2009). Using strategy instruction and confidence

judgments to improve metacognitive monitoring. Metacognition and

Learning, 4(2), 161-176.

Krugar, S. (2009). SOAR study skills. Retrieved April 2, 2010, from http://soarstudyskills.com/

Landsberger, J. (1996). Study skills and strategies. Retrieved March 27,

2010, from http://www.studygs.net/

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Mangrum, C. T., & Strichart, S. S. (2009). Mangrum-strichart learning

resources. Retrieved April 2, 2010, from www.mangrum-

strichart.com Mangrum, C. T., & Strichart, S. S. (2010). How-to-study.com. Retrieved

March 27, 2010, from http://www.how-to-study.com/

Rafoth, M. A. (1993). Improving the study skills of middle school students.

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