THEHOMEORCHARD

HANDBOOK

ACompleteGuidetoGrowingYourOwnFruitTreesAnywhere

CemAkin•LeahRottke

CemForthosewhosailtheseasofliferidingthewindsofcompassionforalllivingbeings;inparticular,ÖmerandMeralAkin:parents,teachers,

friends.

LeahFormystudents;letyourcareofplantsandtreesbeyourprivilege,and

yourjoy.

TheFruitTreePlantingFoundation

Thishandbookwasmadepossiblethroughthecollectiveexperienceofouraward-winningnonprofitcharity:TheFruitTreePlantingFoundation(FTPF).Withastrongbeliefthatplantingfruittreesisthemostcomprehensivestrategytocreatinghealthyenvironments,FTPFprogramsalleviateworldhunger,combatglobalwarming,strengthencommunities,andimprovethesurroundingair,soil,andwater.Ourorchardsarestrategicallydonatedwheretheharvestbestservesthepublicforgenerations,atplacessuchasschools,low-incomeneighborhoods,cityparks,communitygardens,NativeAmericanreservations,internationalhungerreliefsites,andanimalsanctuaries.

FTPFcollaborateswithdiversecommunitiesandhouseholdsacrosstheglobe,fromtheUnitedStatestoBraziltoIndiatoKenya.Ourprogramsmobilizelocalenvironmentaleffortsandinspireactivistsofallagestogetinvolvedbyputtingtreesintheground.Inourhungerreliefprograms,familiesaregiftedwithsaplingsandtrainedonhowtocareforthetreesovertime,providingaharvestyearafteryear,ratherthanafoodhandoutthatcanbedepletedinashorttime.

ThisbookdrawsonFTPF’sexperienceinthefield,workingunderawiderangeofconditions,toprovidedetailedinstructionsonhowtocreateyourownhomeorchard.

AportionoftheproceedsfromthishandbookgototheFruitTreePlantingFoundationinsupportofitsgroundbreakingmissiontobenefittheenvironment,humanhealth,andanimalwelfare—allatoncebyplantingfruittreesforcommunitiesacrosstheworld.Tolearnmoreaboutthisimportantwork,pleasevisitwww.ftpf.org.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER1:FruitTree101AncientOrchardPoetry

EnvironmentalBenefits

Well-being

TwoTigers,OneRat,andaFig

CHAPTER2:SiteSelectionRoomEnoughforFruitTrees

Sunlight

AirCirculation

Soil

KnowYourSubstrate!

SoilDrainage

Water

ManagingMicroclimates

PlantingSolutionsforSmallorUrbanSpaces

RaisedBeds

Container-grownTrees

CHAPTER3:PlantSelectionFruitTreeBasics:RootsandShoots

Rootstocks

Fruitwood

DaystoHarvest

GraftUnions

Pollination

FruitTreeIntelligence

ChillHoursandClimate

SelectingFruitTrees

GetExotic!

TreeSize

TreeTransport

AFamilyAffair!

Storage

CHAPTER4:PlantingTimingthePlanting

SpottingtheLayout

Tools

SitePreparation

PlantingaContainerizedTree

PlantingaBarerootTree

CheckingDepthandOrientation

Backfill

Berms

Mulch

Staking

PlantingProcedureChecklist

CHAPTER5:IrrigationandFertilization

Irrigation

WaterNeeds

FloodIrrigation

SprinklerIrrigation

Micro-irrigation

WateringScheduleGuidelines

WateringScheduleComparisons

RainwaterHarvesting

Fertilization

Macronutrients,SecondaryNutrients,andpH

BuildingHealthySoil

WhatIsCompostTea?

OrganicOptionsforCitrusTrees

CHAPTER6:PruningandWeedingBasics

Tools

RootPruning

Cuts

Forms

Thinning

MatureTreeRejuvenation

Topping

RulesofThumb

WhentoPrune

Weeding

WeedsWanted!

CompanionPlantingandPermaculture

CHAPTER7:Prevention,Troubleshooting,andControlsRightTree,RightPlace

OrchardCleanup

Insects,Mites,andNematodes

Diseases

EnvironmentalDisorders

AnimalExclusion

CHAPTER8:EnjoyingtheHarvestDehydrateYourOrchard

PreservingYourHarvestThroughCanning

JammingwithChefTalRonnen

AssortedFruits:SeasonalFruitinPapillotebyChefTal

ApplesandCashews:CeleryRootSoupwithGrannySmithApplesbyChefTal

AvocadosandLemons:SummerChoppedSaladbyChefTal

Grapefruits:ShisoBitesbyChefTal

ApplesandDates:RaspberryApplesaucebyDianaStobo

Apples:CaramelAppleTartbyDianaStobo

ApricotsandCherries:CherryApricotCrispbyDianaStobo

Peaches:SummerPeachCobblerbyDianaStobo

Tangerines:CreamyTangerine-tinibyDianaStobo

CHAPTER9:BeyondtheHomeOrchardCommunityOrchardCommittee

Outreach

EventDay

CommunityOrchardPlantingChecklist

CommunityOrchardsSpeakVolumes!

ContactFTPF

Glossary

RecommendedReading

Index

ImageCredits

Acknowledgments

AbouttheAuthors

—chapterone—

FRUITTREE101Imagineprovidingessentialnutritionandoxygenbythetonstohumansandanimals;cleansingtheair,water,andsoil;creatingvibrantecosystemsforbirdsandbees;empoweringindividualstobecomehealthystewardsoftheirenvironment;andinspiringthemtospreadthatmessage—addressingworldhunger,globalwarming,anddeforestation,allatonce.

ONEMIGHTSPECULATETHENEEDFORentirearmiesofenvironmentalists,healthcrusaders,andanimalwelfareactiviststoaccomplishthis.Yet,thereisasingularstrategythatcankick-starttheheartofthisprocessallonitsown—aglobalcatalystforahealthyplanet,ifweallacttogether,perfectlyutilizingphysics,chemistry,andthesymbioticmeansofferedbyMotherNaturetonourishtheworldandallitsinhabitants.Bestofall,itisasimple,grounding,long-lasting,Earth-connectingstrategythatispartofamostenjoyablejourneyandrewardingdestination:Plantafruittree,careforit,encourageeveryoneyouknowtodothesame,andpassonthelegacy.

Simplyput,treeshealtheplanet,fromfilteringairpollutantstorecharginggroundwatertocreatinghealthymicrocosmsinthesoil.Anditdoesn’tstopthere.Ifthattreeisafruittree,harvestaboundsfordecades,sometimescenturies,improvinghealthforgenerations.Excessharvestsmaybedonatedtolocalfoodbanksorgiventoneighbors,promotingsustainabilitybydisplacingmanyenvironmentalhazardsassociatedwiththemasscommercialproduction,transportation,andpackagingofmostfoodsoldintoday’smarkets.

“Thebesttimetoplantatreewastwentyyearsago.Thenextbesttimeisnow.”

–CHINESEPROVERB

Plumsreadyforharvest

Atthetable,scienceshowsthateatingmorefruitscutstheriskofmajordiseases.1Inthebackyard,homeorchardsserveasaplacetoforgedeepconnectionswithfamily,friends,andnature.Inthecommunity,plantingandmaintainingfruittreescanbeatrulyholistic,tangiblesolutiontomanyoftheworld’scriticalproblems.

FruittreesplayanimportantroleinthehistoryofEarth.Manywildvarietieshavebeenaroundformillionsofyearsinvariousforms.Fossilizedremnantsfromtheolive’sancestordateback20millionyears.2Earlyincarnationsoftheplantthathasbecomethemodern-dayRosaceaefamily,whichincludesapples,pears,quinces,almonds,cherries,plums,andapricots,werepresent40to50millionyearsago.3

Andperhapsthemostfruitfulsymbioticrelationshipeverbetweenplantandanimalgoesback80millionyears,whenfigwaspsbecametheexclusivepollinatorsoffigtrees—arelationshipthatexiststothisday.4Expertsestimatethattheearliesthumandomesticationoffruittrees,especiallyolives,dates,andfigs,occurredinthelateStoneAgethroughtheearlyBronzeAge(asearlyasabout9000B.C.E.forfigs).5

1FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.2001.“HumanVitaminandMineralRequirements.”ReportofajointFAO/WHOexpertconsultation(Bangkok,Thailand).2Therios,I.2009.Olives.(BiddlesLtd.:UK).

3Juniper,B.E.andD.J.Mabberley.2006.TheStoryoftheApple.(TimberPress,Inc.:Portland,Ore.).4Machado,C.,etal.2005May3.“Criticalreviewofhostspecificityanditscoevolutionaryimplicationsinthefig/fig-waspmutualism.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciencesoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

5Kislev,M.,etal.2006Jun2.“EarlydomesticatedfigintheJordanValley.”Science.312:57–78.

Fruittreesoriginatedinthewild,agesago.

AncientOrchardPoetryInoneoftheearliestrecordeddescriptionsofahomeorchard,thousandsofyearsago,GreekpoetHomerwrote:

“Closetothegatesaspaciousgardenlies,Fromstormsdefendedandinclementskies.Fouracreswastheallottedspaceofground,Fencedwithagreenenclosureallaround.Tallthrivingtreesconfess’dthefruitfulmould:Thereddeningappleripensheretogold.Herethebluefigwithlusciousjuiceo’erflows,Withdeeperredthefullpomegranateglows;Thebranchherebendsbeneaththeweightypear,Andverdantolivesflourishroundtheyear,ThebalmyspiritofthewesterngaleEternalbreathesonfruits,unthoughttofail:Eachdroppingpearafollowingpearsupplies,Onapplesapples,figsonfigsarise:Thesamemildseasongivesthebloomstoblow,Thebudstoharden,andthefruitstogrow.”66Homer.TheOdysseyofHomer(BookVII),translatedbyAlexanderPope.2010(eBooks@Adelaide).

Homeorchardshaveexistedsinceancienttimes,onfertilegroundssuchastheseintheMediterraneanregion.

Sometrees,suchasolives,cansurviveformorethanathousandyears,makingthemlivingartifacts.Others,likeapplesandpears,canproducefruitforcenturies.Ithasevenbeensuggestedthatthelongevityofdomesticatedfruittreesprovidessuchastrongconnectiontothelandthatthisbondcontributedtothedevelopmentofmoderncity-statesandnations.7Imagine,humankindbeinginspiredtodevelopsophisticatedsocialstructuresbasedpartlyonadesiretobeclosetotheirbelovedorchards!7Janick,J.2005.“Theoriginoffruits,fruitgrowing,andfruitbreeding.”PlantBreedingRev.25:255–320.

Indeed,acertainindescribablemagicsurroundsfruittrees,asflowersmetamorphoseintonature’sperfectfoods,enchantingchildrenandadultsalike.Thetreecombinesallthemostamazingbotanicalprocessestocreateafruitsotastythatitcanenticeananimaltoeatitanddistributetheseed.Whataconcept!

Tohelpsharethatmagicandwonder,thebasicsofgrowingfruittreesinahomeorchardarecoveredinthefollowingchapters,includingsiteandplantselection,plantingtechniques,andaftercare.Theseprinciplesareapplicabletonuttreesaswell.Allinstructionspromoteorganic,humanemethods,resultinginthemostsustainableEarth-andanimal-friendlyorchardspossiblethatsetthehigheststandardforotherstoemulate.

Thetranquilityofasunriseabovefruittreesinthetropics

Imagineaplacewhereyoucanhaveasummerpicnicundertheshadeofafruittree,breathethecleanairitgenerates,watchthebeautifulbirdsandotherwildlifeforaginginitscanopy,andbringonlyanappetiteforthehealthyfruitsgrowingoverhead.Nowimaginethatplacebeinginyourownyard.

“Toexistasanation,toprosperasastate,andtoliveasapeople,wemusthavetrees.”

–THEODOREROOSEVELT

Peachblossomswaitingtobetransformedintofruit.

Homeorchardsustainability,withbushelsoforganicharvest

ENVIRONMENTALBENEFITSToreviewtheresearchshowingjusthowbeneficialtreesarefortheenvironmentandthehomeorchard,let’sstartwiththeair.Eachyear,amaturetreecanproduceupto260pounds(118kg)ofoxygen,8removeharmfulozonepollutantsfromtheloweratmospherethatcontributetosmog,andsequesterbetween35and800pounds(16and363kg)ofcarbondioxidefromtheair.9Dwarffruittreesaretypicallysmallerinstaturethanshadetrees,thusfallonthelowerendofthisrange,whilestandard-sizefruittreesmuchhigher.AccordingtoscientistsattheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture(USDA),theplantingofanytypeoftreeisknowntoplaya“significantrole”inreducingairpollutionby“...absorbinggaseouspollutants,bindingsolublepollutantstotheirsurfaces,interceptinglargeparticulatesonbark,andsequesteringCO2inwoodytissue.”10Inotherwords,treesactasnaturalairfiltersandoxygentanks.8Thismeansthattwomedium-sizetreescanproducealltheoxygenonepersonneedstobreatheeveryyear.9McPherson,E.G.2005Apr1.“TreeswithBenefits.”AmericanNurseryman.

10Geiger,J.G.andE.G.McPherson.2005Apr27.“Treesequalcleanairaccordingtonewresearch—ArborDayisperfecttimetoplantmore.”PressRelease.USDAForestService,PacificSouthwestResearchStation,CenterforUrbanForestResearch.

Fruittreescomeinsmall,medium,large,andextra-largevarieties—allofwhichserveasvigilantprotectorsoftheEarth’sair,water,andsoilresources.Largefruittrees,suchasmangoes,cangrowupto100feet(30.5m)tall.Jackfruittreescangrowmorethan70feet(21.3m)andholdtheworld’srecordforlargestfruitsproduced—weighinginatupto100pounds(45.4kg)each!Bythosestandards,thejackfruitpicturedhereisstillababy.

Standardappletrees,likethisone,canreachaheightofabout40feet(12.2m)andproducehundredsofpoundsofoxygeneveryyear,alongwithoneofnature’smostperfectmeals.

Dwarfingfruittrees,likethiscitrus,areselectedtobesmallerandfitintotighterspaces,yetstillhavesignificantenvironmentalbenefits.

Treesconservevaluableenergyresourcesbynaturallycoolinghomesinthesummerandwarmingtheminthewinter.Thereliefofashadytreeonahotdayspentoutdoorsislegendary,andthesameprincipleappliestobuildingskeptcoolintheshade.Treesalsotranspire,meaningtheyreleasewaterthroughleaves,resultinginacoolingofthesurroundingair.AccordingtothedirectoroftheUSDA’sCenterforUrbanForestResearch,adifferenceofupto9°F(13°C)hasbeenobservedbetweenurbancentersandtheirmoredenselyforestedandvegetatedsuburbs—alongwithareductioninstructuralcoolingcostsof25percentfromjustthreewell-placed25-foot(7.6-m)–tallbackyardtrees.11

Evengreatersavingsareachievedwithadditionaltrees.Incoldermonths,treescreateeffectivewindblocksthatpreventcoldairfromenteringhomes,abenefitthatlaststhroughoutwinterforevergreens,translatingtoa10to12percentsavingsinannualheating,12andasmuchas50percentaccordingtotheUSDA.13Thecombinedheatingandcoolingbenefitsofbackyardtreesresultinsignificantlyreducedenergyconsumptionanditsrespectivepowerplantoutput.11McPherson,E.G.2005Apr1.“Treeswithbenefits”AmericanNurseryman.12Ibid.

13USDAForestService.HomeownerResources.Availableonlineat:www.na.fs.fed.us.

Barkfunctionsasalivingairfiltertoremoveparticulates.

Inadditiontoloweredcooling,heating,andgrocerybills(inthecaseoffruittrees),maturetreeshavebeen

estimatedtoadd,onaverage,10percenttoaproperty’svalue.14Asinglemedium-sizematurefruittreecanbevaluedatmanythousandsofdollarsonitsown,asshownintheseexamples.

14USDAForestService.HomeownerResources.Availableaonlineat:www.na.fs.fed.us.

Fruittreesaretheperfectperennials.Onceestablished,healthytreesthrivefordecadeswithrelativelylittlemaintenance.

Treessoakuprainfallbeforereturningmuchofittotheatmosphereasvaporthroughtranspirationandevaporation.Thisreducesthevolumeofstormrunoff,notoriousforwashingcontaminantsintolocalbodiesofwaterandwashingawayvaluabletopsoil.Aportionofthetrappedwater,whetherrainfallorirrigation,percolatesdownbeyondtherootsystemandcontributestogroundwaterrecharge—animportantelementtoanysustainablewatermanagementplan.Rootsalsoanchorsoiltopreventerosionfromwindorprecipitation,whilecanopieslessentheerodingimpactofheavyprecipitationonthegroundbeneath.

WELL-BEINGUltimately,anabundantharvestisthepotofgoldattheendoftherainbowforthehomeorchard-ist.Underprofessional,commercialsettings,afruittreecanproducehundredsofpoundsoffruiteachyear.Athome,dependingonthetype,age,andsizeofthetree,ahealthyannualyieldislikelytobemoremanageable,closertothe40-to-70-pound(18-to-32-kg)range.

Publishedresearchisclearonthemyriadofhealthbenefitsfromincreasingfruitconsumption,includingreducingincidenceofheartdisease,stroke,cancers,highbloodpressure,lowbonemineraldensity,andobesity,tonamejustafew.AUnitedNationspanelresoundinglyrecommendedincreasedfruitinthediet:“Householdsshouldselectpredominantlyplant-baseddietsrichinavarietyofvegetablesandfruits...Theevidencethatsuchdietswillpreventordelayasignificantproportionofnon-communicablechronicdiseasesisconsistent.”15Thehomeorchardpresentsanopportunityfortheentirefamilytorealizehealthynutritionfromhavingmorefreshfruitavailableasanalternativetobuyingpackaged,environmentallydestructive,potentiallyillness-causing,chemicallyladen,nutritionallyvoidproducts.

There’smore.Treesradiateaprofoundeffectonmentalhealthandwell-being.StudiesfromtheHuman–EnvironmentResearchLaboratory(UniversityofIllinois)reportthatwhenpeoplearearoundtrees,mentalfatigueandirritabilityarereduced.16AccordingtoDr.RogerUlrichofTexasA&MUniversity,“...visualexposuretosettingswithtreeshasproducedsignificantrecoveryfromstresswithinfiveminutes.”17Fiveminutes.15FoodandAgricultureOrganizationoftheUnitedNations.2001.“HumanVitaminandMineralRequirements.”ReportofajointFAO/WHOexpertconsultation(Bangkok,Thailand).

16Human-EnvironmentResearchLaboratory,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana–Champaign.CoolerintheShade.NewsletterVol.1No.6.

17OrganicGardening.Nov2007–Jan2008(p61).

ResearchfundedbytheJapanesegovernmentfoundthatexposuretoforestsettingsloweredstressandbloodpressure,andboostedimmunity.18AttheUniversityofFlorida’sInstituteofFoodandAgricultureSciences,researchersconcludedthathorticulturaltherapy—atherapeuticprogramofgrowingplantssuchastreesforthosewithmentalorphysicaldisorders—hasbeenusedforcenturieswiththefollowingbenefits:reducingphysicalpain,stress,andanger,enhancingproductivityandproblemsolving,improvingmemoryandconcentration,andteachingresponsibility.19Turnsout,fruittreesaregoodformorethanjustthebody—wecanaddmindandspirittotheequation.18Tsunetsugu,Y.,etal.2010.Trendsinresearchrelatedto“Shinrin-yoku”(takingintheforestatmosphereorforestbathing)inJapan.EnvironmentalHealthandPreventiveMedicine.15:27–37

19Worden,E.C.,T.M.FrohneandJ.Sullivan.2004.HorticulturalIFASPublication#ENH970.

ThefollowingchaptersprovidedetailedinstructionsonhowtorealizeallthebenefitsofahomeorchardinthemostEarth-friendlymanner.Aswehaveseen,plantingfruittreesstandstallwithinthelandscapeofgoodenvironmentaldeeds,emergingasaholisticvehicletopositivelyimpactourplanet’svitalsigns.Whatbetterplacetostartthaninyouryard.Onward,towardagreener,morefruitfultomorrow!

Cherriesreadyforharvest

“Trainupafigtreeinthewayitshouldgo,andwhenyouareoldsitundertheshadeofit.”

–CHARLESDICKENS

Studiesshowthatbeingaroundtreesofanytypecaninstantlyreducestressandenhanceproductivity.

TwoTigers,OneRat,andaFig(adaptedfromanancientZentale)Onefinemorning,inordertorevivemyconstitutionandinvigoratemymind,Idecidedtotakeawalkintheforest.Absorbedinmythoughts,surroundedbythequietwisdomofthetreessurroundingme,asensesuddenlyrushedovermethatIwasnotalone.

Albeitatasafedistance,Isawalargetiger,stealthilyslippinginandoutofthepartialcoverprovidedbylargefernleaves,movingatmyexactpaceandinmydirection.Beingacautiousman,Ididnotbelievethistobeacoincidence.Ihastenedmypace.Lamentably,sodidthetiger,whowasnolongerusingthefoliageforcover.Littlebylittle,myhasteturnedintoatruesenseofpanic.IfoundmyselfrunningasfastasIcould,withthetigerinstrongpursuit.Suddenly,likeatraincomingtoanemergencystop,mysprintwasinterruptedbyadeepprecipiceborderingagreenvalleybelow.Almostinstinctively,Igrabbedavinehangingbythesideofthecliffandstartedclimbingdown.

Feelingthatthisheroicexertionwasabouttopayoff,InoticedthatthenowfamiliarpantingofthetigerwasasloudasifIwassittingbyherside.Infact,themoreIdescended,thelouderitbecame.Istoppedandlookeddown.Therewasanothertigerpantingwithanticipation,below.

Clearly,thesituationwaslessthanfavorable.However,IwasstillconfidentthatmypatiencewouldruletheoutcomeandIcouldmakeanescapeonceoneofthetigersrealizedthatthispreywasfartooreluctanttocomply.Justthen,anewsoundfilledtheair.Thiswastheunmistakablegnawingcadencethatonlyarodentcouldproduce.Apparently,myvinewasnowanincisor-filing-instrumentforafieldratwhonodoubtheardthecommotionandwantedtojoininontheexcitement.

Onlyatthismomentofutterdespair,Inoticedaripefig,justwithinmyreach,hangingfromabranchonasmalltreeanchoredtoacliffledge.Beliedbyitsdwarffigure,thetreehadconvertedthefreshair,brightsunlight,andmorselsofwaterandmineralsprovidedbythecliffsideintooversizedfigsoozingwitharoma.

Miraculously,allsenseofcatastrophelifted.Ipluckedthefigandplacedit,skinandall,betweenmylips,whichwerespontaneouslypartedbyasmile.Isavoredthesweet,crunchydelightsofthefruitthathadbeenofferedbynatureforthatsingularjoyfulencounter,atthatparticularmoment,onthatfineday.

—chaptertwo—

SITESELECTIONTheidealplacetoplantanorchardismidwayupaneast-facingslopeongentlyrollingland,withaloamsoilfrom4to9feet(1.2to2.7m)deep.(Thoseofusresidinginurbanareasmaynowthrowbackourheadsandlaughheartily.)Thischapterbreaksdowneachoftheelementsthatmakethatmythicslopeidyllictoillustratehowtouseavailablespaceforthebestadvantageoffruittrees.

Adjustplantingdistancesaccordingtoyourgoalsfortheorchardsite.Planttreesslightlyclosetocreateawindbreakorfartheraparttocreatemoreopenspacestosocialize.Thesetreeswereplantedat15-foot(4.6m)intervalstoalloweasyaccesstoallsidesofthetree.

PLEASENOTETHATMOSTPRODUCTIVE,healthyorchardsgetalongsomeplaceotherthanEden.Thefamiliarsaying,“Righttree,rightplace,”istrue,andsometimeseasiersaidthandone.Takingwhateverstepsareneededtoensurethattreeswillbelocatedwheretheirrequirementsarebestmetbeforeplantingsavestimeandresourceslater,andpreventsstrugglingwithtreesfailingtothrive.

ROOMENOUGHFORFRUITTREESThefirstelementofthat“rightplace”isspace:enoughroomforthematurecanopythetreewillhavesomeday,andenoughroomfortreerootstospread.Treerootsdonotformamirrorimageofthetopgrowth’sbranchstructurebelowground.Instead,about90percentofrootsliveinthetop2feet(0.6m)ofsoil,especiallythesmallrootsthatabsorbwater,nutrients,andoxygen.Rootsspreadoutwardfromthetree’strunkintheupperlayersofsoiltodistancesbetween11/2to3timestheheightofthetree.

Fruittreescanthriveundermanydifferentconditions,evenwhentheidealsituation(i.e.,rollinghillswithgoodsunexposureandnearwater),picturedhere,isnotavailable.

So,forenoughroombetweentreesforthoseonstandardandsemidwarfingrootstocks,plantaminimumof10to15feet(3to4.6m)apart.Ingeneral,theclosertheplanting,themorepruningwillbeneededtomaintainadequatedistancebetweenthem.Treesontruedwarfingrootstocksmaybeplacedascloseas6feet(1.8m)apart.(Detailsaboutrootstocksaredescribedinchapter3,PlantSelection.)

Planttreesaminimumof10feet(3m)fromstructures:buildings,patios,pools,water,sewerandgaslines,septicsystemleachlines—andbewaryofoverheadobstructionssuchaspowerlines.Alwaysthinkaboutwhattreeswilldoundergroundaswellasabove.Spacingfruittreesproperlyhelpstocreateeaseoffruitharvestingandtreemaintenanceaswell.

Plantmoststandardfruittreesroughly15feet(4.6m)apart,semidwarfingtrees10to15feet(3to4.6m)apart,anddwarfsaminimumof6feet(1.8m)apart.Hedgerowplantingsrequireextramaintenanceandcanbeplanted3feet(0.9m)apart.

SUNLIGHTSunlightpowersalllifeonEarth;thisstartswithplantsconvertingthesun’senergyintosugars.Fruittreesneedtobeplantedinfullsun,whichmeansaminimumofsixtoeighthoursofdirectsunlightperday.Fortreesplantedinhotclimates,gettingthosedirectsunhoursinthefirsthalfoftheday,withanafternoonbreakdeliveredbytheshadowsofbuildingsorlargertrees,canbehelpful.

Takeawalk,andalook,aroundtheprospectiveorchardsiteatdifferenttimesoftheday;watchwherethesunshinesandwheretheshadowsfall.Checkingthisduringtheheightofthegrowingseasonwillprovideagoodbenchmark;ifpractical,learnaboutthesunpatternsontheorchardsiteduringdifferentseasonsoftheyear.Thesunsitslowerintheskythroughthewintermonths,stretchingthelengthofshadows.

Morning

Afternoon

Lateafternoon

Thistreeplacementreceivesatleasteighthoursofdirectsunlightaday,asshownbythesephotostakenthroughouttheday,withthelastshowingthedesiredlate-afternoonshade.Inthenorthernhemisphere,south-facingsitesreceivethemostsunenergy.Whenplantingmultipletrees,considerplacingshortervarieties(e.g.,dwarfs)outofthefutureshadowoflargerones(e.g.,standards)byplacingtheformerinfrontwithrelationtotheprevailingsunlight.

AIRCIRCULATION

Gooutsideandgetsomeair.Consideraircirculationthroughtheorchardsite.Airthatflowsfreelyaroundandthroughtreeshelpspreventdisease,moderatestemperature,andmaintainsCO2levelsforleaves.Leavestakeincarbondioxideandreleaseoxygenduringphotosynthesis,theprocessofmakingsugarsfromsunlight.Goodaircirculationdoesnotincludeaharsh,drivingwind,whichcancausetreestogrowinunwanteddirections.

Strongprevailingorpredictablewindsfromasingledirectioncandistortthegrowthpatternoftreecanopies.

Tallhedgesorotherwindbreaks,suchasthisivy-coveredtrellis,canbeusedtopreventdirectionalgrowthwhenstrong,prevailingwindsarepresent.

SOIL

Soildoesmorethanjustanchortreesinplace.Healthysoilcanbeviewedasalivingorganism,andwillbediscussedingreaterdetaillater.OneofthebasicmetricsforsoilinvolvesthepHscale,whichmeasuresrelativeacidityoralkalinity.From1to14,neutralismeasuredat7.0.SoilswithapHlessthan7.0areincreasinglyacid,greaterthan7.0increasinglyalkaline.MostplantsandtreesthriveatasoilpHbetween6.5and7.5.TestingthepHatasitecanbeaseasyasobtainingaportablekit.

Additionally,duringsiteselection,soilsimplyneedstobeworkableanddrainwell.Workablemeansthatthesoilcanbedugwithhandtoolssuchasaspaderelativelyeasily;asuperhero’sassistanceisnotrequired,inotherwords.Thisalsomeansthatthesoilissufficientlydeeptosupporttrees.Acouplefeet(0.6m)ofpurchasedtopsoilthrownontoanabandonedconcreteslabwillnotwork.Dreamyloams,tensoffeetdeep,existinmanypartsoftheworld—generallyinotherpartsoftheworld,notyoursite.Threefeet(0.9m)deepisagoodminimum.

Asoilthatisnotworkabledoesnotmeanthesitecannotbeplanted;difficultsoilscansometimesbecorrectedbeforeplanting.Basicinformationonworkingwithsoilsisgiveninthefertilizationsectionofchapter5,IrrigationandFertilization.Forreallydifficultordamagedsoils,getsomeassistancetofindoutwhatstepstotake,beforesinkingalotoftime,energy,andresourcesintoabattlewithatoughsoil.Regionalgovernments,inassociationwithuniversities,oftenprovideinformationaboutlocalsoiltypes.ContactthelocalAgriculturalExtensionoffice(called“CooperativeExtension”intheU.S.)orfarmadvisortogetsomeexpertadviceonanumberoftopics,includingthebeststrategiestocorrectasoilproblem.

KnowYourSubstrate!Themoreplantingyoudo,themoreyouwilldiscovermanyburiedtreasures.FTPFhasunearthedpilesofrocks,oldshoes,mattresses,andevenanunchartedwaterlineortwo.Takeashoveltotheplantingsiteandexplorethesoilabittoavoidanypotentialobstacles.Compactedsoilsorconstructionfillcanmakemanualdiggingdifficult,soalwaystestdigaholetoensuretheorchardcanbeplantedwithouttheneedforadditionalequipment.Ifitispossibletodigaplantingholeinlessthanhalfanhourwithaspadeshovelandpickax,ifnecessary,thentheplantingshouldgosmoothly.

AtoneparticularorchardsiteataschoolinCalifornia,thesoilseemedabitcompacted,soanareawastestedandfoundtobeworkablemanuallywithashovel,thoughahandheldmechanicalaugerwasbroughtjustincase.Afterabouthalfanhourofenduringthemetallicsoundsofshovelsbouncingoffthegroundwithoutmakingtheslightestdent,theaugerwasunveiledwithmuchanticipation.Asitspunintotheunrelentinggroundfortwowholeminutes,withtheweightoffouradultmenpressingdown,therewascollectiveastonishmentwhenthedevicewassetasidetorevealaping-pongball–sizeholeonly.Thiswassomeseriouslycompactedsoil!Needlesstosay,thenextcallwasforatractor-mountedauger,whichcompletedthejobtoperfection.

Thelessonlearnedwas,forplantingtreesinseveralplacesinyourbackyard,orevenforplantinglargerorchards,besuretotesttheworkabilityofthesoilinnumerousspotsastherecanbegreatvariationineventheshortestofdistances.

SOILDRAINAGEWhatissoildrainage?Whyisitnecessaryforgoodtreegrowth?Soildrainageisatermdescribingthewaywatermovesthroughasoil—howquicklyitsoaksin,howitspreadsoutinsidethesoilasitmovesthrough,andhowlongthesoilstaysmoistbetweenwaterings.Leavesusecarbondioxide,butrootsneedoxygen.Theyrespire,justlikewedo.Ideally,halfofsoilisemptyspace.Theselittleemptyspacesinsidesoilarecalledpores.Asoil’sporespaceoughttobefilledwithbothairandwater,about50/50.Immediatelyafterrainorirrigationtheymaybefilledmostlywithwater,andjustbeforewatering,mostlywithair.

Awell-drainingsoilisonethatletswaterpenetrate,withoutpoolingonthesurfaceorrunningoff.Howfastandhowmuchwaterhitsthesoil’ssurfaceandwhetherthegroundisflatorslopedaffectsthis.Thesoilitselfanditsmineralcomponentsofsand,silt,andclay,andtheirrelativeproportions,alsoplayabigroleintheinfiltrationrate.

Sandysoilsacceptwatereasily,allowingittopenetratedeeply,quickly.Theyalsodryoutrapidly,andwaterdoesnotformalateralfanpatternofmoistureinthesoil(makingwateravailabletomoreroots)butformsastraight,narrowcolumnthrough,andpast,theprecioustop18to24inches(45.7to61cm)ofsoil,wheremostrootsoccur.Sandysoilsdonotholdagoodreserveofmoistureandaretypicallyoflowfertility.

Claysoilsoftenhaveveryslowinfiltrationrates,whichcanleadtopuddlesonthesurfacewithdrysoilunderneath.Wetclayisstickyandgunkytoworkwith.Italsodriesoutmoreslowlyandholdswaterverywell—sometimessotightlythatplantrootscannotpryitloose!Mostsoilsfalloutsidethesetwoextremesandareacombinationofvaryingproportionsofsand,silt,andclayparticles.

Soilconsistsofparticlesthatarefine(clay),medium(silt),orcoarse(sand)—orallthree—insize.Thissoiltrianglediagramillustratesthecontentofdifferentsoiltypes(courtesyofNaturalResourcesConservationService,USDA).Labels,clockwisefrombottom:SandSeparate,%;ClaySeparate,%;SiltSeparate,%

Soilcanbetestedbymoisteningandsqueezingitinyourfist.Sandysoilsbreakaparteasierthanclaysoils,whichtendtoremaininaribbon,asillustratedhere.

Conductabasicdrainagetestpriortochoosingtheplantingsite.Digahole,fillwithwater,letdrain,andfillimmediatelyagainwithwater.Soilswithgooddrainagewillbeemptywithintwelvehoursofthesecondfilling.

Tofindouthowwelltheprospectiveplantingsite’ssoildrains,trythistest:

1.Digaplantingholeforatypicalcontainerizedtree,about18inches(45.7cm)deepandwide.

2.Filltheholewithwaterandwaitwhileitdrainsout.

3.Filltheholewithwateragain,assoonasthefirstfillingdrainsout.Nowwatchandnotethetimeittakesforthissecondfillingtodrainout.

Lessthanfiveminutes?Verysandysoilsdrainthisquickly.Betweenhalfanhourtotwelvehours?Congratulationsonhavingawell-drainingsoil.Stilleyeingamuddylittlepondatthebottomoftheholetwodayslater?Slow-drainingsoilsthatarewetforprolongedperiodscausetreerootstodieforlackofoxygen.Growingtreesinsuchconditionsrequireslongerintervalsbetweenirrigationstoallowthesoiltodryoutalittleandletairbackintothesoil’sporespace.Orconsiderchoosingalternativetypesofplantingsitessuchasraisedbeds(discussedinmoredetaillaterinthischapter).

WATERTreesflourishalongtheriverbankbecausethat’swherethewateris.Istheaverageannualrainfallthattheprospectiveplantingsitereceivessufficienttosustainfruittrees?Peachtrees,forexample,needapproximately36inches(91.4cm)ofwaterperyear,withthemajorityofthatavailableduringthelastsixtydaysoffruitripening.Overall,mosttypesoffruittreesneedbetween25to50inches(63.5cmto1.3m)peryear,withfruitssuchasolivesatthedrierendofthatrangeandsubtropicalssuchasavocadosatthemaximum.Ifrainfallisn’tenough,evaluatethesite’saccesstowateranddecidehowthetreeswillbewateredbeforeplantingthem.Seechapter5,IrrigationandFertilization,forhelpinmakingthatdecision.Attheveryleast,allfruittreeswillneedaconsistentwatersourceincloseproximity,suchasfromaspigot,forthefirstfewyearsafterplantingastheybecomeestablished.Testthedistancebyhookingupahose(orseriesofhoses)tothenearestspigottodetermineifthereisenoughwaterpressuretotransportwaterdirectlytotheplantingsite.

Fruittreesshouldalwaysbeinproximitytoawatersource,suchasaspigot,duringtimesofdroughtandforthefirstfewyearsafterplanting.

Treesthrivenearnaturalbodiesofwaterastheydrawonundergroundwaterresources,suchasthesetreesonthebanksoftheKlamathRiverinCalifornia.Youmaynothaveanaturalbodyofwaterinyouryard,butyoucanusethissameprincipleonpropertieswithsmallerflowingorstandingwatersources.

MANAGINGMICROCLIMATESMicroclimatesaresubtleinfluencesontemperatureprovidedbylandforms,manmadestructures,ormassesoftalltrees(hedgerows,windbreaks,forests).Theirinfluencecauseschangesinthemovementofcoldairthroughasite.Theycanberegional:differencesinclimateononesideofamountainrangeversustheother,forexample.Theycanbeassmallasabackyard,too.Coldairflowslikewatertothelowestspot.Midwayupthatgentleslopeofthoseeasyrollinghillsistheperfectplantingplacefortworeasons:bettersoildrainageandcoldairflowsonpast,keepingfrostfromsettlingontrees.Beingawareofandmanagingmicroclimatescanbenefitfruittreesbymoderatingtemperatureandusingittothebestadvantage.

Skillfulstrategiescanbeusedto“stretch”localclimatezonelimits—togrowafruittreethatneedsalittlewarmerclimateinaslightlycoolerone,orthereverse.

•Sun-soakedwallsandsidewalkscollectheatalldayandreleasethatstoredheatatnight,protectingnearbyvulnerabletreesfromfrostdamage.

•Lowspotsthatcollectcoldair,aslongasthesoildrainswell,canbeusedtomaximizethechillneededtosetthefruitoftemperatezonetreessuchasapplesandpeaches.

•Lookaroundyourneighborhoodforexamplesofthrivingfruittreesandusenatureasaguidetoevaluatelocalmicroclimatesanddeterminewhichtypesoftreeswilldowellthere.

ManipulatingmicroclimateswillnotenableustogrowavocadosontheCanadianplains,butcangiveaonehalftoonefullUSDAclimatezonestretch(moreonchillrequirementsandclimatezonesinthenextchapter).

Useslopestoimprovedrainageandplantmidwaydowntheslopetoprotectsensitivetrees,suchasthiscitrustree,fromfrostdamage.

Imaginecoldairflowinglikewateroverthecontoursofasiteinordertochoosetheappropriatespotsforfruittrees.Rememberthatsometemperatefruittreesrequiremorechillinordertoproducefruit.

PLANTINGSOLUTIONSFORSMALLORURBANSPACESAlternativeplantingsolutionsforsmall,usuallyurban,sitesincludefruittreehedgerows,multipletreesplantedinasingleplantinghole,raisedbeds,andcontainers.Sunlightandaircirculationrequirementsarethesameforthesetypesofplantingsasforstandardhomeorchards.Allmaintenancetasks—watering,fertilizing,pruning,andplanthealthcare—needtobeperformedmorefrequently,althoughonasmallerscale,withthesetypesofplantings.

FruitTreeHedgerowsFruittreehedgerowsarelinearthickets,withtreesplantedin3-foot(0.9m)intervals.Availablespacedeterminesthelength,butleaveenoughroom(atleast24inches,or61cm)toaccesstherowfrombothsidesandeachendtoperformmaintenance.Truedwarforsemidwarfrootstocksarerecommendedforfruittreehedgerows,buttreesonanyrootstockwillbestuntedinthistypeofplantingbecauseoftheintensecompetitionforsoilandsunlightresources.Thisresultsinasmallerharvestpertree,aswellassmallertrees.

•Chooseamaximumheightforthehedgerow,between6to12feet(1.8to3.7m),andmaintainitwithsummerpruning.

•Thespacebetweenindividualtreesmustbemaintainedwithpruningalso,aminimumof6to12inches(15.2to30.5cm).

•Allindividualtreesinafruittreehedgerowshouldbeprunedtoamodifiedcentralleadershape.(Informationonthisfruittreeformispresentedinthepruningsectionofchapter6,PruningandWeeding.)

Fruittreehedgerowsofferthechancetohaveanextendedharvestofavarietyoffruitsfromasmallplantingsite.Sincetheyarekeptrelativelyshort,harvestisalsomoreaccessible,especiallyforfamilieswantingtopickfruittogether.

Typesoffruitsuggestedforthisplantingstyleareboththetemperatezonefruits:apples,peaches,pears,andsoon,andsmallersubtropicalfruitssuchasacerolacherry,jaboticaba,andSurinamcherry.Smallercitrus,likekumquat,maybeattempted,butexcellentaircirculationaroundandthroughalltypesofcitrusisessentialfordiseaseprevention.

MultipleTrees,OnePlantingHoleAnotheroptionforplantingintightspacesincludesplantingmultipletrees,fromtwotofour,placedabout18inches(45.7cm)apart,inasingleplantinghole.Thiswillalsoextendthefruitharvestfromtwoorthreeweekstotwoorthreemonths.Intheend,thetreesaremaintainedasasingletree,managedasanopen-vaseshape(seechapter6,PruningandWeeding).

•Plantthesametypeoffruittreestogetherinoneplantinghole:threepeaches,threeapples,threeavocados.

•Forthetemperatezonefruittrees,havingthesamerootstockforeachtreeishelpful,butplantdifferentfruitvarietiesofeach(seechapter3,PlantSelection,formoreonrootstocks).

•Extendtheharvestbyselectinganearly-season,mid-season,andlate-seasonvarietyofthesamefruit.

•Competitionstuntsindividualtreesinthisplantingmethod,justlikethefruittreehedgerow,soeachharvestwillbesmaller.

•Choosethesameheightforallthetreesintheplantinghole,andmaintainitwithpruning.Thetypesoffruittreesrecommendedforhedgerowscanalsobeplantedthisway,aswellasavocadosandfigs.

•Forcitrus,considerchoosingasingletreewithmultiplevarietiesgraftedonratherthanmultipletreesinahole.

Ifspaceislimitedinbackyards,treesmaybeplantedclosetogetherandmaintainedwithpruningtokeepthemfromcompeting.Thesetreeswereplantedclosetoeachother,formingafruittreehedgerow.

Plantingmultipletreesperholeisanothertechniqueusedtomaximizequantitieswhilekeepingtreesatamanageableheightintightquarters.Theseapricotswereplantednexttoeachotherinthesameplantingholealongwithothercompanionplants.

RAISEDBEDSRaisedbedsaremoundsofplantingmediumplacedontopofanexistingsoil.Theymaybeenclosedwithwallsmadeofwood,rock,concreteblock,ormanyothertypesofbuildingmaterials.Theymayalsosimplybemoundedontopofsoilwithoutanywallssurroundingtheiredges.Raisedbedsareaquickfixusedtosidestepproblemssuchaspoordrainageandshallowsoil.Theyaretypicallyusedforsmaller,nonwoodyplants,suchasvegetablesandflowers,butcanprovideanopportunitytogrowdwarforsemidwarffruittrees.

Araisedbedthatmaybeusedforafruittreemustbeatleast18inches(45.7cm)high,withanativesoilbelowofatleastthesamedepth.

Foreasyaccess,buildaraisedbednowiderthanarm’slengthfromtheedgetothecenterofthebed.Forexample,foraperson6feet(1.8m)tall,araisedbedshouldberoughly6feet(1.8m)wide,soreaching3feet(0.9m)intothecenterfromeithersideiscomfortable.

Factorinthedistanceneededbetweenmaturefruittreeswhendeterminingthelengthofthebed,orplaceonlyonefruittreeperbed,withcompanionplantsfillingouttheremainder.

Remembertoestimatethewidthofmaturefruittreecanopiesoverheadwhendeterminingtheplacementofmultipleraisedbeds,sidetoside.

ConcernsandConsiderationsRaisedbedsprovideasolutionthatcomesataprice.Exploreoptionstouserecycledmaterials,andbeawareofthelimitationsofwood.Woodisbiodegradableandwillgraduallydecompose,especiallythesideoftheraisedbedwallsincontactwiththeplantingmedium.Scrapwoodleftoverfromtheconstructionofstructureshasusuallybeentreatedwithchemicalstoresistdecay.Someofthesesubstances,arsenicforexample,aretoxicandleachoutofthewood,intothesoil,wheretheyaretakenupbyplantroots.Ifchoosingwoodtobuildraisedbeds,trytogetuntreated,recycledwood.

Additionalcautionisadvisedwhenselectingasoilmediumtofillraisedbeds.

•Avoidimportingproblemssuchasroot-rotfungi,root-knotnematodes,orinvasiveplantseeds.Buyfromareputabledealerforbulkpurchases.

•Trytochooseaplantingmediumthatisnotdramaticallyunlikethenativesoilbelow—chooseonethat’sbetter,butnotcompletelydifferent(doingsocannegativelyaffectdrainage;seechapter4,Planting,formoreonbackfill).

•Tillorforkthetop6to10inches(15.2to25.4cm)ofthenativesoilrightbeforeplacingthefillfortheraisedbedontop.

•Donotrakeorsmooththistilledareabeforeaddingthefill.Thegoalhereistohavetreerootsextendintothenativesoilfromtheplantingmediumintheraisedbedabove.

Applyingalayerofcompostandmulchtothesurfaceoftheraisedbedprovidesthesamebenefitsasforplantingsdirectlyintotheground:namely,coolersoilsthatevaporatewaterfromtheirsurfacesmoreslowly,withfewerweeds.Irrigationforraisedbedscanbeprovidedusinganyofthemethodsforwateringfruittreesplantedintheground.Keepinmind,however,thatraisedbedsdrainmorequicklyandmayneedamorefrequentirrigationschedule.Decidehowtheraisedbedswillbewateredbeforebuildingthem(seechapter5,IrrigationandFertilization,fordetails.)

CONTAINER-GROWNTREES

Plantcontainersalsocomeinaterrificvarietyofshapesandcolors.Whenselectingacontainerforafruittree,includepracticalconcernsalongwithaestheticdesires.Adiameterof20to24inches(50.8to61cm)istheminimumsizeneededforacontainer-grownfruittree—andalwaysgivepreferencetorecycledorpreviouslyownedmaterials.

Containercultureoffruittreesenablesustoenjoyfruitswemightnotbeabletogrowintheground;citrusincold-winterclimates,forexample.Containerscanbemovedindoors,toagreenhouseorsunnyroom,towaitoutthewinter.Backoutonthepatioforthewarmseasons,fruittreesincontainersbringtheirbeautyclosertous,displayingnormal-sizefruitonminiaturetrees,atjustabouteye-level.

Forbestsuccess,besuretochooseafruittreevarietyspecificallybredforcontainerculture.Noteverytypeoffruittreecanbeadaptedtolifeinaplantingpot,butthefollowinglistprovidesavarietyofchoicesthataremostreadilyavailable:

ApplesonM27rootstock

Geneticdwarfpeachesandnectarines

CherriesonGiselarootstock

Citrusontruedwarfingrootstock(trifoliate,“FlyingDragon”)

Figs

Fruitingmulberries

Pomegranates

Loquats

Olives

ChoosingYourContainerPlantsinpotsbringjoytosmallspaces.Fruittreesgrownincontainerscanofferadeliciousharvestaswell.Growingfruittreesincontainersuses“unusable”space,fittingatreewhereonewouldnotbefore.Fruittreesgrownincontainersaremuchsmallerthantheircounterpartsinthegroundandproduceasmallerharvest.Moremaintenanceisrequiredtokeepcontainer-grownfruittreesthrivingthanforin-groundtrees,butthesetasksareeasiertoperformsincethetreesaresmallerandportable.

Raisedbedsallowfruittreestobegrowninshallow,poor-qualitysoils.

Regularrootpruningeverythreetofiveyearsforcontainer-growntreeswillpreventthemfrombecomingroot-boundandwillextendtheirlives.Gentlyremoveseveralinchesofsoilandrootsawayfromthesidesandbottomofthetreebeforereturningtoitscontainer.

Woodisapopularpickforplantcontainers;halfwhiskeybarrelsarealmosticonic.Woodgivesacertainrusticlookanddoesn’theatupsorapidlyinsunlightthattreerootsget“cooked,”butitdoesdecomposequicklywhenincontactwithsoilandwater.Thathalfwhiskeybarrel,whichwasn’tcheap,mayrotandcollapseinasinglegrowingseason.

Anothergardenicon,clay,orterracotta,potsarepopulartoo,andoftenlessexpensivethanwood.Atthesizeneededtogrowafruittree,however,aclaycontainercanbeheavy—evenwithoutpottingmix,atree,andwaterinside.Claycontainersareporousanddrawmoistureoutoftheplantingmediumastheydry.Theyalsoheatupinsunlight,raisingthesoiltemperaturefortreeroots.Oncethepotandthepottingmixdryoutalittle,agapformsbetweenthem.Watertendstoflowrightthroughthisspaceandoutthedrainageholebelow,whilethecontainer’ssoilandthetree’srootsarestilldry.Thiscanhappenwithanytypeofplantcontainerthatisnotkeptconsistentlymoist,butitoccursmorequicklywithaclayplantpot.

Ceramiccontainersareclaypotsthathavebeenpaintedwithaglazeandfired;theyhaveashiny,nonporoussurface.Lightcolorscanreflectheataway,keepingrootscooler.Ceramicplantcontainerscanbehighlyornamental,orveryplain.Whatevertheirappearance,theyareusuallydurableandlong-lasting.Theyarealsomoreexpensive,typicallyheavy,andbothcumbersomeandfragileduringmaintenancetaskslikerootpruning.

Plasticcontainershaveevolvedinrecentdecadestolookalotbetterthantheyusedto.Colorsandshapesareavailablethatmimicterracottaandstone.Theyarelightweight,durable,muchlessfragilethanceramicorclaycontainers—andtheydon’trotlikewood.Mostofthetime,theyarelessexpensivethananyoftheothermaterialtypes.Plasticdoesheatupinsunlight,though,toroot-cookingtemperatures.Choosinglightercolors,andplacingtreestogettheirdirectsunhoursinthefirstpartoftheday,canhelpwiththisproblem.

SoilandWaterConsiderationsTreerootsgrowinginsideacontainerhavealimitedsoilreservoirtodrawmoisturefrom;containercultureoffruittreesdemandsmorefrequentwateringthanforin-groundtrees.Watertwoorthreetimesperweekduringthewarmestseasonoftheyear,lessoftenduringthetrees’dormantseason,cooltimesoftheyear,orduringtimespentindoors.Rememberthatgapbetweenthewalloftheclaypotandthedrypottingmix?Trytopreventthatbykeepingcontainer-grownfruittreesevenlymoistallofthetime,withoutlettingthemgetsoggy.

Astandardpottingmixworkswellforcontainer-grownfruittrees.Chooseonethathasbothgooddrainageandgoodmoistureretentionproperties.Commerciallyavailablemixeshavebothqualitiesandusuallycomeprefertilized,butfrequentwateringmakesshortworkofthenutrientsincludedinapottingmix.Container-grownfruittreesneedregularfertilization:monthlywithaliquid,organicfertilizer.Forallfruitsexceptcitrus,choosealow-nitrogenformulawithmicronutrientsandcalcium.Morenitrogenisappropriateforcitrus.Formoredetailsandinformationaboutfertilizers,seechapter5,IrrigationandFertilization.

Mostcontainer-grownfruittreeswillneedtobestakediftheyshowsignsofbucklingundertheweightoftheirfruit.Thosestakeswillneedtostayonlongerthanforin-groundtrees,andsomecontainer-grownfruittreeswillneedtobestakedthroughouttheirlives.

Pruningtopgrowthshouldbelimitedforatleastthefirstfewyears.It’salreadyaverysmalltree;removeaslittlefruitwoodaspossible.Rootpruning,however,mustbeperformedeverythreetofiveyears.

ToRootPruneaContainerTreeChooseacool,cloudyday,atthebeginningofthegrowingseason,wellbeforebudbreakorbloom,butafterthelastfrost.

1.Removethetreefromitscontainer,andusingasharpspadeorgardeningknife,sliceaway5to7inches(12.7to17.8cm)ofroots

andsoilallthewayaroundtheroot-ball,andacrossthebottom,too.

2.Putalayerofnewpottingsoilinthebottomofthecontainer,andreplacethetreeinsidethecontainer.

3.Fillinnewpottingsoilaroundtheperimeterofthecontainer,andwaterthetreethoroughly.

Thispracticeisverysimilartotheartofbonsaiandlengthensthelivesofcontainer-grownfruittrees.Fruittreesgrowninthegroundstilllivemuchlongerthanthoseincontainers,withfewermaintenancechores,toboot.Butperhapsthechancetopickafreshlemonwheniciclesdanglefromtheeavesisworththestruggle—andcertainlybetterthannofruittreeatall.

Varietiesthatnormallywouldnotgrowincertainclimatescandowellincontainers.Thiscitrusisportable,soitcancomeindoorsduringfrosts.

—chapterthree—

PLANTSELECTIONThetreeisahumanconcept.Designatingaplantasatree,andnotashruboraforb,isadefinitionbasedonconsensus.Weuseittohelpussortoutthemultitudeofplantsgrowingintheworldaroundus.

Sometimesthereisafinelinebetweenthedefinitionsoftreesandshrubs,andonecanbecometheotherbasedongrowthandmaintenance.Thisserviceberrycanbegrownasalargeshruborprunedintoasmalltree.

WEAGREETHATATREEISAWOODYperennial,withadominantverticaltrunkthatistallerthan15feet(4.6m).20Understandingsomebasicfactsabouttreestructureandfunctionassistsinmakinggoodchoiceswhenselectingfruittreestoplantathome.

FRUITTREEBASICS:ROOTSANDSHOOTSThere’slifeunderground.Rootsperformfourmajorfunctionsinthelivesoftrees:

•Absorbwaterandnutrientsfromthesoil

•Anchorthetreetotheground

•Storecarbohydrates(sugars)madebytheleavesasanenergyreserve

•Aidinthetransportofwaterandnutrientsupintoandsugarsdownfromthetree’strunk.

Rootsalsomaintainsymbioticrelationshipswithmicroorganismslivinginvibrant,healthysoils.

Ninetypercentoftreerootsliveinthetop18to24inches(45.7to61cm)ofsoilbecausethat’swheretheoxygenis.Rootsneedoxygen,justlikewedo.So,soggysoils,fullofwater,andsoilscompactedbyvehicleandfoottrafficaredifficultenvironmentsfortreeroots.Rootsspreadout,notdown.Afewlargeanchoringrootsreachdownbelowtheoxygenzoneofthetop18to24inches(45.7to61cm),butabroadnetofroots,calledarootplate,holdsthetreeup,spreadingoutlikealargedishwiththetrunkjuttingupoutofthecenter.Treerootscanspreadoutpastthedripline(theendsofthebranches)andreachlateralwidthsfrom11/2to3timestheheightofthetree.

Therootcrown,whereatree’stissueschangefromrootstotrunk(i.e.,fromthepartsthataresupposedtobebelowgroundtothepartsthataresupposedtobeaboveground),shouldbepartiallyvisible,rightatsoillevel.Therootcrownisacriticalandvulnerableplaceonatreethatmustnotbeburiedwithsoilormulchatplanting.Buryingtherootcrownshortensthelifespanoftreesandmakesthemmoresusceptibletodisease.20Harris,R.W.,N.MathenyandJ.Clark.2004.Arboriculture:IntegratedManagementofLandscape

Trees,ShrubsandVines.(PrenticeHall:UpperSaddleRiver,N.J.).

Treetrunksarewiderattheirbasesthanintheirmiddlesections.Trunktaperhelpstreesenduretheforceofwind.Withtimeandmaturity,treesdevelopaflareatthebasesoftheirtrunks,attherootcrown.Thisbasalflareshouldbenoticeableonmaturetrees.

Astrong,healthytreetrunksupportstheweightofallthetree’sbranches,twigs,leaves,andfruit.Itendures,absorbs,andmovesdownintothegroundthephysicalstressofcarryingthatloadundertheactionofwind.Treetrunksshouldbestraight,withoutdoglegs,andshouldstandstraightup,withoutsignificantlean.

Treerootsarenotamirrorimageofthetrunkandbranches.Theygrowlaterally,mostlyinthetop2feet(0.6m)ofsoil.

Basalflare,alsoknownastrunkflare,providessupportandbecomesmorepronouncedasatreeages.Theflareonthistrunkisfromaneight-year-oldpeachtree.

RoundforaReasonTrunksareroundforareason;bothmechanicalengineersandtreesknowthatthecylinderisastrongform,evenwhenhollow.Hollowtreescanpersistandsurviveweathereventsforalongtime,eventhoughtheyhavesufferedsignificantdecay.Ultimately,solidtreetrunksarestrongerthanhollowones,sochoosetrunksthatareround,withoutflatspots,bigcracks,orhollows.

Treeshavetwocrowns.Abovetherootcrown,thesumtotalofbranches,twigs,andleavesiscalledthecrown,orthecanopy.Forclarity,thetermsrootcrownandcanopywillbeusedthroughoutthisbook.Afruittreehasallofthestructuresjustdescribed—roots,rootcrown,trunk,andcanopy—performingthesamefunctionsasanyothertypeoftree.Mostcommerciallygrownfruittrees,however,arereallytwotreesinone,asdescribedbelow.

ROOTSTOCKSFormorethantwothousandyears,sincetheHellenisticperiod,rootstockshavebeenusedforthepropagationoffruittrees.21Thecombinationofrootstockandfruitwood,inapracticecalledgrafting,isusedtocreatefruittreesthathaveitall:vigorousrootsystemsthatresistdiseaseandcontroltreeheight,graftedtotreeswithdense,lushfoliage,whichareresistanttoadifferentarrayofdiseasesthantherootstockandproducetastyfruits.Inotherwords,rootsthatareknowntobestrongandhardyarefusedtogetherwiththefruitwoodofatreeknowntoproducehigh-qualityfruitbysplicingandjoiningthetwotogether.Otherwise,justasoffspringfromthesameparentscanhavedifferentcharacteristics,strengths,andweaknessesintheanimalkingdom,growingfruittreesfromseedsresultsinunpredictabletreevarietiesthatoftenproducelittletonofruitofalesserquality.Graftingallowsgrowerstoofferfruittreeswithknownqualities.

VigorThebackyardfruitsmostcommonlygrowntodayaretheresultofplantbreedingprocessescalledhybridization,whichtendstodiminishsomequalitiesoftheoriginal,wildtrees,suchasavigorousrootsystem,infavorofothers,likelargerfruitswithsweeterflavors.Plantshaveafiniteamountofenergyavailabletodistributeamongthefunctionstheyneedtocomplete.Rootstocksareselectedtoprovidethevigorthattherootsystemsofhybridizedtrees,bredforfruitquality,cannotsupplyforthemselvesanymore.Sometimesrootstocksaresimplyrandomseedlingsofthesamespeciesasthefruitwood.Wildavocadosaplings,forexample,makeagoodplatformtograftonotheravocadofruitwoodvarietieslikeHaasorFuerte.21Webster,A.D.2010Mar22.“Temperatefruittreerootstockpropagation.”NewZealandJournalofCropandHorticulturalScience.

DiseaseResistanceAftervigor,manyrootstocksareselectedfortheirabilitytoresistthediseasesorinsectattacksmostcommontoatypeoffruittree,ortothesoilitgrowsin.Nemaguardrootstock,usedfornectarines,apricots,plums,andalmonds,isresistanttoroot-knotnematodes:microscopicwormsthatboreintoplantroots,cripplingthemandstuntingthewholeplant.Thisrootstockalsohasareputationforvigorbutdoesn’thaveoutstandingtoleranceforpoorlydrainingsoils.

HeightManagementRootstocksofferanothercategoryofbenefitsinheightmanagementofthematurefruittree.Thetermstrue-dwarf,semidwarf,andstandarddescribetheinfluenceofarootstockonthegrowthrateofthefruitwood.Thetermgeneticdwarfreferstoafruitwoodvarietywithadiminutivestatureofitsown,regardlessoftherootstock.

Standardrootstocksproducefull-sizetrees,appletreesthatreach30to40feet(9.1to12.2m),forexample.Commercialagriculturetypicallyusesstandardrootstocks.Semidwarfrootstocks,widelyavailableinretailgardencenters,reducetheoverallmatureheightoffruittreesfrom50to75percentofstandardrootstocks.Thetotalheightvaries,dependingonthetypeoffruittree,butmostsemidwarfstopoutataround15to20feet(4.6to6.1m).

Alongwithpruningandmaintenance,rootstocksdeterminethematuresizeofafruittree.Fromtoptobottom,weseeaprogressionofdwarfingtostandard-sizetrees.

Forgraftedfruittrees,heightatmaturityisdeterminedbytherootstock:true-dwarf,semidwarf,orstandard(depictedlefttoright),allofwhichcanproducesignificantharvests.Thoughatlesserpertreeyieldsthanstandards,dwarfedtreesoftenproducefruitatayoungerageandcanbeplantedmoredensely.Duetotheirlargersize,standardsprovidethegreatestbenefitfortheenvironment.

True-dwarfrootstocksproducematuretreesataheightof5to7feet(1.5to2.1m).Normal-sizefruitisborneontinytreesthatbegintofruitearly,twotofouryearsold,andfruitmostheavilyfromabouteighttotwelveyearsold.Suitableforplantinginthebackyard,orgrowingincontainers,true-dwarffruittreeskeepmaintenanceandharvestingchoreswithinarm’sreach,usuallywithoutaladder.Forexample,FlyingDragon,aselectionoftrifoliateorange(Poncirustrifoliata),keepscitrustreesatjust5to7feet(1.5to2.1m)tallbytwelvetothirteenyearsold.Treesgrownincontainersareevensmalleronthisrootstock.FlyingDragonalsoimpartssomeresistancetorootrotandanincreasedtoleranceofcoldtemperatures.22

Manyrootstockssupplyallthreecategoriesofbenefitssimultaneously:vigor,diseaseresistance,andsizereduction,withadditionalbonuseslikeacceptanceofadversesoilconditions.Thosethatdonotcanbegraftedwithaninterstock,asecondvarietyofrootstock,graftedbetweenthefirstrootstockandthefruitwood,tomaximizebenefitsavailablefromthemostpopularrootstocks.22Ferguson,J.andT.M.Spann.2010.Publication#HS982,UniversityofFlorida,IFASExtension.

Choosefruittreesonrootstocksthathavecharacteristicsthataddressplantingsiteconditionsandlong-termmaintenancegoals.Forexample,intight,urbanareas,choosedwarfingvarieties;tocreatebackyardshadeforsummertimerecreationalspaces,pickstandards.

Checknurserytagsforbothrootstock(pinklabelinthisphoto)andfruitwood(whitelabel)tounderstandthefullprofileofthefruittree.Often,informationforbothiscontainedonasinglelabel.

FRUITWOODMovingupfromrootstoshoots,let’stalkaboutthequalitiesoffruitwood(alsoknownasascionwhengraftedtoarootstock),ortheportionofthetreeabovethegraftunion.Firstoff,thefruitwooddeterminesthefruittype:forexample,anapple,orange,pear,orplum.Next,thefruitwoodisavarietyorcultivar:forexample,aspecificplum,bredtohavecertaincharacteristicsofcolor,taste,size,andtexture.Varietiesoccurasnaturalvariationsofafruittype;cultivarsareproducedasaresultofplantbreedingefforts.Mostfruitwoodsofferedarecultivars,butthetwotermsareusedinterchangeably.Varietiesandcultivarsaredesignatedwithnames,oftentrademarked.IntheplantnamePrunuspersicaBonanzaII,thetermBonanzaIIisthecultivarnameforthisgeneticdwarfpeach.Typically,therearemanycultivarstochoosefromforeachfruittype;forexample,theapplealonehasupto20,000namedcultivarsinexistence.23

Fruitwoodisbredandselectedfirstforfruitquality:size,color,andtaste,butalsoforattributeslikefruit“holding”wellonthetree,orself-thinning—droppingsomeimmaturefruittoproducefewer,largerfruits,asopposedtomany,smallerones.Thefruitwoodvarietiesbredforhomeorchardsalsofocusonregionaladaptation.ApplevarietiesbestforbackyardsinNewEnglandarenotthesameasthosecreatedfortheAmericanSouthwest,MiddleEast,orotheraridclimates.Resistancetobothfoliarandfruitdiseasesisalsoanimportantqualityforfruitwood.(Seechapter7,Prevention,Troubleshooting,andControls,formoreinformationoncommonfruittreemaladies.)23Juniper,B.E.andD.J.Mabberley.2006.TheStoryoftheApple.(TimberPress,Inc.:Portland,Ore.).

Thesetwoplumsaregrowingside-by-side,buttheyaredifferentcultivarsbasedontheirfruitwood,andtheyproducefruitswithdifferentcharacteristics,suchassize,color,andtaste.

DAYSTOHARVESTDaystoharvest,thenextcharacteristicoffruitwoodwe’llexamine,referstothenumberofdaysfrombloomtoripefruit.Asaruleofthumb,forsuccessfulbackyardfruittreeculture,150daysbetweenfirstandlastfrostistheminimumforfruitproduction.24Daystoharvestlengthsaregroupedintoearly,mid-season,andlate.Earlyfruittreecultivars,bredforregionswiththeshortestgrowingseasons,producematurefruitinthefewestnumberofdays.Whenmid-seasonoccursdependsonwherethetreesgrow,lateJunethroughJulyforthesouthernUnitedStates,butlateJulythroughAugustforthenorthernstates.Somelateseasoncultivarsarebredforfruitqualitiesbestforcanningorfreezing,tofacilitatestoringoverthewintermonths.Somefruits,suchaspersimmons,ripeninlateseasonnaturally.Researchdifferentcultivarstodeterminewhichwillprovidefruitsatatimemostdesiredbythoseinthehousehold.24Delmas,R.2003.“GrowingTreeFruitatHome.”FactSheet#2-03,UniversityofCaliforniaCooperativeExtension.

GRAFTUNIONSFruitwoodfromonetreeandrootstockfromanotherjointogetheratthegraftunion,aspliceconnectingwoodfromthetwo.Theresultingtreehasthebestqualitiesofbothplants.Thegraftunionisawound,sometimessealedwithapaste,usuallywrappedintape,untilitheals.Foragraftuniontobesuccessful,therootstockandthefruitwoodmustbecompatible,meaningthatthetwoplantstypicallycomefromthesamegenus,oratleastfromthesameplantfamily.Graftinganapplefruitwoodontoacitrusrootstockwon’twork.Otherfactorscomeintoplayafterthisbasicrequirementismet,andsometimes,graftunionsarenothappyones.

Graftunionsthatarehealthylookrelativelysmooth,makingaclean,uniformtransitionfromrootstocktofruitwood.Onestemmaybealittlethickerthantheother,butthedifferenceshouldnotbedramatic.Agraftunionwithanunusuallylargeswelling,aseparatebumpygrowthonthesideoftheunion,oranytypeofoozedrippingoutisshowingsignsofincompatibility.Avoidpurchasingandplantingtreeswithunhealthygraftunions.Incompatiblegraftunionsshortentreelifespans,sometimestojusttentofifteenyears,andincreasetheriskofstructuralfailure,likethetreesnappingoffatthegraftunion.

FruitTreesorTimeMachines?Choosecultivarsthatareknowntothriveintheplantingsite’sregionandproduceatypeoffruitthatyouandyourfriendsandfamilyenjoyeatingmost.Considerheirloomorheritagefruittrees,whichareantiquevarietiesfromearlierperiodsofhumanhistorythathaveremainedunchangedfordecadestocenturiesthroughgeneticpreservation.Manyheirloomvarietiesoffersuperiorflavor,nutrition,andaconnectiontoatimewhentreesweregrownwithoutsyntheticpesticidesorpoisons.Choosingheirloomvarietiesalsohelpspreservegeneticdiversity.

Lookforasmoothtransitionatthegraftunionfromrootstocktofruitwoodwhenselectingafruittree.

Somegrowersgraftmultiplefruitwoodcultivarsontoatreetoproduceavarietyoffruitsfromasingletrunk,suchasthisAll-In-Oneapple.

Shootsgrowingfrombelowthegraftunion,whicharefromadifferenttreethanthefruitwood,willnotproducethedesiredfruit,ormaynotfruitatall,andshouldbecarefullyremoved.

Thegraftunionshouldbehealedbythetimethetreeisofferedforsale,butitwillalwaysbealittlevulnerable.Trytofacethegraftunionawayfromthedominantdirectionofthesunwhenplantingafruittree.Exactlywherethegraftunionsitsonthetrunkvariesfromtreetotree,butitisusuallywellabovetherootcrown.Donotburythegraftunionwhenplantingafruittreeormistakeitfortherootcrownandplantthetreetoodeep.Anyleafygrowththatsproutsatorbelowthegraftunionwillbetherootstock,andthereforeadifferentvarietyoftreethanthefruitwood,andshouldberemoved.Therootstockplant’sleavesmaylookverydifferentfromthefruitwood’sfoliage,makingiteasytodiscern.

POLLINATIONPollinationistheplantprocessthatbeginsthetransformationofflowersintofruit.Fruitstartsasaswellingatthebaseofapollinatedflower;afterthepetalsfallaway,thefruitcontinuestogrowtoitsfullsizeandripens.Whenpollinationdoesn’thappen,nofruitformsaftertheflowerfades.Knowingalittlesomethingaboutthepollinationrequirementsoffruittreesmakesthedifferencebetweenhavingabackyardfulloffruit,ornot.

Aperfect(hermaphroditic)flowerhasbothpollen(maleparts)andthestructuresthatreceivepollenandformseeds(femaleparts).Aperfectflowermayormaynotbecapableofpollinatingitself.Fruittreecultivarsthathaveflowersabletoreceivetheirownpollenandsetfruitarecalledself-fruitful.Mostcitrusareself-fruitful,asaremostpeaches,nectarines,apricots,andsourcherries.

Ingeneral,fruitsetisenhancedbyplantingmorethanoneofeachtree,eveniflistedasself-fruitful,soconsiderplantingmultipletrees.

Somefruittreesareself-unfruitful.Theirflowersareperfect,buttheyneedpollenfromanothercultivarofthesamefruittypetopollinatetheirflowersandsetfruit.Apples,pears,andsweetcherriestypicallyneedcross-pollination.Toachievethis,pollinizertreesshouldbeplantedincloseproximity,within100to200feet(30.5to61m),butthecloserthebetter—morelikewithin50feet(15.2m)inabackyardsetting.Othercross-pollinationtechniquesincludegraftingpollinizerbranchesontotreesorplantingmultipletreesinahole.

TimingSometimesit’samatteroftiming.Avocadosareself-fruitful,butsometreeshaveflowersreadytoreceivepolleninthemorning,withpollenthatisn’treleaseduntiltheafternoonofthenextday(TypeA).Otheravocadosdisplaytheoppositepattern:flowersreadyintheafternoon,withpollenreleasedthefollowingmorning(TypeB).AvocadofruitsetisimprovedwithaplantingofbothTypeAandBtrees.Bananas,orientalpersimmon,andnavelorangessetfruitwithoutanypollinationatall.

Allfruitsbeginasflowers.Insects,birds,andwindactaspollinatorsandareessentialforfruitset.Sometreesneedothercultivarsinordertocross-pollinate,sochecklabelstolearnexactlywhichpartnertreeisneeded,ifany.

Pollenisbuilttotravel;thetiny,lightweightgrainsfloatintheairandmigrateonabreeze.Nuttrees,self-unfruitful,areprimarilywind-pollinated.Butsometimesthewinddoesn’tgetyouwhereyouwanttogo.Pollenisalsoprettystickyandglomsontobeebacksandhummingbirdbeaksreallywell.Plantsspendtheirpreciousenergy,sometimesupto15percent,tomaketheirflowerslookpretty,smellgreat,andtastesweet—justtogettheirpollencarriedaround.Pollinators,likehoneybees,otherinsects,andhummingbirds,areveryimportantcontributorstofruitset.Citrusaremostlyself-fruitful,butnumerousstudieshaveshownthatfruitsetisincreasedwhenhoneybeesareatworkinthegroves.Insect-pollinatedcitrusfruitsarealsolarger,juicer,andhavemoreseeds.Mostself-fruitfultreesbenefitwithincreasedfruitsetinthepresenceofpollinators.

WeatherReportWeatheraffectspollination.Rainatthewrongtimecanspoilfruittreebloomsandsplashpollendownintothemudbelow.Beesdonotflyoncold,overcast,rainy,orverywindydays.Latefrostscankillfruittreeflowersandtinynewfruitsoutright.Pollinationandfruitsetvariesfromyeartoyear,affectingthetotalharvest.

Checknurserytagsonfruittreestodetermineiftheyareself-fruitfulorself-unfruitful,thelatterofwhichwilltypicallylistcultivarstocross-pollinatewith.Onlineresearchwillalsorevealamoreexhaustivelistingofcompatiblecultivarsforcross-pollination.Ineithercase,considerplantingmultipletreesofthattypetomaximizefruitsetandquality.

FruitTreeIntelligenceTurnsout,figtreesarequitesmart—andsticklersforcontracts.Eightymillionyearsago,figtreesandfigwaspsenteredintoasymbioticrelationshipwherethewaspswereallowedtolaytheireggsinsideafigtree’snutrient-filledfruitinexchangeforgatheringandspreadingfigpollentoothertrees.ResearchersattheSmithsonianTropicalResearchInstitutefoundthatwhenwaspsbroketheagreementandfailedtogatheranypollen,yetstilllaidtheireggs,thetreepunishedthoseparticularwaspsbydroppingthefruitandpreventingtheireggsfromhatching.Afterall,pollinationisindeedseriousbusiness,andadealisadeal,especiallyonethatismillionsofyearsold!2525JanderC.K.andE.A.Herre.2010Jan13.“Hostsanctionsandpollinatorcheatinginthefigtree-figwaspmutualism.”Proc.R.Soc.B.

CHILLHOURSANDCLIMATETemperatezonefruittreesneedthewinter’scold.Howmuch,andforhowlong,hasbeenquantifiedbyresearchersandlabeledwiththemoniker,chillhours.What’sachillhour?Basically,achillhourismeasuredasafullhourattemperaturesbetween32°Fand45°F(0°Cand7°C).Somemethodscounthourswithanytemperaturebelow45°F(7°C),andothersaddandsubtractforhoursbelow45°F(0°C)andabove60°F(15.5°C).26

26Byrne,D.H.andT.A.1992.Bacon.“ChillingAccumulation:ItsImportance&Estimation.”Dept.ofHorticulturalSciences,TexasA&MUniversity.

Coldtemperaturesthatarenotbelowfreezinghelptemperatezonefruittreesprepareforstillcolderdaystocomeinthedepthsofwinter.Chillhourshelpthetreestogodormant.Temperatezonefruittreesformleafandflowerbudsduringsummertimeforthenextyear.Thesebudsneedadormantperiodfirstinordertogrownormallylater,whenthespringcomes.Warmspells,withtemperaturesabove60°F(15.5°C),canreversechillhoursanddelaytheonsetofdormancy.However,onceenoughchillhourshaveaccumulated,andthetreesbecomedormant,theoccasionalwarmwinterdaywillnotcausetreestobreakoutofdormancyprematurely.Seethetablebelowforageneralunderstandingontheaveragenumberofchillhoursneededforsomecommonfruittypes.There’sawiderangeforeachfruittypebecauseofvariabilityamongdifferentcultivarsandvarieties.

Certainfruittreetypesandcultivarsactuallyrequirecoldweatherinordertoproperlysetfruit.Thesepearswouldnothavesuchaharvestiftheywereplantedinwarm-winterregions,whichrequirelow-chillvarieties.

Fruittype Averagechillhoursrequiredtosetfruit

Apples 900–1000

Cherries 800–1200

Peaches 600–900

Plums 500–900

Apricots 350–900

Low-chilltemperatezonefruittreesweredevelopedforthosehomeorchardistsinwarm-winterclimatesnotcontentwiththeirparadiseofcitrus,avocado,andothersubtropicalfruits.Thesecultivarscanachievedormancy,andultimatelyfruitset,withaminimumofchillhours.Withtheexceptionofsweetcherries,mosttemperatezonefruittypeshavelow-chillcultivarsavailable.Theselow-chilltreesdonotfarewellincoldwinterareas;theytendtolosebloomsandearlyfruitsettolatefrosts.

Theresultofplantingafruittreerequiringmorechillhoursthanaregion’swintersuppliesisabiggerdisappointment,though;thetreeprobablywon’tsetfruitatall.Treesshortonchillhoursareslowtounfurlnewleaveswhenspringdoescome.Theselateleavestendtobeclusteredinpuffsattheendsofbranches;somefoliagemayevensproutfromthetrunk.Flowerswillbesmall,flattened,ormisshapen,andunabletosetfruitatall.

Leavechillhourcalculationstotheresearchers,butfindouttheaveragefortheorchardsite’sregionandcomparethattothecultivarbeingconsidered.CheckwiththelocalAgriculturalExtensionorMasterGardener’sprogramtofindouttheregion’schillhoursandwhichtemperatezonefruittreecultivarsarebestforyourarea.

ClimatemapsshowingwhichregionsareappropriateforcertainfruittypesandcultivarsareeasilyaccessibleonlinethroughWorldHardinessZonesmaps;orobtainadditionalclimateinformationthroughlocalnurseriesandAgriculturalExtensionagents.IntheU.S.,theUSDA’sPlantHardinessZoneMapisoneresourcethatcanbeusedtodeterminetheplantingsite’szoneandcompareittothatofwhichaparticularcultivarisknowntogrowwell,inordertogetageneralsenseofwhatmightbepossibleinyourbackyard(seeRecommendedReadingsection).

SELECTINGFRUITTREESNow,armedwithabountyofusefulknowledge—aboutboththesiteconditions,aswellasthestructureandneedsoffruittrees—it’stimetodecidewhichcultivarstoplant.Havingatreefulloffruitisverydifferentthanpickingupafewatthegrocery.Whichfruitsdoyou,andthewholehousehold,enjoyenoughtohaveanentireharvestof?Pickfavoritefruittypes,andthenbegintolearnaboutthecultivarsthatwillmeetyourneedsandthesite’sdemandsmosteffectively.Twochecklistsareofferedonpage52tohelpsortthingsout,and

don’thesitatetoasklocalexpertswhichfruittreecultivarsarethebestforyourarea.

SiteFactors:

Averagerainfall

Averagesunlight

Averagechillhoursreceived

Growingseason(frost-freedays)

Soildrainage

Aircirculation

Totalavailableplantingspace

Pre-existingproblems:nematodes,compactedsoil,etc.

TreeFactors:

Favoritefruittypes

Treesize:true-dwarf,semidwarf,standard

Chillhoursrequired

Cross-pollinationcultivarsneeded

Specialvulnerabilitiestodiseases

Withaclearfruittreeplantingplaninmind,it’stimetofindfruittrees.Purchasingaqualitytreepreventsstruggleanddisappointmentintheweeks,sometimesyears,afteritisplanted.Aqualitytreeisfreeofsignificantdefectsinitsrootsandshoots.Ithasachievedanormalsizeforitsageandspecies.Itsfoliageshowsgoodcoloranddensity,withoutevidenceofdamagecausedbyinsectsordisease.Notleastofall,aqualitytreeactuallyisthecultivarit’slabeledtobe.

TrunksWhenarboristsrefertothetrunkofasapling,weusethetermcentralleader.Takeagoodlookatthecentralleaderofayoungfruittreeforsale.Isitgrowing

upstraight?Isthebarksmoothandclean-looking,withoutmanypruningscars?Hasthetreebeentopped?Nurseriesoftencutcentralleadersonyoungtreestoencouragesidebranchestosprout.Thispracticemakesthetreesalittlebushierandmoreattractivetocustomers.Topping,however,haslong-termconsequencesforthefuturematuretrees.Lookfirstfortreesthathavenotbeentopped;asasecondchoice,lookforanewstemsproutingnearthetopthatappearsthickanduprightenoughtobetrainedasanewcentralleader.Thisisnecessaryfortreesthatwillbeprunedintoamodifiedcentralleaderform.Theimpactoftoppingislesssignificantfortreesthatwillbemaintainedinanopen-vaseshape.Checkthegraftunion.Makesure,firstofall,thatithasn’tbeenburiedalongwiththerootcrown.Lookforsignsofincompatibilitybetweentherootstockandthefruitingwood.

BranchesExaminethebranches;theremaynotbemany.Checkfordamagelikebreaksorbarktears.Looktoseeifthebranchesarespacedsomewhatevenlyaroundthecentralleader.Checktheanglewhereeachbranchmeetsthecentralleader.Agoodrangeis45to60degrees;thesearestrongbranchattachments.Narroweranglesareweaker,butthatdoesnotmeanthatbranchesshouldberemoved.Forsmallbranchesonsaplings,aspreader(asmallpieceofwood)canbeplacedtograduallytrainthebranchandwidenthatangle.Brancheswithadiametergreaterthanhalfthatofthecentralleadermaydevelopintostructuraldefectslater;keepaneyeonbranchesthatwanttobetrunkssomeday.Theywillneedtobeprunedorremovedentirelyinthefuture(moreonthatinchapter6,PruningandWeeding).

LeavesForfruittreesinleaf,isthefoliagecolor,size,anddensitynormalforthetreetype?Aretheleavesspacedwellthroughoutthecanopy?Clumpsofleavesthatlooklikepoodletails,foliageclusteredattheendsofbranches,canbeanindicationofstressorherbicidedamage.Examineleavesforsignsofinsectsordisease.

GetExotic!Thinkoutsidetheboxwhenselectingfruitandnuttrees.Whilethemostcommontreetypesmaybepopularforareason—becausetheyproducedeliciousfruit—varietyisalsothespiceoflife,soresearchwhatelsegrowsinyourregion.Subtropicalzoneshaveplentyofamazingoptions,yetevencolderclimatescangrowmorethanjustapples,pears,andthelike.Everhearofapawpawtree,acold-tolerantrelativeofthetropicalcherimoya?Didyouknowthatchocolate(cacao)growsonafruittree?Therearethousandsoffruittreetypesandcultivars;experimentwithnewfruitsyoumightnototherwisehaveaccessto.Checklocalnurseriesormail-ordercatalogsfororganictrees,orgobackinhistorywithheirloomvarieties.

FruitIfthetreehasfruit,checkitoverusingthesamecriteriaasthatusedtoexaminetheleaves,andremoveallofitafterpurchasingandbeforeplantingthetree.Thisallowsthetreetouseitsenergytorecoverfromtransplantshockandbegingrowingnewrootsratherthanexpendingitonproducingfruit,andalsopreventsyoungtreebranchesfrombeingweighteddownintopoorangles.

RootsExaminetheroots,too,evenonacontainerizedtree;itcanbedonewithoutdamagingtherootball.Askforassistancefromnurserypersonneltohelpwithgettingalookattheoutsideoftherootball.Forcontainerizedtrees,firsttakealookatthesurfaceofthepottingmixinsidethecontainerforweeds(awell-kepttreewillnothaveany).Next,lookatthebaseofthecentralleaderforlateralrootsthatshouldbeatsoillevel—notlittlehairlikewhiteroots,butrootsabouthalftowholepencilthicknessforatreeinasize#5container(oftenreferredtoasa5-galloncontainer).Don’tseeany?Gentlymovepottingmixawayfromaroundthecentralleaderuntilyoudo,oruntilyou’vedugdownsodeeplythatyougiveup.Thiswillrevealif,orhowmuch,thetreeisplantedtoodeeplyinthecontainer.Ideally,thefirstlateralrootswillbenearthesurfaceofthesoil.

Whenselectingtrees,lookforsmooth,cleantrunkswithastrong,straightcentralleader,well-angledbranches,healthy,well-distributedleaves,androotsthatarenotovergrownorroot-boundintheircontainers.Thisnewlyplantedloquattreeandcontainerizedappletreedisplaymanydesirablecharacteristicstowarrantselection.

Afterfindingsomelateralroots,lookattheirdirectionofgrowth.Checkforrootsthataretightlycirclingthebaseofthecentralleader,orareseverelykinked.Circlingrootsoncontainerizedtreesarecommon,butthereshouldn’tbeanybeforetherootshitthewallsofthecontainer—andthoseshouldjustbethetiny,fibrousones.Ifatreehasbeenproperlyrootprunedeachtimeitwastransplantedtoalargersizecontainer,circlinglateralrootscanbeavoided.Circlingandgirdlingroots,andplantingtoodeeply,killsmany,manytrees.

Newlittlerootsgrowingaroundtheedgeoftherootballshouldbewhiteoryellowandflexible.Blackdoesn’tlookgoodontreeroots,anddryandbrittledoesn’teither.Arottenegg–typeorotherbadsmellindicatesthepresenceofrootrot.Donotpurchasecontainerizedtreesinfectedwithrootrot.

Healthyrootball

Onsetofcirclingroots

Root-bound

Treesshouldnotberoot-boundintheircontainers.Smallerrootsmaybecircling,butlargerootsthewidthofapencilorgreaterthatdosoareanindicationthetreehasbeeninitscontainertoolong.Ifthetreedoesnotslideoutofitscontainerafterthesideshavebeenpounded,thismayalsobeanindicationthatthetreeisroot-bound.Thesepicturesshowahealthyrootball(top)followedbyprogressivedegreesofroot-boundedness(withsomesoilwashedawaytoexposethecondition).

TREESIZEWhatsizecontainerizedtreeisthebestonetobuy?Biggerisn’talwaysbetter,butitisalmostalwaysmoreexpensive.Timereallyismoneyinthenurseryindustry.Treesheldforlongerperiods,togrowtoalargersize,usemorewaterandmaterials,andrequiremorelaborhourstomaintain.Forexample,atypicalretailpriceforafruittreeinasize#5container(oftenreferredtoasa5-galloncontainer)isabouthalfofoneinasize#15container(or15-gallon),andaboutone-tenththepriceofa24-inch(61cm)boxtree.Largersizesofcontainerizedfruittreesontrue-dwarfingrootstockswillbeevenmoreexpensivebecauseoftheirslowgrowthrates.

YoungTreesYoungertreesgrowmorevigorously,andshowanincreasedabilitytoadapttositeconditionsmorequicklythantreesplantedatalargersize.Forfruittreesonstandardorsemidwarfrootstocks,thedifferenceinsizebetweenasize#15container(oftenreferredtoasa15-galloncontainer)anda24-inch(61cm)boxaveragesouttoonetotwoyearsofgrowingtime.Afterfiveyearsintheground,thetreesplantedatasmallersizeoftenoutperformthelargerspecimens.Biggerisn’tbetterforthetree,either.Plantingalargertreemeansdiggingabiggerplantinghole.Smallerrootballsareeasiertokeepconsistentlymoistafterplanting,whichiscriticalforthetree’simmediatesurvival.Larger-sizetreeshavebeengrownincontainersforalongertime.They’vebeen“bumped,”transplantedtoprogressivelylarger-sizecontainers,moretimes,givingthemmoreopportunitiestodevelopsignificantrootdefects.

B&BsBalledandburlapped(B&B)treesarefield-grownandhavelesschanceofharboringseriousrootdefects.PrepurchaseexaminationofaB&B’srootballwillnotbepossible,butbesuretotakeagoodlookandperformanyneededrootpruningatplantingtime.NotethatB&Btreesarequiteheavyandoftenrequireprofessionaldeliveryandplacementattheplantingsite.

FTPFhasfoundthatsize#5containers,suchasthosepicturedhere,orbareroottrees,offerthebestcombinationofsurvivabilityandenoughsizetoprovideaheadstartforthetree.Unlessthereisahighvandalismrisk,wheresmallertreesmightbemoresusceptible,don’thesitatetochoosethem.

BarerootTreesBareroottreesarealsofield-grownanddisplayfewerrootdefects;theyarealmostalwaystopped,however.Iftheyarenotprewrappedatthenursery,examiningtherootswillbesimple.Thelittlewhite“feeder”rootswillnotbepresent,butcheckthelateralroots.Theyshouldbewell-spaced,notallgrowingononeside,notbroken,andnotfeeldryorbrittle.Somebareroottreesarepackaged;theirrootsareencasedinmoistsawdustandwrappedinplastic.Bareroottreesshouldbeplantedassoonaspossible.Thosenotplantedimmediatelymustbeheeledin.Heelinginisawaytostorebarerootplantstemporarily,keepingtheirrootsprotectedandmoist,withoutactuallyplantingthem(seetheStorageonpage58).

TREETRANSPORTAftertreesareselectedandpurchased,theymustbetransportedtotheorchardsite.Youhavetogetthemhome,inotherwords.Forlargeorders,orlargetrees,considerhavingthemdelivered;itmaybewellworththefee.Opportunitiesaboundtodamageanddryoutnewtreesonthetripfromthenurserytothebackyard.

•Toloadthemontoavehicle,positionthecontaineragainsttheinsideendofthetruckbed—rootballagainstthecabwall.Usethesamedirectionforminivans,SUVs,stationwagons,andsoon.

•Alwayspickuptreesandplantsbygraspingthecontainer,notthetrunk.Whenpossible,putonehandunderthebottomofthecontainerforsupport.

•Usemorethanonepersontopickupandloadeachtreeifneeded.

•Becarefulnottobreakbranches.

•Treescanbelaiddownhorizontallyinthetruckbed.Usewoodblocks,rolled-upburlaporcarpeting,bagsofpottingsoil,somethingoneithersideofeachcontainertokeepthetreesfromrollingaroundwhilebeingtransported.

•Keepingfoliageinsidethevehicleisthebestwaytopreventwinddamage,

butfortreesinthebackofanopentruckbed,wrapleavesandbrancheswithburlap,lightweightcanvas,orplastic(useplasticonlyifit’snothotandthetrip’snotveryfar).

•Trytokeepspeedsbelow45mph,whichiswhenwinddamagestartstooccur,andavoidhigh-speedroutes.

•Ifthetrees’canopiesextendpasttheendofthetruckbed,keepthetailgateloweredandattachredribbonortapetotheendofthecoveredfoliagetoalertdriversbehind.

AFamilyAffair!Fruittreesarealong-terminvestment,soinvolvethosewhowillbenefitfromtheharvestmost—children.Tellthemthatthesetreeswillprovidefruitfordecades,fortheirchildren,andtheirchildren’schildren.Timeandagain,FTPFfindsthatyoutharesoexcitedtotakepartinallphasesoftheplantingprocess,includingtreeselectionandtransport.InBrazil,ourteamarrivedinthelow-incomevillageofIgaraitodonatetreestoeachhouseholdandhelpwithbackyardplantings.Soonafterourarrival,athrongofchildrenformedaroundus,enthusiasticallyhelpingtheirfamilieschooseandcarrytreestotheirnewhomes.Decadesfromnow,they’llbeabletopointtothosetreesandtalkaboutthelegacytheyhelpedcreatethatday.Notmanyactsinalifetimeareaslong-lastingandprofoundasplantingfruittrees,soinvolvetheyoungonesfromtheoutsetoftheprocessbyaskingthemtohelpselecttreesthatwillprovidetheirfavoritefruits.Asaresult,theywillhavetheexperienceandinspirationtoreplicatetheprocessontheirownlaterinlifeandplantmoretrees!

Avoidcarryingatreebyitstrunk.Insteadgrabthesidesofthecontainer.Whenremovedfromthecontainer,alwayskeeponehandunderneaththerootballforsupport.

Ontheway,lookintherearviewmirrornowandagaintobesurethetreesarestayingput.Iftheloadshifts,sothatbranchesmaybedamaged,pulloffwhenpossibleandcorrectthesituation.

STORAGEOncehome,unloadthetreesimmediately,justascarefullyastheywereloaded.Willthetreesbeplantedrightaway?Ifnot,storethemoutofthesunandwind.Watercontainerizedtrees.

ToHeelinBarerootTrees:1.Shoveloutashallow,angledtrenchinasheltered,shadyspot.Exposuretosunandwindwilldryoutrootsandshoots.

2.Laythebareroottreesdownwiththeirrootsinthetrench;thetrunksshouldextendupandoutatananglethatkeepsthebranchesofftheground.

3.Covertherootscompletelywithmoistsawdust,soil,oracombinationofboth,thenlightlywater,butdonottampdownaroundtheroots.Workquickly,sorootsarenotexposedforlong.Leavingbarerootplantsheeledinforlengthyperiodsisnotrecommended,butiftheywillnotbeplantedforseveraldays,therootcoveringmayneedtobelightlywateredagain.Keeptherootsmoist,butnotsoggy.

Heelbareroottreesiniftheyarenotbeingplantedimmediatelybydiggingashallow,angledtrenchinashadedareaandcoveringtherootswithamoistsubstratesuchassoilorsawdust.

—chapterfour—

PLANTINGWhenisthebesttimeofyeartoplantfruittrees?Forthemostpart,springorautumn:springforcold-winterclimates;autumnforwarm-winterandaridclimates.Autumnandspringhavecoolerairtemperatures(butnottoocold),andthesoilisstillwarmorwarmingup.Thisdecreasesheatstressforfoliage,whileprovidingbelow-groundconditionsthatfavorrootgrowth.Newlyplantedtreesneedtospendatleasttheirfirstgrowingseason,andpreferablytwoorthree,growingastrong,vibrantrootsystem.

TIMINGTHEPLANTINGSpringisanexcellentseasontoshopforfruittreesatlocalnurseries.Formanyregions,winterandearlyspringistheonlytimeofyearwhenbarerootfruittreesareavailableforpurchase.Containerizedtreesareusuallyinstockyear-round,buttheytendtodecreaseinprice,quality,andquantityastheyearprogresses,with“leftovers”remainingbylateautumn.Thismaypresentanopportunitytoplantmoretreesforyourhousehold,orperhapsaspartofacommunityproject,asitisagoodtimetoapproachnurseriesaboutheavydiscountsandpossibledonationstocommunityplantings.27Postman,J.2003.“TheEndicottPearTree—OldestLivingFruitTreeinNorthAmerica.”Pomona36:13–15.Asofthepublicationofthisbook,thetreeisstillalive.27Tipton,J.L.1998.“PlantingGuidelines:ContainerTrees&Shrubs.”UniversityofArizonaCooperativeExtension,Bulletin#AZ1022.

TheoldestlivingfruittreeinNorthAmericaisapear.ThetreeisnamedtheEndicottPearTree,afterthefirstgovernorofMassachusetts,andisbelievedtohavebeenshippedtothecoloniesfromEnglandin1630.27Thistreehasenduredhurricanes,vandalism,andthesimplepassageoftime.Itwasalreadymorethan140yearsoldwhentheDeclarationofIndependencewassigned;itwasfirstproclaimedbythegovernmenttobe“old”in1852.TheEndicottPearTreeisstillproducingfruitnearly400yearslater—butitwouldn’thavesurviveditsfirstdecadehaditnotbeenplantedcorrectly.

Planttreesinthespringorautumn,ideally,oratanytimewhenthere’senoughroominyourscheduletoensurethebestlevelofaftercare.Youcanplanttreeswithsuccessinavarietyofconditions,aslongasthegroundisn’tfrozenorabouttofreeze.

Thistreewasplantedduringthehottestpartofasummerdayandsufferedasaresult.Alwaysplanyoursummerplantingstotakeplaceduringthecoolesttimeofdayandprovideplentyofwatertothetreesafterward.

Truly,treesmaybeplantedjustaboutanytimeoftheyear—aslongasthegroundisnotfrozen.Frozensoilistoughtodigaholeinto,andtheexpansionofsoilasitfreezes(calledheaving)canreadilytossupthattreeyoujustplanted.Plantingtreesintheheatofsummermeanskeepingaclosewatchforwiltingleavesandmorefrequentwatering.Soildrainagemustbeverygoodtosharpforasummerplantingtopreventrootrotsfromattackingthenewtreesinthewarm,wetsoil.Forasummertimeplanting,pickacoolday,andthecoolesttimeoftheday.Inareaswhereirrigationisscarce,plantjustbeforetherainyseason.

SPOTTINGTHELAYOUTDuringthesiteselectionprocess,spacingfornewfruittreesandapproximatelocationsforeachweredecided,butnowthatthetreesarehere,inthebackyard,waitingtobeplanted,spotthemoutbeforediggingthefirsthole.Placeeachtreeinitschosenlocation,stepback,andtakealook.Carrythetreesbyholdingtheedgesofthecontainer,notthetrunk.Ifplantingbareroottrees,remembertoheelthemin(leanthemtooneside,andlightlybutcompletelycoverthebarerootswithsomemoistsoil,straw,orsawdust)oruseanothertypeofmarkertostandintheirplace.Feelfreetoleavethetreesintheirspotsforadayortwo;justremembertowatertheminthemeantime,whilefine-tuningthewholearrangement.Thinkinfuturetermsbypacingormeasuringoffprobablematurecanopywidthstohelpwithimaginingthetreesfullygrownwithbranchesoverhead.Considerhowleavesandfruitmayfallwhenplantingnearstructuresorsocialareas.

TOOLSApointedspadeshovelandahoseconnectedtoaspigotarethebareminimumtoolsneededtoplantfruittrees.Mulchingnewtreesatplantingtimepreventsweedgrowthandconservesmoistureinthesoil;2cubicfeet(56.6L)ofmulchingmaterialpertreeisagoodamounttostartwith.Halfacubicfoot(14.2L)oforganiccompostisoptionalbutwillprovideaboostforthetreewhenappliedtopically.Ifthesitecontainsheavyorcompactedsoils,apickaxwillmakeiteasiertoloosensoilpriortodigging.Ifthetreesareroot-bound,useapairofprunerstofreethick,circlingroots.Rootpruningwillalsobecoveredinchapter6,PruningandWeeding.Abowrakecomesinhandyandisafavoritetooltoshapebermsandsmoothmulcharoundthebaseofatree.Ifthetreesrequirestaking,twoposts,apostpounder,andatyingmaterialwillbeneeded.

PlantingMaterialsChecklist:

Spadeshovel(a)

Watersource(b)

Mulch(c)

Organiccompost

Forheavysoils:Pickax(d)

Forroot-boundtrees:Pruners(e)

Forshapingbermsandmulch:Bowrake(f)

Forstaking:Two4-foot(1.2m)-longposts,postdriver,andtyingmaterial

Atreemaybesuccessfullyplantedwithjustaspadeshovel,irrigation,andmulchundermanyconditions.Often,theadditionaltoolsshownhereareuseful.

SITEPREPARATIONGrassesandothervegetationcompetewithayoungtreeforwater,nutrients,andsometimessunlight,soremovethemfromeachplantingspot.Standwherethetreewillbeplanted,extendingonearmout,paralleltotheground,andeyeballacircleofthisradiusaroundtheplantinghole(atleast4feet,or1.2m,indiameter).Thisistheareathatshouldbecleared.

Donotdigdowndeepduringtheclearing;thisremovesprecioustopsoil.Instead,placetheshovelbladealmostparalleltotheground,andskimthevegetationoff1inch(2.5cm)orsobelowthesoil’ssurface.Breakupanyclodstoretainthatsoil,andplacethediscardedvegetationinapileforcomposting.Donotusethelittertobackfillthetreehole.

REMOVINGVEGETATION

Whenremovingvegetation,staylowtothegroundwithonehandplacedonthetopoftheshovelhandle,pushingthebladestraightthrough1to2inches(2.5to5.1cm)belowthesoil.

Removegrassandvegetationinawide-diametercircletocreateanoncompetitiveenvironmentforthefruittreetobeplanted—aboutaswideaswhenstandinginthecenterofthecirclewitharmsextended.

PlantingHoleTheoldgardener’ssayinggoes,“Don’tputafive-dollarplantintoafifty-centhole.”Fortrees,thevalueofdiggingplantingholesthecorrectwayandplacingthosetreescorrectlyinthemcannotbeunderestimated.Treesplantedtoodeeplyfailtothriveandlivemuchshorterlives.Digtheplantingholetothedepthoftherootballinthecontainerandnodeeper—thatmeanstothetopoftherootcrown,notthelengthofthecontaineritself(seethePlantingaContainerizedTreesectionforinstructionsonidentifyingtherootcrown).Foratreeinasize#5container(oftenreferredtoasa5-galloncontainer),thisisveryoftenthesamelengthasthatoftheshovelblade.Whenplantingbareroottrees,digtothedepthofthetree’srootsystem.

Avoidlooseninganysoilatthebottomoftheplantinghole;fluffed-upsoilatthebottomcausesthetreetosettlewhenit’swateredinafterplanting.Remember,plantingthetreetoodeeplywillshortenitslife.Placingtheunplantedtreeintheholeperiodicallytocheckthedepthcanbehelpful.Forlargertrees,likeboxedspecimensorballedandburlapped(B&B),amechanicalaugerorbackhoemaybeneededtodigholesandmovethetrees—thoughthemostorganicmethodistoplantmanuallywheneverpossible.

Considerplantingonaslope,uptobutnotexceeding45degrees,inpoordrainageareastopreventrootsfrombecomingwaterlogged.Beforediggingaholeintoaslope,createaflatplatformonwhichtodosoanddigaholeintothecenterofthatplatform.

Somesoilsaredifficulttodigthroughwithashovelalone.Apickaxordiggingbarwillloosencompactedsoils.Alwayswearprotectiveeyegearwhendiggingincaserocksordebrisarepropelledoutofthehole.

Rootscancirclearoundglazedclaysoilwalls,soroughupthesidesandcreatenotchesforrootstotakehold.

Theplantingholeshouldbeatleasttwiceaswideasthecontainerorbareroottreeroots,andwiderisbetter.StudiesattheUniversityofArizonashowedbenefitindiggingaplantingholeuptofivetimesaswideasthediameterofthecontainer,butnodeeperthanthelengthoftherootball.27Mosttreerootgrowthproceedshorizontally,notvertically,soloosenthesoilintoawideshallowdishtohelpestablishahealthyrootsystemmorequickly.Whenplantingonaslope,firstdigaflatshelfintothesideoftheincline,andthendigtheplantingholeintothecenteroftheshelf.

SoilTofurtherhelpnewrootsgrowoutintothesurroundingsoil,roughupthesidesoftheplantingholewiththeshovel,especiallyinclaysoilsthatbecomesmoothandglazedaftercontactwiththeshovelblade.Thispracticehelpspreventtreerootsfromgrowinginacirclearoundthecircumferenceoftheplantinghole.Circlingrootskeeptreesfromanchoringproperly,makingthemsusceptibletowindthrow(blowingoverinagale),andshortenstheirlives,evenwhentheydon’tfallover.Cutsomenotchesinthewallsoftheplantingholeinaclaysoiltobreakupthesmoothsurface.

Placetheexcavatedsoilintwopilesonoppositesidesoftheplantinghole,closetotheedge,tomakebackfillingeasier.Removelargerocksandchopbothpilesofdisplacedsoilwiththeshovelbladetobreakupclods.

Althoughtreerootscannavigateobstaclesandgrowinrockysoil,ifafinersoilisdesiredinparticularlyclumpyandrockyconditions,somechickenwireandtwohelperswillcomeinhandy.First,cuttwo5-foot(1.5-m)–longsheetsofchickenwireandplacethemontopofeachother.Next,rolltheendsupafewinchestohideanysharpedges.Havetwovolunteers,bothwearingthickenoughglovestopreventinjuryfromtheedgesofthechickenwire,holdthesheetsupatwaistlevel.Proceedtoshovelsoilfromtheexcavatedholeontopofthecontraption,withthehelperslightlyshakingitupanddown.Rockswillfilteroutontopandsoilclumpswillbreakthrough,allowingafinesoiltofallbelow.

Creatingafinesoilwithchickenwireisnotnecessary,unlessthereareextremerockyconditions;however,doingsocangiveayoungtreeaheadstartinitsnewhome.

PLANTINGACONTAINERIZEDTREE1.Placethecontaineronitssidewiththetrunklyingoverthetopofthehole.Toremovethetree,graspthebaseofthetrunkandpullslowly,whilealsoholdingthesideofthecontainer.Iftherootballdoesnotslideouteasily,pressdownonthesidesofthecontainerandrollgentlyfromsidetoside,beingcarefulnottobreakbranches.Poundingonthesidesofthecontainerwillalsohelploosenthecontents.Forrootsgrowingthroughthebottomofthecontainer,useprunersortinsnipstocutthecontainerfree.Whenhandlingthetreeoutsideofitscontainer,putonehandunderneaththerootballtohelpkeepittogether.

2.Oncethetreehasbeenremovedfromitscontainer,checktheoutsideoftherootballforcirclingroots.Gentlypullcirclingrootssotheyarefreed,enablingthemtogrowoutward,awayfromthebaseofthetree.Rootsthataretoothickortangledtobeunraveledbyhandmayneedtobeprunedatthelastpointwheretheyarestraightanddonotshowsignsofcurvatureorcircling.Extensiverootpruningofcontainerizedtrees,evenwhenneededandperformedproperly,willslowgrowthofthecanopy,sometimesfortwotothreeyears.

3.Continuetogentlymassageandrufflethesoilallthewayaroundtherootball,tohelpstimulaterootgrowth.Forstressedorweaktrees,lessrootstimulationisbetter.Transplantingisatremendousstressforatree,andasignificantamountofitsstoredenergyisrequiredforittorecover,sowhenindoubt,goeasy.Bringtherootballtotheplantingholeandplaceitinside.

Placethetreeonitssidewiththetrunklyingovertheholesothatwhenremovedfromthecontaineritwillfallrightintoplace.

Aroot-boundcontainerizedtreewithitssoilwashedawaytoshowcirclingroots.Iftheconditionisnotcorrectedpriortoplanting,thetreemaysurviveforseveralyearswithoutanymeaningfulgrowthbeforeeventuallydyingfromgirdlingroots.

Forcontainerizedtrees,gentlymassagetherootballanduntanglecirclingrootssotheyfaceoutwardwhenplanted.

4.Thebaseofatree’strunk,wherethetopgrowthchangesandbecomestherootgrowth,iscalledtherootcrown.Itisveryimportantnottoburyatree’srootcrown.Containerizedtreesinnurserieshavetobewateredfrequently;alittlepottingsoilwashesoutofthedrainageopeningsnearthebottomofthecontainerwitheverywatering.Tocorrectthisloss,soilisaddedbackin,atthetopofthecontainer,slowlyburyingtherootcrown.Findtherootcrownofcontainerizedtreesbeforeplantinginordertoavoidburyingitagainintheplantinghole.

5.Gentlyremovesoilbyhandfromthetopoftherootballaroundthebaseofthetrunkuntilthefirstgood-sizelateralrootscanbeseen.Onasapling,theserootsmaybeonlyasthickasapencil,butshouldnotbeconfusedwiththethin,white,fibrous“feeder”roots.Afterdeterminingthelocationofthelateralroots,besuretheywillremainatsoillevelatplanting.

6.Sometimesnurseriesdon’taddanysoiltotreecontainerstodealwitherosionafterwatering,leavingatree’srootsystemexposedinsidethecontainer.Positiontherootcrowncorrectly,atsoillevelorjustaboveinthissituationaswell.Largertrees,boxedspecimens,orballedandburlapped(B&B)treesshouldbeplantedsothesoillevelinthese“containers”matchesthesurroundingsoiloutsidetheplantinghole.Takecarenottopileanyadditionalsoilontopoftheselargerrootballsorontothebaseoftheirtrunks.

Oneofthemostcriticalelementstoplantingatreeistodosoatthecorrectdepth.Carefullyidentifythetree’slateralroots(left)androotcrown(middle),andthenbackfilltheholesothefirstlateralrootsareatthesamelevelasthesurroundingsoil(right).Thisisapplicabletobothcontainerizedandbareroottrees.

Nurserycontainerwastelitterslandfills,socheckyourpotfortherecyclesymbolandwashitfirstbeforerecycling.Ifit’snotrecyclable,pleasereuseitordonateittoalocalgardeningnonprofit.

PLANTINGABAREROOTTREE1.Beforeplantingbareroottrees,removedeadrootswithpruners.Deadrootsaretypicallyblackened,dry,andbrittlewhilehealthyrootsarewhiteoryellowandflexible.Ifunsure,erronthesideofcautionanddonotremoveanyportionoftheroot.

2.Soaktherootsinwaterforabouttwohoursjustpriortoplanting.Donotallowrootstoremaininthedirectsunlightandopenairforlong;theycanbedamagedinaslittleasfifteenminutes.Iftheplantingprocessisinterrupted,remembertoheelinbareroottreesagain.

3.Onbareroottrees,therootcrownismucheasiertoidentifybecausetherootsarecompletelyexposed.Positiontherootcrownrelativetothesurroundingsoillevelinthesamewayasforcontainerizedtrees—atsoillevelor1to2inches(2.5to5.1cm)above.Plantingrootcrownsalittlehighwithbareroottreeshelpsensureplantingattherightdepth,evenwithsomesoilsettling.Toaccomplishthis,buildasmallmoundatthebottomoftheplantingholewithbackfillsoil.Tampitveryfirmlytomakeapedestal.Spreadtherootsofthebareroottreeoverthispedestal.Forreference,thesurroundingsoillevelshouldalwaysbeseveralinchesbelowthegraftunion.

Spreadbareroottreerootsoutoverashallowmoundtoprovidesupportbeforebackfillingtotheproperdepth.Bareroottreesshouldalwaysbestoredoutofthesunwiththeirrootscoveredinmoistsoilorsawdust.

CHECKINGDEPTHANDORIENTATIONPlacetheshovelhandleflatacrosstheopentopoftheplantinghole.Thebottomedgeoftheshovel’shandle,whichiswheretheholewillbebackfilledto,shouldbejustabovethelateralrootsystemandshouldmeettherootcrown.Ifitdoesn’t,makeasmanyadjustmentsasneededtogetthisjustright.Otherwise,buryingtherootcrownkillstrees,sometimesquickly,sometimesnotforyears.

Treesplantedtoodeeplyaremoresusceptibletodiseaseandrottingfromwaterpoolingaroundthetrunk,andfrominsufficientoxygentotheroots.Treesthatdonotdierightawayarestillmorevulnerabletodiseasebecauseofthestressofgrowinginanoxygen-poorsoil.Buryingtherootcrownkillstreesyearslaterbecausesignificantrootdefectsdevelop,orgetworse.Rootsthatgrowup,towardthesoil’ssurfaceformoreoxygen,oftenbecomestem-girdlingroots:rootsthatcloselycirclethetrunk.Withtime,thetrunk’sgirthincreases,andtheroot’sdoestoo,graduallycompressingthetrunk.Theendresult?Stuntedtrees,withsparse,poorlycoloredfoliage,canlingerforyears,buttheycanbesnappedinamomentattheirweakenedbasesinastorm.

Ifthedepthisadjustedbyplacingsoilatthebottomoftheplantinghole,besuretotampitdownasfirmlyaspossible.Stompingonthebottomoftheplantingholeworkswell.Makesurethetreeisstandingupstraightintheplantingholebeforebackfilling.Walkallthewayaroundthetreetocheck;thetreemaylookstraightfromoneanglebutcrookedfromanother.Removeallnurserystakescompletelyandloosenorremoveanyremainingtagstopreventthemfromcuttingintothetreeasitgrows.

Whenfruitwoodisgraftedtorootstock,thewoundsonthetrunkhealbutremainvulnerable.Thisiscalledthegraftunion;protectitfromdamagebyfacingitawayfromthesun—tothenorthinthenorthernhemisphereandtothesouthinthesouthernhemisphere.

Whiletherootcrownsoftreesmustneverbeburied,sometimesraisingorloweringtheentirerootballinrelationtothesurroundingsoilisbeneficial.Inpoorlydrainingsoils,planttherootball1or2inches(2.5to5.1cm)high.Inclimateswhereirrigationandrainfallarescarce,therootballandplantingholemaybeplacedafewincheslowerthanthesurroundingsoiltohelpcreateabasintocaptureandretainwater.

Underextremeconditionsonly,wherewaterisscarce,treesmaybeplantedinshallowpitsinordertoattractandstorewaterreserves.

Atool’shandleorastickmakesforagreatmeasuringdevicetoensurethatthetreeisbeingplantedatthecorrectdepth,justabovethelateralrootsattherootcrown.Whenplantingonaslope,alwaysbesuretolaythetoolperpendiculartotheinclineoftheslope.

BACKFILLUsetheexcavated,siftedsoilpiledbesidetheplantingholetofillinaroundtherootsofthenewlyplantedtree.Donotaddanythingtothissoil,calledthebackfill:nocompost,fertilizer,manure,gravel,sand—nothing.Waterdoesnotdrainfromonesoillayerintoanabruptlydifferenttypeofsoillayeruntilthefirstiscompletelysaturated.Asaresult,amendingthebackfillcreatesacontainerinthegroundwithnodrainagehole—aplaceforanewtreetobecomewaterloggedanddie.

Evenifanamendedbackfilldrainswellenoughintothesurroundingnativesoil,itcreatesanotherproblem.Whentreerootsreachtheedgeofanamendedbackfill,theycirclethisperimeter,ratherthanpenetratethenativesoil.Byamendingthebackfill,acontainerisessentiallycreatedinthegroundthatwilleventuallyleadtoaroot-boundtree.Treerootsaredifferentthanthoseofotherannualplants,whichareoftenplacedinamendedbackfillbecausetheyareshallow.Treerootsmustventureoutintothenativesoiltobecomeanchoredandthrive,andamendedbackfillisdetrimentaltothisprocess.

Donotapplyfertilizersatplantingtime.Avoidfertilizinganewlyplantedtreeforninetydaystooneyearafterplanting.Treesexpendstoredenergytotakeupandusefertilizer;fertilizationisastressforatree.Transplantingisabigstressorfortrees,andfertilizingatplantingtimejustaddstotheburden.

Oncetheplantingholeisbackfilledabouthalfway,stopandusetheshovelbladeinaslicingmotion,straightupanddownthroughthebackfill,allthewayaroundtheplantinghole.Becarefulnottosliceintotherootball.Thiswillbreakupanylastclodsandeliminateairpockets.Tamptheareabyhandanddampenthebackfilltoencouragesoiltosettle.Fillintherestoftheplantingholewiththeremainingbackfillandrepeattheslicing/handtampingprocedure.Avoidstompingonthebackfillortherootball.Dampenthebackfillagaintoencouragesoiltosettleandreplaceanydepressionsthatformwithadditionalsoil.

Checkthetreeforstraightnessfromdifferentangles.Iftheareaispronetoheavywindsfromaparticulardirection,slightlytiltthetreetowardthatdirection.

Treerootsgrowlaterallyandshouldbeencouragedtogrowintothenativesoil.AmendingthesoilimpedesrootsfromdoingsoandisuniversallyadvisedagainstbyauthoritiessuchastheInternationalSocietyofArboriculture.Abowrakemakesforanexcellenttooltopullsoilintotheholewhenbackfilling.Often,itisfasterandeasiertofillaholethiswaythanwithashovel.

BERMSUseleftoverbackfillwithdiscardedclodsandrockstomakeabermtoformawaterwellaroundthenewlyplantedtree.Thiswillhelpcaptureandcontainwater,allowingittopercolateintotherootballandsurroundingsoil.Ifthereisnobackfillleftover,borrowsomefromnearby.Thebermshouldbeabout6inches(15.2cm)highandpositionedjustoutsidethetree’sdripline.Thedriplineistheedgeofthecanopy,wherethebranchesend.Forsaplingswithshort,few,ornobranches,puttheberm6to12inches(15.2to30.5cm)outsidetheedgeoftherootball.Tampthebermfirmly(handsandfeetarepermitted),soitstaystogetherwhenwet.

MULCHMulchesarenaturalmaterialsappliedaroundthebaseofatreetohelpretainwaterbyslowingevaporationfromthesoil’ssurface,keepthesoilcoolerinthesummerandwarmerinthewinter,andsuppressweedgrowth,whichdecreasescompetitionforwaterandsoilnutrients.Additionally,vegetation-basedmulchesaddnutrientstosoilastheyslowlydecompose.Typicalmulchingmaterialsincludewoodchips,shreddedbark,straw,hay,leaflitter,andgroundrock.Decomposedgraniteiscommonlyusedasamineralmulchinveryaridclimatesandpopulatedareasinfire-pronelands.

Useavegetation-basedmulchwithacoarsetextureinwindyclimates;theyarelesslikelytoblowawayandendupinaneighbor’sorchardinstead.Woodchipsprovidestrongwaterretentionqualitiesandarelong-lasting,unlikeothermaterialsthatdecomposequicklyandrequirefrequentreapplications.Mulchingthesurfaceofaplantedareabenefitstrees,withoutalteringwaterdrainagethroughsoillayers,orstressingtreeslikechemicalfertilizers.Mulchalsoprovidesafinishedlooktoanewplanting,whichhelpswhilewaitingforskinny,littletreestogrowintosomethingmorepleasingtotheeye.

Stonesremovedfromtheplantingholeorothermaterialssuchasupside-downsodclumpscanbeusedtocreateaprettyborderontheoutsideofabermforadditionalsupport—nottomentionafunfamilyprojectforallages.

Placetheberm6to12inches(15.2to30.5cm)beyondthetree’sdriplinetoencouragerootstoventureoutbyseekingmoistureinadjacentsoils.Bermsshouldbeperiodicallymovedoutwardasthetree’sdriplineexpands.

ToMulchaNewlyPlantedTree1.Applyathinlayerofcomposttotheareainsidethewaterwell,anda4-to-6-inch(10.2to15.2cm)layerofmulchontopofthat.Donotpilecompostormulchagainstthetree’strunk,whichcankeepitconstantlymoist.Thispromotesdecayandinfestations.Keepafewinchesatthetrunkcompletelyclear.Ifthecircleclearedofgrassandweedsextendsbeyondthewaterwell,coveritwith6inches(15.2cm)ofmulchtohelpkeepweedsfromreturning.

2.Waterthenewlyplantedtreesimmediatelyaftermulching,especiallyifusinglightweightmulchestoanchortheminplace.Fillupthewaterwellscompletelyandletthemdrain;repeattwotofivetimes.Foratleastthefirstmonthafterplanting,waterthetreesinthiswaytwiceaweek(threetimesaweekifconditionsarehotanddry).Afterthat,begintoalterirrigationtoamoreinfrequentregime.Seechapter5,IrrigationandFertilization,formoredetails.

Mulchingisoneofthemostenjoyablestepsintheplantingprocess.Getcreativewithyourmulchapplicationandmakeitlookpretty!Doughnut-shapedmulchjobsareparticularlysatisfyingtocreate.

Userecycledmulchingmaterialswhenpossible.Driedorganicmatterfromtheyardworkswell.Manylocalgovernmententitiesandtreechippingservicesprovidedonatedorlow-costmulchtolocalresidents.Theseoptionsaremuchbetterfortheenvironmentthanpurchasingheavilypackagedmulchthathasbeenshippedvastdistances.Thewoodchips,compost,andgrassclippingspicturedherearealllocalandrecycled.

STAKINGAnewlyplantedtreedoesnothaverootsanchoredinthesoil—yet.Inthemeantime,itmayneedtobestaked;however,stakingatreeincorrectly,orfortoolong,candomoreharmthangood.Treestakescanberemovedfromninetydaystooneyearafterplanting.Theyarenotapermanentfixtureandmustberemovedatsomepoint.Ifanewlyplantedtreestandsupafterplantingandisnotexposedtostrong,prevailingwinds,oratriskofvandalism,donotstakeit.

Fortreesthatdonotstandontheirown,carefullystakethemjustpriortomulching.FTPFprefersrecycledwoodenpoststhatareatleast4feet(1.2m)inlengthand2inches(5.1cm)squaredindiameter—twopertree.Ifrecycledmaterialsarenotavailable,mosthomeimprovementstoressell8-foot(2.4m)two-by-twosforareasonableprice.Useahandsaworcircularsawtocutthe8-foot(2.4m)postinhalf,makingadiagonalcuttocreatepointedends.

1.Placethefirstpost3to6inches(7.6to15.2cm)outsideoftherootballareaanduseapostpoundertodriveituntilsecure.Drivetheotherpostontheoppositesideofthetree.Thelinecreatedbythepostsshouldbeperpendiculartothedirectionoftheprevailingwind.

2.Toattachthetreetothestakes,useawide,flexibletiematerialwithgoodprehensilestrength,suchasthestakingtapessoldatmanynurseries—orbetteryet,lookforrecycledmaterialsaroundyourhome,aslongastheywon’tdamageorcutintothetrunk(e.g.,neverusewireormaterialswithsharpedges).Someusecutsectionsofhosetocreateasoftwraparoundthetrunk.Wrapthetieinafigure-eightpatternaroundthepostandthelowestpointonthetreetrunkthatwillholditupright(usually12to18inches[30.5to45.7cm]fromthebaseofa4-to-7-foot[1.2to2.1-m]–tallsapling).Fastentheendsofthetiewithastapleguntothewoodenpostorhammeranailintotheposttocreateahooktotiearound.Fastenthesecondtietotheoppositepostabout12inches(30.5cm)higherthanthefirst.

StakingaTree(SideView)

Stakethetreeonlyifnecessary,alwaysuseatleasttwoposts,andallowanaturaldegreeofmovementbytyingthetrunktoeachpostwithafigure-eightpattern(seetopviewdiagram).Removestakesassoonasthetreecanstandonitsown.Top:Tiethetrunkatthelowestpointthatcreatesstability.Bottom:Drivethestakesjustoutsidetherootballarea.

3.Becarefulnottostakethetreetootightly.Tiesthataretoosnugcandamagebarkthroughfrictionandabrasion;treetrunksimmobilizedbystaketiesfailtodevelopenoughstrengthtostandontheirown.Thetreeneedstobemovedbythewindalittleinsidethestaketies.Testthisbywigglingthetrunktomakesureithasanaturaldegreeofmovementinalldirections.

4.Ifvandalismisaproblem,treestakescanprovidesomethingofadeterrent,oranalternatetarget.Atriangularpatternusingthreestakesmaybemoreeffectiveinachievingthis.Triangularstakingalsohelpsinareaswithfrequentlawnmaintenancetoprotecttreetrunksfromlawnmowerandweed-whipdamage.

StakingaTree(TopView)

Wraptiesinafigure-eightpattern,nottootightly,allowingforanaturaldegreeofmovement.

PLANTINGPROCEDURECHECKLISTTimetheplantingandobtaintrees

Spottreesintheplantinglayout

Gathertoolsandmaterials

Removegrassesandvegetationinacircularpatternaroundeachtreeplacement

Digtheplantingholeexactlyasdeepastherootballandatleasttwiceaswide

Placethetreeintheplantingholeandadjusttopreventburyingtherootcrown

Gentlyuntanglecirclingrootsandmassagetherootball

Facethetree’sgraftunionawayfromthesun

Straightenthetree

Backfilltheholewithoutamendingthebackfill

Createa6-inch(15.2-cm)–tallbermjustbeyondthetree’sdripline

Addathinlayerofcompostinsidethewaterwell.

Adda3-to-4-inch(7.6to10.2cm)layerofmulchinthewaterwell,keepinga2-inch(5.1cm)radiusaroundthetrunkclear

Onlywhennecessary,staketreeswithtwopostsformingalineperpendiculartotheprevailingwind

Waterthenewlyplantedtreesbyfillingthewaterwellstwotofivetimes

Properlyplantedfruittreescanlivefordecades.Enjoy!Left,toptobottom:Createa6"(15cm)tallcircularbermjustbeyonddriplinetoholdwater--Identifythefirstlateralrootandplantthetreeatthisdepth(neverburytherootcrownorgraft)--Backfilltheplantingholewithnativesoilonly(noamendments).Right,toptobottom:Add3"-4"(8-10cm)ofmulch,keepingitfromtouchingthetrunk--Gentlyuntanglecirclingrootsandmassagetherootball--Digtheplantingholeatleasttwiceaswideastherootballandnodeeper(donotdisturbunderrootball).

—chapterfive—

IRRIGATIONANDFERTILIZATION

Irrigationandfertilizationgohandinhand,withfertilizersoftenincludedinwateringschedulesandsystems.Theyarealsobothelementsaddedtoanorchard,sotheyarediscussedtogetherinthischapter.

IRRIGATIONWaterissticky.Itclingstoitselfandtotheobjectsitfallsontoorinto,includingsoil.Waterdoesn’teversitstill;itisalwaysmoving.Evenastagnantpuddleevaporateswaterfromitssurface,whilemoreseepsintothegroundbelow.Watertakesthreeforms:solid(ice),liquid,andvapor.Treesdependonwateranditspropertiesfortheirentirelives.Treeleavesletwatervaporescapethroughporesintheirundersides,calledstomata.Thiswaterloss,transpiration,keepstreescool.Everywatermoleculelostthroughthestomatamustbe,andis,instantlyreplacedwithanewone.Becausewaterstickstoitself,apropertycalledcohesion,achainofwatermoleculeslinesupbehindallthestomata,andthroughoutthetree.Treesandplantsarecomposedofabout85percentwater.Rootsexpendenergytotakeinwaterfromthesoil,butfromthenon,treestakeadvantageofcohesiontoformacolumnofwaterfromtheirrootstotheirhighestleaftip.Whenawatermoleculereturnstotheatmosphere,itpullsthenextoneintoplacebehindit,whichpullsanotherbehindit,andsoon,allthewaydowntotheendsoftheroots.Asaresult,treesdonotusetheirownenergytoaccomplishthis.Theamountofwatertranspiredintotheaircanbeenormous;onahotsummerday,alargematuretreemayreleasemorethan100gallons(379L)ofwaterbackintotheatmosphere.

InsidetheTreeWaterinsidetreescarriesdissolvedmineralsabsorbedbyroots.Thesenutrientsaredistributedthroughthetreebycohesionaswell.Planttissuesholdingsufficientwaterareturgid;theyareswollenenoughtokeeptheircellwallsupright.Turgidityhelpstreesstand,branchesandtwigsextend,andleavesremainoutstretchedtogatherthesun’srays.Wiltingplantsandtreesdisplayalossofturgidity.Waterprovidesforbothstiffnessandflexibilityintrees.Livingwood,holdingenoughwaterwithin,bendsfurtherbeforebreaking.Wateralsoofferssomeprotectionagainstthecold.Underthesameweatherconditions,well-wateredtreessufferlessfrostdamagethandrought-stressedones.Rootscoaxwaterfromthesoilusingosmosis.Waterinsiderootsissaltierthanthatinthesoil,andso,waterflowsintorootstobalancethedifference.(Shouldthereversesituationarise,watercanmoveoutofroots,backintothesoil,whichis

disastrousforplants.)Thecohesion-tensionprincipleexplainshowwatermovesfromtherootstothetipofatree’sleaves,againstgravity,withoutexpendingenergy.

DroughtstressAlloftheseprocessesmovealongswimmingly,solongasthewatersupplyinthesoilremainsadequate.Droughtstressbeginswhenwateravailabletorootsislessthanenoughtomeetthetree’sneeds.Afirstsymptomofdroughstressisacertainoff-colorlooktoleaves,akindofdull,blue-grayunhappiness.Leaveswiltnext.Ifwaterneedscontinuetogounmet,leaveswilldryanddropoff.Ifthesituationdoesn’timprove,gradualdiebackofwoodprogressesfromtwigstobranchestothetrunk.Rootsaredyingback,too.Declineinfruitquantityandqualitystartsbeforethefirstvisiblesymptomofdroughtstress.Fruittreesneedconsistentsoilmoisturefrombloomtoharvest.Beginningtowaterfruittreestwotothreeweeksbeforethefirstbloomsopenmaybenecessarytobuildupmoistureinthesoilfollowingdrywinters.Preventingdroughtstresssavestreesenergy,improvestheirhealth,andresultsinlarger,juicer,tastierfruits,andmoreofthem.Whenrainfallisinconsistentorinsufficient,irrigatefruittrees.

Soilstructurelargelydetermineshowmuchwaterisavailabletotreesafterwatering.Fieldcapacityreferstothestatewherethemostamountofwaterisavailablewithinasoil’sporesfortreeroots—roughlywhenthespacebetweensoilparticlesishalfair,halfwater,asdepictedhere.

Thinkofsoilasareservoir.Learnabouttheorchardsoil’swater-holdingcapacity.Bythetimethetreesshowdroughtstress,waterdeficiencyisalreadysignificant.Don’twaitforthetreestosaytheyneedwater.Knowtheydoaheadoftime;knowthesoil.Soiltexture,sandytoclayey,discussedearlier,dictatestheinfiltrationrate,andhowfarhorizontallywaterwillspreadasitsoaksin.Soiltexturealsoinfluencestheamountofwateravailabletoplantroots.Water’sotherstickyproperty,adhesion,causeswatermoleculestocloaksoilparticles.Clayparticlesformthetightestbondwithwatermolecules,sandparticlestheloosest.Watermoleculesclosesttosoilparticlesareheldmoretightlythanthosefartherawayinthesoil’sporespaces.Cohesionandadhesionroutinelydefygravity,butwaternotheldbyeitherispulleddownthroughthesoil,pasttherootzone,untilitjoinsthegroundwater.Thislostwater,calledgravitationalwater,andwaterheldbyadhesionisunavailabletoplantroots.Wateroutinthesoil’sporespacesistheavailablewater.

FieldCapacityFarmersandsoilscientistsusethetermfieldcapacity(FC)todenotethemaximumamountofwaterasoilcanholdintherootzone,againsttheforceofgravity.AsoilatFCisnotsaturated;porespaceisfilledwithroughlyhalfair,halfwater.Fieldcapacityisgreaterforclayeysoilsthanforsandysoils.Clayloamsholdthemostplantavailablewateratfieldcapacity.

Moisturesensors,devicesdesignedtoreadsoilmoisturelevels,havebecomemoreaccurate,easiertomaintainandwidelyavailableinrecentyears.Ahands-on“feeltest”canbejustashelpfulingaugingsoilmoisturelevels.Withaspade,digdown6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)andtakeupahandfulofsoil.Squeezeit.Foranyofthesoiltexturetypes,aballofsoilatFC,squeezed,willnotreleasefreewater,butwillleaveasheenofmoistureonthepalm.It’stimetoirrigatewhensoilintherootzoneisat50percentoffieldcapacity.Atthissoilmoisturelevel,sandysoilsfeeldryandwillnotformaballatall.Aclayloamwillformacrumblyone.

Digdown6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)totestifthesoilismoistordrytodeterminehowfrequentlytowater.

WaterLossSoilsreceivewaterfromeitherprecipitation(rainorsnow)orfromirrigation,whichiswaterappliedbyanythingfromahandheldhosetoanautomaticsprinklersystem.Soilslosewaterthroughevaporationfromtheirsurfaces,transpirationofplantsandtrees,runoff,andleaching(gravitypullingwaterdownpasttherootzone).Soils,fromsandyloamsthroughclays,holdanaverageof2inches(5.1cm)ofavailablewaterperfoot(30.5cm)ofrootingdepth.Forexample,asoil3feet(0.9m)deepholdsabout6inches(15.2cm)ofwaterfortreeroots.Thetimeittakesfortreestodrawthatavailablewaterdownhalfway,to3inches(7.6cm)inthisexample,shouldbetheintervalbetweenirrigations.Soilwaterlossesfromevaporationandtranspirationarecombinedandcalledevapotranspiration,orET.ETratesrevealhowmuchwaterislostfromsoilreservoirsoveratimeinterval.RegionalgovernmentscollectdataforETrates,dailyorweekly,andpublishresultsalongwithotherweatherinformation.

WATERNEEDSForfruittrees,howbigtheyare,andhowhotitisoutside,determinestheamountofwaterthetreeswithdrawfromthesoil.Waterneedsvarysomewhatbetweendifferentfruittreetypes,butcanopysizeisreallythebiggestfactor.Canopysizemeasuredinsquarefeet,combinedwithweatherdata,providesestimatesofdailypertreewateruse.Forexample,atreewitha100-square-foot(30.5m2)canopy(10feethigh×10feetwide,or3mhigh×3mwide)onahotmid-summerday,onCalifornia’scentralcoastwilluseabout16gallons(61L)ofwater.28FruittreewateruseestimatesarealsoavailablefromlocalAgriculturalExtensionsorMasterGardener’sprograms.28Pittenger,D.R.2004.Publication#3382,UniversityofCalifornia,AgricultureandNaturalResources.

Additionalirrigationisalsosometimesneededtoflushaccumulatedsaltsfromtherootzone,tokeeptheminasolutionlesssaltythaninsidetheroots.Annualprecipitationmaybeenoughtoaccomplishthis;however,whenitisnot,suchasinaridclimates,additionalirrigationisrequired.

Knowingyoursoilandknowingyourtreescomeswithtime,experience,andawatchfuleye.Atfirst,agreatdealofattentionmustbepaid,butafterafewgrowingseasons,knowingwhenandhowmuchtoirrigategetsalittleeasiertofigureout.Tostartoff,justrememberthatnewlyplantedtreesneedmore

frequentwatering,withsmalleramounts,thanestablishedtrees.Homeorchardscanbeirrigatedbyanyoneofthreedifferentmethods:flood,sprinkler,ormicro-irrigation.

FLOODIRRIGATIONFloodirrigationmeansfillingupabasinortroughsurroundingfruittrees,onceoranumberoftimes,untilthecorrectamountofwaterisapplied.Intervalsbetweenirrigationsdependonthesoil’swaterholdingcapacity,andtherateofusebythetrees.Fillingupthewaterwellsfornewlyplantedtrees,asdescribedinchapter4,Planting,isfloodirrigation.Thismethodiscommonlyusedforbackyardandcommercialorchardsalike.Basinsforindividualtreesshouldbeabout12inches(30.5cm)outsidethedripline.Bermssurroundingarowoftreesshouldalsositoutsidethedripline,alongthesides,andateachend.Bermwallsshouldbetallenoughtoaccommodatebothwaterandmulch,roughly,thesumofeach.So,toputdown3inches(7.6cm)ofwaterand3inches(7.6cm)ofmulch,bermsshouldbe6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)high.Anotherbermmaybebuiltinsidethebasin,aroundthetrunkofeachtree.Theseinsideberms,positioned8to12inches(20.3to30.5cm)awayfromthetrunkofanestablishedtree,closerforyoungertrees,keepwaterawayfromthetrunkandtherootcrown.Donotmulchbetweenthetreeandtheinsideberm.Keepingthetrunkandtherootcrowndrypreventsdisease.

Floodirrigationschedulesneedtobedeepandinfrequent—wettingtheentirerootzoneandlettingitdryto50percentoffieldcapacitybeforethenextwatering.Fruittreescanbefloodirrigatedbyhandwithahoseorwithanirrigationsystem.Aconventionalirrigationsystemwithbubblersratherthansprayheadscanbeusedtofillbasins.Inwet-seasonclimates,breakoutsectionsofbermwallstoletexcesswaterdrainawaywhentherainscome.

FloodirrigationcanbeassimpleasbuildingabermandfillingitmanuallywithahoseorwiththehelpofMotherNaturethroughrainwaterharvesting.

FloodIrrigationPros

Easytoinstall

Lowcosttobuild

Longerintervalsbetweenwatering Waterstheentirerootzone

Usefulforleachingsaltsfromrootzone ShortestirrigationsystemruntimeFloodIrrigationCons

Easytooverwaterandwastewater Moreareaforweedgrowth

Wateredareamustbeflat

Notgoodforverysandyorveryclayeysoils EasytoleachnutrientsandfertilizerspastrootzoneSPRINKLERIRRIGATION

Sprinklerirrigationsystemscanalsobeusedtowaterhomeorchards.Theentirerootzonegetswet,justlikeitdoeswithfloodirrigation,butsprinklershavetorunlongertoputdownthesameamountofwater.Theprecipitationratemeasureshowquicklyadepthofwaterisdispersed(forexample,inchesperhour).Theprecipitationratevarieswidelyamongthedifferenttypesofsprinklersavailable,butforeachsprinklerheadonasinglesystem,itshouldmatch.Matchedprecipitationrateshelptoensurethatwaterisappliedevenlythroughouttheareacoveredbythesprinklersystem.Thismeansthatthesoilwillbewateredtoroughlythesamedepththroughouttheorchardafterirrigation.

It’simportanttoprovideconsistentmoistureforeachtree,andtobegoodenvironmentalstewardsbybeingasefficientwithwateraspossible.Sprinklersystemslosemoretoevaporationbecausewateristhrownintotheair.Sprinklerprecipitationratesshouldnotexceedthesoil’sinfiltrationrate—don’tputdownwaterfasterthanthesoilcantakeitin.

Sprinklerheadtypesabound:sprayheads,streamrotors,variablearcrotors,andimpactheads.Arangeofoptionsisavailablewithineachtypeforspraypattern,throwdistance,andprecipitationrates.There’sasprinklerdesignedforeverysoilunderthesun.Thelowertheprecipitationrate,thelongerthesystemneedstoruntothoroughlywettherootzone.Puttingdownwatermoreslowlycanbeagoodstrategyforsoilswithslowinfiltrationratesorslopingterrain.

Sprinklersystemsarebestfororchardswithmultipletreesplantedtogether.Fortreesseparatedbysomedistance,choosefloodormicro-irrigationmethods.Use

sprinklersystemstoreplenishthesoilreservoir,applyingwateratintervalscorrespondingtothetimeittakestoreach50percentoffieldcapacity.Usethefeeltest,justlikeforfloodirrigation,tofindouthowmanydaysgobybeforethesoildriesouttothatpoint.Remember,droughtstressaffectsfruitqualitybeforesignsarevisibleonthetree.Checkthesoilformoisturelevels;don’twaitforthetree’ssignals.

SprinklerIrrigationPros

Disperseswatermoreslowlythanflooding Wetstheentirerootzone

Betterchoiceforsitesthatarenotflat CanbeusedforverysandyorclayeysoilsSprinklerIrrigationCons

Hardertokeeptreesandfruitdry Moreexpensivetoinstallthanfloodsystems Needsmoremaintenanceandadjustments Waterlosttooversprayandevaporation Moreareaforweedgrowth

Sprinklersystems(picturedhere)anddripirrigationmaybeautomated,forexample,throughtheuseofatimer,allowingthehomeorchardisttobeawayfromthesiteyetstillprovideirrigationfortrees.

MICRO-IRRIGATIONMicro-irrigation,alsocalleddripirrigation,isthemostwater-efficientirrigationtechnologyaround.InventedinIsrael,itwasdesignedtogrowplantsandtreesinaridlands.Today,micro-irrigationsystemsareusedallovertheworld,foragricultureandhorticulture.Conventionalsprinklersystemsoperateatwaterpressuresabove50psi(poundspersquareinch),or345kPa,anddispersewateratratesmeasuredingallonsperminute.Micro-irrigationsystemsoperatefrom10to30psi(69to207kPa),attheemitter,andtheirflowratesaremeasuredingallonsperhour.Thisslowreleaseofwatertotherootzone,rightatthesoil’ssurface,dramaticallyreduceswastefromevaporationandrunoff.Somesystemsaredesignedtobeburiedjustunderthesurface.Waterapplicationsareconcentratedaroundeachtree,andonlyaportionoftherootzonegetswet,notthewholething.Rootgrowthisdenseinthesemoistspots.Howfarwaterwillspreadfromtheemitterdependsonthesoiltype.Wettingpatternsaremorenarrowandverticalinsandysoils,morebroadandshallowinclays.

Contrarytomyth,rootsdonotgrowinsearchofwater.Rootsonlygrowwheresoilismoistalready;theycannotgrowthroughdrysoil.Treessustainedbymicro-irrigationsystemsgrowtheirrootsinthepartsofthesoilkeptwetbytheemitters.Keepingjust20to50percentoftherootzoneconsistentlyirrigatedisenoughtomaintainafruittree.Spacingemittersthroughoutandaroundthedriplineiscriticaltoensurethatthetreecanprovideitselfadequateanchorage.Donotabandontreestoashortdifficultlifebyleavingjustoneortwoemitters,rightnexttothetrunk,foryearsafterplanting.Addingandadjustingthepositionsofemittersastreesgrowtomaturityisessentialtohelpthemthriveonamicro-irrigationsystem.Forsandysoils,spaceemitters12inches(30.5cm)apartwithinandjustbeyondthedripline(butnotrightagainstthetrunk),18inches(45.7cm)forloams,24inches(61cm)forclays.29

Micro-irrigationisefficientbutnoteasy.Thesesystemshavemorecomponentsthatrequirediligentmaintenancetokeepthemoperatingcorrectly.Someareexpensivetoinstall,whileothers,suchasabove-grounddriplines,arerelativelyinexpensive,withadditionalsavingsandpeaceofmindachievedthroughefficientwateruse.Emittershaveevolvedfromthetinyplastic“bug”attheendofablackflexibletubetoincludein-lineemitters,microsprayheads,andlow-volumebubblers.Themaintenanceissuesremainthesameforeachtype,however;withoutwaterfiltrationandregularinspection,dripemittersbecome

clogged.Debris,dirt,orinsectscanpluguptinyorificesfrominsideorout.Foremittersotherthanmicrosprayheads,acloggedemittercannotbespottedjustbyturningthesystemonandtakingacasualglanceattheorchard.Sometimes,adeadtreeisthefirstvisiblesignofcloggedemitters.Asidefromemitterchoice,thestructuralcomponentsofamicro-irrigationsystemaresimilar:connectiontothewatersource,controlvalve(on-offswitch),mainlineflexiblepipe,andlaterallinetubing.

Approachschedulingmicro-irrigationdifferentlythanfloodorsprinklersystems.Don’tthinkofthesoilasareservoirwhenusingmicro-irrigation.Instead,maintainconstantmoistureintherootzone,sufficienttoreplacedailyevapotranspiration.Thisdoesn’tmeanrunningthesystemeveryday,butitmightmeanrunningiteveryotherdayduringtheheatofsummer.Emittersreleasewateringallonsperhour,soputtingdowninchesofwatercantakehours,notminutes.

Seethechartonpage88forsampleirrigationschedulesforeachoftheirrigationtypes.29Hill,R.W.2008.Ag/SmallAcreage/2008-01pr.UtahStateUniversityCooperativeExtension.

Micro-irrigationPros

Disperseswatermoreslowlythanflooding Efficientuseofwater

Fitsinsmall,odd-shaped,orslopedsites Savesmoneywithlowerwatercosts Liquidfertilizerscanberunthroughthesystem Systemoperationcanbeautomaticwithaninstalledtimer Lessareaforweedgrowth

Treesandfruitstaydry

Lightweightpartsmakeinstallationeasy EntiresystemcanbeabovegroundMicro-irrigationCons

Increasedmaintenance

Emitterscanclog

Manycomponentstoacomplexsystem Soilsaltscollectaroundwettedareaedges Longruntimes

Dripirrigationpartsarereadilyavailableatgardeningandonlineoutletsandareeasytoinstall.Mainlinetubingishookedtoaspigotandrolledoutintheorchard(theotherendiseventuallyclosedwithanendcap).(1)Thetubemaybesplitorplacedonvalvesthatdirectwaterflowtodifferentpartsoftheorchard,especiallyifwaterpressureisn’thighenoughtoruneverybubbleratonce.

(2)Thinner,micro-linesareattachedtothemainlinethroughhole-punchedopeningsandextendedtoeachtreewithabubblerattheendofeach.

(3)Thebubblercanbeadjustedtocontrolwaterflow.

(4)movedwiththedriplineasthetreegrows.

Clockwisefromtop:Couplers,valves,bubblers,hoseconnectors,elbows,T-joints,andatubepuncher(center)allowfullycustomizeddripsystemdesignstosuitvirtuallyanyorchardshape.Knowthetotallengthofmainlineandmicrotubingneededtogetwatertoeverytreebeforeorderingparts.Mostkitscomewithinstructions.Kidslovetohelp.

WATERINGSCHEDULEGUIDELINESThetechnologyofirrigationsystemsisnotthesoleanswertowaterconservation,efficientuseofwater,orbeing“water-wise.”Knowinghowmuchwaterfruittreesneed,whentheyneedit,andhowmuchwaterthesoilwillholdis.Somegeneralrulesofthumbfornewlyplantedtreesuntilthespecificwaterrequirementsoftheorchardaredeterminedareasfollows.

Unlessplantinginareaswithextremelyhighrainfallorwithnativetreespeciesadaptedtogrowinthewild,irrigationisrequiredforfruittreestothrive.Eveninareasofhighrainfall,awatersourceisneededfortimesofdroughtorextremeheat.

Digdown6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)andtakeupahandfulofsoil.Squeezeit.Ifthesoilfeelsdryorcrumbly,orboth,itistimetowater.Ifthesoilismoist,thenthetreeisreceivingadequatewater.

Irrigatetreesdeeplyratherthanshallowlyandmorefrequently.Picturetherootzoneinthegroundandwaterthesoiltothebottomoftheroot-ball.

Ingeneral,duringtheearlygrowingseason,waternewlyplantedtreesdeeplyatleastonceaweek.Duringwarmerpartsofthegrowingseason,atleasttwiceaweek.Inwintermonths,keepsoilsaroundnewlyplantedtreesslightlymoistened.Significantrainorsnowfallmaybecountedasawatering,andtreesmaynotneedadditionalirrigationduringwetseasons.

Treesinheavyclaysoilsmaybewateredlessfrequently,andthoseinverysandysoilsmorefrequently.

Keepyoursoilsmoistbutnotsaturated.Water-loggedsoilswilldisplaceoxygenthatrootsneedforsurvival.Overwateringoftenresultsinsymptomssimilartonotwateringenough.Standingpoolsofwaterinthebasinfor24hoursormoreareasignofpoordrainageoroverwatering,orboth.

Watchfruittreesforsignsofdroughtstress,whichmayappearaslossofleafsheen,wilting,andleafdrop.

Asthetreematures,waterapplicationsshouldbeexpandedwiththedriplineandjustbeyond.

Certaintreesrequirechillyconditionsinordertosetfruit.Heavysnowmaybeconsideredawatering—nottomentionabeautifulwintrybackdrop.

WATERINGSCHEDULECOMPARISONSThefollowingtableshowsasampleirrigationschedulefordifferentemittersandsprinklers,forthesametreeandthesameweatherononedaytogiveasenseofwaterneeds.Specifically,thisexampleassumesasemidwarf,temperatezonefruittreewitha100-square-foot(30.5m)canopy,inmid-summer,withanETrateof16gallons(61L).ThesamedailyETisusedtocalculatetheone-andtwo-weekscheduleseventhoughthesefluctuateandarenotconstantinreality.Flowratesforthesprinklersandemitterslistedarebothapproximateandtypicalfortheirtype.N/Ameansthatscheduleisnotrecommendedforthatsystemtype.Longruntimescanbebrokenintofractionsspacedthroughtheweek(e.g.,8hoursintohalffor4hours,3daysapart).Alwaysstrive,however,foradeep,infrequentwateringregime.

Whenusingthesoilasareservoir,attempttowettherootzonetoadepthof3feet(0.9m)formaturefruittrees.Whenlongruntimesexceedthesoil’sinfiltrationrate,usemultiplecycles(e.g.,3cycles,1houreach,2hoursapart,onthesameday,toachievea3-hourruntime).Forfloodirrigationbyhand:1inch(2.5cm)ofwaterappliedto1squarefoot(30.5cm2)ofsoilsurfaceequals0.62gallons(2.3L)ofwater.Forsandysoils,1inch(2.5cm)ofwaterpenetratesabout12inches(30.5cm)deep(buttheydryoutfaster),8inches(20.3cm)deepforloams,and4to5inches(10.2to12.7cm)forclays.

Irrigationschedulecomparisonchartforasemidwarf,temperatezonefruittreewitha100-square-foot(30.5m)canopy,inmid-summer,with

anETrateof16gallons(61L)

IrrigationType FlowRate TimetoReplaceET

1-DayRunTime

1-WeekRunTime

2-WeekRunTime

Micro-irrigation:4emitterspertree(1gallonperhourperemitter)

4gph(15Lph)

4hours 4hours

28hours

N/A

Micro-irrigation:Microspray 10gph(38Lph)

1hour,36minutes

1hour,36minutes

11hours,12minutes

N/A

Sprinkler:Streamrotor 1.25gpm(4.7Lpm)

13minutes

N/A

91minutes

3hours

Sprinkler:Sprayhead 1.85gpm(7Lpm)

9minutes

N/A

63minutes

2hours,6minutes

FloodIrrigation 2gpm(7.6Lpm)

8minutes

N/A

56minutes

1hour,52minutes

RainwaterHarvestingWaterharvestingistheartofcapturingrainwaterandsavingitforalateruse.Arainwaterharvestingsystem,regardlessofitsdegreeofcomplexity,consistsoffourbasiccomponents:collection,storage,distribution,andsystemmaintenance.Collectionsurfacescaninvolveanyelementofalandscape,includingrooftops,hardscape,andthesoilitself.Storagecontainerscanbeused,orwatermayberetainedusingthesoildirectlyasareservoir.Ifcontainersareused,theymustbecoveredtoinhibitthegrowthofmosquitoes,anddebrisshouldbefilteredfromthewater.Containerscanbestoredaboveorbelowground.Ifthesoilisusedforstorage,useofthewaterharvestedforirrigationcanberatherimmediate.Waterthatpercolatesthroughthesoilbelowtherootzonealsohelpstorechargegroundwater.

Gravityistheleastexpensivedistributorofawaterharvest.Adistributionsystemthatbeginswithguttersanddownspouts,andusesberms,swales,orconcaveareastoslowandholdwateristhesimplest.Hardscape,includingporouspaving,driveways,andwalksthatarepitchedtodrainintoplanterbeds,increasestheharvest.Performsystemmaintenancebyremovingdebrisfromdistributioncomponents.Everythingfromleafscreensatdownspoutstomeshfiltersonadripirrigationsystemneedstobeproperlycleanedtokeepharvestedrainwaterflowingintheintendeddirection.Maintenanceofbermsandotherwaterholdingfeaturesisbestperformedjustbefore,andjustafter,therainyseason.

Averageannualrainfallandsquarefootageofcatchmentareaareusedtocalculatethepotentialrainwaterharvest.Roughly,1inch(2.5cm)ofrainon1,000squarefeet(305m2)ofrooftopyieldsabout550gallons(2,082L)ofwater.

Thebenefitsofwaterharvestingextendbeyondwaterconservation.Rainwaterisclean,andbesidesitslow-to-nosaltcontent,itbringsatmosphericnitrogendownwithit—afertilizerbonus.Holdingrainwaterinthesoilandstoringitincontainersmeanslessofitentersstormdrains,reducingtheburdenonthosesystemsanddecreasingchancesofflooding.

Adoptionofarainwaterharvestingculturethroughoutaregioncouldaidsignificantlyingroundwaterrechargeandwaterconservation.

Thelimitationsofrainwaterharvestingbecomemostapparent,asdomanyproblems,inurbanareas.Smogpollutesrainwaterpassingthroughit.Runoffcollectedfromdriveways,roads,andparkinglotsisfurtherpollutedbyoilyresidues.Rainfallpatternscanbeinconsistent,butaminimumofabout8inches(20.3cm)totalannualliquidprecipitationisneededtosupportarooftopcollectionsystem.

Rainwaterharvestingisgoodfortheenvironmentandyourorchard.Thishousegutterisconservingvaluablewaterresourcesbyredirectingrainintothegarden.

FERTILIZATIONAirandwatersupplythecarbon,hydrogen,andoxygentreesandplantsneed;absorbedfromthesoil,anadditionalfourteenelementsarevitaltotheirgrowthandsurvival.Therequiredquantityofeachessentialnutrientvariesfromlargetominiscule,buteachelementisequallynecessary.Adeficiencyofanyoneofthemwillcauseabnormalgrowthpatterns,increasedvulnerabilitytodisease,andpoor-qualityfruit.Anexcessofsomeoftheessentialnutrientscanalsocauseplanthealthdisorders.Treesmakesugarforenergythroughphotosynthesis;intheprocessesofstoringandusingthesesugars,theycreateproteinsandfats,aswell.Treesandplantsusetheessentialnutrientsabsorbedfromthesoiltobuildtherestofourfoodsupply.

MACRONUTRIENTS,SECONDARYNUTRIENTS,MICRONUTRIENTS,ANDPHThemacronutrients,orprimarynutrients,treesandplantsabsorbfromthesoilarenitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium—calledmacrobecauseoftherelativelyhighamountofthenutrientsneeded.TheyareoftenabbreviatedandreferredtocollectivelyasN-P-K(nitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium,respectively).

Nitrogen,themostcommonlydeficientnutrientforfruittreesgrowninanysoiltype,promotesgreengrowth.Foryoungtrees,meetingnitrogenrequirementsisimportanttosustaintherapidshootgrowthoftheearlyyears.Timingnitrogenapplicationsimprovesuptakeanduseofthisnutrient.Earlyspring,beforebudbreak,isagoodtimeformostclimates.Symptomsofnitrogendeficiencyshowupreadilyinyellowingolderleaves,shorter-than-normalshootgrowth,andbrowningleafedges.Itshouldbenoted,however,thatoverapplicationofnitrogenfertilizersiscommonthroughoutagricultureandhorticulture,andisasignificantsourceofgroundwaterpollution.Treesexhibitsymptomsofexcessnitrogeningreenleavesthataretoodark.Foliage-feedinginsectsareveryattractedtothelush,floppynewgrowthresultingfromanoverabundanceofnitrogen.Nitrogenexcesscausesanincreaseintheoccurrenceofthediseasefireblightinapplesandpears.

Phosphoruspromotesrootgrowthandfruitandseedmaturation.Soilsarerarelypoorinphosphorus,butthisnutrient’savailabilitytotreerootsisaffectedbythesoil’spH.Phosphorusdeficiencysymptomsshowupinslowgrowthratesand

stuntedtrees.Theoldestleavesmayhaveapurplishcast,andfruitdevelopmentmaybepoor.

Potassiumhelpstomovesugarsaroundinsidetreesandplants.Itopensandclosesstomata,anditpromotesrootgrowth,diseaseresistance,andthesizeandqualityoffruitsandnuts.Symptomsofpotassiumdeficiencyincludeslowgrowthrate,leaveswithyellowtipsandedges,anddeadolderleaves.

Calcium,magnesium,andsulfurarecalledthesecondarynutrients.Calciumandmagnesiumcanbeleachedfromsoil,andcalciumdeficienciesfrequentlygoundiagnosed.Calciumisabuildingblockforplantcellwalls.Plantsandtreesdeficientinthisnutrientexhibitsmallthickleaves,thinningfoliage,andfewerfruits.Calciumdeficiencycausesthediseasebitterpitinapplesandpears.

Micronutrientsareadditionalelementsrequiredinminutequantities.(Seethechartonpage96forafulllist.)pHisanumericscaleusedtodescriberelativeacidityoralkalinity.Thevalue7.0isneutral.Valueslowerthan7.0describeincreasinglyacidicconditions,andvalueshigherthan7.0representincreasingalkalinity.Thescaleislogarithmic:6.0is10timesmoreacidicthan7.0and5.0is100timesmore.Asoil’spHaffectstheavailabilityoftheessentialnutrientstobeabsorbedbyroots.Differentelementsbecome“lockedup”or“fixed”insoilswithanacidoralkalinepH.Thebestrangewhereallofthenutrientsareavailabletobeabsorbedbyrootsis6.5to7.5.SoilswithpHvaluesbelow5.0arestronglyacid,above8.0,stronglyalkaline.Correctingasoil’spHmaybemorenecessarythanfertilizationtomakesoilnutrientsavailabletofruittreeroots.

Ifothertreesgrowneartheorchardsite,startbylookingatthem;checkfornormalleafcolorandshootgrowth.Oncethefruittreesareplanted,watchforthesamesigns.Knowwhatnormalcolorandshootgrowthratesshouldbeforthetypesoffruittreesplanted.Soiltestkits,designedforhomeuse,varyincomplexity,price,andunfortunately,accuracy.Shoparoundformorethanpriceandbuyfromareputablemanufacturer,orsendthesoiltothelabforprofessionalanalysis(manyaffordableoptionsareavailableonline).HandheldmeterstotestpHandsaltlevelsarealsoavailable.Followtheinstructionsincludedwiththekit.Testsoilinmorethanonelocationintheorchard.Knowthebasicsabouttheorchard’ssoil:levelsofnitrogen,phosphorus,potassium,andpH,ataminimum,beforedecidingtofertilize.

Soiltypesandaverageannualprecipitationaffectnutrientcontentanddeterminefertilizationregimes.Sandysoilsaregenerallylessfertilethanothersoiltypes.

Alkalineclayslockupmanyessentialelements.Loamswithanorganicmattercontentof4to5percentandaneutralpHarethemostfertilesoils(organicmatterismaterialderivedfromtheremainsoflivingorganisms).Nocoincidencethattheyarealsowell-draining,withgoodwater-holdingcapacity,goodoxygenlevels,andsupportanassortmentofmicrobiallife.Soilsinaridclimateshavethelowestpercentageoforganicmatterintheirtopsoils,oftenaslowas1to2percent.Soilsintemperate-zoneclimatesaverage7to10percentorganicmattercontent.Bogs,swamps,andriverdeltascanhaveorganicmattercontentsashighas50to75percent.30(Itispossibletohavetoomuchofagoodthing.)Mostsoilscontainmostoftheessentialelementsrequiredforgoodgrowthforfruittrees,butnosoilhastheperfectbalanceofallofthem.Theoldsaying,“Feedthesoiltofeedtheplant,“oughttofinishwith,“tofeedourselves.”Thissectionseekstoapproachfruittreefertilizationfromasoilhealthbuildingperspective,ratherthanaspottreatmentforspecificdeficiencystrategy.

BUILDINGHEALTHYSOILBuildingahealthysoiltakestime,years,infact.Ifpossible,beginbeforetheorchardisplantedbyincorporatingorganicmaterialintothetop12inches(30.5cm)ofsoilovertheentireorchardfloor.(Thisisverydifferentfromamendingthebackfillforeachplantinghole,whichisnotrecommended.)Compostcanbespreadandtilledin,dependingontheorchard’ssize;averylargeamountmaybeneeded.Forexample:toaddcompostintothetopsoilfora1,000-square-foot(305m2)areato12inches(30.5cm)deepatonethirdofthesoil’svolume,333cubicfeet(9424L),or12.33cubicyards(9424L)isnecessary.Adjustthiscalculationbasedontheplantingsite’sdimensionsbydeterminingthetotalvolumeofsoiltobeamended(width×length×depth)andmultiplyingthisbythedesiredpercentageofcompostincorporated.Amendingsoilsatlessthan25percentoftherootzone’svolumeisineffective.

Anotherpreplantingsoil-buildingoptionistogrow,mow,andtillinacovercrop,suchasredcloverorvetch.Greenmanuresmaybegrownandtilledinrepeatedlyforonetothreeyearsbeforeplantingtrees.Aftertheorchardisplantedout,tillingsoilbecomeslessfeasiblebecauseofthepotentialtodamagetreeroots.30CaliforniaFertilizerAssociation.1998.WesternFertilizerHandbook—SecondHorticultureEdition.(InterstatePublishers,Inc.).

Plantgreenmanures,suchasthesefavabeans,andtillthemintothesoilforonetothreeseasonspriortoplantingtreesforanatural,nutrient-richsubstratewithoutchemicalsorstore-boughtproducts.Everytimeanaturalsolutionisused,resourcestomanufacture,package,andtransportproductsaresaved.

Surfaceapplicationsofcompostandmulchtotheorchardfloordecomposeandbuildthenutrientcontentandtilthofthesoilovertime.Whereasfertilizersbenefitplantgrowthbyaddingessentialnutrientstotherootzone,andsoilamendmentsimprovethephysicalcharacteristicsofsoil(drainage,water-holdingcapacity,etc.),theadditionoforganicmattertosoilsperformsbothfunctions;organicmatterprovidesessentialnutrients,likefertilizers,andimprovesthephysicalcharacteristicsofsoils.

Theadditionoforganicmattertotherootzonebenefitsallofthesoiltypes.Ithelpssandysoilstoaggregate(formclods)anddevelopbetterwater-holdingcapacity.Ithelpsclays“openup”toformmoreandlargerporespaces,whichimprovesinfiltrationratesanddrainage.Plantresiduesaddedtosoil,onthesurfaceortilledin,decomposethroughtheactionofmicrobesuntiltheybecomeasubstancecalledhumus.

Humusisorganicmatterresistanttofurtherdecomposition.Microbesmakinghumusreleasenutrientsintothesoilintheirelemental,ormineralized,form—theonlyformrootscanabsorb.

SaltandNutrientContentofSoilThedifferenceinfertilizertypes,organicorsynthetic,liesintheimpacttheyhaveonthelifeofthesoil.Syntheticfertilizersaresalts.Addingsaltstosoilsmustbecarefullymanagedtoavoidthedestructionofsoilstructure,specificallytheobliterationofporespace,andthepollutionofgroundwater.Animalmanuresalsocontainsalts.Prepackagedanimalwastefertilizerstypicallycomefromanimalskeptinunhealthyconditionsonintensivefactoryfarms,andshouldbeavoided.Ifharvestedfreshfromwell-treatedanimals,manuresshouldbecompostedbeforeuseasfertilizers.Solidwastefromcarnivorousanimalsshouldnotbeusedasfertilizersinthehomeorchard.

Plantresidues,likecompostandgreenmanures,donothaveasignificantsaltcontentbutdonotreleasetheirnutrientsimmediately,either.Theymustbe“brokendown,”decomposedbymicro-floraandfaunalivingintherootzone,toreturntothemineralizedformavailabletoroots.Itisthisjourney,notthedestination,thatbuildsthehealthofsoil.Slowreleaseofnutrientspreventsinjurytoroots;chemicalfertilizersaltsappliedincorrectlycan“burn”roots.Still-decomposingplantresiduescreateareserveofnutrientsheldinthesoil.Theflourishinglifeofamultitudeofdifferentmicroorganismsbenefitstrees

throughincreasedcompetitionforpathogensandsymbioticrelationshipswithroots.Theadditionoforganicmatter,throughcompostorgreenmanures,graduallylowersthepHofsoil.Thiscantakeyearsbutmayneedtoberemediedatsomepoint.Whilesoilorganicmatterisasourceofnitrogen,phosphorus,sulfur,andmanyofthemicronutrients,additionalsupplementationwithmineralpowdersmaybeneededoccasionally—particularlycalcium.

Thesprouting,growth,flowering,fruiting,anddeathofplantsmovesnutrientsinacircleoutofandbackintosoil.Therottingofdeadplantsreleasesnutrientsusedbylivingplants.Whencropsareremovedfromthefield,theirnutrientsgowiththem.Croppingthesoilisthefarmer’splight.Treefruitsarecomposedofsugarandwater,forthemostpart.Whentheyarepicked,thetrees,andtheirleaflitter,branchtrimmings,etc.,staybehind.Croppingoffruitorchardsoilsisminimalandveryslow.Chipandreturnalldisease-freeleaflitterandprunedbranchestotheorchardfloorwithmulchtomaintainnutrientsintherootzone.

FTPFencouragestheuseoforganic,veganfertilizersonlytoensurethemostnaturalbalanceofnutrientsforoptimalfruittreeorchardhealth,and

mostimportantly,tominimizepotentialdetrimentalimpactsonourenvironment.

Manuallyworkincomposttopically,withalayerofmulchontop,toprovidealong-termnutrientboosttosoils.Organicseaweedandkelpfertilizersarealsoeffectiveinprovidingmicronutrients.

WhatIsCompostTea?Compostteaisaliquidfertilizermadebysubmergingfinishedcompostinwater.Constantaerationwhilebrewingfacilitatesthegrowthofbillionsofmicroorganisms:bacteria,fungi,protozoa,andnematodes.Thepresenceofoxygenthroughouttheprocessensuresthatthemajorityoftheseorganismsarebeneficialtoplantsandtrees.Microorganismsgrownintheabsenceofoxygenarecalledanaerobicandaremorelikelytobepathogens.

Finishedcompostteaisahighlyconcentratedfluidmixofmicrobesandnutrientssprayedontofoliageandthesoilsurface.Foliarspraysshouldbeappliedearlyinthemorning,beforetheheatoftheday.Onlysmallamountsofnutrientscanbeabsorbedthroughfoliage,buttheyareimmediatelyavailabletothetreeforuse.Compostteaisonewaytoaddressmicronutrientsupplementation.Themicrobesinthebrewalsoprovidebenefits.Thepresenceoftheseorganismsonleafsurfacesmightprovidesomeprotectionfrompestsanddiseases.Theideaisthattheysurviveonasheenofsugarthatcoatstheleaves,andtakeupalloftheavailablespace—so,there’snoroomforpathogenstolatchon.

Compostteasareusedincommercialagriculture,aswellashomeorchards.

CompostTeaMaterialsandRecipeTwo#5plasticbuckets1gallon(3.8L)finishedcompost1aquariumpump

1gangvalve

Severalfeetofclearflexibleaquariumtubing4gallons(15L)de-chlorinatedwater1oz(28.3g)unsulphured,organicmolasses

1.Attachtubingfromthepumptothegangvalve.Measure,cut,andattachthreepiecesoftubingsothattheyreachthebottomofa#5bucketandconnecttothreeportsonthegangvalve,whichcanbehungonthebucketrim.Ifavailable,attachsmallairstonestothethreelooseendsofthetubingtoweighthemdowninthebucket.

2.Addthewaterandrunthepumpforatleastanhourtobubblethewaterandevaporatethechlorine.

3.Pourinthecompostandmolasses.Brewthemixturefortwotothreedays.

4.Acoupleoftimesaday,useasticktostirthemixvigorously.Resetthetubingafterward.

Oncetheteaisbrewed,strainitintotheemptybucketthroughlayersofcheeseclothoroldsheeting.Yieldshouldbe2to3gallons(7.6to11.4L)ofcomposttea.Putthesoakedcompostbackintothecompostpileorspreadbelowtrees.Finishedcompostteashouldsmellsweetorearthy,notbad.(Donotapplyfoul-smellingcompostteatofoliage.)Itcanbeappliedthroughasprayer;getagood,clog-freenozzle.Applyallofthefinishedteawithinfourhoursofstrainingittoputthoselivingmicrobestogooduse!

Fertilizationneedsaregreatestforyoungfruittreesandtaperofftoastablelevelformaturetrees.Exactpoundsoffertilizer,pertree,peryearwillnotbelistedhere—thatvarieswithfruittreetype,soilcomposition,andclimate.CheckwithAgriculturalExtensionorNaturalResourceConservationofficesforinformationaboutlocalsoils.Soilmapsmaybeavailable.

EssentialNutrientsNeededforHealthyOrchards

Macronutrients SecondaryNutrients MicronutrientsCarbon Calcium ZincHydrogen Magnesium IronOxygen Sulfur ManganeseNitrogen CopperPhosphorus BoronPotassium Molybdenum Chlorine Nickel

OrganicOptionsforCitrusTreesCitrustreeshaveareputationforbeing“heavyfeeders.”Fertilizersarenotplantfood;plantsandtreesmaketheirownfood.Citrusare,however,pronetomultiplenutrientdeficiencies,andoftenfertilizedwithsyntheticfertilizers.Therecipebelowisoneoptioninpursuinganorganicfertilizationregimeforcitrus.Pleasenotethatapplicationratesareformaturetreesandneedtobeburiedinthesoiltoadepthof12inches(30.5cm).Pleasealsonotethatcottonseedmealfrequentlycontainssignificantpesticideresiduesandmostcommerciallygrownsoybeansaregeneticallymodified,solookfororganic,non-GMOoptions.

4partscottonseedmealorsoybeanmeal(fornitrogen,phosphorus,andpotassium)1partdolomiticlimestone,powdered(forcalciumandmagnesium;thiswillraisepH)1partkelpmeal(formicronutrients)

Mixwithequalpartschippedleaflitterandtrimmingdebris.ApplyevenlyfourtimesfromMarchthroughAugust(northernhemisphere)atthedripline(11/2to3pounds,or0.7to1.4kg,pertree,perapplication).

—chaptersix—

PRUNINGANDWEEDINGPruningandweedingareoftenperformedatthesametimeandbothinvolveelementsbeingremovedfromtheorchard,sotheyarediscussedtogetherinthischapter.

BASICSTreescannothealtheirwounds,notthewaywecan.Treeswalloffdamagedpartswithacombinationoftissueandchemicalstokeepdecayfromspreadingfurther.Then,iftheyhavetheenergy,theygrowpastit.Treesdon’theal,theyclose.31Everywoundispermanent,andpruninginflictswounds.Learntodotheleastdamagetoprolongandenhancethelivesofyourtrees.

Treesmounttheirdefenseagainstdecayatthebranchbarkridgeandthebranchcollar.Aswellingcirclesallthewayaroundthebaseofabranchwhereitjoinsthetrunkoranotherbranch,andaridgeofbarkpushesupintheanglebetweenthetwo.Thesestructureshousethehighestconcentrationsofthechemicalsreleasedinresponsetowounding.Pruningcutsmadejustoutsidethebranchbarkridgeandthebranchcollarsupplythetreeitsbestopportunitytocompartmentalizethewound.Treesdon’talwayssucceedinpreventingthespreadofdecay,evenwithproperlymadepruningcuts.Thelargerthediameterofthewound,themoretimethetreeneedstocloseit,andthetougherthebattletocontaindecay.Bigcutsmakehollowtrees.Trytokeepthediameterofpruningcutwoundstolessthan2inches(5.1cm).

Treeandplantstemshavebudsalongtheirlengthsandattheirends.Eitherleavesorflowersemergefromthebuds.Someofthesebudsareeasilyseenprotrudingfromatwig;manymore,calledlatentbuds,arehiddenunderthebark.Thevisiblebudsonastemarecallednodes(typicallylocatedatthebasesofleaves).Thenodeattheendofatwigorstemiscalledtheterminalbud.Lengthsofstembetweennodesarereferredtoasinternodal.Allpruningcutsoccureitheratanode,orbetweennodes,andatree’sresponseisdifferenttoeach.31Shigo,A.L.1986.ANewTreeBiology:Facts,Photos,andPhilosophiesonTreesandTheirProblemsandProperCare.(ShigoandTreesAssociates:Snohomish,Wash.).

AnatomyofaBranch

Labels,fromlefttoright:TerminalBud,FlowerBud,Intermode,LatentBud,LateralBud,BranchCollar,BranchBarkRidge

Thevisibleswellingofthebranchcollararoundthebaseofthispawpawtreebranchshouldnotbedamagedduringpruning.

Treesandplantsbeginallthefoodchainsontheplanetbymakingtheirownfood.Greenplanttissues,leavesforthemostpart,turnsunlightintosugar.Sugarsareusedforenergyandarestoredinsidetreesforlateruse.Whenwepruneliving,greenleavesfromatree,itsabilitytomakeitsownfoodisreduced.Donotremovemorethan20percentofatree’scanopyinasinglepruning.Waitayearbetweenpruningsforyoungandmaturefruittrees,longerforovermaturetrees.

Themoststablestructureforanurbantree(treesthatlivenearpeople,buildings,roads,andotherinfrastructure)hasastronguprightcentralleaderwithbranchattachmentanglesofatleast45degrees.Treesprunedintoanopen-vaseshapewillbedevelopedtohavefourorfiveleaders.Branchcollarsareoverlappinglayersofwoodformedbythecentralleaderandthebranch;thealternatinglayersformastrongunion.Healthybrancheswithstrongattachmentsareabletobeartheweightoffruit.Youngtreetrainingandproperpruninghelpstoachievethisstrongstructure.

Thebestpruningcutsaretheoneswenevermake.Thebestpruningcutsaretheonesweprevent.Thephrase,“Righttree,rightplace,”cannotberepeatedtoooften.Followingtheguidelinespresentedinpreviouschapterswillpreventmanypruningcuts.Choosetreesgraftedtothemostappropriaterootstockforthehomeorchard’ssizetominimizefuturepruning.Truedwarfingandsemidwarfrootstocksgofurthertowardkeepingfruittreesatamanageablesizethanfrequentencounterswithloppersandsaws.(Semidwarfscanstillgetprettytall,though;keepinmind,15feet[4.6m]isalongwayup.)

Afterselectingfruittreeswiththeappropriaterootstock,decidewhatformandatwhatheighttomaintainthetreeforitsusefullife.Youngtreetrainingandstructuralpruningbeginthedaythefruittreesareplanted.Detailsontypesofformsfortemperatezonefruitandcitrustreesareprovidedlaterinthischapter.Forthefirstthreeorfouryearsafterplantinganewtree,developingthematureformisthefocus,fruitisnot.Smallpruningcutsmadeearlyinthelivesoffruittreescanpreventtheneedtomakelargecutslater.Trainingyoungtreespreventspruningawayalotofgreenleafygrowthduringsummer.Treesrespondtoexcessivepruningoffoliagebygrowingalotmoreleavestoreplacethoseremoved.Properpruninghelpstolimitthisregrowthresponse,leavingmoreenergytoputtowardfruiting.

TOOLS

Havehandshears,loppers,ahandsaw,polepruner,andpolesawavailabletomaintainthehomeorchard.Visuallyinspectalltoolsbefore,andcleantoolsaftereachuse.Beforeandafterthemainseasonalpruning,thoroughlyclean,sharpen,andlubricateallpruningtools.Learntomaintaintoolsproperlytoensuretheirusefulnessandyoursafety.

Handshears,loppers,andpoleprunersarebasicallythesametoolwithhandlesofdifferentlengths—theyareallshears.Thewayapairofshearscutsastemdependsonthestyleoftheshears:anvilorbypass.Anvilshearspushthebladethroughthestemtoastoponaflatsurfaceontheotherhandle,theanvil.Stemsgetcrushedalittleagainsttheanvil,increasinginjury.Withbypassshearstheblade“passesby”thestop,likeapairofscissors,andthestemisnotcrushed.Bypassshearsarepreferred;choosethemwhenpossible.Keepingbladesproperlysharpenedisessentialtominimizingpruninginjurywitheitherstyleofshears.

Pruningtools,suchashandshears(a),handsaws(b),loppers(c),polepruners(d),andpolesaws(e),shouldbekeptsharpinordertominimizedamageduringcutting.

Whenusinganvil-typeshears,foraclosecut,remembertopositionthebladeclosesttothepartofthetreethatisremaining.

ROOTPRUNINGThefirstpruningforanewtreeisrootpruningatplantingtime,whenneeded.Correctingthegrowthpatternofrootsbeforethetreeisplantedpreventssignificantdefectslater:leaningtrees,short-livedtrees,stuntedtreeswithpoorvigorandfewfruit,forexample.Prunecirclingandseverelykinkedrootsbacktothepointbeforethedefectstarts,orbacktotheirpointoforigin—whichevercomesfirst.Thethickertherootandtheclosertothetrunkthecirclingbegins,themoresignificantthedefect.Makecleancutswithsharpblades;prunerootsliketheyareshoots.Rootpruningcanslowgrowthoftheabove-groundpartsofatree,whilenewrootsaregrowingtoreplacethoseremoved.Onlyremovecircling,girdling,orseverelykinkedroots—anddonotpruneexcessively.Removethecutoffportionsfromtheroot-ballbeforeplanting,ifpossible.

Forhealthyrootestablishment,prunethick,circlingrootsbacktothepointwheretheystartedcircling.

CUTSTheterminalbudonatwig,stem,orthecentralleadersuppressesthelateralandlatentbuds.Whentheterminalbudisremovedthroughpruning,manyofthesebudswillbecomeactiveandgrow.Pruningcutsmadebetweennodes,thatremovetheterminalbud,arecalledheadingcuts.Thenewstemsresultingfromthegrowthresponsetoheadingcutsaremoreweaklyattachedtotheoriginalstemandunlikelytoformstrongbranchattachmentsontheirown.Headingcutsresultinadensercanopywithmorepoorlyattachedstems.Headingcutscanbeusedtoshortenanddecreasethevigorofstemsthatwillberemovedcompletelyduringasubsequentpruning.

Pruningcutsthatremoveabranchortwigatitspointoforigin,oratthejuncturewithanotherbranchortwigatleastone-thirditsdiameter,arecalledthinningcuts.Properthinningcutsavoiddamagingthebranchbarkridgeandthebranchcollar.Thistypeofcutdoesn’tcauseasurgeinthegrowthoflatentbuds,becausethebranchisremovedentirely,orattheunionwithanotherbranchlargeenoughtotakeovertheroleoftheterminalbud.Thinningcutsopenupcanopies,providetheoptimumcircumstancetoclosewounds,andminimizeweaklyattachedlateralsprouts.Bothheadingandthinningcutsareusedtotrainyoungfruittrees.Thereasonforpruningabranchortwigdictateswhichtypeofcuttouse.

Terminalbuds,foundattheendsofshootsaspicturedhere,releasehormonesthatinhibitthegrowthoflateralbudsinaprocesscalledapicaldominance,whichismorepronouncedincertainfruittrees.Removingterminalbudswithheadingcutsstimulateslateralbudgrowthandresultsinwidergrowthpatterns.

Thinning(i.e.,removingabranch)andheading(i.e.,cuttingbackabranch)aretwomajortypesofpruningcuts.

Avoidmakingthinningcutsthatareflushwithadjoiningbranchesorthetrunk,whichcandamagethebranchcollarandbranchbarkridge,leadingtodecay.Atthesametime,avoidcuttingtoofaroutandleavingstubs,whichcandelaywoundclosure.Instead,identifythebranchcollarandcutjustoutsideofit.Sometimesthebranchcollarisnotvisiblypronounced,inwhichcase(1)followtheanglecreatedwherethelimbsmeet,rightupthemiddle,justpastthebranchbarkridge,and(2)anglethecutdownintheoppositedirection.

Aproperthinningcutmadeonafruittreejustoutsidethebranchcollarandbranchbarkridge.

Aproperheadingcutmadeonafruittree.Whenmakingaheadingcutaboveabud,dosoata45-degreeanglesothatthelowerendofthecutisapproximatelyinlinewiththetipofthebudandanglesouttowardsthesamedirectionthebudisfacing.Encouragenewgrowthtodevelopoutward,ratherthanbacktowardsthecrown’sinterior,bycuttingjustabovebudsfacingtheoutsideedgeofthecanopyinthedirectionofdesiredgrowth.

Dead,Dying,Diseased,andBrokenBranchesLet’slookatthemostimportantreasonsforpruningtrees.First,removeanyandalldead,dying,diseased,orbrokenbranches.Notsureifabranchisdeadoralive?Deadwoodisdrier,lighter,andinflexible.Thebarkisdry,sometimescracking,andsloughingoff.Branchcollarscanappearmoreswollenthannormal,becausethedeadbranchisshrinkingasitdriesout.Checkjustunderthebarkforagreenlayeroftissue:Forlittletwigs,scrapingthesurfacewithafingernailwilldo;forbarkabitthicker,usethebladesideofapairofhandshearstoflickatinypieceofbarkaside.Athingreenlayerunderneathindicatesthewoodisalive.Ifit’sbrownorblack,anddry,thatpartofthebranchisdead.Checkagain,ormorethanoncedependingonthelengthofthebranch,closertoitspointoforigintodetermineifaportionofitisstilllive.

Removedead,dying,broken,ordiseasedbrancheswhenevertheyarediscovered.

SuckersandWaterSproutsNext,removesuckersandwatersprouts.Suckersareleafysproutsatthegraftunionorloweronafruittree.Suckerscanalsosproutrightfromrootsclosetothesurface.Rootstocksareselectedforvigor,andsuckerslefttogrowcaneventuallydominatethegrowthoftheentiretree.Cutsuckerscleanlyawayattheirpointoforigin.Watersproutsgrowfromthefruitwood;theyarevigorous,uprightleafyshoots.Removewatersproutsiftheyarecrossingagainstotherbranchesorshadetheinteriorofthecanopy,whichwilldecreasefruitset.Watersproutsthatwillnotbecompletelyremovedwiththecurrentpruningcanbeshortenedwithheadingcutstoreducetheirvigor.Watersproutsgrowinginafavorablespotcanbekeptandtrainedtobecomepartofatree’spermanentstructure,ifneeded—sometimestheyreplacebrokenbranches,forexample.

Unsureofwhetherornotabranchisdead?Livebranchesareflexible,whiledeadonesarebrittleandsnapeasily.Scrapethesurfaceofthebarkinasmallerareathaninthisillustration,whichwasdonefordemonstrationpurposes.Ifitisgreenunderneath,thenthebranchisstillalive;ifitisdark,thenitcanberemoved.

Removesuckers(left)andwatersprouts(right)tofocusatree’senergyonitsmostfruitfulparts.

ScaffoldLimbsBranchesthatwillbekeptasintegralpartsofthefruittree’sbasicform,trainedtobethelargestbranches,arecalledscaffoldlimbs.Scaffoldlimbsshouldbewell-spacedalongandaroundthecentralleader,andnotclosertogetherthan6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)onayoungtree.Theirangleofattachmentshouldbeatleast45degreesandnotgreaterthan60degrees.Noneofthemshouldhaveadiametergreaterthanhalfthatofthetrunk.

CodominantStemsRemoveorshortencodominantstems.Thickstems,growinginastronglyuprightdirection,withanarrowangleofattachmenttothecentralleaderarecalledcodominantstems.They’rebranchesthatwanttobetrunks,too.Vigorous,withadiametercloseorequaltothecentralleader’s,codominantstemsarethebuildingblocksofverysignificantstructuraldefectsintrees.Lefttogrow,thecodominantstemisnolongerabranch.Thetreenowhastwoleaderswithanarrowanglebetweenthem.Aseachleadergrowsandgainsgirth,theypushagainsteachotherandpressurebuildsinthatnarrowcrotchwheretheyarejoined.Astheattachmentbecomesincreasinglyweak,barkfromeachstemiscompressedinsidethecrotch.Includedbarkaddstothisdefectandindicatesaweakunionpronetobreakage.Pruneoutorshortencodominantstemsasearlyaspossibleduringyoungtreetraining.

Includedbarkindicatesaweakconnectionbetweenstems,asshowninthisuniononayoungpawpawtree.

Smalltwigswithnarrowcrotchescanbecorrectedwithspreadersandtrainedtogrowintoawiderangleofattachment.Removecodominantstemsalreadytoolargetoberetrainedattheirpointoforigin.Examinebothstemsandchoosethestraightest,mostupright,andmostvigorousofthetwotobethecentralleader.Codominantstemssolargetheycannotbecompletelyremovedinasinglepruningcanbeshortenedwithaheadingcuttoreducetheirvigor.32Acombinationofheadingcutsandtrainingwithspreaderscanbeusedtocorrectsomecodominantstems.

AdditionalPruningAdditionalpruningtreatmentsforfruittreesaredesignedtomaximizethenumber,size,andqualityoffruit.Somefruittrees,suchasfigs,bearonlyonbranchesgrownduringthecurrentseason.Othersfruitonlastyear’swood,likepeaches,andstillothersbearfruitonshortstubbytwigscalledspursformanyyears(applesandpears).Knowwhichgrowthseason’swoodatreefruitsonbeforepruning.32Gilman,E.F.2002.AnIllustratedGuidetoPruning.(DelmarThompsonLearning:Albany,N.Y.).

FORMS

ModifiedCentralLeaderAnyhomeorchardfruittreecanbetrainedtoamodifiedcentralleaderform,butit’smostoftenusedforapples,pears,andnuttrees.Onetrunkismaintainedatadesignatedheightwithheadingcuts,andfourtoeightscaffoldlimbs,spacedevenlyalongandaroundthetrunk,aredeveloped.Themodifiedcentralleaderformhelpstokeepsemidwarftemperatezonefruittreestoamanageableheight,andalsokeepsfruitinglowerinthecanopy.Thecentralleaderisheadedbacktoalateralbranchtomaintainheight;scaffoldsaretrainedwithspreadersandheadingcutstocreatewideanglesofattachment.Watersproutsandcodominantstemsareremoved.Youngtreetrainingextendsthroughthefirstthreeyears.Treesbeginningtobearfruit,fromfourtotenyearsold,willneedlesspruning.Astreesmature,however,themodifiedcentralleaderformrequiresusingincreasingnumbersofheadingcutstomaintaintheirheightandspread.

OpenVaseOpenvaseformtreesareprunedtohaveashorttrunkof18to24inches(45.7to61cm).Fourorfivescaffoldlimbsareselectedandgrowtobecomemultipleleaders,radiatingfromthetopoftheshorttrunk.Scaffoldsshouldbe4to6inches(10.2to15.2cm)apartwithattachmentanglesof45to60degrees.Thisfruittreeform,typicallyusedforpeachesandnectarines,bringsmaximumsunlightintotheentirecanopyofaverylow,verywidetree.Openvasetreesmustbegintobetrainedatplanting.Pruningtomaintainthisformisneededthroughoutthelifeofthetreetokeepthecenteropen,toheadbackoverextendedlaterallimbs,andtoremoveolderlateralbranchescurvingdownandgrowingtowardtheground(calledhooks).Openvaseformtreesbeartheweightoffruitverywell,havegooddistributionoffruitthroughthecanopy,andareeasytowork.Eachtree,however,takesupalotmorespacethanacomparabletreeprunedtoamodifiedcentralleaderform.

CitrusandSubtropicalsCitrustrees,andmanyothersubtropicals,arepruneddifferentlythantemperatezonefruittrees.Sizeiseasilymanagedwithrootstockselection.Citrusbarkbakinginthesungetsdamaged,andsocitruscanopiesmustshadethemainbranchesandtrunk.Theprimarytaskinpruningcitrusistoremovedeadwood,whichconsistsofsmalltwiggygrowthforthemostpart.Anoccasionalvigorousshoot,extendingwellpasttheedgeofamaturecanopy,willneedtobeheadedback,butinothercircumstances,usethinningcutsforcitrus.Pruningtheperimeterofcitrustrees,lightly,topermitalittlemoresunlighttopenetrateintotheouterportionofthecanopy,canimprovequantityandqualityoffruit.Keepbranchesfromdraggingtheground,orbrushingagainstfences,walls,orothertrees.Prunecitrustreessothatthetrunkistheonlypartofthetreethatcontactstheground.Thispracticeisusefulforcontrollinginsects.(Moreoninsectslater.)

EspalierEspalierisaformalstyleoftrainingusedtogrowfruittreesontoaflat,verticalsurface,suchasafenceorawall.Trunksandlimbsareattachedtothesurfaceandtrainedtogrowflatagainstit;symmetricalandornamentalpatternscanbecreated.Trainingtoespalierformbeginsbyplantinganewsapling6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)fromthewallorfence.Thelocationfortheespaliermustreceivefullsun.Spreaders,headingcuts,andtyingstemstothesurfaceareusedtotrainfruittreestogrowintothisflat,formalshape.Applesandpearsondwarfingrootstocksarefrequentlychosenforespalier.Averyhigh-maintenanceform,espalierisawaytouseallavailablespacetogrowfruittrees.

CentralLeader

ModifiedCentralLeader

OpenVase

Pruningformsbestsuitedforfruittreesinclude:centralleader,modifiedcentralleader,andopenvase.Thecentralleaderformproducesatreewithasingle,dominanttrunkwithstronglateralconnections.Modifiedcentralleaderhasashorter,centraltrunkbranchingoffintomultiplescaffolds.Openvaseallowsmoresunlightinthecanopy,awiderstructure,andlessvulnerabilitytodiseaseduetoitsmanybranchings(someofwhichmaysurviveshouldotherssuccumb,whereasacentralleaderhasonlyasingletrunk).Choosetheformthatbestsuitsthetree,conditions,anddesiredaccessibilitytoharvest.

Espalieredtreeshavestrikingappearancesandcanbeusedaslivingfencestructures.Trellisesprovideexcellenttrainingsupportandtrainedtreescanbeplantedinnarrowspacesorgrownincontainerssuccessfully.

THINNINGFruitthinningisasmall-scalepruningchorewithbigbenefitsatharvesttime.Thinningresultsinlarger-sizefruit,withbettercolorandflavorfromincreasedexposuretosunlight.Fruitthinningreducestrees’tendencytoalternatebear—lotsoffruitoneyear,almostnonethenext.Thinningreduceslimbbreakagefromheavycroploadsandcandecreasethespreadofsomediseases.Somefruittreesareself-thinning:cherry,fig,pomegranate,citrus,andnuttreesdropaportionoftheirimmaturefruit.Thinningisneededforthestonefruits,suchaspeachesandapricots,aswellasapplesandpears.Timethinningcarefully;don’tbetooearly,ortoolate.Thinstonefruitswhentheyare3/4to1inch(1.9to2.5cm)indiameter,applesandpearsat1/2to1inch(1.3to2.5cm),orfourtosixweeksafterfullbloom.Thinsmallstonefruits,suchasapricotsandplums,to2to4inches(5.1to10.2cm)apartonthebranch,largerones,suchaspeachesandnectarines,to3to5inches(7.6to12.7cm).Applesandpearsbloominclusters;thineachclustertojustoneortwofruits.Keepthebiggestfruitineachcluster,andspacefruitto6to8inches(15.2to20.3cm)apart.

Thinningcanbedonebyhandorusingapole.Byhandisaslowbutaccuratemethodbestusedonfruittreeskeptlowenoughtoreachthroughthecanopyfairlyeasily.Usehandshearsandleavethestemonthetree—justremovethefruit.Lightenthefruitloadmoretowardtheendsofbranches;leaveagreaternumberoffruitsclosertothetrunk.Removedamaged,disfigured,verysmall,anddoubles(twofruitsfusedtogether)first.Pole-thinningisfaster,notsoaccurate,andeasierwithtallertrees.Covertheendofthepolewithtapeorclothtoreducedamage.Extendingthepoleupintothecanopy,strikefruitclusters,toknockaportionoftheimmaturefruitoutofthetree.

MATURETREEREJUVENATIONRejuvenatingamaturefruittreebeginswithpruning.Attemptingtoprunealarge,old,neglectedtreeisadauntingtask,buttherewardsoftacklingitmaybewellworththetrouble.Beforegettingstarted,asksomequestions.Whattypeoffruittreeisitandwhatvariety?Beforeevenpickingupapairofhandshears,performathoroughvisualinspectionofthetree.First,findthegraftunionandmakesurethetreeisnotjusttherootstockthathastakenover.Ifthetreehasfruit,pickoneandgiveitataste;worms,disease,anddamageaside,trytoassessitsquality.

Now,checkthetreeforsignificantstructuraldefects:tearsonthetrunkfrompastlimbfailures,deadandbrokenbranches,hollowsinlargelimbsorthetrunk,orboth.Don’tforgettolookdown;usearaketomoveleaflitteraside.Examinethebasalflareandtherootcrownarea.Lookfordamageanddecayonbuttressroots,thelargeanchoringrootsrisingtothesurfacetomeetthebasalflare.Treerootstypicallydecayfromtheundersidefirst.Asoft,spongybuttressrootthatsmashesapartwithabootheelandsmellslikemushroomshasrottedallthewaythrough,fromthebottomup.Speakingofmushrooms—anyvisiblegrowingfromthesurfaceofroots,oras“shelves”onthebasalflareortrunk,isanindicatorofadvanceddecayintrees.Discoveringanyoneoftheabove-describeddefectsoughttogiveonepausebeforeattemptingtorejuvenateanoldfruittree.Thepresenceofmultiplestructuraldefectsincreasesthehazardofworkinginornearsuchatree.Donotpruneortrytoremoveahazardoustree.Callinacertifiedarboristtoprovideanevaluationandriskassessmentofthetree,andaskforsomeadviceaboutwhatcourseofactiontopursue(checkwiththeInternationalSocietyofArboriculturetofindacertifiedarboristinyourarea).

ToRejuvenateaTreeIfafteravisualcheck,it’sjustabigoldtreewithathicketfullofwatersproutsinthecenter,andasparseshowingoffruithighupontheoutsideofthecanopy,rejuvenatingthetreethroughpruningmightbeaworthwhileendeavor.

1.Tobegin,removealldeadwoodandsuckers.Prunedeciduoustreeswhiledormant,whenbranchingpatternsareeasiertosee.Trytovisualizethebeststructuretodevelop.

2.Usethinningcutstoreducethetree’sheightandopenupthecanopy;helpsunlightreachthelowerbranches.Maturetreerejuvenationistheonetimemakinglargercutsisthepreferredmethod.Whenindoubt,alwaysaskanexpertforadvicebasedonasitevisit.

3.Asawwillbeneededtoremovebrancheslargerthan2inches(5.1cm)indiameter.Topreventtearingbarkwhileremovingalargelimb,makeaseriesofthreecuts.First,identifythelocationofthebranchbarkridgeandthebranchcollar;next,planwheretomakeeachofthethreecutsdescribedbelowbeforemakingthem.Thebackcutismadeontheundersideofthelimbtoberemoved,8to12inches(20.3to30.5cm)awayfromthebranchcollar,asthoughleavingastub.Cutupaboutone-thirdofthewaythrough.Makethetopcut2inches(5.1

cm)fartheroutonthebranchfromthebackcut.Cutallthewaythroughandletthebranchfallaway.(Awayfromyou,fromeverybodybelow,fromotherbranches—inotherwords,cleartheareaaheadoftime.)Nowremovethestubleftbehindwiththefinalcut,makingitattheproperplaceandangletopreservethebranchbarkridgeandthebranchcollar.

Apples,pears,andcitrusexhibitthebestresponsetomaturetreerejuvenationpruning.Spreadthisseverepruningstrategyoveraperiodoftwoorthreeyears,oruptosixforparticularlyoldtrees,andstartworkingfromthetopandoutsideofthecanopydown.Remember,pruningduringdormancystimulatesgrowth,butsummerpruningremovesgreengrowth,restrictingordwarfingthetree.

Topreventtearingdamagewhenremovinglargelimbs,followthesestepsinsequence:(1)Ontheundersideofthebranch,cutaboutone-thirdofthewayup,8to12inches(20.3to30.5cm)awayfromthebranchcollar.(2)Next,cutfromthetopallthewaythroughthelimbabout2inches(5.1cm)fartherawayfromthebranchcollarthanthefirstcut.(3)Finally,removethestubwithoutdisturbingthebranchcollarorbranchbarkridge.

Evenancienttreescanberejuvenatedthroughpruning,asillustratedbythiscenturies-oldappletree.

TOPPINGToppingisaslangtermusedtodescribeindiscriminantheadingcutsmadetoreducetheheightoftrees.Toppinghastheoppositeofitsintendedeffectandencouragestreestoreplacethegrowthremovedwithpoorlyattachedstemspronetobreakageandfailure.Cutsaremadeinternodally,sowoundclosureispoorandopportunityfordecaytomoveintothecentralleaderandmajorlateralsisgreatlyincreased.Toppingfruittreesmovestheirenergytowardshootgrowthandawayfromfruitset,andmayexposebarktosunscaldinjury.Toppingisadetrimentaltreatmentforanytypeoftreeandshouldnotbeperformed.Reducingmaturetreeheightisaprocessdoneincarefullythought-outphases.Absolutelysteerclearofcommercialtreetrimmerswhooffertoppingasa“service.”

RULESOFTHUMBSaynotopaintsanddressings:Treesclosetheirownwoundsverywellwhenpruningcutsaremadeadjacentthebranchbarkridgeandthebranchcollar,withoutdamagingthem.Despitethesefacts,pruningpaintsorwounddressingsarestillsoldatgardencentersandhomeimprovementstores.Advertisementsfortheseproductspushthenotionthatpaintingpruningcutspromotes“healing.”Notonlydoessciencenotbearthisideaout,butitrefutesitaltogether.Pruningpaintsandwounddressingsdomoreharmthangood.Theseproductshamperwoundclosurebyplasteringpathogensagainstthewound,bykeepingthecutmoist,andbyblockingoutairandlight.Studieshaveshownincreaseddecaypatternsforpaintedversusunpaintedwounds.33Donotpaintpruningcuts.

Useyoungtreetraining:Closingpruningwoundsgreaterthan2inches(5.1cm)indiameterchallengestrees.Theyneedmoretimetocloselargerwounds,whichgivesdiseaseanddecayorganismsanopportunitytomoveinandbecomeestablishedinsidewood.Useyoungtreetrainingtoavoidfuturelargediametercuts.Keepupwithseasonalpruningchores,sowatersproutsandsuckersdon’tgrowthickerthan2inches(5.1cm).Whenlargerpruningcutscannotbeavoided,makethemduringtheseasonthatgivesthetreeitsbestchancetoclosethembeforeattackbypathogens.Besttimingforlargepruningcutsdependsonthetypeoffruittree,localclimate,andregionalpestpressures.CheckwiththelocalAgriculturalExtensionofficeforthisinformation.33Shigo,A.L.1986.ANewTreeBiology:Facts,Photos,andPhilosophiesonTreesandTheirProblems

andProperCare.(ShigoandTreesAssociates:Snohomish,WA).

Planahead:Carefullythinkaboutthedesiredstructureandwhetherornotthecutsmadeachievethis.Pictureabird’s-eyeviewandspacebranchesevenlyaroundthetrunk.Rememberthatbranchesandlimbsdon’trisewithagrowingtree(i.e.,aknotinatreewillremainatthesameelevationregardlessofhowtallthetreegrows),soanycutyoumakewillremainatthatelevationforthelifeofthetree.Allowlowbranchingforeasieraccesstofruit.Andremembertochipandreturnalldisease-freeprunedbranchestotheorchardfloorwithmulchtopreservesoilnutrients.

WhyPrune?Treessurvivewithouthuman-inflictedpruning;justlookoutsideforcountlessexamplesofMotherNaturedoingthejobjustfine.Inordertomaximizehealth,fruitset,longevity,andaestheticsinanorchardsetting,however,pruningisusedasatool.Someofthemostdirectbenefitsofpruninginclude:

•Strengtheningtreestructuretopreventfuturelimbandtrunkbreakage

•Improvingaircirculationandaccesstosunlight

•Makingharvestmoreaccessible

•Trainingthetreetotakeaparticularshape(e.g.,shorter,wider,thinner,espalier)

•Removingdeadordiseasedtreebranches

•Thinningfruitforlarger,healthierfruit

WhentoPrunePrunetreesofbroken,damaged,ordiseasedbranchesatplanting,orwhenevertheyaredetected;however,considerwaitingamonthortwoforthetreetorecoverfromthestressoftransplantbeforemakingadditionalcuts.

Latewinterorearlyspringisgenerallyanexcellenttimetopruneinordertostimulategrowthduringthespringandsummermonths.Pruningtreeswhentheyaredormanthastheadvantageoffewerinsectsanddiseasesinthesurroundingenvironment(ifprunedinwinter),andfordeciduoustrees,greatervisibilityofbranchstructurewhenleavesarenotpresent.Moreover,becausetreesstoreenergyreserveswhentheyaredormant,makingcutsatthistimeallowsthemtousethosereservesonfewer,morefocusedbranchstructuresinthespring,resultinginmoreconcentratedgrowthpatterns.So,makemoststructuralpruningcutswhentreesaredormanttostimulatevigorousgrowthduringthegrowingseason.

Incold-winterclimates,dormantpruningshouldoccurinearlyspringafterthelastfrostandbeforebudbreak,exceptforapricots(whichshouldnotbeprunedatallwhendormantbecauseitmakesthemsusceptibletoadiseasecalledEutypa).Forwarm-winterclimates,dormantpruningcanoccurbetweenthetimewhendeciduoustreeslosetheirleavesandbeforebudbreak.

Inthelatespringandsummer,treesexpendtheirstoredenergyonvigorousshootgrowth.Ifextensivesummerpruningremovesbranchesthatcontaintheseshootsandleaves,thetreeswillnothaveenoughenergyreservesavailabletomakeupforthelossandwillthusgointoaperiodofslowergrowth.Forthisreason,practicesummerpruningtoslowdowngrowthandpromotedwarfing.Focussummerpruningonremovingsuckersandwatersprouts,andmakingthinningcutsaimedatincreasingsunexposureforotherpartsofthetreeorimprovingfruitquality.Incold-winterclimates,avoidlatesummerorautumnpruning.Newgrowthrequiressufficienttimetocompletelyhardenoffbeforethefirstfrost;otherwise,tendershootsmaybedamaged.

Becomeanexpertinpruningbytrackingyourresultsandlearningfromexperience—yourorchardwillbenefitgreatly!

Thinkbeforeyoucut:Planpruningmaintenanceforfruittrees,bothshortandlongterm.Knowthereasontomakeeachcut,beforemakingit.Abouttocutthroughabranchandyoudon’tknowwhy?Don’tcutuntilyouknow.

WEEDINGJustlikedeathandtaxes,weedsintheorchardareguaranteed.Makeweedcontrolapartofroutineorchardmaintenance.Homeorchardswithregularweedcontrolpracticessuffertheminorannoyanceofanoccasionalweed,butthosewithoutanyoftensurrendertoatree-stunting,fruit-robbingmenace.

Plantsarenot“good”or“bad”inandofthemselves.Thetermweedisusedinthisbookwithoutanyderogatoryimplication—andonlyreferstothecommonlyaccepteddefinitionthataweedisaplantthatwedonotwantwhereitisgrowingbecauseithasarobustnature,capableofdisplacingotherplantsthatwedowant.Typicalorchardweedscanbeannualsorperennials.Anannualcompletesitslifecycle,seedtoseed,inasinglegrowingseason.Perennialslivelongerthantwogrowingseasonsandproduceseedsmorethanonce.Orchardweedscanbebroadleafplants,suchasdandelion,orgrasses,suchasBermudagrass.

Weedshamperthegrowthandproductivityoffruittreesbecausetheycompete,verysuccessfully,forthesameresources:water,soilnutrients,andspaceintherootzone.Weedsareshort-livedcomparedtofruittrees,buttheyaremorenimble.Theycountertheirshortliveswithamultitudeofseedsthatremainviablefordecades.Forexample,asingleplantofcommonpurslane,anedible“weed”valuedbymanyforitsculinaryuses,cansetmorethan240,000seeds.Thoseseedscanliedormant,butstillviable,inthesoilformorethantwentyyears.Soilsholdliterallymillionsofdormantweedseedsthatneedonlyasecondortwoofexposuretosunlighttogerminate.

Athicketofweedssurroundingafruittreeshortensthelengthofyearlyshootgrowthanddecreasesthequantityoffruitset,andthesizeofthosefruits.Theeffectofcompetingwithweedsisespeciallydamagingtonewlyplantedyoungtrees.Therapidgrowthrateofshootsinyoungtreesshouldbeencouragedtobuildastrongstructureforfruitbearing.Shootgrowthfornewtreesestablishingthemselvesamongheavyweedsaveragesjust25percentofthatgrownbysimilartreesplantedinamulchedorchard.Whentheweedsareremoved,youngtreesdwarfedbythiscompetitiondonotnecessarilyregaintheirvigorandattainanormalstaturelater.Keepallvegetationatleast3feet(0.9m)awayfromnewlyplantedfruittrees.Maintainthisweed-freecirclethroughouttheirusefullives.

Planaheadtowagethebattleagainstorchardweeds.Evaluatetheweedmanagementstrategiesoutlinedinthischapter,andchooseacombinationbestadaptedtothelocalclimateandweedpopulation.Beyondminimizingweedsintheorchard,aweedcontrolmethodshouldnotharmtreesorsoil.Weedcontrolshouldnotcreateorexacerbatesoilerosion,orsoilcompaction.Itshouldnotdamagethesoil’sinfiltrationrate,oritscontentoforganicmatter.Itshouldnothaveapositiveeffectontheweedseedbank,anditshouldnotcompetewiththefruittreesforresources.Weedcontrolmethodsoutlinedinthisbookareorganic-methodcompatible,anddonotpromotetheuseofsyntheticchemicalherbicides.

Coarsewoodchipsmakeforexcellentmulchandareoftenavailableforfreeorlow-costfromtreetrimmersorlocalrecyclingprograms.Recyclingisthekeytoahealthyecosystem!

MulchesAthicklayerofbiodegradablemulch,suchaswoodchips,controlsweedsbyblockingsunlightexposuretoseeds.Keepmulchlayers4to6inches(10.2to15.2cm)thick.Afterexcellentweedcontrol,thebenefitsofmulchingtheorchardflooraremany.Mulchespreventsoilerosion,improveinfiltrationrates,andhelpbuildhealthysoilsbyincreasingorganicmatterandnutrientsintherootzone.Fruittreesgrowninmulchedorchardshaveimprovedshootgrowth,andfruitquantityandquality.

Thedownsidetomulchingtheentireorchardfloor?Mulchesdecomposeandneedtobereplenished(userecycledmaterialswhenpossible).Checkthedepthofthemulchlayeratleastonceayear.Movingwheelbarrowsandothergardenequipmentthroughmulchcanbetedious.It’stoughtomaintainaconsistentlayerofmulchonasteepslope.Inwetclimates,mulchescanholdtoomuchwater,ordecomposetoorapidlytojustifytheirexpense.Indryclimates,theycanbecombustible.(Mineralmulchesareanalternativeforfire-proneanddesertlocales.)Sometimesamulchlayerharborsrodents.Thebenefitsofmulchingtheorchardflooroutweighthedisadvantagesmostofthetime.Mulchesareagoodchoicefororchardsthataresprayirrigated.Keepmulchatleastafewinchesawayfromtreetrunksinallcircumstances.Supplementweedcontrolinmulchedorchardsbyhand-pullingorspot-sprayingisolatedweeds.

CoverCrops(LivingMulches)Covercrops,orlivingmulches,suppressweedsbyoutcompetingthem.Covercropsgrowacarpetovertheorchardfloortoshutweedsout.Commonlygrownintheaislesbetweenrowsoffruittrees(calledthemiddles),livingmulchesoftenprovidehabitatforbeneficialinsects.Theyalsoincreasethesoil’sorganicmattercontentwithtime.Legumes,plantsinthebeanfamily,harvestnitrogenfromtheairtomeetasmuchasone-thirdoftheirownneedforthisnutrient.Usinglegumesasacovercropincreasestheamountofavailablenitrogenintherootzone.Livingmulchespreventsoilerosion.Cool-seasonannualgrassesarefrequentlyusedascovercropsbecausetheydiebackinthesummer,whenwaterandnutrientneedsoffruittreespeak.Thesegrassesaremowedattheendoftheirgrowingseason,andtheclippingsleftontheorchardfloorasamulch.Covercropsdocompetewithfruittrees,however,andshootgrowthratesandfruitingareaffectedinorchardsmaintainedwiththem.Livingmulchesusedfor

weedcontrolarebestforclimateswheretheywillnotneedirrigation.Furthermore,withsomefruits—applesforexample—legumecovercropsarenotrecommendedbecausetheyaddtoomuchnitrogen,promotingshootgrowthoverfruiting.Livingmulcheshavealsosometimesbeenshowntoincreasevolepopulations.

Notonlyisweedingbyhandanenvironmentallyfriendlymethod,itcanprovideasourceofhorticultural

therapy,whichhasbeenshowntodecreasestressandenhanceoverallproductivity.34

34WordenE.,T.Frohne,andJ.Sullivan.2004.“HorticulturalTherapy.”UniversityofFloridaIFASExtensionPublication#ENH970.

CultivationCultivationisthepracticeofshallow-tillingtheorchardfloortouprootweeds.Repeatedatregularintervalsthroughthegrowingseason,thismethodofweedcontroleliminatesannualweedsverywell—perennialweeds,notaswell.Usingapowertillertocutupandtossaroundchunksofperennialweeds,suchasBermudagrassandjohnsongrass,justredistributesthemacrosstheorchardfloor.Cultivationacceleratessoilerosion,anddamagessoilstructureandinfiltrationrates.Itdecreasesorganicmattercontentintherootzoneovertime.Cultivationalsostirsuptheseedbank,essentiallysettingupthenextcropofweeds,whilecontrollingthecurrentone.Usinggas-poweredtillersleavesacarbonfootprintthatwillneedtoberepeatedtwotofourtimesthroughasinglegrowingseason.Thepotentialtodamagefruittreerootswithtillingequipmentisever-present.Despitethedrawbacks,cultivationisthemostprevalentweedcontrolmethodusedtodayincommercialorganicorchards,andcultivationhasbeenusedinagricultureformillennia,allovertheglobe,forbothplantingandweedingcrops.

Inordertoavoidtheenvironmentaldamagefrommechanicalcultivation,especiallyinsmallerhomeorchardsettings,removalofweedsbyhand,usingtoolstouprootweeds,isamosteffective,environmentallyfriendlymethod.Doingsoalsoallowsonetobecomemorefamiliarandknowledgeablewiththesite,aftergettingupcloseandpersonalwithdifferentportionsandlayersoftheorchardsoil.Thiscanbenefitotheraspectsoforchardmaintenanceandcare.

Learnwhatkindsofweedsaregrowingintheorchard.Seizetheopportunitytoeradicatethem,especiallyperennials,beforeplantingfruittreeswheneverpossible.Oncetheorchardisplanted,maintainascheduleofweedcontrol.Growingfruittreeswithoutcontrollingweedsresultsinsmallertrees,withfewerfruits.

Specialtyweedcontrolmethodsarealsoavailabletosupplementanyoftheprimarystrategies.Forexample,nontoxic,organicherbicidesincludecloveoil,vinegar,andcitricacid.Thesearecalledcontactherbicides,whichmeanswhensprayedon,theykilltheleavestheytouch.Theyarenotsystemic;theydonotmoveinsideplantstokilltheroots.Gardencentersandhomeimprovementstoresmaycarrypremixedformulationsofthesealternatives,orresearchproven,organicoptionsandrecipesonline.

WeedsWanted!Inareaspronetosevereerosionduetowindorwaterrunoff,someplantsmaybebeneficialaroundfruittreestoanchorinsoilandpreserveroot-zonetopsoil.WhenFTPFdonatedandplantedmorethanathousandfruittreeswiththeHopitribeofnortheasternArizona,wherehighdesertwindserodesandysoilsatwill,itwasdiscoveredthatleavingsomeanchoringplantsnearnewlyplantedtreesaidedinkeepingvaluablesoilinplaceandultimatelyoptimizingsurvivalrates.Anexceptiontotheweedingrulecanbemadeinsuchsituations.Yetanotherillustrationthatwhiletherearealwaysguidingprinciplesthatsteerustowardsuccessfulstrategies,everyplantinghasuniqueneedsandpropertiesthatshouldbeevaluatedonacase-by-casebasis.Agoodremindertothinkoutsidethebox!

Inrarecaseswherehighwindserodeaplantingsitesignificantly,anexceptiontotheweedremovalrulemaybemadeasnativeflorawillhelpstabilizethesoilaroundthetree.

CompanionPlantingandPermacultureInnature,plantsgrowasideoneanother,oftensymbiotically,despitelimitedresources.Foramorenaturallandscape,considerplantingselectunderstorycompanionplantsthatcomplementfruittreeswhileprovidingadditionalharvestopportunities.Thepracticeofpermaculture,whichinvolvesholisticagriculturaldesignstomimicnaturalecosystems,oftenemployscloselyknitplantingsofediblecropsandfruittrees.Whiletheremaystillbecompetitionforresources,ifdesignedproperly,thecomplementarybenefitsofcompanionplantingscanprovidearobustandwell-roundedorchardsetting,especiallyinurbansettingswherespacemaybescarce.Manycommunitiesofferpermacultureclassesandseminarsthatserveasusefulintroductionstodesignprinciples.

Onceayoungtreeisestablishedinitsnewsurroundings,symbioticplantsmaybeplantednearthetreeaccordingtoestablishedpermaculturepractices.Theseunderstoryonionsaresaidtoprovideprotectionagainstpeachleafcurl.

—chapterseven—

PREVENTION,TROUBLESHOOTING,AND

CONTROLSAnounceofpreventionreallyisworthapoundofcure,soalthoughthischapteroffersspecificinformationaboutdealingwiththeorganismsandconditionsthatharmfruittrees,itbeginswithstrategiestopreventtheminthefirstplace.

INEVERYSITUATION,FTPFRECOMMENDSusingorganic,humanecontrolmethodsonly,fortheleastinvasive,mostsustainableoutcomepossible.Toxicchemicalsupsetthenaturalbalanceofthehomeorchard,anddomoredamagethangood.35Theycanalsoharmbeneficialinsects,otherwildlife,andhumans.Everysituationhasagentle,Earth-friendlysolution,andthischapteridentifiesmanysuchstrategiesforthemostcommonailments.

RIGHTTREE,RIGHTPLACEChoosethefruittrees,bothfruitwoodandrootstock,thatarebestadaptedtotheorchard’sclimateandsoil.Treespoorlyadaptedtotheirenvironmentspendenergystrugglingtosurvive.Theydonotproduceabundantfruitandaremorevulnerabletoattackbypathogenicorganisms.Findoutaboutthelocallyprevalentnonbeneficialinsectsanddiseasestohelpchoosethemostresistantcultivarsavailable.Toknowwhensomethingiswrong,learnwhatrightlookslike.Whatdoeshealthlooklikeforleaves,flowers,fruit,andbark,foreachkindoffruittreeintheorchard?

Planttreesinfullsunwithgoodaircirculation,attheproperdepth.Followcorrectirrigationpractices.Wood-boringinsectscansmelldrought-stressedtrees.Overlywetsoilsnotonlydepriverootsofoxygen,theygrowanaerobicorganisms;someofthemarepathogens.Fertilizetreeswiththecorrectamountperapplication,andattherighttimeduringthegrowingseason.Controlnitrogenlevels.Excessnitrogenpromotesleavesattheexpenseoffruit;thosebig,floppy,extra-greenleavesareveryattractivetofoliage-feedinginsects.Timepruningcorrectlyaswell.Pruneattherighttimeforeachtypeoffruittreegrowingintheorchard.35Infact,syntheticpesticideuseandoveruseisarelativelynewconcept,emergingaroundthetimeofWorldWarII,andhasnegativeconsequencesthathaven’tevenbeenfullyunderstoodyet.Forthousandsofyearsprior(i.e.,mostofhumanagriculturalhistory),syntheticpesticideswerenotpartoftheagriculturallandscapeandmoreorganicrearingmethodswereconsideredconventional.Forexample,donotpruneapricotsduringthedormantseason.TheymustbeprunedatleastsixweeksbeforethefirstrainscometodecreaseinfectionbyEutypafungus.

Watchoutforsignsandsymptoms.Walkthroughtheorchard,lookingthetreesover;noticetheatypical.Asignisthepresenceordirectevidenceofanonbeneficialinsect,mite,orpathogen,likewood-borerfrass(sawdust),fungalconks,andinsecteggmasses.Asymptomisthevisibleexpressionofthetree’sresponsetoharmfulorganisms:wiltingordiscoloredleaves,stuntedgrowth,sapoozingfrombark.Symptomsfordifferentmaladiesoftenlookthesame.Thiscombinationofsignsandsymptomsneedstobeobservedandidentifiedbefore

takinganyactiontoremedythesituation—indeed,positiveidentificationisrequiredtodetermineifanyactionisneededatall.

Afruittree’sbestdefenseagainstharmfulorganismsandpathogensispreventionthroughpropertreeselection,planting,irrigation,fertilization,pruning,andcleanup—inotherwords,stayingstrongandhealthy.

Fungalgrowthsorconks,likeonthispeachtreebranch(right)andespeciallyatthebaseoftrunks(left),areindicatorsofinternaldecay.

ORCHARDCLEANUPTolimittheadvanceofharmfulorganismsatthebeginningofthenextgrowingseason,cleanuptheorchardduringautumn.Fordeciduousfruittrees,rakeupandremovefallenleaves.Forcitrustrees,prunebackanybranchesthataretouchingotherstructures,suchasfencesorhouses,topreventcrawlingorganismsfromfindingawayontothetree.Forallfruittrees,pickupandremovedeadfruit,bothfallenandstillattachedtolimbs.Pruneoutandremoveanydeadtwigsandbranches.Allofthislate-seasonlittercanbecomposted.Ifthecompostpileismaintainedtoreachatemperatureof150°Fto160°F(66°Cto71°C)forthreetofourdays,theresultingcompostwillbefreeofdiseasesandweedseedsandcanbereturnedtotheorchardfloor.(PleaseseetheRecommendedReadinglistforreferencesoncomposting.)Aftertheorchardcleanupiscomplete,sprayanorganicdormantoilandfungicidetopreventinfectionnextspring.Specificsaboutthesesprays,andothercontrolmethods,canbefoundinthenextsectionandthetablesattheendofthechapter.

Propercleanupeliminatesbreedinggroundsforpathogens.

Spoiledordamagedtreefruitservesasavaluablesourceofnutrientsandmicronutrientsforthegardenandmaybecompostedtonourishthenextgenerationofplants.

INSECTS,MITES,ANDNEMATODESTheinsects,mites,andnematodesthatcommonlydamagefruitandfruittreescanbesortedbythetypesofactiontheymakewhenfeeding.

Sap-suckinginsectsandmitespiercefoliageorstemsandsuckoutplantjuicestosustainthemselves.Suckingtypesincludeaphids,mealybugs,scale,psyllids,leafhoppers,andspidermites.Thripsofteninfestflowers,buttheycanalsobefoundontendernewleavesandshoots,andoccasionallyonsmallfruit.Thinandblack,thripsmovequicklyandareaboutthesizeoftheeyeofaneedle.Theyfeedbyraspingthesurfaceofplanttissues,andthensuckingupthereleasedjuices.

Symptomsofdamagecausedbythesesuckingorganismsaremostnoticeableonfoliage.Leavesmaylookdiscolored,ordistortedbypuckeringorcurling.Leavessuckeddrywillturnbrownandfallfromthetree.Aphidpopulationstendtopeakinearlyspringontendernewgrowth.Spidermitesfavordry,dustyconditions;theycanbecarriedonthewind.Theycausethemostdamagetodrought-stressedplantsandtrees.Suckinginsectsandmitescanbevectors,carriersofotherplantdiseases,especiallyviruses.Fungalandbacterialdiseasesmayalsobetransmittedtofruittreesbysuckinginsectsandmites.Aphidsvectorthelargestnumberofdifferentplantdiseases,thripsthefewest.

Aphidsareamongthemostharmfulorganismsforfruittreesastheyarevectorsofmanydiseases.Commonaphidspicturedhereincludethegreenpeachaphid(above),blackcherryaphid(belowleft),andwingedaphid(belowright).Whenhosttreeresourcesdeteriorate,somespeciescangivebirthtowingedoffspringwhothenmigratetoahealthierhost.

Aphids

Spidermite

Mealybugs

Cottonycushionscale

Citruspsyllid

Commonsuckinginsectsthatharmfruittreesareshownhere.

SuckingInsectsSuckinginsectsandmitesexcreteasticky-sweetgoocalledhoneydew.Eventhougheachindividualinsectormiteistiny,thewholepopulationcansecretesufficientquantitiestocoatleaveswithastickyshine,andtheexcessdripsdownontoanysurfacebelowthetrees(picnictables,sidewalks,carwindshields).Afungus,calledblacksootymold,livesonhoneydew,cloakingthestickyleaveswithafineblackdust.Allofthisisunsightlybutnotharmfultofoliageandcanbewashedoffwithahose-endspraynozzle.

Antslovetoeathoneydew,too.Theyfarmaphids,mealybugs,softscales,andwhitefliestoharvesttheirhoneydew.Antswillbringsuckinginsectsintofruittrees,particularlycitrus,andthenguardtheirherdsbykillingbeneficialinsects,suchaslacewings.Excludingantsfromcitrustreesprovidessomecontrolofsuckinginsectpopulations.Prunecitrustreessothattheonlypointofcontactwiththegroundforeachtreeisthetrunk.(Antscan’tjump.)Branchesmustnottouchtheground,walls,fences,orothertrees.

Discouragingtheconditionsthattheseinsectsandmitesprefercanhelptodecreasetheirnumbersandimpactintheorchard.Fruitthinning,pruningatthepropertime,andfollowingtheorchardcleanupguidelinesdescribedabovewillhelp.Preventingdroughtstressandexcessnitrogenlevelsdoes,too.Thesoft-bodiedsuckinginsectshaveahostofnaturalenemies:lacewings,ladybeetles,minutepiratebugs,parasiticwasps,andmanytypesofbirds,especiallyfinches,enjoysnacksofaphidsandpsyllids,too.Encourageconditionsfavorabletothesebeneficialorganismsinordertoprovidealineofprotection.(Seephotosfor

examples.)

Ladybeetledevouringanaphid

Lacewinglarvaeingestingharmfulinsectnymphs...

Aminutepiratebughavingameal

Parasiticwasplayingeggsinatarnishedplantbugcarcass

andinadultform

Mostinsectsarenotharmfultofruittrees.Infact,many,suchasbeesandwasps,areabsolutelyessentialaspollinatorsandpredatorsofnonbeneficialinsects.Indiscriminanttoxicpesticidesshouldalwaysbeavoidedtomaintainahealthyorchardbalance.

ChewingInsectsChewinginsectseatfoliageorfruit,orboth.Mothsandbeetleswhoselarvae(caterpillarsandgrubs)eatleavesandfruitareincludedinthisgroup.Leaf-eatersincludesnailsandslugs,earwigs,tentcaterpillars,leafminers,andleafrollers.Damagetofoliagebythesetypesofinsectsissimilarandeasytodiscern,exceptforleafminers.Thistypeofinsectchewsoutallorpartoftheundersideofleaves,leavingjusttheveinsandthewaxycoatingonthesurface,givingleavesaskeletonizedappearance.Fruit-eatinginsectsarethemostdifficulttocontrolandcausethemostdamagetofruitcrops:codlingmoth,plumcurculio,applemaggots,cherryfruitfly,andorientalfruitmoth,tonameafew.Theadultfemalesofthesespeciesmaylayeggsonthefoliage,onthefruitsurface,orinserteggsintothefruit.Thelarvaecrawltothefruit,boreintoitiftheyarealreadyonthesurface,orhatchinsideandfeed.

Thisfecaltrailinacitrusleafisanearlysignofleafminerlarvainfestation.

Forapplesandpears,exclusionaryprotectionfrommanyfruit-eatinginsectssuchascodlingmoths,inproneareas,canbeachievedbythinningclustersdowntoonefruit,andthencoveringthemwithstandardpaperlunchbags.Cutaslitinthebottom,foldedendofthebag,largeenoughtoslipthefruitthroughwhenitisgolfball–size,or1/2to3/4inch(1.3to1.9cm)indiameter.Allowtheslittocloseoverthestemandstaplethetopofthebagfirmlyshut.Ripenessmaybechecked,beingcarefultorestaplethebagafterward.Bagasmanyfruitsasdesired.Researchshowsthatdoingsonotonlyprotectsthemfromcommoninsectsanddiseases,butitalsoresultsinfewerdefects.36Infact,someAsiancommercialgrowersuseasimilarbaggingmethodtogrowpremiumfruits.Forredapples,removebagsaboutaweekpriortoharvesttoallowforcolordevelopment.

Wood-BoringInsectsWood-boringinsectsarethelarvaeofbeetlesandmothsthatchewtheirwayintobranchesandtrunks,insteadofleavesorfruit.Healthytreescanfendoffborerassaultsbypushingsapintoentryholesandsmotheringtheborers.Oldertrees,drought-stressedtrees,ortreesalreadyindistressfromotherinsectsordiseases,oftenlackthevigortorespondandsuccessfullyrepelwoodborers.Borerscankillafruittree.Preventionisthebeststrategyagainstwood-boringinsects.Maintainhealthytreestokeepstresslowandenergyhigh.Vigilantend-of-seasonorchardcleanupandsubsequentorganicdormantoilsprayapplicationsdecreasethenumberofoverwinteredwoodborereggs.Protectfruittreetrunksfrominjury,especiallysunscald(describedintheEnvironmentalDisorderssection.)Root-knotnematodesaremicroscopicwormsthatboreintotreerootsanddisrupttheirfunction.Infestedtreesarestunted,donothavegoodfruitset,andliveashorterlifespanthanistypical.Nematodesprefersandysoils.Theyareverydifficulttocontrol,sofindoutifroot-knotnematodeinhabitstheorchard’ssoilbeforeplanting,andselectresistantrootstocks.36Bessin,R.2003.“BaggingApples:AlternativePestManagementforHobbyists.”UniversityofKentuckyCooperativeExtensionService.ENTFACT-218.

Root-knotnematodesaremicroscopicwormsthatattacktreeroots,leadingtostuntedgrowthanddeformities,asshowninthesecitrustreeroots.Chooseresistantrootstocksandselectsiteswithuninfectedsoil.

Organicdormantoilmixturescanbepurchasedormadeathomeaccordingtoyourfavoriteonlinerecipeusingnon-GMOoils,biodegradablesoap,andwater.Spraythemixtureontodormanttreebranchesandtrunksuntiltheyarewet,ondayswithoutextremeheat,freezingconditions,orprecipitation.Theoilworkstopreventoverwinteringeggsandfungalsporesfromdeveloping.Takeonewinterafternoontoapplyadormantoilandmakeaworldofdifferenceduringthegrowingseason.

Afterprevention,thefirstlineofdefenseagainstmanyunwantedorganismsusingorganic,humanecontrolmethodsistophysicallyremovethem.Bothsmallandlargeinsectscanbepickedoff,brushedoff(byhandorwithapaintbrush),orhosedoff.Aslightshakingofabranchonthispawpawtreeisenoughtoscarethisdamagingstinkbugaway.Knowthefeedingpatternoftheorganism.Snails,forexample,feedatnight,andcaneasilyberemovedallatoncewithaflashlightorabrightmoon.

DISEASESDiseasesthatafflictfruittreescanbecausedbybacteria,fungi,orviruses.Theycanbevectoredbyinsectsandmites.Inoculumscanbeintroducedtotreesbybirdsandhoneybees—orboots,pruningtools,andtires.Vasculardiseasesoftreesclogthemovementofwater,nutrients,andsugarsthroughlivewood;mostarefatalandincurable.Thistypeofdiseasecanbecausedbyanyofthethreeagents:bacteria,fungi,orviruses.Foliardiseasescanalsobecausedbyallthreeagents.Someareprimarilycosmeticanddon’tdoagreatdealofharm;othersarequiteseriousanddefoliatetreesandreducefruitproduction.Somesymptomsthatdisplayfirstonfoliagearenotfoliardiseasesatall,butareindicativeofanotherdisorder,oranutrientdeficiency.Rootandcrownrotsaretypicallycausedbyfungi.Someofthemostcommonandsignificantdiseasesoffruittreesaredescribedinthissection.Plantingresistantcultivarsisoftenthebestwaytocombatthesediseases.Seethetablesattheendofthechapterformoreinformationabouttheircontrolandprevention.Noteverydiseasedescribedisprevalenteverywhere;contactregionalsources,likeAgriculturalExtensionorMasterGardenersforpertinent,localinformationaboutfruittreediseases.

Fireblight,shownhere,ismosteffectivelyaddressedbypruningwithsterileinstrumentsandcarefullydisposingofinfectedparts.

Fireblightisnamedfortheblackenedtwigs,withdriedshriveledleavesstillattached,itleavesbehind.Afflictedbrancheslookscorched,asifbyablowtorch.Causedbyabacteria,itenterstreesthroughopenblossomsandnewshoots,killingtwigsandbranchesfromtheterminalendbacktowardthetrunk.FireblightattacksfruittreesintheRoseplantfamily:apple,pear,quince,andloquat.Rainyspringsspreadfireblightmorequickly.Avoidplantinghighlysusceptiblevarietiestominimizedamage.Less-vulnerablevarietiesareavailableforapples,includingmanyheirloomcultivars.Forpears,thevarietySeckelissomewhatlesssusceptible.

Fireblightinfectionscanseverelydisfigureorkillfruittrees.Pruningoutinfectedlimbstoavertthedisease’sspreadintolargerwoodisthemostcommontreatmentforfireblight.Pruningtoolbladesmustbesterilizedbeforeeverycut.Diptheheadofshearsintoa10percentsolutionofbleachandwaterbetweeneverycuttoavoidspreadingthebacteriaintohealthywood.Bagallcuttingsinplastic,astheyarecut.Unlesscompostpiletemperaturesof150°Fto160°F(66°Cto71°C)forthreetofourdaysareguaranteed,donotputfireblight–infectedstemsinthecompostpile.Cut18inches(46cm)intogoodwood—thatmeanscutinfectedbranchesafootandahalfbelowvisiblesymptoms.Thisinfectionspreadsunderneathbark,andinhabitswoodthatlookshealthybeforesymptomsstarttoshow.Bleachwatercorrodesmetal,sothoroughlydryandoilpruningtoolsaftercompletingfireblightpruning.

Applescabandpearscabarefungaldiseasesthatinfectnewleavesandfruitwithdarkscabbypatchesthatgrowtogethertoformlargebrownlesions.Scabcancauseruined,immaturefruittodropfromthetree.Wetspringsprovideconditionsripeforscab.Orchardcleanupattheendofthegrowingseasonisessentialtoreducethenumbersofoverwinteringsporesintheorchard.Drysprings,andirrigationthatkeepstreefoliagedry,significantlyreducesincidenceofscabdiseases.Resistantvarietiesofbothappleandpearareavailable.

Applescabonaleafandfruit.Keepfoliagedryduringwateringandremovehighlyinfectedtwigsforcontrol.

Peachleafcurlisafungaldiseasethataffectsbothpeachesandnectarines.Sporesareprimarilyspreadbyrain.Attackingfoliagefirst,fruitproductionofseverelyinfectedtreesisreducedbythisdisease.Shortlyafterbloomingisfinished,leavesthickenandpuckerwithredblisters.Bylatespring,infectedleavesturnreddishbrownandfalloffthetree.Treeswillputoutasecondsetofleaves,whichwillgrownormallyiftheweatherdriesup.Theenergyspentinreplacingleaveslosttopeachleafcurlwillreducefruitset.Tipsofnewshootscanalsobedistortedbythisdisease.Repeated,severeinfectionsweakentrees.Afewvarietiesofbothpeachandnectarinehavesomeresistance.Pruningaffectedshootsdoesnotprovideanycontrol.Organicfungicidalspraysappliedattheendofthegrowingseasonreducethenumbersofoverwinteringsporesandhelptocontrolthisdiseasethenextspring.

Peachleafcurlisunsightlyandcanreducefruitproduction.Severelyinfectedleavesmayberemovedbyhandanddisposedof(notcomposted).

Powderymildew,anotherfungaldiseaseoffoliage,assaultsmanydifferentspeciesofplantsandtrees.Powderymildewformsagray-whitefuzzoverleafsurfaces,andsometimesonflowers,fruits,andshootsaswell.Persistentinfectionscancauseleavestodieanddropoff.Thisreducesthetree’scapacityforphotosynthesisandusesitsenergytogrownewleaves.Powderymildewsporesneedmoisturetobeginaninfection,butgetalongindryweatherquitewellonceestablished.Preventionisthebestcontrolstrategy.Fruittreesneedtobeplantedinfullsunandhavegoodaircirculationthroughtheircanopies.Keepfoliagedry,butinaridclimates,washitoffoccasionally—onceortwiceduringthesummer,toremovepowderymildewspores.Useahose-endnozzleandchoosethemorningofaclear,dry,warmday.Hoseoffupperandlowerleafsurfaceswithafine,strongspray.Powderymildewdoesnotflourishonleaflitter;itonlyinfectslivefoliage.Overwinteringsporesclingingtobarkcanbereducedwithorganicfungicidalspraysappliedattheendofthegrowingseason.

Powderymildewtypicallyshowsuponleaves,butcanalsobefoundonotherpartsofatree.

Organicfungicidalspraysareavailableonthemarketor,likedormantoils,canbepreparedathomefollowingmanyonlinerecipes.Oneeffectivemethodcallsfor4teaspoons(18.4g)bakingsodaandanequalamountofbiodegradableliquidsoapmixedwith1gallon(3.8L)ofwaterandappliedthroughaspraybottle.Researchershavevalidatedthesuccessofbakingsodaasafungicideformanyapplications,includingasacontrolforpowderymildew.

Brownrot,afungaldiseasethatspoilsfruit,infectsallofthestonefruits,includingcherries.Afull-blowninfectioncanwipeoutanentirecropjustbeforeharvest.Bloomsandnewshootscoatedwithmoistureforaminimumoffivehourscanbeinfectedbysporesthatoverwinteredonlastyear’smummies.Infectedblossomsshrivelanddonotsetfruit.Theyalsoharborsporesthatwillinfectfruitlaterinthegrowingseason.Brownrotonfruitbeginsassoftbrownspotsthatmushroomintougly,powderymassesofspores.Thefruitisconsumedveryquickly,butthemajoritystaysattachedtothetree.Thewrinkled,dried-outmummiesclingtotheirtwigs,carryingnextyear’sbrownrotspores.Orchardcleanupisthefirstlineofdefenseagainstbrownrot.Removeorburydeeplyallmummiesonfruittreesandtheorchardfloorduringtheendoftheseasoncleanup(donotcompost).Abandonedorneglectedstonefruittreesneartheorchardcanalsobeasourceofbrownrotspores.Woundsinfruitsurfacesmadebyinsectsandbirdsopenentrypointsforbrownrotinfection.Harvestedfruitcanalsosuccumbtobrownrot.Keeptheharvestincoolstorage,around32°F(0°C).Removeanyinfectedfruitrightaway.

Rootandcrownrotsbegininthesoil—usuallypoorlydraining,overlywetsoilthatcrowdsoutoxygenandstressestreeroots.Treesplantedtoodeeplyareespeciallyvulnerable.Theorganismsthatcausetheserotsarefungi,forthemostpart,andnativetothesoilstheyinhabit.Inotherwords,they’reeverywhere,allthetime.Avoidcreatingthechronicallywet,warmenvironmentsthatfavortheirdominanceoverothermicro-floraandfaunalivingintherootzone.

InitialSymptomsofRotsInitialsymptomsofrootandcrownrotslooklikedroughtstress(causingustowatermore!),becauserootsaredyingandfailingtodeliverwatertotopgrowth.Leavesturnyellow,wilt,andfalloff.Declineanddeathofthetreecantakeyears,oronlyasingleseason,dependingonthetypeoffungusandwheretheinfectionbegins.Rottingrootscausetreestolingerforalongerperiodthanrotsthatstartattherootcrownorbasalflare.Treatingrootandcrownrotsisdifficultandgenerallyfutileoncediseasehasbecomeestablishedinthetree.Oncerootrotsmakeittotherootcrownfromtheperiphery,thefateofthetreeissealed.

Stagesofbrownrotinpeaches.Woundscreateentrypointsforinfection(liketheonecausedbythisfeedingstinkbug),leadingtosoftbrownspots,culminatinginshriveledmummies,whichmustberemovedandcarefullydiscardedtopreventthediseasefromreturningthenextseason.

Preventionisthecure.Practiceadeep,infrequentirrigationregime.Keepmulchawayfromrootcrownsandbasalflares.Plantnewtreesalittle“high”inslowerdrainingsoils.Donotirrigatetreetrunks;keepbasalflaresandlowertrunksdry.Donotburythegraftunion.Donotgrowturfgrassuptothebaseoffruittrees.

ThegenusPhytophthorawaspreviouslyclassifiedasafungusandisnowanOomycetes.Biologicalclassificationaside,Phytophthoraisasignificantcauseofrootrotsforsubtropicalfruittrees.Thesporescansurviveforyearsinsoilsthatremainmoist.Bewaryofreplantingonoldavocadoorcitrusorchardsitesiftheirsoilshavenotbeencompletelydryforatleastseveralmonths.BothavocadoandcitrustreesarevulnerabletoPhytophthorarootrots.Whitesapotetreesareresistant.

Overlywet,poor-draining,orsoggysoilscanleadtorootandcrownrots.Mulchwasallowedtopileupatthebaseofthisappletree,whichwasplantedtoodeepandthenoverwatered,leadingtoafungalinfection.Keepmulchafewinchesclearofthetrunkatalltimes,keeptrunksdry,andwaterdeeplyandinfrequentlytopreventrootinfections.

Verticilliumwiltisavasculardiseaseofplantsandtreescausedbyasoilbornefungus.Thisorganismisdistributedinsoilsworldwideandinfectsmorethan300differentspeciesoftreesandplants.Apricot,peach,cherry,andavocadoarevulnerabletothisdisease,althoughavocadofrequentlyrecovers.Appleandpeartreesareresistant.Root-knotnematodescanvectorverticilliumwilt.Thefungusentersrootsandprogressesupward;infectedbranchesdiefromthebottomup.Verticilliumcolonizesplantcellsandplugswaterconductingtissues.Itisnotabletomovelaterallyinsideplants,butonlyfromonecelltothenext,endtoend.Thisdiseaseexpressioncanmeanonedeadbranch,ormany,ormostofthebranchesonthetree.

Thereisnocure,andnoviabletreatmentforverticilliumwilt,butsometimestreesspontaneouslyrecover,anddon’tdisplaysymptomsagain.Sometimestheydo,perhapsyearslater.Removedeadbranchesordeadtreeswithasmuchoftherootsystemandadjacentsoilaspossible.Donotusewoodchipsformulchorcomposttreepartsfrominfectedtrees.Ifthediseaseisdetected,donotgrowotherhighlysusceptibleplantssuchastomatoes,potatoes,andstrawberries,intheorchard.Donotuseinfectedtrees,evenrecoveredones,forpropagationoffruitwoodorrootstock.Purchasenewtreesfromreputablenurseries.Maintainhealthytrees.Preventdroughtstressandavoidexcessnitrogen.

ENVIRONMENTALDISORDERSEnvironmentaldisorders,alsocalledabioticdiseases,arenotdiseasesatall.Althoughtheirsymptomscanmimiccommondiseasesorthedamagecausedbyinsectsandmites,abiologicalagentisnotthecause.Whensymptoms,butnosigns,areobserved,thecausemaybeabiotic.Environmentaldisorderscanbedifficulttodiscern,andit’sveryimportanttoknowtheorchardsite,thetrees,andtheirhistorywell.Commonenvironmentaldisordersaredescribedinthissection.

Droughtstressstartswithanoff-colorlooktoleaves,adull,bluecast,ratherthanashinygreen.Leaveswiltnext.Thenleaveswilldryanddropoff,andblossomsandsmallfruitwill,too.Diebackofwoodprogressesfromtwigstobranchestothetrunk.Rootsaredyingaswell.Caughtearly,treesexhibitingsymptomsofdroughtstressrecoverrightaway—limpleavesperkupquicklyafterwatering.Foliagetoodryfortoolongmaystillfalloff,andthetreewillregrownewleavestoreplacethem.

Drought-stressed,wiltingleavesonacrabappletree.Wateristhecure.

Theenvironmentaldisordercausedbytoomuchwaterisactuallyanoxygendeficit.Atfirst,thislookslikedroughtstress.Foliagewiltsanddropsoff.Leavesoftenturnapaleyellowbeforewiltingandfalling,though.Additionalsymptomsofinsufficientoxygenareathinningcanopy,slowgrowthrate,smallleafsize,andchlorosis—theyellowingofleaves.Twigsmaydieback.Rootsinchronicallywetsoilcanturnblack.Thesoilmaylookblackandsmelllikerotteneggs.Rootrotscantakeoveroxygen-poor,wetsoils,changingthisenvironmentaldisorderintodisease.

Waterloggedsoilscanleadtoayellowingofleaves,calledchlorosis.Implementingaless-frequent,deeperwateringschedulecanhelp.

Broadleafevergreentrees,likethesubtropicalfruits,arethemostvulnerabletofrostdamage,butiftemperaturesbecomecoldenough,deciduoustreescanbedamagedalso.Leavesandshootsturnbrown,lookingscorched.Forsomespeciesoftrees,frost-damagedleavesturnredorpurple(it’snotthesameasautumncolor).Thetopandoutsideofthecanopysustainsinjuryfromfrostfirst.Newgrowthisespeciallyvulnerable;olderleavesandstemsaremorecold-hardy.Latefrosts,thosethatoccurinearlyspring,canbeverydamagingtobloomsandnewfruit.Waittopruneofffrost-killedbranchesuntilafterthelastfrostoftheseason.Leavethedeadleavesandtwigstoprotectthelivewoodbelowfromlaterfrosts.Waituntilnewgrowthbeginsbelowthefrost-killedportiontoshowwherethewoodisstillalive.Prunetothehighestlivenode.

Sunscaldisthenamegiventobarkkilledbysunexposure;thisinjurycanbeprecededbygreattemperatureswingsduringthewinter.Sunscaldspreadsverticallyandoccursonthesouth-andsouthwest-facingsectionofthetrunk.Symptomsshowatfirstasdiscoloredbark,reddishorbrown;then,itshrinks,dries,cracks,andliftsawayfromthewoodunderneath.Livebarkattheedgesoftheinjurywilltrytoclosethewound.Aroundedridgemayformalongtheperimeterofthedamagedarea,butasectionofthewoodwillremainexposed.Thistypeofinjuryisveryattractivetowoodborersandotherdecayorganisms.Factorsthatincreaseriskofsunscaldaredroughtstress,largepruningwoundsormechanicalinjurytothetrunk,andsuddenexposuretodirectsunlightfollowingseverepruning.Orchardtreesoftenhavetheirtrunkswhitewashedtoreflectlightandheatawayandreducesunscaldrisk.Properpruningpracticesthatkeeptrunksshadedareabetter,moreorganicmethodofreducingsunscald,buttopaintfruittreetrunksuseawhitewashdesignedforthepurpose.Organicoptionsarealwaysrecommended;however,ifusinglatexpaint,besuretouseequalpartspaintandwater.(Neverapplyfull-strengthhousepainttotreetrunks.)

Thedarkened,frost-damagedbranchonthisfigtreewasprunedoncethesubsequentnewgrowthoffshootsrevealedtheextentofthedamage.

Earlysunscaldsymptomsinayoungfruittree(left).Properpruningtokeepvulnerabletrunksshadedisthepreferredmethodofsunscaldprotection,thoughmanyorchardistsapplyawhitewashtotrunks(aboveright).Whenusingawhitewash,chooseanorganic-basedmixture.

Nutrientdeficienciesareperhapsthemostcommonlymisdiagnosedenvironmentaldisorder.Symptomsofnitrogendeficiencybeginwiththeoldestleavesturningyellow;newleavesremaintheirnormalshadeofgreen.Thedisorderprogresseswithsmallerthannormalleavesandshootgrowththat’stooshortforthefruittreetype.Fordeciduoustrees,autumnleafdropoccursearlierthanitshould.Leavesturnyellowduringirondeficiencyalso,butthistime,theyoungestleavesyellow.Theveinsofaniron-deficientleafremaingreen;ityellowsbetweenthem.Withcontinuingandsevereirondeficiency,newleavesarealmostwhite.Additionalsymptomsofthisdisorderaresmallleaves,normallengthshootsthataretoonarrow,andtwigdieback.AnalkalinepHandcold,overlywetsoilshamperironuptakebyroots.Othermicronutrientdeficiencies,particularlyincitrus,canlookalotlikeanirondeficiency.

Interveinalchlorosis,ortheyellowingofleavesbetweenveins,isasymptomofirondeficiencyand/orothermicronutrientdeficiencies.

Saltdamagetotreesandplantscanoccurfromsoilsaltsabsorbedbyroots(throughimproperfertilizationorsaltyirrigationwater),orbysaltsinsolutionsplashedonfoliage(roaddeicingorseaspray).Symptomsofroot-absorbedsalttoxicityareyellowfoliage,stuntedgrowth,andolderleaveswithbrownedgesandtips.Salttoxicitykillsplantsandtrees.Salt-splashedfoliageturnsbrown,buttheinjuryisconfinedtotheportionofthecanopythatgot“hit.”Damagedleavesdieandfalloff.Chronicexposuretothistypeofsalttoxicitycancauseearlyleafdropintheautumn,andslowemergenceofnewleavesinspring.Saltswillaccumulateinthesoilbelowthesplashzone,too.

Smogdamagestreeleaves,butnotalltypesoffruittreesaresusceptible.Discolorationofleafsurfacesisthesymptomofthisenvironmentaldisorder.Presenceofhighlevelsofozoneorsulfurdioxide,orboth,causethemostvisibledamage.Leafsurfacesthatlookfleckedorstippledwithtinybrownspotsthatfadetograyorwhiteistypicalofozoneinjury.Thiscanlookalotlikespidermitedamage;checktheundersidesofleavesforsignsofthepestbeforeassumingozoneistheculprit.Highlevelsofsulfurdioxideoccurinairpollutiongeneratedbycoalburning.Foliarinjuryfromsulfurdioxidemanifestsasinterveinalbleaching;leaftissuebetweentheveinsturnswhite—notyellowasinirondeficiency.There’snocureforsmogandnotreatmentforthedamageitdoestotrees.

Tryingtogrowfruittreesintheurbanhaze?Choosefruittreetypesthatareleastlikelytoshowdamage.Mulberry,avocado,andpeacharereportedlyvulnerabletoozone.Pearsandapricotshaveareputationforbeingresistant.37

37Griffiths,H.2003.“AirPollutiononAgriculturalCrops.”OntarioMinistryofAgriculture:OrderNo.85-002.

Treeshelpremoveozone,amajorcontributortosmog,fromtheloweratmosphere—butarealsodamagedbyit,asillustratedinthisblackcherryleaf.Inhigh-smogareas,chooseozone-damageresistanttreetypesandplantasmanyaspossibletoreduceairpollutionforthecommunity.

ANIMALEXCLUSIONYoungtreesplantedinareaswithfree-roamingdeerorfarmedanimalpopulationsrequireprotectionfrombrowsinguntiltheybecomeestablishedenoughtowithstandsuchpressuresontheirown.Deerareparticularlynotoriousforenjoyingamouthfulortenofnubilefruittreeleavesandforrubbingjaggedantlersagainstfragiletrunks.Luckilytherearesimple,successful,humanesolutions.Tothisend,FTPFencouragestheuseofnonlethalanimalexclusionmethodsonly.Notsurprisingly,thesearealsothemosteffectiveforprotectinganorchard.

PerimeterFencingFencingisareliableandlong-lastingoptiontoprotecttreesindividuallyortheentireyard.Forfarmedanimals,heavyfencingisnecessary,andistypicallyinstalledbyprofessionals.Checkwithlocalprovidersforquotesandbesuretoarrangeaninstallationpriortotheorchardplanting.Remember,itonlytakesoneafternoonofanimalaccessfortreedamagetooccur.Chooseafenceheightbasedonthejumpingandclimbingcharacteristicsoftheanimalsatlarge.

Fordeer,aimhightoaccountfortheirimpressiveleapingability.A71/2-foot(2.3m)ortallerfenceworkswell.Thoughmostdeercancleareventheseheightswhenstressed,especiallywhite-taileddeer,undernormalconditions,theywon’t.FTPFhashadsuccessusingthepolypropylenedeerfencesdiscussedherein.Thesearerelativelyinexpensive,unobtrusive,andeasytoinstall.Besuretofollowthespecificdirectionsfromthechosenfencemanufacturer,alongwiththesegeneralguidelines,whenappropriate.

Toprotectyourorchardwithfencing:

1.Measuretheperimeteroftheorchardwithameasuringwheeloranotherdevice,keepingfarenoughawayfromtheorchard’sedgestopreventbrowsersfrompushingupagainstthefenceandtuggingonaleaforbranch.Addabout10percenttothetotallengthwhenprocuringthefencetoallowforadjustments,installationmistakes,andfuturerepairs.

2.Next,obtainthefenceposts.Metalt-postsaregenerallyeasiertodriveintothegroundthanothertypesthatrequiremoreelaboratepost-holedigging.Givepreferencetorecycledpostsforenvironmentalreasons.Ifusingt-posts,preferablywithastabilityplateatthebase,chooselengthsthatareatleast2to3feet(0.6to0.9m)tallerthantheheightofthefence.Obtainenoughpoststoplaceoneaboutevery15feet(4.6m),plusseveralextrasforaddedflexibilityinthefencedesign.Forsandy,loosesoils,orinareaswherethegroundfreezes,planondrivingeachpost3feet(0.9m)downformaximumstability.Otherwise,aimforatleast2feet(0.6m).Testthesoilstructureinadvancetodeterminetheoptimalpostlength.

UseanA-frameladderandpostholepoundertodrivet-posts,withtheirpegsfacingawayfromtheorchard,atabout15-foot(4.6m)intervalsalongthefenceperimeter.Havesomeoneholdthepostuprightduringinitialplacementandstabilizetheladderduringpounding.Weargloveswhenpoundingpoststoavoidblisters.Forthosehelpingholdpostsinplace,handsshouldbekeptatleasttwopounderlengthsbelowthetopofthepostatalltimes,andbodiesoutfromunderneaththeactiontoavoidpotentialinjury.

3.Largefencerollscanbecumbersome,soworkinteams.Startatthepostadjacenttowheretheentrygatewillbeandunrollthefence,keepingtherolluprightandontheoutersideoftheorchardarea.Fastenthefencetothepeggedsideofeachpostwithatleastfiveevenlydistributedzipties,facingthelooseendintowardtheorchard.Continueinthisfashion,onepostintervalatatime.Besuretokeepthefencetaut.Rollingthefencebeyondthenextpostwillencouragesagging.Ifasectionappearslooseafterthefencehasbeenerected,foldandtieanyslackoveroneoftheposts.Todealwithaslopeorgradientchange,driveapostatthepointwheretheslopebeginsandstartanewsectionoffencingtheretoadjusttheangle.

4.Drapeabout6inches(15.2cm)ofthefenceonthegroundthroughouttheentireperimeter,foldedoutward,awayfromtheorchard.Weighthisflapdownwithheavy,naturalmaterialssuchaslargerocks,topreventdeerandsmallanimalsfromnudgingtheirwayunderneaththefence.Thiswilleffectivelyreducetheheightby6inches(15.2cm),butitwillmorethanmakeupforitbyblockingoffamajorthoroughfareintotheorchard.

5.Weavenaturalmaterialssuchasgrassesortwigsthroughthegridoftheupperfenceasavisualindicatortodeerthatthisisindeedatallobstacle.Pickatallgatethatfitstheneedsoftheorchardintermsofwidth.Recycledconstructionmaterialsdepotsaregreatplacestofindgatesandotherfencingsupplies.

Whenperimeterfencingisnotdesired,individualtreesmaybefencedusingthesamegeneralprinciples.Makesureatleastonesideoftheenclosurecaneasilybeopenedtoallowfortreemaintenance.Withindividualfencing,theperimetertendstobeclosertothetreescomparedtoorchardfencing,thereforeamorerigidmaterial,suchasmetal,isrecommended.Thiswillpreventlargeanimalsfrompushinginandgrabbingfoliage.Choosesmallgridopeningstoexcludesmalleranimals,suchasrabbits,aswell.

Largehomeorchardsindeer-proneareascanbehumanelyprotectedwithexclusionaryfencingwhilethetreesbecomeestablished,suchasthis71/2-foot(2.3m)tallpolypropylenefencethatblendsinnicelywiththesurroundingscenery.

BasicMaterialsChecklistforPolypropyleneDeerFenceInstallation

Fenceroll(s)

Gate

Posts(e.g.,t-postsat15-foot[4.6m]intervals,gateposts) Postpounder

A-frameladder

Fasteners(e.g.,heavy-dutyzipties,atleastfiveperpost) Measuringdevice(e.g.,measuringwheel) Workgloves

Teamofthreeinstallers

Baskets,Netting,andOtherDeterrentsBurrowinganimalssometimescausedamagetoyoungtreeroots,butnotfrequently.Commerciallyavailablegopherbasketsareeasilyinstalledtolinetheplantingholewithanexclusionarywiremeshthatdoesnotinhibitrootgrowth.Useonlyifthereisahistoryofgopherdamageatthesite;orcreateyourownprotectorbycrisscrossingpoultrynettingwith1-inch(2.5cm)openings.Allowthenettingtoextendallthewaytothetopofthesoil,withoutprotruding,makingsuretobendanysharpedgesdownwardtoprotectbarefeet.

Birdsalsoappreciateallofthehardworkwedotokeepourorchardshealthyandthriving.Oncefruittreesarefulloffruitthat’salmostripe,theybringtheirappetites,andtheirfriends.Allowingthesebeautifulcreaturesanopportunitytoenjoysomeoftheharvestcanberewarding.Otherwise,excludingbirdsordeterringthemfromeatingtreefruitcanbeaccomplishedwithoutharmingthem,usingnontoxicmethods.Assoonasbirddamageisvisibleonripeningfruit,deployexclusionordeterrencetacticswithapreparedplanofaction.

Agoodchoiceforisolatedandsmalltrees,birdexclusionwithnettingpresentsaphysicalbarrierthatkeepsbirdsfromreachingthefruitatall.

Plasticnettingshouldbe1/4-to-1/2-inch(0.6-to-1.3-cm)mesh.Itcanbedrapedrightoverthetree’scanopy,butattachingittopostssetjustoutsideandabovethetreehasadditionaladvantages.Fruitattheedgeofthecanopyisprotected,andretrievingthenettingafterharvestforreusenextseasoniseasier.Usethreeorfourwoodenposts.Positiontheminasquareortriangularpattern,justpastthedripline,andsetthemsothattheystandalittletallerthanthetree.Drapethenettingovertheendsofthepostsandattachwithstaplesorzipties.

Rodentsandrabbitsthatoccasionallyenjoygnawingontendertreetrunkscanbekeptatbayusingwireorplasticmesh,orhardwarecloth,with1/4-inch(6mm)openings.Premade“trunkprotectors”arealsoavailable.Useanappropriatediametertoavoidgirdlingthetree.Whenusingrigidprotectors,createsomedistancefromthetrunktoeffectivelyexcludesmallanimals.Removeoncethethreatdissipates.

Deterrentskeepbirdsfromsettlinginfruittreestoeatviavisualorauditorydistractions.Acombinationofvariousdeterrentsthatarechangedfrequentlythroughouttheharvestseasonismosteffective.Visualdeterrentsincludeflashtape,compactdiscs,andpietins.Lightreflectsfromtheirsurfaces.Whenbreezesmovetheseitemshanginginthetree,littleflashesofsunlightsparklearoundtheperimeterofthecanopy.

Flashtapeisaniridescentribbonavailableatgardencentersandhomeimprovementstores.Cutstripssothattheyarenotshorterthan12inches(30.5cm)aftertyingtheminthetree.Choosetheendsoftwigsatdifferentplacesaroundtheedgeofthecanopy.Ifthebirdsbecomeaccustomedtothepattern,rearrangethestrips.CDsandpietinsworkthesameway;theyreflectsunlightandflashwhentheairstirsthem.Pierceasmallholenearoneedgeandhangwithstringinvariousplacesaroundthecanopy,justliketheflashtape.CDsshouldbepositionedwiththelabelsidetowardtheleaves,sotheshinysideisfacingout.Thesemayalsoneedtoberearranged,ifthebirdsgetusedtothembeforeallofthefruitispicked.

Fruitwithtypicalsignsofbirddamage

Predatoriconsdeterbirdsbymakingthemwary.“Scare-eye”balloonsordiscscanbeattachedtotheedgeofthefruittreecanopy.Thecenterofthe“eye”isholographic;birdsperceiveitsgazefollowingthem.Theywill,however,learnthatitisharmless,somovethistypeofdeterrenttoanewpositioneveryfewdays.Plasticstatuesofowlsandhawksareanotherversionofthepredatoricon.Thesemustberepositionedatleastonceaweektoremaineffective.Thepredatoriconusedforcenturies,stilleffective,isthescarecrow,andcanbehomemade.Justlikedummyowlsandhawks,scarecrowsmustbemovedtodifferentlocationsintheorchardregularly.Fortallertrees,elevatingthemenhancestheireffect.(Remember,DorothyhadtohelptheScarecrowdownfromthatpolehewashangingon.)Automaticdevicesthatmakeasudden,loudnoiseatrandomintervalsarealsousedtodeterbirds.Whencombinedwithvisualdeterrents,theeffectivenessofbothdevicescanbeincreasedandlengthened.Awidevarietyofthesesonicbirddeterrentsaremarketed.Differentdevicesmakedifferenttypesofsounds;somearenotaudibletothehumanear.Remembertoturnoffsonicbirdrepellentsatnight.

Usebirdexclusionanddeterrentsonlyifthereisariskforsignificantfruitdamageandonlyforthetimetheyareneeded,asthefruitbeginstoripenthroughtheendoftheharvest.Whentheharvestseasonispast,takethesedevicesdownandputthemawayuntilnextyear.Thishelpsmaintaintheireffectivenessandhelpsthemlastthroughmultipleharvests.Choosereusablebarriersandrepellentswheneverpossible.Finally,forsuccessinrepellingbirds,alternateavailablefoodisafactor;well-fedbirdsarelesslikelytovisityourtreesforasnack.

FavoriteFruitsforBirdsSweetcherries

Mulberries

Figs

Stonefruits(peaches,nectarines,apricots,etc.) Apples

FruitsBirdsChooseLastCitrus

Pomegranates(unlessripefruithassplitopen) Pears

CommonNonbeneficialOrganismsToprovideabasisforidentificationandremediation,thefollowingtablelistscommonfruittreetypesandtheorganismsanddiseasesmostlikelytodamagethem.FruitType Insects,Mites,Nematodes Diseases

Almond Scale,mites,leafhoppers,leafrollers,nematodes,borers,BoxElderbug

Rootandcrownrots,verticilliumwilt,bacterialcanker,shothole,brownrot,leafspot

Apple/Pear Codlingmoth,plumcurculio,applemaggot,aphids,scale,leafminers,leafhoppers.Pearsonly:pearpsylla,mealybug,whitefly,thrips,leafrollers

Fireblight,scab,bacterialcanker,rootandcrownrots,powderymildew.Pearsonly:peardecline,rust,leafspot

Apricot/Cherry Nematodes,borers,plumcurculio,scale,aphids,leafrollers,otherassortedmothcaterpillars

Eutypadieback,rootandcrownrots,verticilliumwilt,bacterialcanker,shothole,brownrot,powderymildew,crowngall.Cherryonly:leafcurl

Avocado Nematodes,scale,mites,thrips,whitefly,mealybug,leafrollers

Rootandcrownrots—esp.Phytophthora,bacterialcanker,verticilliumwilt

Citrus Aphids,mealybug,scale(armoredandsoft),mites,thrips,leafhoppers,katydids,cutworms,loopers,leafrollers,tussockmoth,snails,whitefly,beetles,nematodes,Asiancitruspsyllid

Rootandcrownrots,bacterialcanker,citrusbrownrot,leafspot,Huanglongbing(HLB,citrusgreening)

Fig Mealybug,whitefly,scale,thrips

Rootandcrownrots

Loquat

Spidermites Fireblight,scab,leafspot

Olive Olivefruitfly,glassy-wingedsharpshooter(leafhopper),scale(armoredandsoft),borers,nematodes,whitefly

Verticilliumwilt,rootandcrownrots

Peach/Nectarine Borers,plumcurculio,scale,leafrollers,tentcaterpillars,tussockmoth

Peachleafcurl,rootandcrownrots,verticilliumwilt,bacterialcanker,shothole,brownrot,powderymildew,crowngall

Pecan

Aphids

Fungalcanker

Persimmon Borers,nematodes,mealybug,scale,mites,webworms,caterpillars,Fullerrosebeetle

Rootandcrownrots,heartrot,graymold,leafspot

Plum Borers,plumcurculio,scale,aphids,nematodes,caterpillars,leafrollers

Peachleafcurl,rootandcrownrots,verticilliumwilt,bacterialcanker,shothole,brownrot,powderymildew,crowngall

Pomegranate Mealybug,whitefly Oakroot-rotfungus,botrytisfungus

Quince Plumcurculio,aphids,mealybug,scale(armoredandsoft),leafrollers,borers

Fireblight,brownrot,powderymildew,rust,leafspot,Nectriacanker

Walnut Nematodes,borers,aphids,mealybug,scale,leafhoppers,mites,webworms,caterpillars,walnuthuskfly,navelorangeworm,codlingmoth

Rootandcrownrots,fungalcanker,crowngall,anthracnose,walnutblight

Organic,HumaneControlMethods(PreferredApplications)Thefollowingtableidentifiesthepreferred,mosthumanecontrolmethodsavailableinorganicorcharding.ForanEarth-friendlyoutcome,looktotheseasthefirstlineofdefense.ControlName WhatIsControlled WhentoApplyIt HowtoApplyIt AdditionalInformation

Humaneexclusion

Deer,burrowinganimals,rodents,birds

Anytimethereisaseriousthreattotreehealth

SeeAnimalExclusionfordetails.

Fences,nets,trunkprotectors,andundergroundwirebasketspreventanimals,smallandlarge,terrestrialorairborne,fromdamagingfruittrees.Avoidanymethodsthatharmorkill.

Physicalremoval Insects(larvaoradult),snails,somefungi

Anytimeapopulationisdetected

Usinghands,hoses,paintbrushes,orotherapparatus,gentlyremoveorganismsfromtree;washpowderymildewoffleaves.

Knowtheinsectoranimal’sfeedingpatterntodeterminewhenisthebesttimetophysicallyremovethemfromthetree.

Organichorticulturaloils(dormantoil,superioroil)

Aphids,caterpillareggs,leafhoppers,mealybug,mites,whiteflies,scale,thrips,powderymildew

Lateautumn,afterorchardcleanupwhentreesaredormantandinsectsareintheeggstage

Spraytobranches,trunkandbasalflare,includingcrevicesandundersides,untilwet.

Low-to-notoxicitytopeople,noninsectanimalsandbeneficialinsects.Worksprimarilybypreventingeggsandsporesfromdeveloping.Horticulturaloilsmayhavealethaleffectoninsectsifappliedwhentheirpopulationsareactive.Donotapplyinhot,wet,orfreezingweather.Donotcombinewithsulfurfungicides.Notrecommendedforblackwalnut.

Organicfungicides(sulfur,copper,sodiumbicarbonate)

Scale,thrips,mites,powderymildew,brownrot,leafspot,peachleafcurl,rust,scab,fireblight

Lateautumn,afterorchardcleanupwhentreesaredormant,14to30daysafterapplyingdormantoil

Mixwithwater,spraybranches,trunkandbasalflare,includingcrevicesandundersides,untilwet.

Foliageandfruitcanbedamaged.Useondeciduoustreesonly.Donotusesulfuronapricots.Sulfurcanharmbeneficialinsects.Donotapplywithhorticulturaloil.Forfireblight,useBordeauxmixorcoppersulfateonly.

KaolinClay(Surround™)

Applemaggot,plumcurculio,codlingmoth,pearpsylla,tentcaterpillar,aphids,navelorangeworm,walnuthuskfly,thrips,cutworm,leafhoppers,powderymildew

Beforelarvaeenterfruitorbegintofeedonleaves

Mixwithwaterandspraytocoatfruitandfoliage.

Thismethodrepelsthenonbeneficialinsectslisted.Itleavesawhiteresidueonfoliageandfruitthatcanbewashedoffbeforeeating.Mayneedmultipleapplicationsthroughthegrowingseason.

Beneficialinsects

Aphids,psyllids,mites,thrips,caterpillars,whitefly,mealybug

Anytimeapopulationcanbemaintained

Plantingsattractivetobeneficials

Attractiveplantingsthatprovidehabitatforbeneficialinsectsisamorenatural,sustainableapplicationofthiscontrolmethodthanpurchaseandreleaseoptions.

Individualfruitprotection(bagging)

Codlingmoth,stinkbug,corkspot,flyspeck,sootyblotch

Whenapplesorpearsare1/2to3/4inch(1.3to1.9cm)indiameter

SeeInsects,Mites,andNematodesfordetails.

Exclusionarymethodthatreducesfruitdefects.Doesnotaffectripeningquality,butwillpreventcolorformationunlessfruitisremovedseveraldayspriortoharvest.Commerciallyproducedbagsavailableorusepaperlunchbags.

Organiccomposttea Powderymildew,botrytis

Beforeinfection

SeeWhatIsCompostTea?fordetails.Sprayonfoliage;repeatasneeded.

Preventativeonly.Nocontrolofestablishedinfections.E.colicanliveincomposttea.Useorganiccompostifpreparingmixtureathome.

Organic,LethalControlMethodsThefollowingtablelistsseverallesshumanecontrolmethodsthatarecommontoorganicorcharding,sothattheymaybedistinguishedfromthepreferredapplicationslistedintheprevioustable.ControlName WhatIsKilled WhenApplied HowApplied AdditionalInformation

Organicinsecticidalsoap

Aphids,psyllids,mites,mealybug,softscales,earwigs,tentcaterpillars,pearslugs

Wheninsectsexceedtolerablenumbers

Concentrateismixedwithwater,orsprayedready-to-useonfoliage,bothsides

Usedwithcitrus.Contactwithorganismskillsthem.Noresidualeffect.Repeatapplicationsareusuallyneeded.

Bacillusthuringiensis(Bt)

Mostcaterpillars,lesseffectiveoncodlingmothandpeachtreeborer

Timedtomatchemergenceoflarvae

Dusted,ormixedwithwaterandsprayed

Appliedduringlateafternoonoronovercastdays.Nontoxictohumans.

Organicneemoil

Aphids,thrips,scalewhitefly,mealybug,leafrollers,orientalfruitmoth,brownrot,leafspot,rust,scab,botrytis,shothole,anthracnose

Earlymorningorlateafternoontoavoiddamagingfoliage

Mixedwithwater,sprayedtobranches,trunkandbasalflare,includingcrevicesandundersides,untilwet

Canbemixedwithdormantoil.Canirritateeyesandskin.Toxictobees.Notappliedtodrought-stressedtrees.

Stickybarriers(e.g.,Tanglefoot™)

Antsthatfarmhoneydew-producinginsectssuchasaphidsandmites

Annually,earlyspring

Appliedonbandingmaterialaroundthetrunk,notdirectlyonthebark,accordingtomanufacturerdirections

Stickybarriersdeterinsectsfromcrawlinguptreetrunks.Thelethaleffectsofsuchbarriersmaydecreaseovertime,asinsectsbecomeawareoftheirpresenceandturnawayratherthanattempttocross.

Closephysicalinspectionoftrees,soil,andsurroundingsforsignsoftrouble,onaregularbasis,iskeytodeterminingappropriatecontrolmethods,keepingtreeshealthy,andenjoyingtheharvest,discussednext.

—chaptereight—

ENJOYINGTHEHARVESTHarvestedtreefruitsarestillaliveafterpicking.Theyrespire:takinginoxygenandreleasingcarbondioxide.Pickingtreefruit,likesomanyotherorchardtasks,needstobedoneattherighttime:nottooearly,nottoolate.Unlikesomeorchardchores,however,pluckingthelong-awaitedharvestofhome-grownfruitisajoyousduty.

MATUREFRUITHASREACHEDITSFULLsize,withskinthatmayhavethecharacteristiccolor,butitisnotripe,yet.Ripefruitisfull-sizeandfull-flavored,andshouldbeeateninshortorder.Sometypesoffruitreachtheirbestqualitywhentheyareleftonthetreeuntiltheyareripe.Othersshouldbeharvestedatoptimummaturity,andallowedtoripenoffofthetree.Fruittypesthatshouldbelefttoripenonthetreearenuts,plums,apricots,figs,cherries,Asianpears,andpomegranates.(Pickpomegranatesbeforetheysplitopen.)Fruitsthatshouldbepickedatmaturity,andripenedoffofthetree,includequince,persimmon,Europeanpears,andavocado.

Applesmaybepickedwhenripeormature.Late-seasoncultivarsarebestpickedatmaturityandripenedoffofthetree.Earlierseasonvarietiescanbelefttoripenonthetree,butbereadytoharvestthecropquickly—ripeapplesdropfromthetreeseeminglyallatonce.Avocadofruitswillnotripenonthetree;theymustbeharvestedandripened.Sizeistheonlyvisualcuetoanavocadofruit’smaturity;itsskincolordoesn’tchange.Immatureavocadoswillnotripenoffofthetree,however.Theystayhardwithtough,rubberyfleshuntiltheydecay.Testavocadosformaturitybeforeharvestingthewholecrop.Afterfruitsreachfullsize,pickoneortwoandseeiftheyripenwithintwodaystoaweekorso.Ifnot,waitanotherweektotrytheavocadomaturitytestagain.

Ripecitrusfruit“keeps”onthetree.Grapefruitscanlastforuptoeighteenmonths;lemonstendtodropwhentheweatherheatsup.Harvestedcitruslastsforaboutthreeweeksintherefrigerator.Pickasmuchasneeded,leavingthebulkofthecroponthetree.Gaugeripenessbytasteratherthanrindcolorforcitrus,butrindcolorshouldbedeep.Therindshouldalsolookabitstretched,orthin,andafruitshouldfeelalittleheavyforitssize.

Whileharvesting,leavesomeofthestemattachedtoeachfruit.Tearingthestemoutcreatesanentrypointforbacteria,andthefruitwillrotsooner.Forapples,cherries,andotherspur-typefruits,liftfruitsuntiltheyareupsidedown,andtwistalittle.Ripefruitswillcomeawayeasily,withstems—andwithoutdamagingthespursleftbehindtosetnextseason’sfruit.Placepickedfruitsintobuckets,baskets,orbags;donotdropthemin.Bruisesandnicksalsocreateentrypointsforbacteria.Trynottooverfillharvestcontainers,especiallyforsoftfruitslikeapricots;fruitonthebottommaybecrushed.

Usefruitpickingpolesforhard-to-reachareas.

Pickthewholecropwhenthetimeisright.It’sbestnottoleaveripefruitonthetree(otherthancitrus);itattractsanimalsandinsects.Pickupfallenfruit,andifit’snotgoodforeating,putitinthecompostpile.Putfruitinfestedwithcodlingmoth,plumcurculio,andapplemaggotintheyardwastecan,instead.Cooltemperaturesslowtherespirationofharvestedfruits.Pickfruitinthecoolofthemorningwhenpossible.Placingtheharvestincoolstorage,about32°F(0°C),rightawayhelpsensurealongshelflife,too.

Donatingaportionoralloftheharvesttolocalfoodbanksandothercharitableendeavorsisonewaytoenhancetheoverallbenefitofyourorchardandgivebacktothecommunity.Foryourfamily’sshare,considerjuicing,dehydrating,jamming,orusingthefruitasingredientsinotherdishestofullyenjoyalltheculinarypossibilities.Manyoftheseoptionsarediscussedonpage156,alongwithrecipesfromrenownedchefsthatbridgethegapbetweenthehomeorchardandkitchentable.

Juicingremovesfiberandcondensesnutrientsintoatastyliquid.Citrusjuicersutilizeareamingaction,whilejuiceextractorsmechanicallyseparatepulpfromjuice.Whenindoubtabouthowtomakeuseofexcessharvest,reachforthejuicer!(Andbesuretocompostthepulp.)DEHYDRATEYOURORCHARD

Theonlytimeitisadvantageoustoletapartofyourhomeorchardgototallydryiswhenharvestedfruitissittingonafooddehydrator’sdryingrack.Preparingdriedfruittreatsisanexcellentwaytoextendthelifeoftheharvestpastthegrowingseasonandcreatelightweight,healthysnacks.Bestofall,itissimple.Useadehydratororfollowyourfavoritesun-dryingrecipe.

Outdoordryingracksmaybefashionedoutofuntreatedstainlesssteelorplasticscreens.Simplyplacethescreenonblockstoincreasecirculationandpreventfruitfromcontactingtheground.Placeslicedfruitsontop,infullsun,coveringtherackatnighttopreventcondensation.Asageneralruleofthumb,1/4-inch(6mm)thickslicesworkwell.Asecondscreencanbesandwichedontoptoprovideprotectionfromcuriousanimals.TheNationalCenterforHome

Dehydratedorchardharvestcanprovidecolorfulfruitnutritionintheoff-season.

FoodPreservationrecommendsaminimumambienttemperatureof86°F(30°C)withhumidityunder60percent,lightbreezes,andnoprecipitationforsixtotwelvedaysoruntilfruitisdryandpliable.38

Foraquickerfix,useacommercialdehydratorinsidethehome,followingspecificationsforthatparticularmodel.Dryingtimewillvarybasedonthedehydrator’stemperature(typicallyaround130°–140°F,or54°–60°C),indoorhumiditylevels,andthesize,shape,uniformity,andmoisturecontentofthefruit.Generallyspeaking,dryingtimesrangefromsixtothirty-sixhoursformostfruit.Thinsliceswillfallonthelowerendofthisrangewhereasquartered,halved,orwholefruitonthehigher.

Topreparefruitfordehydrating:

Wash,pit,andcorefruit;removecaps,stems,andseeds.Peelifdesired.Cutintouniformslices.Slicesthatare1/4-inch(6mm)thickworkwellforcrispiersnacks,orcutfruitintoquartersorhalvesformorevolume.Fruitscommonlyhalvedincludeapricots,cherries,figs,andplums;slicedfruitsincludeapples,pears,persimmons,andmangos.Ifdesired,diporspraywithfreshlemonjuicepriortodryingtopreventdiscolorationfromoxidation.Forbestresults,placeunpeeledfruitpieceswithskinsidesdown.38UniversityofGeorgiaCooperativeExtensionService.“PreservingFood:DryingFruitsandVegetables.”Publishedonline.

Testfruitperiodicallyforpliabilitytodeterminereadiness.Drytoaconsistencythatpleasesyourpalate.Cherriesaredeliciouswhenraisin-likeandcitruswhenbrittle.Drymorethoroughlyforlong-termstorage.Experimentwithdifferentspicesandmarinadesforapersonaltouch,keepinginmindthatthelatterwilladdmoistureandextenddryingtimes.Whendryingiscomplete,allowforcoolingbeforetransferringintoairtightcontainers.Storeinacool,darkplace.Ovendryingisalsopossible;however,itmaytaketwiceaslong,orlonger,whileconsumingsignificantenergyresources.

PRESERVINGYOURHARVESTTHROUGHCANNINGThecanningprocess,originatingintheearly1800s,iscommonlyusedtodayforthelong-termstorageoffoods—andisparticularlyeffectiveforfruitjamsandjellies.Detailedinstructionsarereadilyavailable,includingtheU.S.DepartmentofAgriculture’s“CompleteGuidetoHomeCanning”series(online).Besureto

followthespecificdirectionsprovidedbythesemorecomprehensivemanualstoensureoptimumfoodsafetyandqualitybeforeattempting.Thefollowinggeneralguidelinesofferanintroductiononlyaboutwheretostartandwhattoexpect.

Materials:Essentialequipmentincludesglasscanningjars(e.g.,Masonjars),lids,bands,anda“boilingwatercanner,”alsoknownasa“waterbathcanner,”recommendedforhigh-acidfoodssuchasfruitjams(oftenavailableatneighborhoodhardwarestores).

Adeep,coveredpotwitharemovablerackmaybesubstitutedforaboilingwatercanner,aslongasthereisenoughroomfor1"to2"(2.5–5cm)ofboilingwaterabovethejarswhenfullyimmersed.

GeneralInstructions1.Washjars,lids,andbandsthoroughlywithsoapinhotwater.Drythebands.

2.Heatthejarsandlids(notthebands)inhot(notboiling)water.Thiswillpreventbreakagewhenhotfoodsareaddedtotheglassjars.

3.Preparetheboilingwatercanneroritssubstitutebyfillingithalfwaywithwater,covering,andbringingtoasimmer.

4.Removethejarsandlidsfromthehotwaterandfillwithajammadeaccordingtoafavoriterecipe(seeJammingwithChefTalRonnensectionforideas).Leaveabout1/4"to1/2"(0.5mm–1cm)ofemptyspaceatthetopofthejartoallowforpropersealing.Removeanyairbubblestrappedinthejammixturewithaclean,non-metalutensil.

Jams,jellies,preserves,conserves,andmarmaladesmadefromorchardfruitscanbestoredandenjoyedyear-round.Whatdifferentiatesthem?Eachhasitsownuniqueconsistency,includingmashedfruit(jam),fruitjuice(jelly),wholefruitpieces(preserves),amixtureofdifferentjams(conserves),andsmallpiecesoffruitorcitrusrindsuspendedinajelly(marmalade).

5.Cleantherimandsidesofthejarbeforecenteringthelidontop.Screwthebandonuntiltight.

6.Placethefilledjarsintheboilingwatercanneroritssubstituteusingaremovablerack.Makesurewaterisabletocirculatefreelyaroundeachofthejars,with1to2inches(2.5to5cm)ofwaterontop.Addhotwatertothecannerifneeded.Coverthedevice.

7.Bringfromasimmertoaboil.Starttocalculateprocessingtimeoncewaterisrolling.Boilforalengthoftimeaccordingtothedevice’sortestedrecipe’sinstructions.Ingeneral,aquart-orpint-sizedjarfilledwithfruitjamsorjelliesshouldbeprocessedforapproximately10minutes.39

8.Adjusttheprocessingtimeforhigheraltitudesbyadding1minuteforeach1,000ft.(305m)ofaltitudeabovesealevel(forrecipeswithlessthan20minutesofprocessingatsealevel).Add2minutesforeach1,000ft.(305m)ofaltitudeabovesealevelforrecipesthatcallformorethan20minutesprocessingtime.40Oncefinished,turnheatoff,removethecanner’slid,andallowjarstocoolfor5minutes.

9.Carefullyremovetherackorjarsfromthecanner.Neverturnjarsupsidedown.Placejarsonatowel(incaseofbreakage),inasafearea,andleaveundisturbedfor12to24hours.Donottightenoradjustthebands,whichmaydisturbtheseal.

10.After12to24hourshavepassed,testeachjarlidforapropersealthroughoneorallofthefollowingmethods:•Removethebandandlightlypullupontheedgeofthelid,whichshouldremainfirmlyinplace.

•Lookatthelidforvisibledownwardcurvaturetowardsthejar’scontents—anindicatorofaproperseal.

•Pressonthecenterofthelid,whichshouldnotflexmuchinanydirection,upordown.

11.Ifajarisnotproperlysealedwithin24hours,reprocessthecontentsimmediatelywithanewlid.Oncesealed,storethejarinacool,darkplace.39Roberts,T(VirginiaCooperativeExtension,VirginiaTech).2009.BoilingWaterBathCanning.Publication348-594.40Kendall,P(ColoradoStateUniversityExtension).2010.HighAltitudeFoodPreparationGuide.No.P41.

JammingwithChefTalRonnenChefTalRonnenisoneofthemostcelebratedveganchefsworkingtoday.Inthespringof2008,hebecameknownnationwideasthechefwhopreparedveganmealsforOprahWinfrey’s21-dayvegancleanse.Hehassincecatapultedtofame,cateringEllenDeGeneresandPortiadeRossi’sveganwedding,AriannaHuffington’spartyattheDemocraticNationalConvention,andthefirstvegandinnerattheU.S.Senate.AgraduateoftheNaturalGourmetInstitute,ChefTalhasworkedatthetopveganrestaurantsintheUnitedStates,includingSublimeinFortLauderdale,MadeleineBistroinLosAngeles,andCandle79inNewYorkCity.Additionally,ChefTalconductsmastervegetarianworkshopsforstudentsandstaffatLeCordonBleuCollegecampusesnationwide.ChefTalofferedFTPFthefollowingexclusiverecipesforhomeorchardfruitjamsusingpeaches,nectarines,plums,orapricots.

Ingredients6pounds(2.7kg)freshpeaches(equivalentto4pounds/3quarts/12cupswhenslicedandpitted)3/4cup(255g)lightagavenectar

1/2cup(120ml)champagnevinegar

1/4to1/2teaspoonsalt(totaste)

2tablespoons(40g)pectin(notethattherewillbevariationsinthepectininstructionsandamountsbasedonwhattypeofpectinisused;checklabelsaccordingly)Approx.1/2cup(20g)packedfreshbasilleavesor1largesprig1.Blanchandpeelthepeaches.

2.Removethepitsandplacepeachesinafoodprocessortoroughlychop(youshouldhaveapproximately8cups[1.9kg]ofpuréedfruit).

3.Placefruitinalarge,uncoverednon-reactivepot.

4.Bringtoasimmerandaddtheagave,vinegar,andsalttotaste.

5.Letsimmeronmediumheatforabout5minutes.

6.Addthewholebasilleavesandletinfuseforaboutanother5minutesbeforeremovingthebasil.

7.Makeaslurrywiththepectinandsomeofthehotjamuntilsmoothandthenadditbacktothepot.

8.Cookforabout5minuteslongeratagentlesimmertoactivatethepectin.

9.Pourintosterilizedjarsandfollowyourfavoriterecipeforcanningjams.(SeePreservingYourHarvestThroughCanningonpage155.)Makes7cups(2.2kg)jam

Preptime:30minutes

Forotherjamflavors,substitutethefollowingingredientsforthefruit,spice,andacid,respectively:Nectarine,ginger(lemon)Plum,bayleaf,blackpepper(redwinevinegar)Apricot,orange,saffron(whitewinevinegar)AssortedFruits:SeasonalFruitinPapillotebyChefTalThisisoneofthesimplestdessertstomake,andit’sabrilliantwaytoshowcasewhatever’sinseason.Youjusttossripefruitwithafewherbsandspices,sprinkleonsomesweetener,addapatofnondairybutter,andbakeinparchmentpaperforafewminutes.Papillotescanbemadeasindividualdessertpocketsorlarger,tosharefamily-styleatthetable.Youcanuseyourimaginationinchoosingwhichflavorstoputtogether.Therereallyaren’tanyrules,buthereareafewno-failcombinations.

•Raspberriesandmangosliceswithfreshgingerandmint•Nectarinesandpeacheswithfreshbasilandcinnamon

•Pittedcherriesandapricotswithvanillabeanandbalsamicvinegar•Blueberriesandpeacheswithlemonzest,freshthyme,andmint•Figsandpearswithlemonzest,vanillabean,andbalsamicvinegar•Apples,pears,anddateswithcinnamon,nutmeg,cloves,andginger•Pearsandquincewithblackpepperandredwinevinegar•Bananas,kiwis,andpineapplewithginger,staranise,andvanillabean•Persimmonsandgrapeswithlemonzestandcinnamon

IngredientsforEachSingle-ServingPapilloteParchmentpaper

1tablespoon(14g)non-hydrogenatedveganmargarinesuchasEarthBalance11/2cups(250g)pitted,peeled,andsliced(ifnecessary)fruitPinchofseasalt

1teaspoonfreshlysqueezedlemonjuiceorvinegar

Spices(optional)

1to2tablespoons(20to40g)sweetenersuchasbrownsugar,maplesyrup,lightoramberagavenectar,canesugar,honey(ifyouuseit),orrawsugar1sprigfreshherb,ormoretotaste

Toserve:yourfavoriteveganwhippedtopping1.Preheattheovento450°F(230°C,orgasmark8).Foreachsingle-servingpapillote,cutapieceofparchmentpaper10inches(25.4cm)square,folditinhalf,andtrimitintoawidesemicircle,cuttingclosetothecutedgesofthepaper.Unfoldtheparchmentandplacethemargarineinthecenternexttothefold.

2.Inamediumbowl,combinethefruit,salt,lemonjuice,spices(ifusing),andsweetenerandtosstocombine.

3.Pilethefruitontopofandaroundthemargarine,keepingnearthecenteroftheparchment.Scrapethebowlwelltogetallthespicesandsweetenerontothefruit.Laytheherbsprig(ifusing)ontop.

4.Foldtheparchmentoverthefruitandsealtheedges:Startingatoneend,foldasmallsection1/4inch(6mm)intowardthecenter,foldoveragain,andcreasewell;continuetofoldandcreasetheedgesuntilthewholeparchmentissealedwithafirm,finalcreaseattheotherend.Placeonabakingsheetandbakeintheupperthirdoftheovenfor7minutes.

5.Usingalargespatula,transferthepapillotetoaservingplate,andcuttheparchmentopeninthecenter,beingcarefultostayclearofthesteam—it’shot!

6.Dollopalittleveganwhippedtoppinginthecenter,andplaceaheapingspoonfulonthesidefordipping.Serveimmediately,andifyou’veused

wholespices,warnyourgueststhattheyarenottobeeaten.

Makes1single-servingpapillotePreptime:30minutes(for4papillotes)

ApplesandCashews:CeleryRootSoupwithGrannySmithApplesbyChefTalThisisthemostpopularsoupImake—peoplegocrazyforit.Throwinginsomedicedapplesattheendaddsasurprisetartness,anddotsofchiveoilgiveitasleek,dramaticfinish.

IngredientsSeasalt

3tablespoons(45ml)extra-virginoliveoil

2mediumceleryroots,peeledandcutinto1-inch(2.5cm)cubes2stalkscelery,chopped

1largeonion,chopped

2quarts(1.9L)fauxchickenorvegetablestock

1bayleaf

1cup(260g)thickCashewCream(recipefollows)

Freshlygroundblackpepper

1GrannySmithapple,unpeeled,veryfinelydiced

ChiveOil(recipefollows)

1.Placealargestockpotovermediumheat.Sprinklethebottomwithapinchofsaltandheatfor1minute.Addtheoilandheatfor30seconds,beingcarefulnottoletitsmoke.Thiswillcreateanonstickeffect.

2.Addtheceleryroot,celery,andonionandsautéfor6to10minutes,stirringoften,untilsoftbutnotbrown.Addthestockandbayleaf,bringtoaboil,thenreducetheheatandsimmerfor30minutes.AddtheCashewCreamandsimmerforanadditional10minutes.

3.Workinginbatches,pourthesoupintoablender,coverthelidwithatowel(thehotliquidtendstoerupt),andblendonhigh.Seasonwithsaltandpeppertotaste.Ladleintobowls.Placeaspoonfulofthedicedappleinthecenterofeachserving,drizzletheChiveOilaroundtheapple,andserve.

Makes6servingsPreptime:1hour,10minutes

ChiveOil

1smallbunchchives

1/2cup(120ml)canolaoil

Pinchofseasaltandfreshlygroundblackpepper

Blanchthechivesfor30secondsinboilingwater,thendrainandchillinanicebath.Drain,wrapthechivesinatowel,andsqueezethemoistureout.Placeinablenderwiththeremainingingredientsandblendfor2minutes.Strainthroughafine-meshsieve.Putthechiveoilinaplasticsqueezebottlewithasmallopeningoruseaspoonfordrizzlingitonthesoup.

Makes1/2cup(120ml)

CashewCream2cups(290g)wholerawcashews(notpieces,whichareoftendry),rinsedverywellundercoldwater1.Putthecashewsinabowlandaddcoldwatertocoverthem.Coverthebowlandrefrigerateovernight.

2.Drainthecashewsandrinseundercoldwater.Placetheminablenderwithenoughfreshcoldwatertocoverthemby1inch(2.5cm).Blendonhighforseveralminutesuntilverysmooth.(Ifyou’renotusingaprofessionalhigh-speedblendersuchasaVitamix,whichcreatesanultra-smoothcream,strainthecashewcreamthroughafine-meshsieve.)Tomakethickcashewcream,simplyreducetheamountofwaterwhentheyareplacedintheblender,sothatthewaterjustslightlycoversthecashews.

Makesabout21/4cupsthickcreamor31/2cupsregularcream,or585gPreptime:10minutes,plussoakingovernight

AvocadosandLemons:SummerChoppedSaladbyChefTalThisissupereasy—afoolproofrecipe—butyoushouldmakeitrightbeforeyouserveit.Choppedsaladscangetsoggyiftheysitaround.Kidsgocrazyforthisbecauseofallthegreatflavorsandtextures.

Ingredients1/4pound(113g)greenbeans,cutinto1-inch(2.5-cm)pieces5radishes,finelydiced

Agavenectar

1/4Englishcucumber,finelydiced

12redandyellowcherrytomatoes,quartered

Kernelsfrom2earsrawsweetcorn

1avocado,diced

1cup(30g)babyarugula

1shallot,minced

1teaspoonmincedfreshbasil

1teaspoonmincedfreshoregano

Vinaigrette(recipefollows)

1teaspoonfreshlysqueezedlemonjuice

1.Blanchthegreenbeansinboilingwaterfor30seconds,thenchillinanicebath.Inthesameboilingwater,blanchtheradishesfor20seconds,thenchillinanicebathsweetenedwithatouchofagavenectar.

2.PlacealloftheingredientsexceptfortheVinaigretteandlemonjuiceinalargebowl.DrizzlewiththeVinaigretteandtosstocoat.Sprinklethelemonjuiceontopjustbeforeserving.

Makes4servingsPreptime:20minutes

Vinaigrette1tablespoon(15ml)whitewinevinegar

1/2teaspoonagavenectar

3tablespoons(45ml)extra-virginoliveoil

Seasaltandfreshlygroundblackpepper

Placethevinegarandagavenectarinasmallbowl,then,whiskingconstantly,slowlypourintheoilinathinstream.Seasonwithsaltandpeppertotaste.

Grapefruits:ShisoBitesbyChefTalThesearesoeasy—a10-minuterecipebutreallyrefreshingandstrikingontheplate.ShisoisaJapaneseleafwithapeppery,mintyflavor.Theingredientsinside—cayenneandcitrus—haveasortofzingtothem,andyoujustfoldtheleafinhalflikealittleroll-upandpopitinyourmouth.

Ingredients6freshshisoleaves

1/4cup(30g)peeledandjuliennedfreshdaikon

1/2cup(45g)finelyshreddednapacabbage

6grapefruitsegments

1tablespoon(15ml)extra-virginoliveoil

Seasalt

Groundcayenne

Blackandwhitesesameseeds1.Placeeachshisoleafonaseparatesaladplateanddividethedaikonandcabbageamongthem,thentopeachwithagrapefruitsegment.

2.Drizzlewiththeoilandseasonwithsaltandcayenne.Sprinklewiththesesameseeds.Servethemflat,buteatthemrolleduplikeataco.

Makes6servingsPreptime:10minutes

ApplesandDates:RaspberryApplesaucebyDianaStoboDianaStoboisaclassicallytrainedculinaryartist,rawfoodrecipebookauthor,andrawfoodeducator.Sheusesthisexpertiseaswellasherownlife-changingexperiencestoinstructandmotivateotherstoeatforhealth,vibrance,andbeauty.Inheraward-winningbook,GetNakedFast!AGuidetoStrippingAwaytheFoodsthatWeighYouDown,Dianaexplainshowshebecameanexpertofherownbody.Onceweighing247pounds(112kg),plaguedwithdisease,Dianadedicatesherlifenowtomotivatingandinspiringothers.Asatrainedculinaryartist,Dianabringsasensationalflaretotherawfoodmovement,makingeasy,delicious,andaccessiblefoodsthatcanhealyourbodywithoutoverwhelmingyourlife!Dianahascontributedthissetofincredibledessertrecipestoprovidecreativeideasonhowtogetthemostoutofyourorchardharvest.

Ingredients1apple,cored,peeled,andchopped

1pint(340g)raspberries

2Medjooldates,pitted

Placeallingredientsinprocessororblender.

Processuntilsmooth.

Makes1or2servingsPreptime:5minutes

Apples:CaramelAppleTartbyDianaStoboThiselegantdessertismorethanjustgoodlooksandtaste.Lucumaisahighlynutritious,exoticPeruvianfruitknownasthe“GoldoftheIncas.”

Ingredients1greenapple,cored

1tablespoon(7g)lucumapowder

1tablespoon(15ml)puremaplesyrup

3to5rawpecanhalves,grated1.Thinlysliceordicetheapple.

2.Inamediumbowl,mixtogetherlucumapowderandmaplesyrupuntilacreamycaramelsauceismade.Addtheslicedappletothecaramelsauceandtosstocoat.

3.Spoonapplemixtureintoasmalldessertdish,ortartmold,andpressdowngently.Gratepecanswithacheesegraterdirectlyovertheapplesforacrustedtopping.Ifusingatartmoldtomakefreestandingtarts,gentlyremovebeforeserving.

Makes1tartPreptime:5minutes

ApricotsandCherries:CherryApricotCrispbyDianaStoboPrepareinatartmoldforanelegant-lookingdessert.

Ingredients1cup(155g)freshcherries,pittedandsliced

2apricots(seededandthinlysliced)

1/4teaspooncinnamon

1/2teaspoonagave

Tossslicedcherriesandapricots,cinnamon,andagavetogetherinabowlandletsittoinfuseflavorswhilepreparingthetopping.

CrispIngredients1/4cup(100g)rawpecans

1Medjooldate,pittedandchopped

1/8teaspooncinnamon

1/8teaspoonvanillapowder

1/8teaspoonseasalt1.PlaceallingredientsinaprocessorfittedwithanSblade.Pulseuntilpecansanddatesarebrokendown.

2.Placeslicedcherriesandapricotsinservingdishofchoice.Crumblepecan–datemixtureontopofcherriesandapricots,thenpresslightlytoformacrustytop.Enjoyasisorservewithyourfavoritenondairyfrozendessert.

Makes1or2servingsPreptime:10minutes

Peaches:SummerPeachCobblerbyDianaStoboIt’sbeautiful,sweet,andlight.Nothingismoredeliciousthantreeripenedpeaches—addapinchofspiceandsomecrunchandyouhavethemostrefreshingdessert.

Ingredients1freshsummerpeach,halvedandslicedthinly

1/2teaspoonagave

1/4teaspooncinnamon

Mixtogetherinbowlandsetasidetoletjuicesfuse.

CobblerIngredients1/4cup(35g)rawcashews

1Medjooldate,pittedandchopped

1/4teaspoonvanillapowder

Pinchofsalt

1.PlacecobbleringredientsinprocessorfittedwithanSbladeandprocessuntildatesandcashewbegintosticktogether,approximately1minute.

2.Placepeachesinservingdish,ramekin,orringmold,layingdownthelayersofpeachesoneontopofanother.Crumblenutanddatemixtureontopofpeaches,lightlypressingmixturewithfingerstoformafirmtopping.Compresslightly,andserve.Ifusingringmold,compressmixturedownslightlyandgentlyremoveringmold.

Makes1or2servingsPreptime:10minutes

Tangerines:CreamyTangerine-tinibyDianaStoboThislittletreattastesabitlikea“creamsicle.”Withvibrantcitrusandasmooth,creamytexture,it’ssuretowiththeheartsofeveryone.Don’tforgettoserveitina“pretty”glass.

Ingredients1cup(235ml)almondmilk

1cup(235ml)tangerinejuice,freshlysqueezed

1teaspoonvanilla

2teaspoons(13g)agavenectar

1/2cup(120ml)icecubes

Blendonhigh30seconds.Pourintomartiniglass,andcelebrateyourorchard!

Makes2drinksPreptime:5minutes

—chapternine—

BEYONDTHEHOMEORCHARD

Earlier,weconjuredanimageofaplaceinyouryardwherefamilymemberscouldsitunderneaththrivingfruittrees,amongthesongbirds,cleanair,andbountifulharvestoverhead.Now,imagineanorchardinapublicparkorgardenwheretheentirecommunitycandothesame,servingasasafehavenforgatheringsandeducationalworkshops.Orimagineaschoolyardorcharddoublingasanoutdoorclassroominwhichstudentslearnaboutsustainabilitywhileimprovingschoolnutrition.Creatingcommunityorchardsforeveryone’sbenefitcanbeevenmorerewardingthanahomeorchard.

PICTURETHIS:ACITYBLOCKLINEDWITHfruittrees,wheretakingalunchbreakassumesanentirelynewmeaning.Publicathleticfieldsadjacenttofruittreegroveswherethirstyvisitorsenjoynature’sperfectthirst-quenchers,withouttheartificialcolors.Envisionurbanorchardsascommonasproducestandsorsupermarkets,minusthecashiers—situatedonabandonedlots,communitygardens,foodbankfarms,orthroughlocalhealthcenterseagertoofferorganicharvesttoacceleratepatienthealing.

Throughstrategicsiteselection,communityorchardsproviderealsolutionstotheEarth’smostpressingproblems,rangingfromenvironmentaldegradationtonutritionaldeficiencies.Thepossibilitiesarelimitless.Whatbetterwaytomakeapositiveimpactinyourregionthanbyapplyingthehorticulturalprincipleslearnedinyourhomeorchardtowardagreatergood?Communitystartswitheachofus.Anorchardisplantedonetreeatatime.

Forgeneralguidanceonhowtoturncommunityorchardideasintoactualorchards,weofferthefollowingframework,basedonFTPF’sexperiencewithhundredsofuniqueplantingprojects.

COMMUNITYORCHARDCOMMITTEESuccessfulplantingprojectsstartwithacoregroupdedicatedtocoordinatingandcaringfortheorchardovertime.Approachlocalcommunityleaders,dignitaries,gardeningassociations,agriculturalextensionoffices,schoolprincipals,healthclinics,naturecenters,foodbanks,homelessshelters,drugrehabs,orwhoevermightshareyourvisionforanorchard.Recruitinterestedparticipantstojoinavolunteercommunityorchardplanningcommitteetoguidetheproject.

Rescuedfarmedanimalsanctuariesmakewonderfullocationsfororchardprojects.Anyonewhohasseenagoatandanappleincloseproximitytoeachanotherknowsthattheappledoesn’tstandachance,asillustratedhere.

“Allthesetreeswe’replantingremindmeofhope.”

–JEFFGREENE,COMMUNITYGARDENER,DURINGANFTPFORCHARDPROJECTTOBENEFITSANFRANCISCO’SHOMELESSCOMMUNITY(AS

REPORTEDINTHESANFRANCISCOCHRONICLE)

Becomefamiliarwiththepublishedresearchonthebenefitsofcommunityorchardsinordertodrumupsupport.Forexample,theUniversityofGeorgiaForestResourcesUnitreportsthatcommunitytreeshaveasignificantpositiveimpactuponwaterandairquality,noiseabatement,animalhabitats,propertyvalues,economicstabilityforcommunities,humansocialinteractions,andreductionofwaterrunoff,soilerosion,andairbornepollution.42UniversityofIllinoisresearchersconcludethatthepresenceoftreesinurbangreenspacesstrengthensneighborhoods,fostersasenseofsafetyandsecurity,anddiscouragescriminalactivities.43Anotherstudyattheuniversityfoundthatforthosewholivednearnature,suchasanareawithtrees,levelsofaggression,violence,andpropertycrimewerereducedwhileoptimismwhendealingwith

thehardshipsofpovertyincreased—andneighborhoodswerefriendlier.44Compeldecisionmakerstosupportyourprojectforasafer,healthier,andfriendlierneighborhood.42CoderR.D.1996Oct.“IdentifiedBenefitsofCommunityTreesandForests.”UniversityofGeorgia,CooperativeExtensionService,ForestResourcesUnitPublication#FOR96-39.43KuoF.E.,etal.1998.“FertileGroundforCommunity:Inner-CityNeighborhoodCommonSpaces.”AmericanJournalofCommunityPsychology.26:6,823–851.

44Human-EnvironmentResearchLaboratory,UniversityofIllinoisatUrbana–Champaign.CoolerintheShade.NewsletterVol.1No.6.

ThedirectoroftheUSDA’sCenterforUrbanForestResearchwrites,“...treescanbetheultimatemulti-taskers,

cleaningtheairwhiletheycoolthecity,protectingourclimateandreducingpollutedrunoff.”41Thismaturepawpawtreeinapublicparkaccomplishesalloftheabove,andthensome,byprovidingnutritionforthecommunity.

41McPherson,E.G.2005Apr1.“TreeswithBenefits.”AmericanNurseryman.

Choosecommitteememberswithcomplementaryskillsets.Somemayhaveextensivehorticulturalandfruittreecareexperiencewhileotherspossessaknackforcommunityoutreach.Worktogetherasagrouptoaddmemberswhoareeagertocontributetime,resources,andexpertise.Fruittreesarelong-terminvestmentsandinitialenthusiasmmaybehigh,sopartneringwithfolkswhoseethebiggerpictureandareinitforthelonghaulisthebestwaytobuildasolidfoundation.

Next,asacommittee,identifylocalnonprofitsorpublicuseareaswithgreenspacethatwouldmakeexcellentcandidatesforaplanting.Considerthetopicspresentedinthishandbooktodeterminetheappropriatenessofasite.Keepinmindthenecessityofapermanentwatersourceincloseproximitytotheorchard,aswellasfencingtoprotecttreesfrompotentialpredatorssuchasdeerorvandalism,ifeitherisprevalent.Researchhowmanycommunitymembersapotentialorchardrecipientservesinordertodeterminetheimpactoftheproject.Approachtheirmanagementwithaformalproposaldescribingprojectgoals,includingacostestimatefortherequiredelements(ataminimum,trees,mulch,tools,andvolunteers).Offeryourcommittee’sresources(monetary,labor,tools,orallthree)tomaketheproposalareality.Mostorchardbudgetsarereasonable,especiallyifthecommunitybandstogethertopitchin.

Ifthepotentialrecipientisgenuinelycommittedtotheorchardandgrantswrittenpermissiontoplantonitsgrounds,requesta“buy-in”elementtoensurethatallpartieshaveavestedinterest.Historyshowsthatlevelsofcareandmaintenanceareelevatedwhengift-receivingpartiesalsomakeaninvestmentintheproject,asopposedtojustreceivingafreebie.Buyinscomeindifferentforms,smallandlarge,including,butnotlimitedto:generalfunding,coveringthecostofacertainprojectelement(e.g.,dripirrigationmaterials,fencing,mulch),prediggingholes,providinglabororvolunteersupporttomaintaintheorchard,orassigningdevelopmentstafftohelpwithfund-raising.Avoidforcinganyprojectthroughifthepotentialrecipientisn’twillingtocontributetotheeffort.

Thisclusterofplumscanprovideahydratingtreatforatleastsevenindividuals.

OUTREACHOncetheprojectframeworkisestablished,outreachtolocalnurseriesandequipmentsupplierstorequestdiscountedratesoroutrightdonationsofmaterials.Remindthemthattheeffortisbythecommunityforthecommunity,andoffertomentiontheirsupportonallpromotionalmaterials.Tominimizeenvironmentalimpact,givepreferencetolocalsuppliersandalwayslooktouserecycledmaterialsfirst,suchasfreelocalsourcesofwoodchipsformulch.

Priortoeventday,meetatthesitewithcommitteemembersandanarboristorlandscapedesignertodesignthelayoutoftheorchardaccordingtotheprinciplesdiscussedinpreviouschapters.Getafeelforhowmuchinstallationlaborwillbeneededinordertoplanforsufficientvolunteers.Test-digaholemanuallytoensurethatitispossibletodosoandtherearenoundergroundsurprises.Asktherecipienttomarkanyundergroundobstacles,suchaswaterlines,thatshouldbeavoided.Makesuretherewillbeaccesstoirrigationforthetrees,andbathroomsforthevolunteers,duringtheplanting.

Whenschedulingtheplantingdate,keepinmindthatweekendstypicallyattractthemostvolunteers.Duringparticularlyhotdays,starttheeventinthecoolofthemorningorlateafternoon.Forlargeprojects,considerdiggingsomeholesinadvancetoallowvolunteerstofocusmoreonplanting,especiallyifmanychildrenareexpectedtoparticipate.

Ataminimum,recruitatleastoneadultvolunteerforeverytwotreesplanted.Aimtohavemore.Inviteeveryone,includingdignitaries,localbusinesses,associations,andcivicleaders.Askvolunteerstobringshovels,bowrakes,pickaxes,wheelbarrows,hoses,oranythingelsethatisneeded.Withsufficientvolunteers,anorchardcanbecreatedinjusthalfaday.Aninstantorchard!

Publicizetheeventbysendingapressreleasetolocalmediaseveralweeksinadvanceasacallforvolunteers,andthenagainoneweekpriortourgeprintandbroadcastoutletstocovertheplantingitself.Besuretotakehigh-resolutionphotosattheplantingtosharewithinterestedmediaafterwardandalsototellthestoryoftheorchardinyourownmaterials.Themorefolkshearaboutyourcollectiveefforts,themorethemessagewillspread,andthemoretreeswillbeplanted.Remember,thefruitofthetreeisonthelimb,sobranchouttoyourcommunityandspreadtheword—youneverknowwhichfutureorcharditwillleadto.

EVENTDAYLaunchtheeventwithanarboristorexperiencedfruittreeplanterdemonstratingproperplantingtechniquestovolunteers(followtheinstructionsinchapter4,Planting).Remindfolkstoalwaysbemindfulofotherswhenwieldingtoolsandtobegentlewiththetrees,investingextratimetoplanteachonecarefully,especiallywithregardstoplantingdepth.Letthemknowthattakinganextrafiveminutestogetthingsrightatthetimeofplantingcanmakeadifferenceofdecadesinthattree’slifetime.Whenindoubtaboutanystepintheprocess,volunteersshouldbeencouragedtoaskforguidancebeforecompletingthetask.

Breakupintogroupsoftwoadultspertree.Childrenshouldalwaysbepairedwithadultsandkeptasinvolvedaspossible—afterall,thesetreesarefortheirfuture.Child-sizegardeningglovesandtoolscomeinhandy.Pushingbackfillintothehole,spreadingmulch,andwateringareallgreatactivitiesforyoungones.Creatingapermanentsigntocommemoratetheorchardorindividualtreesisalsoarewardingartprojectforchildren.

Assignthemostexperiencedplanterstoroamtheorchardandoverseethework,makingsuretreesaregoingintothegroundcorrectly.Askvolunteerstocheckwithroamerswhenunsureaboutanyaspectoftheplanting.Instructionsonrootpruning,plantingdepth,ortreeorientationcanbedifficulttograspatfirstorhardtorememberwhileworkinginthefield.Ifincorrect,don’tbeafraidtoredothetask.Nowisthetimetomakeitright,beforethetreebecomesestablished.

Childrenenjoyhelpingwaternewlyplantedfruittrees.

Postasign-insheettocollectcontactinformationforvolunteersinordertoprovidethemwithorchardupdatesandurgethemtosignupformaintenancetasks.Immediatelyaftertheevent,designatespecificrolesandmaintenanceschedulesfortherecipient’sstaffandorchardcommitteemembers;includetaskssuchaswatering,mulching,weeding,fertilizing,pruning,andtroubleshooting.Whenworkingwithstudents,inordertobuildorchardpride,askteacherstoassignsmallgroupstocareforindividualtreesthroughouttheschoolyear.

Everyonebenefitsfromcommunitytreeplantings.Somakeitapartytocelebratethegreeningoftheneighborhood.Bringfood,playmusic,dance,exchangestories,getyourhandsdirtyalltogether.Mostimportant,invitetheyoungones.Remindthemthatthesetreeswilltakerootfordecadesandcannourishthem,theirchildren,andtheirchildren’schildren.Encourageyouthtotranscendtheeventitselfbyapplyingtheenvironmentalprincipleslearnedtotheireverydaylives.Thereisnogreateroutcomethaninspiringfuturegenerationstogetbusymakingpositivechange.Encourageallvolunteerstoplantmoretrees,whetherathomeorelsewhere.

Anywherefruittreesareplanted,thereareprofoundbenefits.Somecallitmagic.Wehopethishandbookhasprovidedthetoolsneededtospreadthatmagictoyourhomeorchardandbeyond.Mayyourtreesbeabundantlyfruitfulandyoureffortstogreenthecommunityripewithsuccess;andmayallofuscollectivelyserveasagentsofprogressfortheenvironmentandfuturegenerations,oneorchardatatime.

TypicalscenesfromFTPFcommunityorchardplantingsincludesmilesonthefacesofchildren,birdsperchingonnewlyplantedtrees,elderscryingtearsofjoy,contentedhighfivesandhandshakesthroughglobsofsoilstucktofingers,andmini-rainbowsassunlightshinesthroughirrigationsprayontonewlyplantedroot-balls.

COMMUNITYORCHARDPLANTINGCHECKLISTFormavolunteercommunityorchardcommittee

Identifylocalnonprofitsorpublicspaceswhereanorchardwouldthrive

Approachdecisionmakerswithaproposalandbudgetestimate

Securewrittenpermissiontoplantand“buy-in”fromrecipient

Designorchardlayouttodeterminealltheneeds

Outreachtolocalnurseries,businesses,andorganizationsforsupport

Procureplantmaterials,mulch,tools,andifnecessary,irrigationandfencingsupplies

Publicizetheplantingwithlocalmediaoutletsandputacalloutforvolunteers

Predigholesifappropriate

Planttheorchardoneventday

Assignmaintenancetaskstoorchardcaretakers

Repeatatanotherworthysite

COMMUNITYORCHARDSSPEAKVOLUMES!Communityorchardshavefar-reachingeffects,beyondeventhesiteboundariesthemselves.Visitorsinstantlygrasptheintentoftheprojectandoftentaketheideahomewiththem,aswordofmouthandmediareportsspreadthemessageevenfurther.Orchardsserveasinspiration,asmodelsforotherstoemulate.

InIndia,FTPFplantedthousandsoftreesatnumerouseventswithlow-incomeschools,eachofwhichwashighlypublicizedinlocalnewspapersandthroughcolorfulvillageparadeswhereschoolchildrenannouncedthat“treesaregood,plantthem!”Governmentofficialstooknote,invitingFTPFanditspartnerstoexpandtheeffort.Withinweeks,otherinspiredgroupsintheregionofficiallylaunchedanentiregreenmovementandthousandsofadditionaltreeswereplanted.

WorkingwithstudentsinBrazil,alocalmayorheardabouttheinitiativeandthankedus“...notonlyforbringingthefruittreestoourtown,butalsofor

bringingtheseedsofenvironmentalconsciousness.”Suchprojectsalsobringpeopleclosertogether.InCalifornia,anFTPForchardservingindividualswithdevelopmentaldisabilities“inspiredawholecommunity,”accordingtothedirectorofthefacility.

Thisisthepowerofacommunityorchardproject.

IndianstudentsworkingwithFTPFlettheirvillageknowduringthisparadethatthetimetoplantfruittreesisnow!

ContactFTPFTheFruitTreePlantingFoundationisaninternationalcharityservingasaresourcetofruittreeplantersworldwide.Ifyouhaveanideaforanorchardthatwillimpactyourcommunity,letusknow—wemaybeabletohelp.Ifyouarealreadyworkingonaprojectandarelookingforadvice,ourdoors(andphonelines)arealwaysopen.Ifyouhaveplantedfruittreesasaresultofreadingthishandbook,pleaseemailusthedetailsandphotosatinfo@ftpf.org—wewillcompiletheresultsandpublishthem.LearnmoreaboutFTPF’sgroundbreakingworkatwww.ftpf.org.

“TheFruitTreePlantingFoundation’sgroundbreakingworkfeedscommunitiesinneedandgreenstheenvironment,allatonce.Atrulyextraordinary,yetsimple,conceptthatledtoourcollaborationtoplantfruittreesintheWEGardeninCapitolParktohelpourcommunitiesforyearstocome.”–MariaShriver,formerFirstLadyofCalifornia

“IhaveaprofoundreverenceforwhattheFruitTreePalntingFoundationdoesfordifferentcitiesaroundthecountry.”–ArielE.Reboyras,Alderman,CityofChicago,Illinois

“Aseed,asapling,atreethatwillfeedthebody,replenishtheEarth,oxygenatetheairwebreatheformoreyearsthanthehandsthatplantthemwilllivetosee.TheFruitTreePlantingFoundationtrulyembracesthenotionthatlovegiveswithoutexpectationofreward.”–AngelaBassett,Actress

“TheFruitTreePlantingFoundationissingle-handedlytakingresponsibilityforthefutureofourEarth!Itisvitalandabsolutelyessentialtosupportthisfantasticnonprofitorganization!”–BryceDallasHoward,Actress

“You’rechangingtheworld,oneyardatatime.”–EdBegley,Jr.,ActorandActivist

GLOSSARYAbiotic:diseaseofplantsandtreesnotcausedbytheactivityofapestorpathogen,butbyadverseenvironmentalconditionsAdhesion:molecularattractionbetweenwatermoleculesandmoleculesofothersubstances(e.g.,soilparticles)Aerobic:naturalprocessoccurringinthepresenceofoxygen

AlternateBearing:tendencytoproduceaheavycropoffruitornutsoneseasonandaverylightcropthenextAmendments:materialsaddedtoincreasenutrientcontentorchangephysicalpropertiesofsoilAnaerobic:naturalprocessoccurringintheabsenceof,ornotrequiringoxygen

AngleofAttachment:anglewhereabranchandthecentralleader,oranotherbranch,meetAnnual:aplantthatcompletesitslifecycle,seedtoseed,inasinglegrowingseasonApicalDominance:theinhibitionoflateralbudsbydominantterminalbudsthroughthereleaseofhormonesBackfill:soilorpottingmediumreturnedtotheplantinghole

BalledandBurlapped(B&B):field-growntree,harvestedwiththeroot-ballwrappedinburlaporplasticandsecuredwithwireormetalstrappingBareroot:plantsortreesnotplantedinacontainerorsoilmedium,usuallydormant,withrootspackedinmoistsawdustBasalFlare:trunksectionmuchgreaterindiameterthantheremainderofthetrunk,attherootcrownBerm:raised,shapedmoundofdirtorrocks,typicallyconstructedtocorralordirectwaterBranchBarkRidge:enlargedsectionofbarktissueontheupperedgeofthejunctionbetweenbranches,orbetweenbranchandtrunkBranchCollar:areaofswollentissueatthebaseofabranch

ButtressRoots:largewoodyrootsatthebaseofthetrunk

Canopy:portionofthecrownconsistingofleavesandtwigs,butexcludinglargelimbsCentralLeader:mainstemofatreeorsapling(i.e.,trunk,bole)

ChillHours:typicallydefinedasthenumberofhoursattemperaturesbetween32°Fand45°F(0°Cand7°C);calculatedbysometoincludeanytemperaturebelow45°F(7°C)Chlorosis:yellowingoffoliagecausedbychlorophylldeficiency

CodominantStem:stemgrowingcloselyadjacenttothetrunkorcentralleader,withasimilardiameterandnarrowangleinbetweenCohesion:molecularattractionbetweenwatermolecules

CompanionPlants:complementaryplantsthatencourageorresultinmutualisticrelationshipswithotherspeciesCompartmentalization:processoflimitingspreadofdecayinsidetreesthroughchemicalandphysicalboundaries(e.g.,inresponsetoawound)Conk:fruitingorspore-formingtissueofwood-decayingfungi,foundonoutsideoftrunksandbranchesContactHerbicide:asubstancethatkillsplanttissuesittouchesCoverCrop:massplantinggrownforoneseason,primarilytoprovidegroundcoverortoimprovesoilproperties,ratherthanaharvestableyieldCropping:soilnutrientreductionfollowingtheremovalofcropsandplantresiduesCross-Pollination:transferofpollenfromanthersofflowersfromonefruittreecultivartothestigmasofanotherfruittreecultivarCrotch:thepointwheretwobranches,orabranchandthetrunk,meet

Crown:totalleavesandbranchesofatree

Cultivar:selectedorbredvarietywithdefiningcharacteristicsdifferentfromthespeciesCultivation:thepracticeofshallowtillingtouprootweeds

Dripline:outermostedgeofatree’scrown

Espalier:pruningsystemthattrainstreestogrowagainstaflatverticalsurface(e.g.,walls,fences)Evapotranspiration(ET):thesumoftranspirationfromplantsandtreesandevaporationfromthesoil’ssurfaceFieldCapacity:maximumamountofwaterasoilcanholdagainsttheforceofgravityFruitThinning:pruningtoremoveanumberofimmaturefruitstoincreasesizeandqualityofremainingfruitsFruitwood:scion;shootorbudgraftedontorootstock

GeneticDwarfFruitTree:scionbredfordwarfingqualityofmaturetreeindependentofrootstockinfluenceGenus:agroupofsimilarspecies

GraftUnion:areaoftrunkwheretherootstockisjoinedtoascion

GravitationalWater:waterthatmovespasttherootzoneundertheforceofgravityGreenManure:covercropstilledunderwhengreentoenhancesoilstructureandfertilityGroundwaterRecharge:thereturnofwatertotheundergroundwatertable

Hardscape:thenonliving,constructedelementsofalandscape(e.g.,patios,decks,fences,walls)HeadingCuts:pruningcutsmadebetweennodes

HeelingIn:layingabareroottreeinashallowtrenchandcoveringitsrootswithsoilormoistsawdustforstorageuntilplantingHerbaceous:aplantorplantpartthatdoesnotformwoodytissue

Honeydew:excretionofsomesap-suckinginsectssuchasaphids,mealybugs,whiteflies,andsoftscales,consistingprimarilyofwaterandsugarHooks:oldlateralbranchesgrowingtowardthegroundinanopen-vaseformtree

HorticulturalTherapy:atherapeuticprogramofgrowingplantsthathasbeenusedforcenturiestoimprovewell-beingandreducestressIncludedBark:barkfromtwostemsattheirjuncturegrowinginward,typicallyresultinginaweakconnectionInfiltrationRate:therateatwhichwatercanbeabsorbedbysoil

Inorganic:substancenotcontainingcarbon;alsousedtodesignatefertilizersofamineraloriginInternodal:relatingtothelengthofstembetweennodes

Interstock:asecondrootstock,graftedbetweenthefirstrootstockandthescionInterveinal:betweenleafveins

LatentBuds:budsmorethanoneyearoldthatremainnearthesurfaceofthebarkLeaching:removingsaltsorothersolublematerialsfromtherootzonewithirrigationanddrainage;canleadtonutrient-lossLivingMulch:asingletypeofherbaceousplantundersownwithamaincrop,toservethefunctionsofamulch,grownformorethanoneseasonLoam:asoiltypecontainingroughlyequalamountsofsand,silt,andclay

Low-Chill:temperatezonefruittreecultivarsthatcanachievedormancywithaminimumofchillhoursMicroclimate:variationsfromregionalclimatesundertheinfluenceofelevation,slope,exposure,andstructuresModifiedCentralLeader:pruningsystemthatusesheadingcutstothecentralleadertomaintainadesignatedtreeheightMulch:layerofmaterialsplacedonthesoil’ssurfacetoconservemoisture,reduceweedgrowth,preventerosion,moderatesoiltemperature,andimproveaestheticsNode:pointonastemwhereleavesareattached

Open-VaseForm:pruningsystemthatheadsthecentralleaderto18to36inches(45.7to91.4cm)andspreadsscaffoldlimbstonearlyhorizontal;createsamore

opencenterwithmultipleleadersinavaselikepatternOrganic:substancecontainingcarbonandhydrogenatoms;populartermusedtodesignateagricultureandhorticulturewithouttheuseofsyntheticpesticidesorfertilizersPerennial:plants,woodyandherbaceous,thatlivelongerthantwogrowingseasonsandflowermorethanoncePerfect(Hermaphroditic):flowershavingbothmaleandfemaleorgans,capableofself-pollinationPermaculture:holisticagriculturaldesignsthatmimicnaturalecosystemstomaximizeharmonybetweenallelementspH:anumericscaleof0to14usedtodescriberelativeacidityoralkalinity

Photosynthesis:processthattransformsCO2andwaterintosugarandoxygenusingchlorophyllandlightPollination:transferofpollenfromflowerantherstostigma

Pollinator:nonplantagentsthataidinthespreadofpollen(e.g.,bees,hummingbirds,wind)PrecipitationRate:themeasureofwaterdispersalbyirrigationsystems(e.g.,inchesperhour,gallonsperhour)RainwaterHarvesting:thegatheringandstoringofraintoprovidewaterforvariouspurposes,includingcropirrigationRespiration:cellularprocessthatbreaksdownsugartoreleaseenergy;oxygenisconsumed,carbondioxideexpelledRhizome:ahorizontalrootingstemwithnodesandbuds

Root-Ball:rootsandsoilofcontainerizedorballedandburlappedplantsandtreesRootCrown:placewheretherootsystemandthebaseofthetrunkmeet

RootPlate:circumferenceofatree’slargeanchoringrootswithinthetop18to24inches(45.7to61cm)ofsoilRootstock:cultivarorseedlinggrowntoformtherootsystemandbaseofthetrunkforagraftedtreeorplantRootZone(Rhizosphere):soilsurroundingandinfluencingplantandtreeroots,usuallythetop18to24inches(45.7to61cm)ScaffoldLimb:alargebranchthatformspartofthemainstructureofatree’scanopySelf-Fruitful:abletoproducenormalfruitfromself-pollinatedflowers

Self-Thinning:tendencyoftreestodropaportionofimmaturefruits

Self-Unfruitful(Self-Incompatibility):unabletoself-pollinateperfectflowers,cannotsetfruitwithoutcross-pollinationSemidwarfRootstock:rootstockselectedtoreducetheoverallmatureheightoffruittreesfrom50to75percentofstandardrootstocksSign:evidenceofthepresenceoractivityofapestor

pathogen

SoilDrainage:watermovementthroughthesoilprofile

SoilPores:openspacesbetweensoilparticles

SoilStructure:arrangementofsoilparticlesintolargerunits(e.g.,clods,plates,grains)SoilTexture:proportionsofclay(definedasmineralparticleshavingadiameteroflessthan0.002mm),silt(0.002to0.05mm),andsand(.005to2mm),inasoil;45coarsenessorfinenessofsoil45SoilConservationService,U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture.1987.“SoilMechanicsLevel1–Module3.”

Species:agroupofcloselyrelatedindividualorganismsthatresembleeachotherandinter-breedfreelySpurs:stubbyshootsbearingprimarilyflowers,productiveformultiplegrowingseasonsStem-GirdlingRoot:rootcloselycirclingthetrunk,constrictingtrunkgrowthandthatofotherrootsStomata:poresinleavesthatexchangegasesandletwatervaporescape

Suckers:vigorous,uprightshootsgrowingfrombudsbelowthegraftunion

Symptom:changeinappearanceorgrowth,orboth,ofaplantinresponsetodamagebyapestorpathogenTaper:diameterchangeintrunks:wideratbase,narrowerinmiddle

TerminalBud:unexpandedgrowthpointattheendofastemorbranch

ThinningCuts:pruningcutsthatremoveabranchfromthepointoforiginoratthejuncturewithanotherbranchTopped(Topping):indiscriminateheadingcutstocentralleaderandscaffoldlimbsTranspiration:thelossofwatervaporfromplanttissuestotheatmosphere

True-DwarfingRootstock:rootstockselectedtoresultinamaturefruittreewithaheightof5to7feet(1.5to2.1m)Turgidity:tissueswelling,distendedwithfluid

UrbanTree(UrbanForest):treesthatlivewithinornearpopulatedregions

Variety:naturallyoccurringvariationfromaspecies

Vector:organismcapableofcarryingandtransmittingpathogenstohostplantsor

treesVegan:alifestylewithoutanimalproductsorpracticesthatcontributetoanimalsufferingWaterSprouts:vigorous,uprightshootsgrowingfrombranchesorthetrunk,abovethegraftunionWindthrow:failureoccurringatthebaseofthetree,whichliftstherootplateoutofthesoil,usuallyaresultofstrongwindsXeriscape:landscapedesignphilosophyusingsevenprinciplestominimizetheneedforirrigation

RECOMMENDEDREADING

CompostingLetItRot!:TheGardener’sGuidetoComposting.StuCampbell.StoreyPublishing,1998.TheRodaleBookofComposting:EasyMethodsforEveryGardener.DeborahMartinandGraceGershuny(Editors).RodalePress,1992.

CulinaryUsesofFruitSuperfoods:TheFoodandMedicineoftheFuture.DavidWolfe.NorthAtlanticBooks,2009.TheConsciousCook.TalRonnen.HarperCollinsPublishers,2009.GetNakedFast:AGuidetoStrippingAwaytheFoodsthatWeighYouDown.DianaStobo.BreeNoaPublishingCo,2010.

FruitTreeGrowingTheHomeOrchard.ChuckIngels,PamelaGeisel,andMaxwellNorton.UniversityofCaliforniaAgricultureandNaturalResourcesPublication3485,2007.

HumaneAnimalExclusionPrinciplesWildNeighbors:TheHumaneApproachtoLivingwithWildlife(2ndEdition).JohnHadidian,etal.HumaneSocietyPress,2007.

InspirationalTheManWhoPlantedTrees.JeanGiono.Firstpublishedin1953.

NaturalFarmingandPermacultureTheOne-StrawRevolution:AnIntroductiontoNaturalFarming.MasanobuFukuoka,RodalePress,1978.

OrganicGardeningRodale’sUltimateEncyclopediaofOrganicGardening.F.M.Bradley,B.W.Ellis,andE.Phillips.RodalePress,2009.

PruningPruning.SusanLang.SunsetBooks,Inc.1998.

RainwaterHarvestingRainwaterHarvestingforDrylands(Vol.1).BradLancaster.RainsourcePress,2006.

WebResourcesTheFruitTreePlantingFoundation:www.ftpf.orgTheCaliforniaBackyardOrchard,UniversityofCalifornia:homeorchard.ucdavis.eduNationalSustainableAgricultureInformationService(ATTRA):attra.ncat.orgTreesAreGood,InternationalSocietyofArboriculture:www.treesaregood.orgU.S.DepartmentofAgriculturePlantHardinessZoneMap:www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/index.html

U.S.DepartmentofAgricultureCooperativeExtensionSystemOffices:www.csrees.usda.gov/Extension/index.html

INDEX

Aabioticdiseases,135–138adhesion,80aircirculation,26airpollution,14,16airpurification,14,16alternatebear,110anaerobicorganisms,121anchoringplants,118animalexclusion,139–143animalmanure,92annualyield,18ants,125anvishears,100–101,102aphids,124applescab,131appletrees,12,15apples,151automaticdeterrentdevices,143avocado,151avocadotrees,48–49

Bbacillusthuringiensis(Bt),148backfill,72

bagging,147balledandburlapped(B&B)trees,56bareroottrees,57,59,70bark,16basalflare,41,42baskets,141bees,127beetles,127berms,73birds,141ñ143blacksootymold,125bowrake,63branchbarkridge,99branchcollar,99branches,52,99,105brownrot,132,133bypassshears,100–101

Ccalcium,90canning,155–156canopy,42caramelappletart,164carbondioxide,14,26cashewcream,160celeryrootsoupwithGrannySmithapples,159–160centralleader,52centralleaderform,107,108ceramiccontainers,38cherryapricotcrisp,165

chewinginsects,127–128children,57chillhours,50–51chiveoil,160citrusfruit,151citrustrees,97,108claypots,38claysoil,28,80climate,50–51climatemaps,51codominantstems,106–107cohesion,79coldair,31,32coldtemperatures,50–51communityorchards,168–174compactdiscs(CDs),142companionplanting,119compost,63,91,92,93,122composttea,94–95,147conks,122container-growntrees,37–39planting,68–69

containers,selecting,37–38coolingeffects,oftrees,16cottonseedmeal,97covercrops,91–92,116cropping,96cross-pollination,48crown,42crownrot,132–134cultivars,45

cultivation,117

Ddaystoharvest,45deadbranches,105deer,139dehydration,153–154depth,forplanting,70–71directionalgrowth,26diseaseresistance,43diseases,130–134,144–145drainage,28–29driedfruit,153–154dripirrigation,84–85dripline,41,73droughtstress,79–80,135dwarffruittrees,14,15,43,44

EEndicottPearTree,61energysavings,16environmentalbenefits,14–18environmentaldisorders,135–138espalier,108–109Eutypa,113,121evaporation,81evapotranspiration(ET),81exoticvarieties,53

Ffencing,139–141fertilization,72,90–97fieldcapacity,80figtrees,10,49figwasps,10,49fireblight,130–131flashtape,142floodirrigation,81–82flowers,48,49FlyingDragon,44foliardiseases,130frostdamage,135,136

fruitcanning,155–156dehydrating,153–154picking,151–152ripe,151

fruitconsumption,healthbenefitsof,10,18–19fruittreehedgerows,33,34FruitTreePlantingFoundation(FTPF),175

fruittreesbenefitsof,8ñ10distancesbetween,23,24domesticationof,10environmentalbenefits,14–18healthbenefitsof,18–19historyof,10longevityof,12planting,60–77rejuvenationof,110–111roots,41–42selecting,51–57sizesof,14,43,44transporting,57–58trunks,41–42valuationof,17waterneedsof,81yieldof,18

fruitwood,42,45fungaldiseases,122,131–132fungicides,146fungus,125

Ggeneticdwarf,43gopherbaskets,141graftunions,46–47grafting,42,45gravitationalwater,80greenmanures,91–92,93groundwater,18

Hhandshears,100–101harvesting,150–152headingcuts,103,104healthbenefits,offruit,10,18–19heatingeffects,16heaving,62hedgerowplantings,24,33,34heelingin,57,59heightmanagement,43heirloomvarieties,46herbicides,117heritagevarieties,46

homeorchardsenvironmentalbenefitsof,14–18historyof,11Homer,11honeybees,49honeydew,125horticulturaloils,146horticulturaltherapy,19hummingbirds,49humus,92hybridization,42–43

Iinfiltrationrate,28inoculums,130insecticides,148insects,124–129,144–145beneficial,147chewing,127–128sucking,125–126wood-boring,128

internodal,99interveinalchlorosis,138irondeficiency,137irrigation,79–89,81drip,84–85flood,81–82micro-irrigation,84–85forraisedbeds,36sprinkler,82–83

waterschedules,86–88

Jjackfruittrees,14jam,157

KKaolinClay,147

Llacewing,126ladybeetles,126latentbuds,99leaching,81leafminers,127leaves,52,100livingmulches,116location.Seesiteselectionloppers,100–101low-chilltrees,51

Mmacronutrients,90magnesium,90mangotrees,14manure,92,93maturetreerejuvenation,110–111

mentalhealth,19–20microclimates,31–32micro-irrigation,84–85micronutrients,90microorganisms,93mites,124–129,144–145modifiedcentralleaderform,33,107,108moths,127mulch,63,73–74,92,115multipletrees,planting,inonehole,33,35

Nneemoil,148Nemaguardrootstock,43nematodes,124–129,128,134,144–145netting,141–142nitrogen,90,121nodes,99nonbeneficialorganisms,144–145nuttrees,49nutrientdeficiencies,137–138nutrients,79,92–93,96

Oolivetrees,12openvaseform,33,107,108orchardcleanup,122–123organicfertilizers,97organicherbicides,117

organicmaterial,91,92organicpesticides,129outreach,171overwatering,135oxygen,14,26,28,41ozone,14

Ppapillote,158–159parasiticwasps,126pathogens,121peachcobbler,166peachleafcurl,131peachtrees,30pearscab,131peartrees,12perfectflowers,48perimeterfencing,139–141permaculture,119pestcontrolmethods,146–148pests,124–129,144–145pH,90–91pHscale,27phosphorus,90photosynthesis,26,90pickax,63pietins,142piratebugs,126PlantHardinessZoneMap,51plantselection,40–59,121

plantspacing,23,24,33planting,60–77backfill,72bareroottrees,70berms,73checklist,77container-growntrees,37–39,68–69depthandorientation,70–71hedgerows,33mulching,73–74multipletreesinonehole,33,35raisedbeds,36sitepreparation,64–67spottingthelayout,62staking,75–76timingof,61–62tools,63

plantingholes,65–67plasticcontainers,38polepruners,100–101pollination,47–49pollinators,49pores,28potassium,90powderymildew,131–132predatoricons,143propertyvalue,17pruners,63

pruningadditional,107basics,99–100citrustrees,108codominantstems,106–107cuts,103–109dead,diseased,brokenbranches,105espalier,108–109forms,107–109inhedgerows,33reasonsfor,112rejuvenation,110–111roots,38,39,102rulesofthumb,112,114scaffoldlimbs,106subtropicals,108suckers,105,106thinning,110timingof,113,121tools,100–101topping,112watersprouts,105,106

Rrainfall,18,30rainwaterharvesting,89raisedbeds,36raspberryapplesauce,163recipes,157–167rejuvenation,110–111ripefruit,151

Roosevelt,Theodore,13rootcrown,41,42rootplate,41rootpruning,38rootrot,132ñ134root-boundedness,55root-knotnematodes,128,134roots,23,28examining,54–55functionsof,41pruning,39,102structure,41

rootstocks,42–44

Ssaltdamage,138salts,92–93sandysoil,28,92scaffoldlimbs,106scarecrows,143scare-eyeballoons,143scion,45secondarynutrients,90self-fruitfultrees,48self-thinning,45self-unfruitfultrees,48semidwarftrees,43,44shade,16Shisobites,162shrubs,41

sitepreparation,64–67siteselection,22–39,121aircirculation,26ideallocation,22microclimates,31–32insmallandurbanspaces,33–35

soil,27soildrainage,28–29space,23–24sunlight,25water,30

slopes,31,65smallspaces,plantingsolutionsfor,33–35smog,14smogdamage,138snails,129soil,27buildinghealthy,91–96clay,28,80forcontainerplants,38–39fieldcapacity,80nutrientcontentof,92–93pH,27,90–91planting,66–67forraisedbeds,36sandy,28,92waterneedsand,80

soildepth,27soildrainage,28–29soilerosion,18soilmoisture,80soiltexture,80

space,23–24spadeshovel,63spidermites,124sprinklerirrigation,82–83staking,75–76standard-sizetrees,43,44stickybarriers,148stomata,79storage,58stormrunoff,18stress,19,20substrate,27subtropicals,pruning,108suckers,105,106suckinginsects,124–126sugars,100sulfur,90summerchoppedsalad,161sunlight,25sunscald,136,137syntheticfertilizers,92

TTangerine-tini,167terminalbud,99,103terracottapots,38thinning,110thinningcuts,103,104thrips,124

timingofplanting,61–62ofpruning,113,121

toolsplanting,63pruning,100–101

topping,52,112transpiration,16,18,79transport,57–58treesize,56–57trees.Seealsofruittreesbenefitsof,8–9,14–18shadefrom,16structure,41–42

true-dwarftrees,43,44trunkflare,41,42trunkprotectors,142trunks,41–42,52turgidity,79

Uurbanspaces,33–35,100

Vvarieties,45vasculardiseases,130vegetation,removalof,64verticilliumwilt,134vigor,42–43

visualdeterrents,142–143

Wwasps,127water,30,79.Seealsoirrigationforcontainerplants,38–39gravitational,80harvestingrainwater,89insidetrees,79loss,81needs,81fornewlyplantedtrees,74propertiesof,79–80transpiration,79

watersprouts,105,106

wateringschedulecomparisons,87–88guidelines,86–87

weather,pollinationand,49weeding,114–118well-being,18–20wind,26windthrow,67woodcontainers,38wood-boringinsects,128WorldHardinessZones,51

Yyoungtrees,56

IMAGECREDITS

PrimaryPhotographersJulianaGarske:pages17(bottom);19;23;26(top);26(bottom);29(topleft);29(middleleft);30(top);31;38;39;43(top);43(middlebottom);43(bottom);47(left);47(right);53(cacaofruit);53(cacaotree);53(pawpaw);53(pomegranate);54(right);55(top);55(middle);55(bottom);56;58;64(right);65(bottom);68(topleft);68(topright);68(middleleft);68(middleright);68(bottomleft);68(bottomright);69(bottomleft);69(bottommiddle);69(bottomright);71(topright);71(bottomright);72(top);72(bottom);74(bottom);85(bottomleft);86;94;95(topleft);95(topmiddle);95(topright);95(bottom);98;102(topleft);102(topright);103(left);104(bottomleft);104(bottomright);105(bottom);106(topleft);109(top);109(bottomleft);109(bottomright);116;121;122(top);123(bottom);127(topleft);127(topright);129(top);132(bottom);134;135(left);149(bottomright);150;151;152(left);152(right);153;155;168;170;173(top);174(bottom);and192(top)

CemAkin:pages2;8;9;10;11;12;13(top);14;15(top);15(bottom);16;17(top);20;25(topleft);25(topright);25(bottom);29(topright);29(bottomright);30(bottom);34(top);34(bottom);35(top);35(bottom);37;40;43(middletop);45(top);45(bottom);46;48;49;50;53(fig);53(jackfruit);53(jujube);53(loquat);53(olive);53(papaya);53(persimmon);53(tamarind);54(left);57;60;61;63;64(left);65(top);66;67;69(top);73(top);73(bottom);78;80(bottom);83;85(bottomright);87;97;99(bottom);101;104(top);105(top);106(topright);106(bottom);118;119;120;123(top);129(bottom);133(topleft);133(topright);133(middleright);133(bottomleft);133(bottomright);136;140;141;142(left);169(bottom);171;172;173(bottom);and174(top)

IllustratorÖmerAkin:pages13(bottom);21;24;32;41;44(top);59;75;76;77;79;80(top);99(top);102(bottom);103(topright);103(bottomright);107;108(bottomleft);108(bottomcenter);108(bottomright);and111(top)

RecipesRecipesandphotosarereprintedwithpermissionfrom:TheConsciousCook©2009TalRonnenandMelcherMedia:pages158;159;161;and162

DianaStobo:pages163;164;165;166;and167

ContributingPhotographersAgriculturalResearchService,USDA:pages124(top);124(bottomright);125(topleft);125(topright);125(middleleft);125(bottomright);126(topright);126(middleleft);126(middleright);126(bottomleft);126(bottomright);and127(bottom)

EliasBlood:pages44(bottom);70;71(left);74(top);82;85(topright);113;and115

JillEttinger:pages53(chestnut);62;and137(left)

FloridaDivisionofPlantIndustryArchive,FloridaDepartmentofAgricultureandConsumerServices,Bugwood.org:page128

TheFruitTreePlantingFoundation:pages5and175

NancyGutknecht:page22

WillHudson,UniversityofGeorgia,Bugwood.org:page125(middleright)

TerriHughes-Oelrich:page18

CorinaKanwischer:page85(topleft)

JulieMichelle/FemmeFotographie:page92

RicoMontenegro,ChiefCertifiedArborist,FTPF:pages42and111(bottom)

RobertL.Morris,UniversityofNevadaCooperativeExtension:pages135(right);137(right);and142(right)

CourtesyofNaturalResourcesConservationService,USDA:page28

ScotC.Nelson,UniversityofHawaiiatManoa:page138

JayW.Pscheidt:page122(bottom)

ConniePugh,FarmSanctuary:page169(top)

Yuan-MinShen,TaichungDistrictAgriculturalResearchandExtension

Station,Bugwood.org:page132(top)

JeffSkeirik:pages93;149(top);and149(bottomleft)

TimTigner,VirginiaDepartmentofForestry,Bugwood.org:page139

UniversityofGeorgiaPlantPathologyArchive,Bugwood.org:pages130(top);130(bottom);131(top);131(middle);and131(bottom)

UtahStateUniversityCooperativeExtension:page124(bottomleft)

CarmenVidal-Hallett:page89

DavidWolfe:page53(noni)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThisbookwasmadepossiblethroughthevisionofDavid“Avocado”Wolfe.

HeartfeltthanksonbehalfoffruittreeseverywheretoFTPF’stalentedstaffanddedicatedvolunteersfortheircontributionstothishandbook:RicoMontenegro(chiefcertifiedarborist),RobynduPré(directorofoutreach&development),KatherineDrotos(educator),JillEttinger(editor),andJulianaGarske(leadphotographer&researcher);andtoallthosewhohelpedinwaysnotpreviouslymentioned:TalRonnen,LiaRonnen,DianaStobo,NancyDionne,JosephLaForest,RochelleBourgault,TiffanyHill,andQuarryBooks.

ExtremegratitudetoFTPF’sfriends,whosesupportallowsustoplantsomanyfruittreesforcommunitiesandcreatematerialssuchasthishandbook:JasonAberbach,SteveAdler,AyçaAkin,CenayAkin,MeteAkin,Su-MiaFaziletAkin,theAltayfamily,MarcAnderson,ScottAnderson,VanessaBarg,SilviaBarretto,PaulBartlett,SarahBartlett,AngelaBassett,EdBegley,Jr.,DanielBergan,Biddle’sNursery,RickBlair,JeffreyBotticelli,StephanieBoyles,GabrielleBrick,JamesBrown,SandraBrzozowski,TaylorCall,KarenCartwright,CleanStarDevelopment,CommonVision,BrendanDaley,JenDay,HeatherDelgado,NeilDiPaola,LisaDrew,Dreyer’sFruitBars,TheDripStore,LaurenEhlert,theEttingerfamily,NathanFeura,ChristaFink,FortinaChocolate,LisaFranzetta,BruceFriedrich,FruitaBü,MichelleFuller,SeverineFumoux,theGarskefamily,CamilleRoseGiglio,GnosisChocolate,BobbyGonzalez,KevinHaber,ScottHandleman,EmilyHemingway,AntoneHonanie,HopiTutskwaPermaculture,MarisaHormel,BryceDallasHoward,ArianaHuemer,LilianHill,HumaneSocietyoftheUnitedStates,MarkHull,InstituteforIntegrativeNutrition,RayIppolito,AndredeJesus,KellyJohnson,JosephKaranja,theKarasapanfamily,Kashi,ErinKavanagh,LisaLange,SamanthaLeffler,TheLongevityNowConference,BarryMaketansky,RolandManakaje,JacoboMarcus,EvanMarks,McGregorFenceCompany,JanetMcKee,FernandoMedina,CraigAnthonyMiller,ValMizuhara,CananMutlu,IngridNewkirk,AmberNicola,RichNicola,NorthAtlanticBooks,JennaNorwood,JamieOgden,OrangeCountyNursery,TaniaPappas,NyreeParisi,AshokPawar,MattPenzer,PeoplefortheEthicalTreatmentofAnimals,RupaRaghunathdas,JackieRalya,ZoeRappoport,TracyReiman,GaylordRobb,EmilyRoberts,JoshuaRosenthal,SacredChocolate,SagunSaxena,SeedsGreenPrintingandDesign,JeffShaw,MariaShriver,StretchIslandFruitCompany,

ShawnaStursa,MaryBethSweetland,theTanchefffamily,JasonTracy,DamianValdez,ShashankVerma,Carmen&EmiliaVidal-Hallett,MitchWallis,JeanWatson,AuraWeinstein,RobynWesley,AnnaWest,EugeneWeymouth,RobertWhiteMountain,PeterWood,LauraYanne,andsomanymore!

ABOUTTHEAUTHORS

ThisjourneystartedoutforCemAkinasayoungboyinhisgrandmother’scherrytreeinTurkey,spendingcountlesssummerafternoonssittingatopthecanopy,marvelingatthenotionofseeminglyunlimitedfruitsandnaturalbeauty.Thatserenitycamecrashingtoahaltonememorableday,quiteliterally.Yet,despiteapainfulfallfromthethirdscaffoldbranch,theseedshadbeenplantedforadeepappreciationoffruittrees.Today,asexecutivedirectoroftheFruitTreePlantingFoundation,Cemhascreatedcharitableprogramsandplantedthousandsoftreesonfivecontinents—injungles,deserts,andinbetween.WithdegreesfromCarnegieMellonUniversity,includingamasterofscienceinpublicpolicyandmanagement,andfurtherstudiesatCambridgeandCornell,hiscareerinthenonprofitsectorhasresultedinprecedent-settingpolicychangesanddirectbenefitsforcommunitiesinthefieldsofenvironmentalandanimalprotection.Cemisanenthusiasticphotographerandfilmmaker—havingcodirectedPETA’swidelydistributeddocumentaryshort,MeetYourMeat.

ThegoodfortuneofgrowingupinruralSouthernCalifornialedLeahRottkeinpursuitofacareerspentoutdoors.Afterfinishingcollege,andworkingtwenty-fiveyearsinlandscapemanagementandthepracticeofarboriculture,shesharesherwealthofexperiencewithherpeersthroughdozensofpublishedarticles.Now,Leahenjoysteachingornamentalhorticultureatthecommunitycollegelevel.Shealsovolunteersasanarboristandeducatorforlocalpublicgardensandgardeningorganizations.LeahisanISACertifiedArborist,agraduateoftheconsultingacademyoftheAmericanSocietyofConsultingArborists,andamemberoftheGardenWritersAssociation.ShehasvolunteeredhertimeandexpertisetotheFruitTreePlantingFoundationsince2006,andshefloodirrigatesallofherfruittrees.

Text©2011byCemAkinandLeahRottkeAllrightsreserved.Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyformwithoutwrittenpermissionofthecopyrightowners.Allimagesinthisbookhavebeenreproducedwiththeknowledgeandpriorconsentoftheartistsconcerned,andnoresponsibilityisacceptedbytheproducer,publisher,orprinterforanyinfringementofcopyrightorotherwise,arisingfromthecontentsofthispublication.Everyefforthasbeenmadetoensurethatcreditsaccuratelycomplywithinformationsupplied.Weapologizeforanyinaccuraciesthatmayhaveoccurredandwillresolveinaccurateormissinginformationinasubsequentreprintingofthebook.

FirstpublishedintheUnitedStatesofAmericabyQuarryBooks,amemberofQuaysidePublishingGroup100CummingsCenterSuite406-LBeverly,Massachusetts01915-6101Telephone:(978)282-9590Fax:(978)283-2742www.quarrybooks.com

Digitaledition:978-1-61060223-5Softcoveredition:978-1-59253-712-9

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataisavailableISBN-13:978-1-59253-712-9

ISBN-10:1-59253-712-X

987654321

Design:RachelFitzgibbon,studiorkfChefTalRonnenrecipesandphotosarereprintedwithpermissionfromTheConsciousCook©2009TalRonnenandMelcherMediaPrintedinChina