24Summer 2005

Issue

SitesA newEarth ScienceConservationClassification

Tsunami!Mega-wavethat hit our doorstep

TourismBuildinga network forgeotourists

Earth Heritage magazine is published twice a year to promote interest in geological and landscape conservation.

The west coast ofJura is a classicarea for raisedshorelines. It isclassified as a relictgeomorphologicalsite ‘IS’ - see NewEarth ScienceConservationClassification, page13.

The High RockPlatform and its lowbacking cliff areclearly developed inthe upper part ofthe image, runningfrom top left tomiddle right. A‘staircase’ ofvegetated andunvegetatedlateglacial gravelbeach ridges coversthe surface of thisplatform to the rightof the big gully.

At its seawardmargin, the HighRock Platform istruncated by theprominent backingcliff of the MainRock Platform. Thesurface of thisplatform is coveredby ‘staircases’ ofpostglacial gravelridges.

Photo © Patricia MacDonald/Aerographica

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A £9.7m grant scheme has been launchedby the Countryside Agency and EnglishNature to manage the impacts thataggregate extraction can have on theenvironment and local communities.

The Aggregates Levy Sustainability Fund(ALSF) Partnership Grant Scheme, fundedvia Defra, aims to support projects whichbenefit landscapes, heritage, biodiversity,geodiversity and communities in Englandaffected by aggregate extraction.

The scheme will have around £5.7m in2005/2006 and £4m in 2006/2007, whichwill be targeted at land- and community-

based projects, with an extra £1m in eachyear for marine projects.

Elliot Morley, the Minister responsible forthe environment at the time, said: “Closerpartnership working will simplify theapplication process and increase thebenefits to individuals, communities,landscapes and the environment. Extractingsand, gravel and rock has had a significanteffect on the environment. This fund aimsto address this environmental cost byenhancing old aggregate extraction sites.”

Dr Andy Brown, Chief Executive ofEnglish Nature, said: “Over the past three

years, the ALSF grant scheme hasproduced practical, on-the-ground, resultsfor wildlife, geology and local communitiesaffected by aggregate extraction. Thelaunch of this new scheme can onlystrengthen this work further.”

Initial applications for funding under theALSF Partnership Grant Scheme will bemade through a single contact point withthe forms available for completion andsubmission on English Nature’s website atwww.english-nature.org.uk. The GrantsManagement Team will help applicantsthrough the process, and can be contactedon 01476 584821.

State of Nature: geodiversity English Nature’s fourth State of Naturereport, which looks at geodiversity, isdue to be launched this Autumn.

The report is the latest in a serieswhich has examined upland, lowlandand maritime issues, and will highlightthe current condition, threats to andfuture challenges for England’sgeodiversity.

It encompasses geology,geomorphology, soil and landscapeand their links to wildlife and habitat. Ithas been developed jointly by EnglishNature, the Countryside Agency andthe Rural Development Service inadvance of their integration into thenew organisation Natural England. Thetheme of cross-discipline andintegrated working is emphasised andsets the scene for the way in whichNatural England will move forward.

For further information, contactjonathan.larwood@english-nature.org.uk or tel: 01733 455115.

Central Wales RIGS Group is currentlybeing reconstituted and has been awarded asubstantial grant from the Aggregates LevySustainability Fund (ALSF) administeredby the Welsh Assembly Government.

The grant is to carry out a geological auditof the Central Wales area to provide acomprehensive network of RIGS. It is thesecond grant of this kind to be awarded tothe Association of Welsh RIGS Groups(AWRG), which is already in the secondyear of a similar survey project in NorthWales, being carried out by the Gwyneddand Môn and NEWRIGS groups.

Professor Bill Fitches, a structural geologistwith detailed knowledge of the region, ismanaging the Central Wales project andwelcomes any information on potential sitesfrom anyone who knows the area.

If you can help, or if you are interested injoining the Central Wales RIGS Group,please contact him by e-mail:billfitches83@ hotmail.com or tel: 01970 880217.

Earth Heritage is a twice-yearly magazine produced by theJoint Nature Conservation Committee, English Nature,

Scottish Natural Heritage and theCountryside Council for Wales. Thevoluntary geoconservation sector is a

major contributor. We would like to thank all those who have assisted with thepreparation of the magazine. However, the opinions expressed by the contributors arenot necessarily those of the above organisations. A database listing all the articlescarried up to issue 17 is available on CD. Contact any member of the editorial board.

Key articles from this and previous issues of Earth Heritage can be found on the Web at:www.seaburysalmon.com/earth.html

Offers of articles should be directed to the relevant members of the editorial board, who are:

Earthheritage

Managing EditorSTEWART CAMPBELL, CountrysideCouncil for Wales, Maes-y-Ffynnon,Ffordd Penrhos, Bangor, Gwynedd LL572DN. Telephone 01248 385693, e-mail:s.campbell@ccw.gov.uk

EditorsDAVID EVANS, English Nature,Northminster House, Peterborough PE11UA. Telephone 01733 455204, e-mail:david.evans@english-nature.org.ukCOLIN MACFADYEN,Scottish Natural Heritage, 2 AndersonPlace, Edinburgh EH6 5NP.Telephone 0131 446 2055, e-mail: colin.macfadyen@snh.gov.ukNEIL ELLIS,Joint Nature Conservation Committee,Monkstone House, City Road, Peterborough PE1 1JY. Telephone 01733 562626, e-mail: neil.ellis@jncc.gov.uk

MICK STANLEY, GeodiversityConsulting, Park House, 8 KingStreet, Ripon, North YorkshireHG4 1PJ. Telephone 01765 609479,e-mail: mick.stanley1@btopenworld.comCYNTHIA BUREK,UKRIGS Geoconservation Association,Environment Research Group, UniversityCollege Chester, Parkgate Road, Chester CH1 4BJ. Telephone 01244 375444, e-mail: cburek@chester.ac.uk

ProductionSeabury Salmon, Seabury Salmon &Associates, The Old Pound, Ludford,Ludlow, Shropshire SY8 1PP. Telephone01584 877442. Fax 01584 875416. e-mail: eheritage@seaburysalmon.com

CirculationEarth Heritage is free. Contact yourlocal Editor to be placed on themailing list.

Friog Undercliff is amineralogical GCR sitesouth of Barmouthconsisting of coastalcliffs and foreshoreexposures (EC in thenew Earth ScienceConservationClassification – page 13). These

exposures displayCambrian rocks cut bynumerous quartz-sulphide veins whichexhibit a variety ofdeformational features critical to determining the age of themineralisation in the Dolgellau Gold-belt. The primaryconservation objective at the site is to maintain the currentlevels and continuity of exposure.Photo by Stewart Campbell

Cover photo

Outcrops – pages 3-7

Cairngorm Mountains:new views on an oldlandscape – page 8

New light shines on the Oolite – page 10

England’s first soil trail– page 12

New Earth Science ConservationClassification – page 13

The Ice Age in Herefordshire – page 16

A future for Philpots Quarry SSSI – page 17

Rainforestsin the rock– page 19

Mineral richesunearthed – page 20

Discovering fossils on the web – page 22

Establishing a geotourism network inScotland – page 23

A tale of two sites – page 24

Tsunami on our doorstep – page 26

Review – page 27

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The effort put into geoconservation has increased massively over thelast 15 years. In particular, the voluntary sector – RIGS groups,geology trusts and Earth heritage trusts – is shouldering significantwork and responsibility.

This was one of the visions of the Nature Conservancy Council’s EarthScience Conservation Strategy back in 1990. Today, there are some evenbigger potential opportunities for geoconservation: the continueddiversification in the role of the statutory agencies (including theformation of Natural England – see page 3) is leading to a more holisticapproach to conserving biodiversity, geodiversity and our cultural andlandscape heritage. To capitalise on this situation, even widerpartnership working is needed. It opens the way for RIGS groups andthe geology and Earth heritage trusts who already work extensively withstatutory agencies (and each other) to forge links with organisations,individuals, and educational establishments that previously may nothave fully considered the merits of their geological heritage.

This issue of Earth Heritage shows that this is how geoconservationistsare already working – and to great effect. But, engaging the public andmaking geoconservation relevant to modern society is critical.Fostering geotourism and exploiting the socio-economic potential ofour geology and landforms are some of our biggest challenges.

Managing Editor

£9.7m to aggregate impacts

ALSF boost for Welsh RIGS

An exposure of the Lower Silurian Aberystwyth GritsFormation near Aberystwyth, showing spectacularsole structures. This is one of many sites that will beevaluated in the Central Wales RIGS ALSF project.The site is classified as a disused quarry (ED) in theEarth Science Conservation Classification (ESCC) –see page 13.

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The IV International Symposium ProGEOon the Conservation of the GeologicalHeritage will be held at the University ofMinho, Braga, Portugal, 13-16 September2005. Objectives include examiningsuccessful examples of geoconservationthat can be cloned, and discussing legalframeworks to support geoconservation atEuropean and international levels.

The Symposium will comprise scientificsessions with invited plenary lectures, oralpresentations and posters, and post-congress field trips. The organisers areinterested in contributions, which they wantintegrated into a number of specificthemes. Details of these, and fullSymposium information, are on the web atwww.dct.uminho.pt/cct/progeo2005/

On other pagesOn other pagesPartnership workingPartnership working

International outlook at ProGEO symposium

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Peneda-Gerês NationalPark, north-westPortugal

Quarrying is vital to the economy, butdoesn’t always make for attractivelandscapes. Consequently, mostquarries end up hidden from view. Withthis in mind, Tarmac opened BorrasQuarry in Wrexham to the public duringthe area’s Science Festival. It was anopportunity for the 1,000 visitors to seea working quarry and appreciate theissues involved in quarrying.

Borras Quarry extracts sand and graveland is located in what has long beenknown as the Wrexham Delta Terrace(now referred to as the WrexhamPlateau), a massive body of glacial andglaciofluvial sediment depositedtowards the end of the Devensianglaciation, around 14,000 years ago.Scientifically, the deposits provideevidence that the region was invaded

by two different ice sheets – an IrishSea ice sheet from the north and aWelsh ice sheet from the west. The60m-thick sequence at Borras isdominated by sands and gravelsdeposited by glacial meltwaterstreams. Some of these are typical ofthose laid down on outwash plains infront of the ice sheet; others show thatthe streams entered a substantialwater body where the sands andgravels were deposited in large deltas.

The quarry houses the Millennium EcoCentre with its messages aboutsustainable living, biodiversity,geodiversity and other environmentalissues. A large marquee hosteddisplays by various organisations, andTarmac had a large ‘hands-on’

exhibition, showing different types ofsand and gravel, how the sediment isgraded and processed, and thefinished building product.

Vistors were also able to clamberaround large quarry diggers andtrucks. For the youngest enthusiasts,there were sandpits with smallerdiggers, puzzles and quizzes.

NEWRIGS produced a special set ofthree posters, illustrating thegeodiversity of the area, and showed acollection of local rocks, fossils andminerals.

– Jacqui Malpas, NEWRIGS Geodiversity Audit Research Officer

One of Scotland’s most significant fossilfinds – the world’s earliest air-breathinganimal – is the highlight of a projectdeveloped for the Tolbooth Museum atStonehaven.

The Stonehaven Fossil Group is acommittee of Stonehaven and DistrictCommunity Council – and no, it’s not acomment on the age of members! Thisrelatively new group has prepared anexhibition which interprets the uniquegeology of the Stonehaven area, a coastaltown 24 kilometres south of Aberdeen.

The fossil millipede thought to have livedaround 428 million years ago (see issue 23)was found at Cowie, Stonehaven, byamateur geologist Mike Newman, afterwhom it is named Pneumodesmusnewmani. Mike has also found very earlyfish fossils of the primitive jawless varietyand these too are included in the exhibition.With the millipede fossil being only acentimetre long, a large model willillustrate the animal in detail.

The Group wants the exhibition to raiseawareness of the area’s geology – especiallythe Highland Boundary Fault – amongtourists and local people. The fault is a splitin the Earth’s crust which extends acrossScotland from Stonehaven in the east toHelensburgh in the west. Associated with itis the Highland Border Complex, whichpreserves the fragmented remains of the

floor of the Iapteus Ocean that onceseparated Scotland from England.

Many enthusiasts have joined the FossilGroup. Emeritus Professor of PetroleumGeology at the University of Aberdeen,Brian Williams, and Don Stewart, Secretaryof Aberdeen Geological Society, have beenparticularly helpful. Dr Lyall Andersonfrom the Department of Natural Sciences,at the National Museums of Scotland, hasprovided palaeontological expertise.

Andrew Hill and Ann Bowes of theAberdeenshire Heritage and MuseumsDepartment also provided assistance.

A smaller mobile exhibition will take thestory of Cowie’s geology and fossils toschools and local groups, and possiblyfarther afield.

The whole project is expected to costaround £8,500 with phased completionsover the next two to three years. The FossilGroup has already secured funding fromScottish Natural Heritage, Nortrail and theStonehaven Common Good Fund. Themain interpretative exhibition at theTolbooth Museum is now open.

For further information, e-mail me atderekrstewart@dda1995.co.uk.

– Derek R. Stewart, Chairman,Stonehaven and District CommunityCouncil and Stonehaven FossilGroup

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This UKRIGS project – funded throughthe ALSF – created materials for field-teaching at former aggregates sites inDerbyshire and Staffordshire. The foursites were the National Stone Centre,Wirksworth; Black Rock and DeneQuarry, Matlock; Apes Tor and EctonHill, Wetton; and Park Hall, Stoke-on-Trent.

The resources, which meet the needsof various key stages of the NationalCurriculum, were produced incollaboration with partners in the EarthScience Teachers’ Association (ESTA),the Earth Science Education Unit(ESEU) and the National Stone Centre(NSC) and were overseen by EnglishNature.

Everyone interested is being asked toevaluate the materials produced, andnon-specialist teachers are beingencouraged to use the sites for theirfieldwork. The joint ESTA/UKRIGSConference in September (see below)will evaluate and explain some of thework.

UKRIGS has now submitted a bid tothe ALSF for a grant to produceeducational materials for eight moreformer aggregates sites over the nexttwo years. RIGS Groups are beinginvited to suggest sites suitable forsimilar treatment. They shouldpreferably have open, safe publicaccess, and are likely to be designatedas SSSIs or RIGS, possibly withadditional Nature Reserve or otherstatus.

The Earth Science On-Site materialsare available under Education at theUKRIGS website, www.ukrigs.org.uk

– John Reynolds, UKRIGS EducationOfficer Project Manager

West Lothian, pioneer of the LocalBiodiversity Action Planning process inScotland, is set to take the lead again withthe first Local Geodiversity Action Plannorth of the border.

Thanks to funding from the ScottishExecutive’s Community EnvironmentalRenewal Grant Scheme, which representsthe proceeds of the Aggregate Levy, theBritish Geological Survey (BGS) will beginthe process this summer with a geodiversityaudit of West Lothian.

BGS and West Lothian Council (WLC),Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) and theLothian and Borders RIGS Group(LaBRIGS), will assess the state ofgeodiversity in the area in its local tonational context and its relevance tobiodiversity, soil conservation and otherprotection designations. The audit willinform sustainable planning anddevelopment, and management,conservation and interpretation of the Earthheritage. It will provide the essential basisfor the construction of the follow-on WestLothian Geodiversity Action Plan.

As well as a more integrated approach tonature conservation, the project will lead tonew GIS-based information; wider

recognition of local sites and features witheducational and recreational value, andrecognition of geological andgeomorphological assets and their value bylocal communities and land managers.

Just west of Edinburgh, West Lothiancovers 425 km2 from the Pentland Hills inthe south-east, over the valley of the RiverAlmond to the Bathgate Hills and the southshore of the Firth of Forth.

– Hugh Barron, BritishGeological Survey

Millipede discovery open to interpretation

Quarry presents a friendlier face

A 30cm model of Pneumodesmus newmani made byStephen Caine of New Aberdour. Stephen makesexpert models of fossils for scientific research, publicdisplay and private collections.

Fossil Group members at The Toutties GCR site,where the fossil remains of the world’s oldest-knownmillipede and some of the earliest fish were found.

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The fifth Scotland-wide Festivalof Geology is set to Rock Onduring the whole of September2005. No longer constrained toa week or two, this biennialcelebration of Scottish Geologyis set to run from the 1st to the30th of the month.

Rock On is aimed at makinggeology, and Earth science ingeneral, available to everyone. Itis the hope of the Rock Onorganising partnership to furtherthe knowledge of those alreadyinterested in geology but, moreimportantly, to capture theinterest of those who have little or noknowledge of the subject. Events willinclude mine and quarry visits;geological rambles; guided walks;lectures and talks; gold and silverpanning; rock ‘surgeries’; buildingstones walks; a dry-stone wallingdemonstration; and fossil forays.

The HunterianMuseum inGlasgow is co-ordinating Rock On2005, in partnershipwith ScottishNatural Heritage,National Museumsof Scotland, OurDynamic Earth,British GeologicalSurvey, and theScottish EarthScience EducationForum.

For further details and a completelisting of events visitwww.scottishgeology.com,the gateway to Scottish geology on theweb.

– Colin MacFadyen, Scottish Natural Heritage

Earth scienceeducation projectsuccess

Ready to 2005

Lothian shapes up for its second first

Participants at the sixth UKRIGS Annual Conferencevisiting Petershill Quarry SSSI and RIGS in theBathgate Hills, West Lothian. This abandoned quarryand former water reservoir is owned by the ScottishWildlife Trust and is one of the many geologicalhighlights of West Lothian, where work on a LocalGeodiversity Action Plan is being undertaken. Aleaflet produced by LaBRIGS interprets the geologyand the intimately associated flora and fauna.

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4Published with permission of the ExecutiveDirector, British Geological Survey(NERC).

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16-18 September 2005EARTH SCIENCES &THE COUNTRYSIDEEarth Science Teachers’ AssociationAnnual Course and Conference andUKRIGS Annual ConferenceVenue: University of Derby

More details from Peter Jones, email: p.f.jones@derby.ac.uk or tel: 01332 591724

In 1989 the fossil known as ‘Lizzie’ – anearly reptile-like amphibian found byEdinburgh-based fossil collector Stan Wood– was put up for sale and faced export to amuseum in Germany.

The threatened loss of this fossil,Westlothiana lizziae, thought at the time tobe the world’s oldest-known reptile, causedconsternation. Given its price tag, it wasbrought before the Reviewing Committeeon the Export of Works of Art (RCEWA).This is common practice for items such aspaintings and vintage cars, where exportcontrols exist so that works of art and othercultural items have a chance of staying inthis country. But, it became clear that theexport control regulations did not covernatural heritage items such as fossils.

There is little doubt that in 1989, hadexport regulations extended to fossils, anexport licence would have been needed andthe RCEWA would have been able to deferissuing a licence. In reality, Mr Woodvoluntarily agreed to a delay on the exportof the specimen and funds were eventuallyraised to keep it in the UK. It is now likelythat the Department for Culture, Media andSport (DCMS) will initiate a consultationon the export of fossil specimens from theUK. Check the DCMS website atwww.culture.gov.uk/global/consultations/default.htm.

Two poems, inspired by the Scottishlandscape and engraved into Caithnessflagstones outside the Scottish Parliament,were unveiled earlier this year, by GeorgeReid, the Parliament’s Presiding Officer.

The poems were the winning entries in theRock On Scottish Geology Festival inter-year Written in Stone competition. Theoverall winner of the competition, whichwas designed to get school pupils lookingat and appreciating the landscape, was 14-year-old Robert Adam from Cushnie, nearAlford in Aberdeenshire with his entry:

Look. What can you see? I see beauty in the lochs.I see majesty in mountains.I see legend in rocks.And it is ours.

The winner of the Gaelic languagecategory was 15-year-old MaireadMacNeil from Castlebay on the Isle ofBarra, with:

Beanntan Àrda Fo cheò Mar chaistealan glasa A' fleòdradh sa mhuir

This translates as:Towering mountains Shrouded in mist Like grey castles Floating in the sea

The unveiling drew widespread mediacoverage and boosted awareness of theimportance of Scotland’s geology.

The Scottish Geology Festival organisingpartnership led by Scottish NaturalHeritage is grateful to Watson Stonecraftwho facilitated the engraving work,Gardner Malloy of Matchless Masonrywho engraved the stones and to Bord NaGaidhlig (Gaelic Language Board) whichsupported the unveiling reception.

England’s Heritage in Stone conference was held from 15-17March in York and organised by the GeoConservation Commission,with sponsorship from English Heritage, English Nature, StoneFederation GB and the British Geological Survey.

One morning session looking at the history of stone type and usewas followed by a visit to York Minster mason’s yard, watchingcarvers and masons at work, examing profiling and cuttingmachinery and the computerised setting out shop. This alloweddelegates to understand the current practices in Europe’s largestgothic Cathedral with a full programme of repair and replacementof stone. The climax was a conducted tour up the spectacular EastFront, now covered in many miles of scaffolding. Two walks aroundthe Minster, taken by Eric Robinson and Jane Jackson, looked atthe building stone and architecture.

STEAM TREATThe conference dinner at the National Railway Museum sawdelegates dining next to Mallard, the A4 Gresley Pacific railwayengine of 1936 and world speed record holder for steam engines,now in retirement and a star attraction. Guest of honour was SirWilliam McAlpine, President of the Natural Stone Institute andformer owner of the Flying Scotsman, a famous A3 GresleyPacific.

STONE ISSUESA recurring conference issue was the shortage of supply ofindigenous building stone in designated areas (e.g. national parksand conservation areas). Local politicians are unlikely to agree tore-opening as, in the public eye, all quarrying is tarred with theaggregate brush – noise, dust and many traffic movements. Thereality with building stone is usually a small number of weeklytraffic movements and minimal dust and noise. A concerted effortis needed from built and natural heritage conservation bodies andlocal planning authorities to reconcile conflicting interests. Longerterm, there is a need to recognise that ‘old’ stone quarries mayrequire statutory recognition as a ‘heritage resource’ similar to thatfor the built and the biological heritage. Help may be at hand asGovernment planning guidance in the form of a new MineralsPlanning Statement 1 – Planning and Minerals (England & Wales)is likely to include an annex on building stone. This leads on fromthe Symonds report (Earth Heritage 22) on Planning for the Supplyof Stone and Slate in England. Pilot resource/building studies beingundertaken by the British Geological Survey, Building ResearchEstablishment, English Nature and English Heritage may point theway for future research.

FIELD TRIPOther issues included the provision and accessibility of technicalinformation for practitioners (including architects, designers andbuilders), global market constraints on stone producers, provisionof craft, building conservation and new-build skills, and the shortdesign life of modern buildings. One evening a conducted tour ofthe Centre of Vocational Excellence (COVE) for stone masonry atYork College, revealed the exceptional facilities available tostudents for learning the art of the mason and carver.

A field trip looked in detail at the building limestones of the UpperPermian, Cadeby Formation (Magnesian Limestone) of theTadcaster area to the south-west of York, starting with the late 11thcentury Selby Abbey and the mainly late Norman church atSherburn-in-Elmet, a much modified Saxon foundation withRomanesque and Perpendicular features. Visits to MickelfieldQuarry, an SSSI with an interpretation of its importance, andSmaws Quarry, now sadly an active landfill site but formerlysupplier of stone to repair York Minster in the 1880s and Clifford’sTower in York in 1903, completed the trip.

The final plenary session revealed a wish to convene a SteeringGroup to establish terms of reference and operational aspects of theEnglish Stone Forum. It was agreed that the Stone Working Groupof the GeoConservation Commission, the body responsible for theconference, should act as the Steering Group, co-opting additionalmembers as required.

– Mick Stanley, Secretary, GeoConservation Commission

The Review of Local Nature ConservationSites (LNCS) in Scotland

LNCS have long held a place in nature conservation inScotland. Whilst the first National Nature Reserve, BeinnEighe, was created in 1951, locally designated sitesfollowed some 15 years later, and so have a 40-year historyalongside other long-established mechanisms. Scotland firstRIGS group was established in 1992.

The adaptation of LNCS to local circumstances has been astrength of the designation, and has led to innovation andcreative developments. However, the breath of differentapproaches has led to confusion as to the meaning andstatus of sites, and prevents the use of the designation inScottish national policy. The role of LNCS was discussedduring debate on the Nature Conservation (Scotland) Bill in2004, giving rise to a request to SNH by Ministers to lead areview of LNCS in Scotland, with a consultation on draftGuidance taking place this summer. For further information,please contact Rachel Hellings, email: rachel.hellings@snh.gov.uk

An award-winning hand-axe sculpture hasbeen installed at the main entrance of theSwanscombe Heritage Park – the site of ageological Site of Special Scientific Interestin north Kent.

David Robinson and Peter Greenstreet oflandscape design company GES Ltdscooped the top honour in A Walk intoHistory competition, which inviteddesigners to create a landmark feature forthe park. The design was based on the400,000-year-old hand-axe discovered inthe park, which is famed as the site of theoldest human remains in Britain. TheSwanscombe skull site is where threeseparate pieces of skull, estimated to dateback 400,000 years, were found.

Where to find a good quarry

Good Quarry – at www.goodquarry.com– tackles how to incorporate goodenvironmental practice into quarrydesign, operation and restoration. Thesite is funded through the AggregatesLevy Sustainability Fund andadministered by the Mineral IndustryResearch Organisation (MIRO).

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Stone matters! Intricate stonework on the west doorway of the 11th century Selby Abbey was one

of the joys of a conference field trip.

George Reid with Robert Adam and his winningpoem.

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Hand-sculpted poetry

Lizzie the Lizard’s fossil remains (above) and areconstruction of this major fossil find. Lizzie nowresides in the Royal Scottish Museum. In the future,anyone wanting to export such nationally importantspecimens overseas may need a licence to do so.

Lizard case may help close export loophole

Skull site winner

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The granite mountains of theCairngorms form a distinctiveand internationally importantlandscape. Two recent studies

provide new information to help developEarth heritage interpretation and sitemanagement.

The Cairngorm Mountains make up thelargest continuous area of high groundabove 1,000m in Britain and include mostof the highest summits in Scotland. Thesemountains, with their distinctive plateausurfaces and glacially sculptured features,became part of Scotland’s second NationalPark in 2003. They are also included in theUK Tentative List of World Heritage Sitesfor their exceptional landforms andgeological history. In particular, theCairngorms provide unique insights intothe processes of mountain landscapeevolution and environmental change in amaritime, mid-latitude setting in thenorthern hemisphere over the last 400million years.

Geological foundations of agranite landscape

The Cairngorms are underlain by a granitepluton intruded into metasedimentary rocksof the Dalradian Supergroup. Thishappened about 427 million years agoduring the Caledonian Orogeny. Today’slandscape reflects the character andstructure of the granite bedrock and itssubsequent exposure and erosion throughgeomorphological processes. Theproperties of the granite, especially jointing

and structuralweaknesses, haveinfluenced the patterns ofweathering, erosion andlandscape evolution. Theform of the currentlandscape, althoughmodified by glacialerosion, is essentially aninherited one. This has been investigated ina joint study by the British GeologicalSurvey and Scottish Natural Heritage.

The results of detailed mapping of thejointing and characteristics of the graniteshow that zones of weakness wereproduced by hot fluids reacting with thegranite as they moved along joints andfractures in the rock. This happened soonafter the granite had been intruded.

The major landscape features of theCairngorms began to form soon after thegranite was exposed, around 390-400million years ago through selectiveweathering and erosion of weaker rock.Over time, the pre-glacial rivers excavatedthe precursors of the present glens alongthe zones of weakness.

During the Neogene and Palaeogene(between about 65 and 2.5 million yearsago), episodes of uplift, etching (deepweathering) and stripping of the deeplyweathered rock shaped the overall form ofthe relief into a series of etchplains(‘erosion surfaces’), and tor-capped summitdomes where the granite is more massiveand poorly jointed.

During successive phases of glaciation inthe Quaternary, glaciers and ice sheetsselectively deepened and extended the pre-glacial glens. This is the first time that theCairngorms’ origins have been directlytraced back to when the granite formed.

The new datasets have been compiled bythe British Geological Survey in aGeographic Information System (GIS).These will provide the basis for developingnovel interpretative materials. In oneapplication, the pre-glacial relief wasreconstructed as a digital terrain model andcompared with the present relief to showhow glacial erosion had changed the area.

Geomorphological heritageand sensitivity

In a complementary study, Scottish NaturalHeritage has compiled a GIS-basedinventory of landforms in the Cairngorms.The work assesses the Earth heritage of thearea not only as a resource for research,education and interpretation, but also forhow it supports special habitats andlandscape heritage (see boxes).

Evaluating geomorphological sensitivity tohuman activity is one way of helping to

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Further readingBrazier, V. and Gordon, J.E. in prep.The geomorphological heritage of theCairngorm Mountains. Scottish NaturalHeritage Commissioned Report.

Thomas, C.W., Gillespie, M.R.,Jordan, C. and Hall, A.M. 2004.Geological structure and landscape ofthe Cairngorm Mountains. ScottishNatural Heritage Commissioned Report,No. 064 (ROAME No. F00AC103).

conserve the area’sgeodiversity and thehabitats it supportsthrough sustainablemanagement. Byidentifying landformsand processes aspotentially sensitive toactivities such asafforestation, quarryingor river management, theissues can be addressedthrough practicalmanagement.

Relict landforms may beascribed a degree of vulnerability todamage or destruction from differenthuman activities, expressed in terms of thedegree of damage or loss of Earth heritageinterest on a scale from 1 (minimalalteration) to 5 (destruction of landforms).

A similar, but more complicated, exercisewas developed for active geomorphologicalsystems. This took into account whether the

landforming environment was able torecover from particular activities, whether itwould be set into a prolonged period ofattempted readjustment to the newconditions (for example, changes in slopedrainage), or whether the system wouldultimately change its nature and not recoverits original character. n

new views on an oldlandscape

John Gordon,Scottish Natural Heritage,

and Chris Thomas,British Geological Survey

CairngormMountains:

Special mountainsRelict landforms which originated before theice age are unusual for their scale ofdevelopment in a glaciated mountain area.They include tors, weathered bedrock andplateau surfaces. These features stand insharp contrast with the glacial cliffs of thecorries, breached watersheds and deeplydissected glens. Together they form anoutstanding example of a landscape ofselective glacial erosion and show how theerosional effects of the ice-age glaciers werevery effective in particular areas but minimalin others due to variations in the basalthermal regime of the glaciers. Theoccurrence of such a diverse assemblage ofphysical features in a relatively compact areais exceptional on an international level andinvaluable for study. More information onwww.fettes.com/Cairngorms/ – developedby Dr Adrian Hall, Fettes College,Edinburgh.

Above: Tor landscape on Ben Avon.

Photo © J.E. Gordon

Right: The Cairngorm Mountains represent a classic landscape of selective glacial erosion. The

extensive plateau surfaces with tors have generally been little modified by glacial erosion and contrast

sharply with the glacial trough of Glen Avon. This contrast is thought to reflect the former presence of

active, fast-flowing glaciers in the glens, whereas the ice covering the plateaux was frozen to the

bedrock and relatively inactive.

Photo © P. & A. Macdonald/SNH

Left: Ice-marginal meltwater landforms (meltwater

channels and kame terraces) formed in Glen More

along the northern flanks of the Cairngorm Mountains

during the melting of the Late Devensian ice sheet

around 20,000 -15,000 years ago.

Photo © P. & A. Macdonald/SNH

The postglacial vegetation history of the Cairngorm Mountains is recorded in

blanket peat and peat bogs. The lower slopes formerly supported an extensive

forest cover of Scots Pine, but this has been greatly reduced following several

millennia of human exploitation. Both photos by J.E. Gordon

The River Feshie is a highly dynamic, gravel-bed river noted for rapid channel

changes during floods. This braided reach is the most

active of any gravel-bed river in Britain.

8

The Cairngorms are of great importancefor nature conservation. The high-levelplateaux are rich areas of montanevegetation, notably for the development oflichen-rich montane heath and thespecialised vegetation of snow-beds andsprings, which includes many rarespecies. The detailed mosaic of vegetationcommunities reflects a close interplaybetween soils, geomorphology, exposure,snow-lie patterns and microclimate. Thelower ground also contains importanthabitats for birds and the largest areas of

native Caledonian pinewoods in Scotland,developed on a range of glacial depositswhich provide an intricate topographicand ecological mosaic.

Much of the montane zone is incorporatedwithin Site of Special Interest (SSSI) andNational Nature Reserve (NNR)designations. At an international level, alarge part of the area qualifies fordesignation under the European HabitatsDirective and the European BirdsDirective.

Special habitats and landscapes

Chris Thomas’s contribution is published with permission of the

Executive Director, British Geological Survey (NERC)

During Jurassic times, localisedfaulting and erosioncontrolled deposition in theDorset-Somerset area. This

resulted in a sequence of thin, highlyfossiliferous limestones that are ofslightly different age, often between sitesonly metres apart. Each locality,therefore, has a unique history anddifferent features meriting notification asan SSSI. Most localities are noted forsome aspect of their fossil wealth. LouseHill was one of the sources ofHuddlestone’s gastropods and Horn Parkis famed for ammonites. Many displaysuperb geological features important toresearch and education, particularlysedimentological, taphonomic andstructural aspects that have greatpotential for study.

Many of the classic Inferior Oolite sectionsare now found in privately owned disusedquarries and cuttings. Clearing away scruband re-excavating quarry faces hasprovided an opportunity to re-collect (undercontrolled conditions) fossils, bed-by-bed.It has been possible to update and clarifythe biostratigraphy (division of strata byfossil content), drawing up newstratigraphical profiles and studying thecomposition and variety of the fossil faunaand flora more closely than ever before.Important specimens in museums can nowbe assigned to their probable horizon, sothe material can be used to trace

evolutionary lineages.

Around Sherborne, there used to be a vastnumber of quarries – some of them madefamous by Sydney Savory Buckman (1860-1929). Buckman was raised at BradfordAbbas, a place surrounded by the mostfossiliferous Inferior Oolite. He dedicatedmost of his life to the study of fossils,particularly ammonites. He made it his taskto subdivide strata by fossils to the highestpossible resolution (Buckman, 1893).

Many of these classic Inferior Oolite siteslie within the Sherborne Castle Estate,which has actively supported research inpartnership with English Nature. Theresults have added to our understanding ofthe detailed succession at a number of sitesand have provided new primary researchmaterial.

Sandford LaneQuarry SSSIThe importance of theSandford Lane Quarry(Figure 1) lies in the ageof its fossils. TheSandford Lane Fossil Bedspans an interval of timenot reproduced in thishigh quality anywhereelse in England. The siteis also the type locality ofthe Garantiana zone.

Early collections fromthis site often includespecimens that are

attributed to a particular bed on thegrounds of their matrix or the word of theoriginal collector. The Middle InferiorOolite is the least complete part of theInferior Oolite, but the portion seen atSandford Lane is much more complete thanother sections in Dorset.

Frogden Quarry SSSIIn the next valley to Sandford Lane isFrogden Quarry (Figures 2-3). Althoughthe rocks are of a similar age to those ofSandford Lane, there are beds that occur atFrogden which are not present at SandfordLane and vice versa. Thus between them,the two quarries preserve different slices oftime (as represented by the rocks) and,when taken together, they fill more gaps inthe record than either quarry does on itsown.

Buckman likened the Inferior Oolite to afishing net. The string represented thepreserved strata and the holes what wasmissing! New data from Frogden indicatethe presence of horizons previouslyunrecorded, including a direct correlationwith some of the levels at Sandford Lane.

This advances our understanding of thetemporal stratigraphical relationship of thetwo sites and continues the building of acomposite succession of faunal horizonsbased on ammonites that far outstrips theresolution achievable by division intosubzones.

Louse Hill SSSIAt Louse Hill (Figure 4), the old quarryexposes the Bradford Abbas Fossil Bedfamed for its abundance of the ammonitesGraphoceras and Euhoploceras.

The quarry serves as a reference, as mostof the old quarries at Bradford Abbas nowlie beneath fields. Above, is a much-reduced thickness of the Astarte obliquaBed – here it is only a few centimetresthick compared to 30cm on the coast atBurton Bradstock. The Irony Bed below isa thin conglomeratic red limestone withwell-preserved fossils. The approximateequivalent at Frogden just a short distanceaway displays sediments in excess of ametre thick.

Horn Park Quarry SSSIThe Horn Park Bed at Horn Park Quarry(owned by the Seal family) nearBeaminster (Figure 5), is famous for its

many ammonites. Its SSSI has madepossible the conservation of a section of thepit in the midst of an industrial complex. Apart from the ammonites, the site displaysa remarkable flat erosion surface and themost complete succession in the UpperAalenian ironshot oolite limestone of thearea. It is also one of few permanentlyexposed inland localities where you can seethe passage of the sandy beds into the morecalcareous sediments above.

Co-operation between scientists,landowners and English Nature hasprovided a unique opportunity to revisit theInferior Oolite of Buckman. Quarries that

have been untouched for many years areonce more revealing their secrets andadding vital detail to our knowledge andunderstanding of the Inferior Oolite, itsstratigraphy, palaeoecology and thecomplex evolution of its ammonite fauna. n

10

Inferior Oolite, superior fossilsThe rocks of the Middle Jurassic Inferior Oolite Group are the source of immensenumbers of fossil specimens now housed in our museums. The outcrop of these strataruns from the Dorset coast near Burton Bradstock to Bristol and continues north-east tothe Yorkshire coast. In the vicinity of Bristol, it is said that William Smith used theInferior Oolite of Dundry Hill to demonstrate his subdivision of strata by fossils, whichresulted in his 1815 classic work Memoir to the map and delineation of strata ofEngland and Wales with part of Scotland.

The name ‘Inferior Oolite’ was first used by Reverend J. Townsend (1813) and resultedfrom his collaborations with Smith. It includes a succession of Jurassic strata lyingbetween the Lias and the overlying rocks of the Great Oolite Series.

Geological conservation and site enhancement in Dorsetand Somerset have enabled us to advance our

understanding of fossil strata and of evolutionarylineages.

English Nature’s Facelift programme and the generousco-operation of landowners and tenants have enabled us

to study the Oolite more closely.

Robert Baron Chandler,Liaison Convenor, International Subcommission on Jurassic Stratigraphy

Thanks must go to the owners and their tenants for their continuedsupport and much credit must go to the driving and mechanical skillsof Mike Higgins and Edward Seal, whose abilities to use a 30-tonnedigger and pick out a single 5 cm fossil undamaged must beapplauded!

Thanks are also due to: The Wessex Cephalopod Club, A. G. England,W. Fischer, W. J. E. Jones, H. Sanders, Ed. and El. Sutcliff. SherborneCastle Estates and their tenants R. Hillier, R. Amor, P. Hunt, B. and L.Lock. R. Loxton and the personnel of English Nature and DorsetCounty Council: R. Edmonds, C. Pamplin, H. Powell, J. Larwood, A.King, K. Jeffries.

New light

shineson the Oolite Fig. 1 – Sandford Lane Quarry following

enhancement in May 2004. The floor of the pit

consists of the Corton Denham and Sandford Lane

Fossil Bed. Above is the massive Sherborne

Building Stone.

Fig. 2 – Frogden Quarry showing the Sherborne Building Stone

above the Roadstone. The floor of the pit exposes the Blue Bed.

Fig. 3 – The typical Frogden ammonite Stephanoceras sp.

Fig. 5 – The section at Horn Park exposing the Scissum Bed,

Murchisonae, Bradfordensis and Concavum zones.

Fig. 4 – The face at Louse, or Lows, Hill Quarry near Bradford Abbas, exposing the

Murchisonae to Parkinsoni zones. 11

Work still goes on involving workers fromthe UK and abroad. John Callomon,Volker Dietze and Robert Baron Chandlerare researching the ammonites, andWolfgang Fischer is working on thegastropod fauna. There is much more todiscover.

The original ESCC had beenused as the basic classificationfor all types of conservationwork and was introduced in

1990. In 2003, the ESCC was revised with16 site types organised into three majorcategories, in contrast to the 11 site typesof the original classification. The changesare shown in the table opposite.

The three main categories are exposure orextensive; finite; and integrity. Thedistinctions between them are importantbecause they reflect fundamentaldifferences in conservation strategies. Theclassification allows generic threats andconservation strategies to be defined for thedifferent site types.

Exposure or extensive sites containgeological features which are relativelyextensive beneath the surface. The basicprinciple is that removal of material doesnot cause severe depletion or damage to theresource, as new material of the same type

Mick Murphy,English Nature

Practical experience over many years has given us the new, improvedEarth Science Conservation Classification (ESCC)

Original Classification Revised ClassificationExposure Sites Exposure or Extensive Sites

Active quarries and pits EA Active quarries and pits EA

Disused quarries, pits and ED

cuttings Disused quarries and pits ED

Coastal and river cliffs EC Coastal cliffs and foreshore EC

Foreshore exposures EF River and stream sections EW

Inland outcrops and stream EO

sections Inland outcrops EO

Mines and tunnels EM Exposure underground mines EU

and tunnels

Extensive buried interest EB

Road, rail and canal cuttings ER

Integrity Sites Integrity Sites

Static (fossil) geomorphological IS Static (fossil) geomorphological IS

Active process IA Active process IA

geomorphological geomorphological

Caves and karst IC Caves IC

Karst IK

Finite Sites Finite Sites

Unique mineral, fossil or other IM Finite mineral, fossil or other FM

geological geological

Mine dumps ID Mine dumps FD

Finite underground mines FU

and tunnels

Finite buried interest FB

New

Chesil Beach, part of Chesil and The Fleet SSSI, Dorset contains both static (IS) and active (IA) geomorphological components.

Photo by Colin Prosser/English Nature

continued on page 14

13

Back in 1994, a forum of theAssociation of Welsh RIGSGroups (AWRG) agreed thatsoils deserved greater

recognition, more protection, andinclusion within RIGS.

Ten years on, Scottish Natural Heritagesoil scientist Patricia Bruneau andCountryside Council for Walescounterpart, Dylan Williams, areworking to promote betterunderstanding of the value of animportant resource that is oftenreferred to as ‘mud, dirt or old rocks’.Cwm Idwal, for example, is protectedfor its biological, geological andlandscape value, but its equallyinteresting soil resource is oftenforgotten.

Possible light is on the horizon with anew book on soil conservationpublished by Blackwell (Morgan, 2005)and the production of an EUsoil conservation strategy. Thestatutory agencies in England,Wales and Scotland are alsoproducing national soilstrategies to promotesustainable use includingconservation and monitoring.

But if we want to conservesomething, we must firsteducate people to value it.With this is mind, a unique soiltrail is being developed. Thisfirst RIGS soil trail is situated inDelamere Forest on the banksof the River Mersey inCheshire. In a fascinating use

for the site,

forensic biology students fromUniversity College, Chester are lookingat soil differences to see what they cantell us about a crime. The studentscarry out simple chemical, physicaland weather tests and theirunderstanding of materials at the crimesite is increased tremendously. Mosthave no idea about the value of soilsfor detection purposes and many didnot know there were different soil typesto start with. This has implications forthe type of material which will bepreserved at a crime scene.

Delamere Forest is owned andmanaged by the Forestry Commissionand, co-operating with Cheshire RIGS,they have nominated the Delamere SoilTrail as a RIGS to Vale Royal andCheshire County Council (CheshireRIGS). In fact, the trail was set up inthe 1980s, but had fallen into disuseand was to be abandoned because of

maintenance issues. Occasionally,though, educational institutions stillasked to reopen the pits and,eventually, its unique suite of soilprofiles was recognised.

The soil trail runs through a smallvalley alongside the Chester toManchester railway, close to a SSSIdesignated for its woodland biology.The underlying geology is glacial sandsand gravels over Triassic redsandstone. However, the uniformity ofunderlying material is deceptive as thelocation has eight different soil types ina very small area.

The reason for the variety lies in thefact that the trail lies alongside themid-Cheshire sandstone ridge and,during the last glaciation, ice pouredthrough the Mouldsworth Gap from thewest, depositing sand, gravel and till tothe east.

As a result, the soils varyfrom brown earths andpodzols to peats and gleys.This variety makes it avaluable teaching andawareness-raising trail for soilconservation. Cheshire RIGSand the Forestry Commissionare hoping to produce aleaflet and site interpretationpanels for Delamere Forest, afavourite haunt of walkersand horse riders. n

England’sfirst soil trail

Cynthia Burek,University CollegeChester

Opening up a peat pit Photos by C. Burek

Students using the Munsell soil colour chart to test a brown earth

12

Earth ScienceConservationClassification

Further readingMorgan R.P.C. 2005. Soilerosion and conservation, 3rdEd. Blackwell Publishing

14

is being freshly exposed as material isremoved. The main management aim ofthese sites is to achieve and maintain anacceptable level of exposure of the featuresof interest. Site types include active quarriesand mines, disused quarries, rail and roadcuttings, coastal cliffs and foreshore, inlandoutcrops and extensive buried interest sites.Finite sites contain geological features thatare limited in extent and where removal ofmaterial may cause harmful depletion of the

resource. The features are often irreplaceableif destroyed. The basic management principleis to permit responsible scientific usage ofthe resource while conserving it in the longterm. It is often necessary to implementcontrols over removal of material. Site typesinclude many mineral and some fossildeposits, mine dumps, finite undergroundmines and finite buried interest sites. Integrity sites are geomorphological and arecharacterised by the need for holistic

management. Damage to one part of a sitemay adversely affect the site as a whole. Inthe case of active process sites, thefundamental principle is to maintain theactive processes by non-interference as far aspossible. Site types include active and staticgeomorphological sites, caves and karst. Thesite categories are not mutually exclusive andthere are numerous examples where part of asite is classified as exposure and another partis classified as finite or integrity.

For example, a stratigraphic sequence in acliff or quarry would be classified as anexposure site because removal of rock wouldgenerally produce further exposure of thesame material. However, mineral veinswithin the same sequence would often have afinite classification, as removal of veinmaterial would not produce fresh exposure,but would result in loss of the interest.

n

The summit of Roineabhal (pronounced Ron-e-val) on the south coast

of Harris in the Western Isles, one of the Lewisian Geological

Conservation Review sites. Composed of anothorosite, this inland

outcrop (EO) was once threatened by superquarry propoals that would

have removed the bulk of the mountain.

Photo by Colin MacFadyen/Scottish Natural Heritage

Pared y Cefn-hir

GCR site lies on

the north-west

flank of the Cadair

Idris massif.

Classified as EO

(inland outcrops) in

the ESCC, it

provides the most

completely

exposed sequence

of strata from the

base of the Arenig

to the Upper

Llanvirn in central

Wales.Photo by Stewart Campbell

Folded

sediments at

Milook Haven,

within the

Boscastle to

Widemouth

SSSI, Cornwall,

are superbly

exposed in

coastal cliffs

(EC).

The Toad Rock, Rusthall

Common SSSI, Kent, is

classified as a static

geomorphological site (IS).

Cligga Head SSSI, Cornwall demonstrates

mineral veins in granite and is classified as a finite

mineral site (FM).

Porth Swtan

(Church Bay) in

northern Anglesey

provides a fine

series of coastal

cliffs (EC) which

expose highly

altered Gwna

Green-Schist and

Church Bay Tuffs of

Precambrian age.

The site is currently

being considered as

a potential RIGS.Photo by Stewart Campbell

Conesby

(Yorkshire East)

Quarry SSSI is

currently

worked and so

classified as an

active quarry

(EA).Photo by David Evans,

English Nature

Jurassic sediments at Sproxton Quarry SSSI,

Lincolnshire are exposed in a disused quarry (ED).

from previous page

Photos by Mick Murphy/English Nature unless credited otherwise

15

Following the designation of 10fluvial RIGS, 10 more siteshave been chosen to coverHerefordshire’s Quaternary

landscape evolution. This forms part of atwo-year project funded by Leader+ andDEFRA that began in 2002.

The solid geology of Herefordshire isoverlain by a wealth of superficial deposits.The deposits and related geomorphologicallandforms in the 10 new sites help give afascinating account of the region’slandscape evolution over 500,000 years.

Quaternary recordThe oldest, and some of the mostinformative, superficial deposits overlie theplateau formed by the St MaughansFormation between Leominster andBromyard. The Stretford, Holly andHumber brooks drain this high ground and

meander westward to meet the River Lugg.While the stream valleys are very small,they contain gravel infills that areapproximately half a million years old. Thelower and oldest of these gravels, theHumber Formation, were laid as part of acold-stage fluvial system that sweptHerefordshire. Components suggest that thecatchment of this drainage networkextended northward into Shropshire andStaffordshire, during a period when theRiver Lugg dominated the landscape in thispart of the Welsh Marches.

Overlying the remnants of the ancient river

system are deposits that have a completelydifferent origin. The Risbury Formation iscomposed of coarse gravel, sands, silts andclays. They were deposited by a huge ice-sheet that extended from Wales and acrossHerefordshire as far as the Cradley BrookValley on the west of the Malvern Hills.This phase of glaciation, within the coldAnglian Stage around 450,000 years ago,had a profound effect on the Britishlandscape. In Herefordshire, most of theevidence occurs on the margins of theplateau between Leominster and Bromyard.Three of the new RIGS are associated withsignificant events during this phase ofglaciation in the Stoke Prior area. Itappears that a glacial lake, one of asequence associated with the retreat of theAnglian ice-sheet across Herefordshire,became impounded against the ice-marginjust east of Stoke Prior, before a phase ofcatastrophic drainage and the retreat of theice-margin.

Further RIGS have been designated in the

The

Excavations have started againat Philpots Quarry SSSI inWest Sussex and, with co-operation between the

operators, English Nature and geologicalresearchers, many important scientificobservations and discoveries arebeginning to see the light.

Philpots Quarry SSSI lies a short distancesouth-west of the picturesque village ofWest Hoathly on the western edge ofAshdown Forest and within the HighWeald Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty.

This area is the source of thearchitecturally important ArdinglySandstone Member, a dominantly fine-

grained sandstone of Lower Cretaceous(Valanginian) age. The sandstone occurswithin the highest part of the LowerTunbridge Wells Sand Formation of theHastings Beds Subgroup.

Philpots Quarry has long exposed thehighest few metres of the ArdinglySandstone Member capped by the TopLower Tunbridge Wells Pebble Bed,beneath an overburden of the succeedingGrinstead Clay Formation. The sandstonehas only been worked on a small scale atthis site, which is, however, extremelyimportant scientifically.

The exposed succession has been central tosedimentological modelling of the non-

Lugg Valley, south of Stoke Prior. Theseshow the terrace gravels of the Lugg ValleyFormation and record how the River Luggdeveloped following the withdrawal of theAnglian ice-sheet. The oldest gravels of theformation are found at Sutton Walls, anelevated plateau exploited by the Romans,who built a fort there. In addition, threedistinct terrace units are incorporated into aRIGS at Kingsfield, immediately south ofBodenham. Like the Sutton Walls Member,these gravels were laid down by the RiverLugg when it still drained much of theWelsh Marches - before the radical changesto its catchment area caused by a finalphase of glaciation. Part of the RIGS atKingsfield has been incorporated into theEarth Heritage Trust’s Queenswood TrailGuide.

The final major phase in the development ofthe landscape of Herefordshire occurredbetween 22,000 and 15,000 years ago,during the Late Devensian glaciation. Whilenot as extensive as the Anglian glaciationover 400,000 years earlier, the sedimentsand landforms associated with this phaseare found west of the River Lugg,throughout the Hereford Basin. Thesesediments were a focus for gravelcompanies throughout the 1970s and 1980s.Currently, exposure is limited, but one ofthe most extensive and informative sections,near Steens Bridge just north of Stoke Prior,has been designated as a RIGS. Itincorporates part of the Late DevensianHerefordshire end-moraine and itssediments and structures are typical of thosenear an active ice-margin.

Scratched the surfaceThe primary aim of designating the newRIGS was to cover as many aspects of theQuaternary development of Herefordshireas possible. Fortunately, the sites werewithin a designated Leader+ area. Thesedeposits represent a small portion of anextensive record of Quaternaryenvironments in Herefordshire.

As yet, the RIGS programme has merelyscratched the surface of Herefordshire’sgeological and geomorphological heritage.The Earth Heritage Trust aims to extend itswork to other areas to conserve its specialQuaternary record and landscape. n

Andy Richards,Herefordshire and WorcestershireEarth Heritage Trust

in

Jon Radley,Warwickshire Museum

David Evans,English Nature

The floodplain of the

River Lugg near

Bodenham Church.

The land rising on the

left is underlain by

gravels of the

Marden Member (1st

Terrace) of the Lugg

Valley Formation.

Photos by Andy Richards

continued on page 18

Philpots Quarry – looking

south-east along the working

face. The Ardingly Sandstone

Member forms the bench, with

the Top Lower Tunbridge Wells

Pebble Bed on the top surface,

and overlain by the Grinstead

Clay Formation, forming the

steep grassed slope.

Dav

idE

vans

/Eng

lish

Nat

ure

17

A future forPhilpots QuarrySSSI

Ice Age

Pleistocene ice-limits in Herefordshire

Herefordshire

16

Left: A disused pit near Stoke Lacey on the margins

of the Lodon Valley. Gravels exposed in the pit were

laid down by a precursor to the Lodon during a

Middle Pleistocene cold stage, following the Anglian

Stage glaciation of Herefordshire.

Below: Deposits of the Late Devensian moraine at

The Leasows, two miles east of Leominster. These

deposits consist of diamictons, gravels and finer

deposits that were deformed by minor oscillations of

an ice-front, approximately 18,000 years ago.

N

marine Wealden Group carried out byProfessor Perce Allen of the University ofReading, since the 1930s.

Detailed mapping of the ArdinglySandstone Member in three dimensions,carried out through the 1960s to 1980s asquarrying progressed, allowed ProfessorAllen to reconstruct the precisemorphologies, hydrodynamic conditions,palaeoecology and climatic significance ofa field of small-scale channels and fans.

A range of invertebratefossilsProfessor Allen’s investigations of theoverlying Grinstead Clay Formationrevealed a range of invertebrate fossils,plants and trace fossils, that confirmed thesubsequent spread of a freshwater toslightly brackish lake into the basin.

Significantly, the abrupt change from theArdingly Sandstone Member to theGrinstead Clay Formation at PhilpotsQuarry mimics the earlier transition fromthe Ashdown Formation to the WadhurstClay Formation, seen for instance in thecoastal sections of the Hastings-Pett LevelSSSI, East Sussex. These classic Wealden‘megacyclic’ transitions provide animportant key to interpreting the Wealdenstrata.

New model in 1975Until the late 1960s, Professor Allen wasattributing them to eustatic sea-level rise,drowning the sands under a blanket oftransgressive prodeltaic mud. Subsequentproblems with this model, notablywidespread indications of shallow-waterdeposition amongst the Wadhurst andGrinstead clays, led to Professor Allen’s‘new model’, published in 1975 in theProceedings of the Geologists’ Association.

Within this seminal paper, Professor Allenattributed the sandstone-mudstonetransitions to rapid downfaulting of theLondon massif, leading to destruction ofcoastal barriers around the Weald basin andseawater leakage into the encroaching lakesfrom the north-west. Capping the ArdinglySandstone Member, the Top LowerTunbridge Wells Pebble Bed was seen asbraidplain gravel, reworked by waves alongthe advancing lake shoreline.

Philpots Quarry features in many scientificpapers, underlining its SSSI status andfundamental importance in Wealdenpalaeoenvironmental reconstruction. Asquarrying proceeded, many interestingfossils and trace fossils were discovered inthe Ardingly Sandstone Member, providingfascinating insights into animal and plantinhabitants of the Wealden floodplains.

There are isolated dinosaur bones and atleast one partial skeleton of herbivorousIguanodon, as well as a possible skin-print.Near-complete fossil fish were encounteredby the quarrymen from time to time,notably large, thick-scaled Lepidotes.Invertebrates are represented byconchostracans (‘clam-shrimps’) andburrows of pond-mussels. Amongst theplants, the sandstones have yielded slenderbranching stems of the enigmaticLycopodites, which is possibly a clubmoss.

Above the sandstone, the Grinstead ClayFormation has revealed fragments ofhorsetail ferns, as well as many

invertebrates including pond-mussels andsnails, countless microscopic ostracods(‘water-fleas’), and insects. The horsetailsindicate the presence of a soil bed that musthave formed on a muddy shoal in a metreor two of water.

Philpots Quarry fell into disuse a few yearsago, after many decades of scientific

discovery. Recently, though, the quarry wastaken over by W.T. Lamb and Sons, afamily business that has been supplyinglocally made bricks and other clay productsfor several generations.

Fresh rock surfaces and ex situ material areonce again available, allowing appreciationof the beautifully preserved sedimentaryand biogenic structures of the ArdinglySandstone Member.

Several boreholes have been sunk and theoperators have made the cores available forresearch. They reveal a full profile throughthe poorly known Lower Tunbridge WellsSand Formation below the ArdinglySandstone Member, which will furtherenhance our knowledge of Wealdenpalaeoenvironments. Several importantfossils, stored on-site over the last fewyears, have been donated to a localmuseum.

This valuable site once again holds greatpromise for future finds, and continuedinsight into one of the most remarkableperiods in the geological evolution ofsouthern England. n

A future for Philpots Quarry SSSI

18

Top Lower Tunbridge Wells Pebble Bed – saw-

cut through block showing the Pebble Bed and

numerous burrows or borings with a circular

cross-section.

Right: Largely intact

integument of

Lepidotes – a large

bony fish that was

not uncommon in

the Jurassic and

Early Cretaceous. It

was probably buried

rapidly before the

soft tissues

decomposed.

from previous page

It must have been a bizarre, alienworld. About 300 million yearsago, Europe and North Americalay together on the equator, and

steamy, tropical rainforests stretchedall the way from Utah to the Urals.Giant club-mosses and hugehorsetails grew in vast, stinking bogsbeneath a heavy, oxygen-chargedatmosphere. Enormous millipedes,two metres long, scavenged therotting undergrowth, and occasionallythe whole landscape for miles aroundwas obliterated by catastrophicwildfires.

Uncovering remains of these primevalrainforests, now preserved in theCarboniferous Coal Measures, was afavourite Victorian pastime. Mostamazing of all were discoveries ofentire forests, buried in place, with treetrunks still standing upright. Thesephenomena were the talk of thescientific world, and all the greatnames of the day – like Lyell, Darwin,and Hooker – enthusiastically reportedfindings to the popular press. In the1880s, a museum was built to protectone such fossil forest at Victoria Parkin Glasgow.

Today, since the demise of the coalindustry, you'd be hard pressed to finda good coal measure outcropanywhere in the British Isles. That'swhy recent discoveries in Wrexham areso important. Here, followingdemolition of the mills, the old BrymboSteelworks site is being landscaped forhousing and new high-tech industries.

However, when reclamationexcavations started, developers gotmore than they bargained for!

Preserved just above the Brassey coalseam, buried in a brown sandy layer,enormous fossil trees have beenfound. At any one time, about 10 to 20trees are exposed, arranged in densegroves. One type of tree,Lepidodendron, has distinctivediamond-patterned bark, whilstanother, Calamites, resembles a giantbamboo. This patch of Carboniferousrainforest was preserved when anancient river system burst its banks,burying adjacent vegetation in sandand mud. The enclosing sediments arefull of leafy branches and cones,violently torn from the forest canopy bypowerful floodwaters.

As the Brymbo site will be reclaimed ina few months time, the race is now onto save some of the fossils forexhibitions and educational resources.Part of the site has already beendesignated an Industrial Heritage Areato preserve ‘Ironmaster’ Wilkinson’skiln dating from the 1790s. Alongside,a brand new Enterprise, Resourcesand Learning Centre is being built.These locations will be ideal fordisplaying the Brymbo fossils. Ourintention is to recreate a ‘virtual

rockface’ incorporating one or morefossil trees, rising from their coal-seamroot-base, as a static display.

The recently formed Brymbo HeritageGroup is especially keen to involvelocal children in this work.

The fossils generated terrific interestwhen displayed on the North WalesGeologists’ Association stand at theWrexham Science Festival in March.As a follow-up, we plan to stock-pilesome 200 tonnes of the most fossil-rich strata within the Industrial HeritageArea, so that children can experiencethe excitement of fossil hunting forthemselves. Ultimately this project willbe linked to a geological trail throughthis extremely mineral-rich area.

Of course, this still leaves tremendousscope for developing an understandingof how geology has shaped thelocality, not only through the physicallandscape, but also the mineralexploitation. The region has beenmined for coal, iron ore, lead, buildingstones, fireclay, bricks and sand – anindustrialised past that is rapidly beingeroded into extinction. We must ensurethis rich legacy is protected andmanaged for future generations.n

19

We explore some spectacular fossilforests in Wrexham’s coal measuresand see how discoveries are beingused to teach about one of thestrangest periods in the Earth’s history.

Rainforests

in the rockin the rockHoward Falcon-Lang,University of BristolDerek Jones,North-East Wales Institute, Wrexham

Top: Searching for fossils at Brymbo.

Above: Lepidodendron fossil and (left) children learn

about dendrochronology or tree-ring dating.

Photos by Derek Jones

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Wales has along historyof mineralmining and a

rich mineral heritage, whichextends back over 4,000 years

to when early Bronze Ageminers prospected and

extracted copper in NorthWales. The key challengepresented to those earlyminers, in distinguishingdifferent minerals and identifyingwhere they occurred, is still pertinent

today in our quest to preserve our mineralheritage.

Work between the Countryside Council for Wales and the NationalMuseum of Wales has significantly increased our knowledge of mineral sites and

Welsh mineralogy. The Minescan partnership project studied over 1,200 mines and othermineralogical sites in Wales, characterising their mineralogy and establishing those meritingconservation protection (Bevins & Mason, 1997-2000). From this and other work we now knowthat around 350 confirmed mineral species occur in Wales, with a further 50 awaitingconfirmation. This provides us with a firm foundation for understanding what we have and what

we need to protect.

To ensure that our knowledge of Welsh mineralogy remains up-to-date, soprofessional and amateurs alike are aware of new finds and discoveries, it is

essential that mineral information in available to the widest audience. CCWand the National Museum of

Wales have againworked together

Furtherreading:Bevins, R.E. & Mason, J.S.(1997-2000). Welsh metallophyte andmetallogenic evaluation project. CCWContract Science Reports, Nos. 156(Dyfed & Powys); 257 (Gwynedd); 318(Clwyd); & 386 (Glamorgan & Gwent).

Anatase – a beautiful tabular crystal

just a few millimetres in size from

Tanygrisiau near Blaenau Ffestiniog,

Gwynedd.

Photo by D. I. Green

Azurite – prismatic crystals a few mm in

length from Dolyhir Quarry, Powys. Photo by D. I. Green

Pyrite –

cube (10 x 12

mm) embedded in slate

from Penrhyn Quarry,

Bethesda, Gwynedd. I. Jones Collection (No. 1376A). ©

NMGW

Gold – gold nugget,

22 mm across and

weighing 21.45 grams,

from the Afon Wen. © NMGW

Synchysite-(Ce)

pseudo-

hexagonal

prismatic crystal (3

mm) on siliceous

banded rhyolitic tuff from

Cwmorthin Quarry, Blaenau

Ffestiniog, Gwynedd. Photo by D.I. Green

Coming soon: www.welshminerals.org.uk on www.nmgw.ac.uk Coming soon: www.welshminerals.org.uk on www.nmgw.ac.uk20

Jana Horák,National Museums & Galleries of Wales

Neil Davies,Culturenet Cymru

to produce TheMineralogy of Wales –

Online. This websitegreatly expands the

information in A Mineralogyof Wales (Bevins, 1994), and

provides a comprehensive,authoritative listing of all known

mineral species from Wales.

Website formatInformation is organised into two main parts. The first provides

mineral pages listing a summary of data for each known Welsh mineralspecies, and wherever possible this is accompanied by a colour illustration to aid

identification. The remaining pages provide background information on mineralogy, the history ofmining in Wales and also provide an opportunity to reinforce the conservation message. Thewebsite format enables information to be updated regularly and provides a search facility for themineral data, allowing, for example, minerals of a particular composition or occurring in asimilar geological setting to be listed so that associations can be noted. An additionalaspiration of this project has been that, whilst allowing the National Museum ofWales curatorial team to co-ordinate and edit new and existing data, it willprovide a forum where members of the mineralogical community can

contribute their knowledge and expertise. Throughthis it is hoped that by acknowledging and

appreciating what we already know andwhat we already have, both in private

and publicly held collections, suchas those of the National Museumof Wales, we can increaseknowledge whilst protecting ourheritage. n

Min

eral riches unearthed

21

Left: Tyrolite – radial sprays of crystals, a few

millimetres in diameter, with azurite. Taken

from Dolyhir Quarry, Old Radnor, Powys. Photo by D.I. Green

Ewaldite – yellow hexagonal crystal (2.5 mm

long) with colourless twinned prismatic

harmotome from Dolyhir Quarry, Powys.

Photo by D.I. Green

Fossils reveal a remarkableinsight into how life and theenvironment have evolvedthrough time – from luscious

rainforests, to tropical seas, eachdepicted in the fossil record left behind.

The internet offers an information resourceabout geology and collecting fossils, foramateur and professional geologists,schools and ‘ordinary’ members of thepublic. Websites may provide informationabout where to collect fossils, but not giveenough guidance on codes of behaviourand site-specific issues. At the worst, thiscan lead to damage and, ultimately, torestricted access.

Discovering Fossils, however, is moving inthe right direction to address many of theseissues. Its aim is to communicateinformation in an interesting and visualway, so that beginners and experts canbenefit from the resources.

Discovering Fossils was launched in 2003and includes locations for finding fossilsalongside tips for locating and identifyingfinds. Within 18 months, the websitefeatured more than 25 locations and was

accompanied by a wide range ofeducational resources including HowFossils Form, History and Myths and Howto Prepare and Protect Finds. There arealso beginners’ guides for getting startedand tips for tools and equipment to take onfossil trips.

Around 800 people a day visit the website,which also promotes a code of goodpractice for fossil collecting. Each locationbegins with a short summary explaining theage of the rock, fossil diversity, equipmentneeded and local facilities. Much of thespace is dedicated to large colour photos,depicting the scenery and fossils, withsupporting commentary explaining whereto look, fossils to find, and dangers to beaware of. The locations themselves rangefrom inner London woodlands to cliffsections in Dorset. One of the notableinclusions is Ardley Quarry, a large landfillsite in Oxfordshire, where some of theworld’s best dinosaur tracks have beenexposed. One set of prints shows the pathof a Megalosaurus and reveals how thepredator stalked its prey.

It is crucial that people understand thevalue of conserving such sites for future

generations. World-class locations such asArdley Quarry are rare, but there are manyplaces around the UK that offer similarlyfascinating fossils, and also require carefulprotection.

Last year, the website received theendorsement of English Nature and nowhelps promote awareness of SSSIs and theneed to take a responsible approach tocollecting fossils.

The website also serves to encourageparticipation in large public fossil hunts,where individuals and families can becomeinvolved with finding fossils forthemselves. Last year, more than 60 peopleattended one of these events in Folkestone,exploring the 100 million-year-old clayexposed on the foreshore. Among the findswas a large reptile tooth, a complete fishjaw, and many well-preserved ammonites.

New locations will be added in the future,including fossilised plants in Wales andfossil fish in northern Scotland.Discovering Fossils will also giveenthusiasts free webspace to develop theirown pages within the site. n

Dr Johnson, Queen Victoria andMendelssohn may bedescribed as some ofScotland’s earliest and most

well-known geotourists, havingtravelled to the Isle of Staffa in the 19thcentury to marvel at Fingal’s Cave andthe associated sea cliffs, fashionedfrom columnar basalt. Since then asone of the most recognisablegeological sites in the UK, it hasattracted countless visitors. Many ofthese tourists have no doubt wonderedat the formation of the feature andhave left not knowing the incrediblestory the rocks have to tell. Nowadaysa full-colour explanatory leafletproduced by the National Trust (seeback of issue 23), a welcomesuccessor to sketchy footnotes ingeneral travel guides, explains theinterest in terms accessible to all.

Staffa is only one of many sites inScotland that now offers interpretationfor the geologically curious. Manylocations have explanatory leaflets, trailguides, interpretative boards andentries in geology guide books. Major

facilities such as the Knockan CragVisitor Centre and the National Trustfor Scotland Visitor Centre at Glen Coeoffer a full geological interpretative‘experience’.

A study prepared for Scottish NaturalHeritage by the British GeologicalSurvey revealed that there are morethan 250 locations in Scotland thathave some form of Earth heritageinterpretation. Sites of SpecialScientific Interest (SSSIs) and a fewNational Nature Reserves (NNRs) areamong those listed.

The BGS study identified a raft of otherlocations that offer scope forgeotourism, where currently there isnone. Some locations known morewidely for their archaeological andarchitectural significance, are amongthe sites identified as having

geotourism potential from the buildingstone perspective. Using the study asa working tool it is the goal of SNH toencourage the development of aScotland-wide geotourism network.This would be based on the ‘hub’ and‘satellite’ model – a proven approachalready working well at the KnockanCentre. Knockan, complete with carparking and toilet facilities, sets thescene, telling the tale of geology and

Colin MacFadyen,Scottish Natural Heritage

A lone geotourist visits McCulloch’s Tree at

Ardmeanach in western Mull. Although a 9km walk

from the nearest car park, this site, owned by the

National Trust for Scotland, attracts a steady stream

of hardy visitors keen to experience the magnificence

of this 60 million-year-old structure, formed as a lava

flow engulfed a large tree.

Photos Colin MacFadyen.

Geotourists experience the spectacular unconformity at Siccar Point in Berwickshire, as part of

the Scottish Borders Festival of Walking in the summer of 2004. Siccar Point is one of many

sites of international significance that will form the Scottish Geotourism network. Siccar Point

may represent the highlight in a network of sites with a ‘James Hutton’ theme.Tourists visiting Arthur’s Seat in Edinburgh. As well as the

panel shown in the photo, interpretation of this

Carboniferous volcanic complex includes a fold-out guide

map and guided walks (www.geowalks.demon.co.uk).

23

Establishing ageotourismnetwork in Scotland

www.discoveringfossils.co.uk www.discoveringfossils.co.uk

Discoveringfossils on the webDiscoveringfossils on the web

Since the age of four, Roy Shepherd has been a fossil fan.

Now, he has created the websitediscoveringfossils.co.uk

Here, Roy explains how the site lets him share hispassion with the wider world.

Roy Shepherd,Discovering Fossils

22

continued on page 24

Dinosaur tracks

at Ardley Quarry,

Oxfordshire.Photos: Roy Shepherd

In the conclusion, it states: “The siteexposes a range of fluvial facies,including deposits from different phasesof high-energy flood streams. This is anexcellent site for the study of high-energy fluvial sedimentology and for theunderstanding of the early phases ofTriassic sedimentation in the CheshireBasin.” I would add “especially as youhave modern fluvial processes alongside,illustrating in part the old adage ‘The present is the key to thepast’.”

Holt Castle Quarry is a picturesque site with archaeological ruinsof the castle in the middle. It has been nominated as a RIGS by theNorth East Wales RIGS Group for its Chester Pebble BedsFormation of the Sherwood Sandstone Group, the associatedsedimentary structures, and the 3-D exposure of the Holt-Coddington Fault, a shear fault with a mainly horizontaldisplacement of 2-3 miles. This fault cannot be seen in the cliffs onthe English side.

Difference between SSSI and RIGSThe category of RIGS is stated as both scientific and educational,but I would also add aesthetic. This highlights the fundamentaldifference between a SSSI and a RIGS. The scientific value of theformer site is protected in law. A RIGS in a non-statutory site,designated for scientific, educational, aesthetic or historicalreasons. It has a much wider remit than a SSSI but the designationoffers less protection.

The Holt Castle Quarry is used by A-level students at the localcollege for geology, by the local tertiary college and the OpenUniversity with the Farndon site as a teaching pair. It is a safe siteaway from traffic and within walking distance of the local primaryschool. However, neither site independently tells the full story. Thesedimentary story in Farndon is used by petroleum geologists,teachers, students and the general public but does not illustrate thefault structure. A geological notice board is maintained there byCheshire County Council and the site has recently benefited from aFacelift grant from English Nature to clear trees obscuring the face.

Holt Castle Quarry is owned and managed by Wrexham BoroughCouncil. It too has a notice board describing the five-sided castleand its geological history in both Welsh and English. However, littleis done about vegetation obscuring the geological interest – the

fault in the quarry face. Thecastle ruins are protected byCADW, the Welsh equivalentto English Heritage. Conflictcould arise with work tostabilise the face under thecastle walls. The way thegeological interest is cared foris a sorry contrast with theSSSI over the border.

These two sites are linked by a Medieval bridge spanning the RiverDee. The bridge was built by the monks of St Werburgh in 1338and illustrates the use of the Chester Pebble Beds as building stone.

Captivating storyThe story of the braided river flowing north 250 million years ago,across a red, arid landscape, traversed by dinosaurs, the subsequentmovement on the Holt-Coddington Fault and the final modificationof the landscape by converging Welsh and Irish Sea ice hascaptivated local people, students and visitors alike.

This complete story can only be told using both the SSSI and theRIGS. It is important that both are protected and a holisticapproach is needed. Perhaps, though, we have here two sitesseparated by more than a river! Legislation, finance and operationalprocedures spring to mind. n

The Holt/Farndon area of Wrexham and Cheshire is rich inSSSIs and RIGS. In fact, there are two of each in a verysmall area. It is a geologist’s and geomorphologist’sparadise.

Together, two of these sites – Dee Cliffs and Holt Castle Quarry – tell amore complete story of the Triassic history of the area. They are afantastic teaching resource.

Dee Cliffs SSSI in Farndon lies on the English side of the River Dee inCheshire and is designated for its Triassic Chester Pebble Beds Formationsedimentary structures, facies development and spectacular differentialand honeycomb weathering. Holt Castle Quarry lies on the Welsh side ofthe River Dee in Wrexham and is a RIGS. It has been designated for itsTriassic sandstone sedimentary structures and structural history.

Farndon picnic site SSSI, as it is locally known, is described in thePermian and Triassic Red Beds and the Penarth Group of Great Britainvolume of the GCR: “The Dee Cliffs section exposes the Chester PebbleBeds Formation, a sequence of sandstones and pebbly sandstones withlarge-scale tabular cross-stratification, smaller-scale trough cross-stratification and planar bedding”.

Cynthia Burek,University College Chester

A tale of

Further ReadingBenton, M.J., Cook, E. & Turner, P. 2002. Permian andTriassic Red Beds of the Penarth Group of Great Britain.Geological Conservation Review Series, JNCC 315 pp.Burek, C. V. 2005. In the beginning,www.holtonline.org.uk/geology.Burek, C.V. & Potter, J. 2002. Minding the LGAPs,Geoscientist, 12, (9), 16-7.NEWRIGS. 2005. Holt Castle Quarry site nomination,Wrexham Borough County Council.Owens, W. 1998. Sediments along the River Dee: report ofa fieldtrip led by C. Burek 6.9.1998, Open UniversityGeological Society, 1998, Gogledd Cymru (North Wales)branch, newsletter, issue 6, 4-5.Poole, E.G. & Whiteman, A.J. 1966. Geology of theCounty around Nantwich and Whitchurch, Institute ofGeological Sciences Memoir 122.

How RIGS can complement SSSIs

from previous page Establishing a geotourism network in Scotland

Holt Castle Quarry, showing Triassic strata under the castle ruins.

Students looking at the Dee

Cliffs SSSI.

Picnic area andinterpretation boards atthe Dee Cliffs SSSI.

Differential weathering at the Dee Cliffs SSSI.

25

TWO SITES

All photos by Cynthia Burek

the landscape. Associated with thismajor hub are satellite sites that useinterpretative panels to explain other,complementary, aspects of thegeology and landscape.

Expanding the geotourism networkacross Scotland, with around 30separate hubs and satellites, willinvolve considerable resources andwill rely on partnerships. The NationalTrust for Scotland, the John MuirTrust, the Scottish Wildlife Trust,estates and individual landowners andlocal authorities are some of thepartners who may wish to beinvolved.

Before embarking on networkdevelopment and engaging partners,it is essential to market test theproposal and establish the views ofthe user groups. Research to beundertaken this year, based atKnockan Crag, will determine theneeds of geotourists visiting this huband its satellites. Visitors will be asked

for their views on a variety

of issues including the relationshipbetween the hub and its satellites; onthe desirability or otherwise of havinginterpretation that forges closer linkswith the wider natural and culturalheritage; interpretative mechanisms(leaflets, trails, panels and so on): andthe desirability of having themednetworks of sites.

The BGS study identified themes thatcould possibly be applied across thenetworks – themes such asvolcanoes, fossils and Ice AgeScotland. In the future, a geotouristwith a particular interest in volcanoesmay be able to enjoy a volcano tourof Scotland that takes in the Arthur’sSeat volcanic complex in Edinburgh,the pitchstone lava of Eigg, and thedyke swarm of southern Arran.

With a list of sites that could befashioned into a geotourist network,and the views of those that currentlyuse the geotourism resource, SNHcan begin to promote the idea of aScotland-wide geotourism network

and work with consultees andpartners to achieve it. Areasencompassed by a Geopark or whichare likely to achieve Geopark statuswould be obvious locations todevelop and establish the firstnetworks. Planning and developmentwould mean aiming for consistency inthe geotourism experience in terms ofthe standard of interpretation, accessand facilities. The network would bepromoted by flyers and a guidebookand be fully supported by a ScottishGeotourism Network site on the web.

Staffa will continue to be visited bytourists, many will be enthralled bythe wonder of the natural rockformations and leave the experienceat that. Others may choose to find outall about location 8, or whateverStaffa may be, in the network of sitesthat reveals the story of Scotland’ssplit from Greenland and NorthAmerica 60 million years ago. In doingso, they may be stimulated tocontinue the exploration of Scotland’sdeep history. n

24

For years a curious layer of siltysand was known to occurwithin ancient coastalsediments in the Forth Valley.

The long-held view was that the layerwas deposited by a major flood of theRiver Forth several thousand years ago.Today, we know that this sand was left bya gigantic tsunami.

The view that the layer was flood siltchanged when it was identified elsewherealong the coastline of eastern Scotland. Thelayer’s microfossils showed that it wasmarine in origin, and radiocarbon dating ofpeat deposits above and below revealed aconsistent age for the layer at all the sites.

A major storm surge was suggested as thecause. But since Scotland has seen manysevere surges in the 10,000 years since itslast ice sheet vanished, why was theresedimentary evidence for this surge only?

Landslide scarDuring the early years of geologicalinvestigation of the seafloor off westernNorway, Professor Olaf Holtedahl at theUniversity of Bergen had noticed whatappeared to be evidence of a huge landslidescar at approximately 500m water depth onthe continental slope west of Trondheim.

It was not until more sophisticatedgeophysical surveys were used in the ’70sand ’80s that Tom Bugge, a Norwegianmarine geologist, identified this area as thesite of one of the world’s largest underwaterlandslides. The scar that Olaf Holtedahl hadidentified was approximately 150km inlength. The landslide itself had anestimated volume of 5,580km3 and hadtravelled across the continental slope intothe deep abyssal waters of the NorwegianSea over a distance of 800km. The area ofthe landslide identified by Tom Bugge wasalmost the size of mainland Scotland!

The landslide, known as the Storegga Slide,contained individual slabs of displacedsediment, the largest of which are up to150-200m thick, 10km wide and 30-50kmlong. The slide sediments appeared to havestarted adjacent to the slide scarp in depths

of between 500 and 1,000m and tohave come to rest on the seafloorat depths up to 2,500m.

Detailed descriptions of the slidewere first published in 1987 whenit was estimated that the mainslide movement took placebetween 8,000 and 5,000 years BP.It was proposed at this time thatthe cause of the slide could have

been a large underwater earthquake,possibly in conjunction with the release ofmethane gas stored in the seafloorsediments.

After the publication of the first paper onthe Storegga Slide and the first estimate ofthe age of the slide, Alastair Dawson,David Smith and David Long proposed thatthe sediment layer contained within thecoastal sediment sequences of easternScotland represented an extreme flooddeposit produced by the tsunami thataccompanied the Storegga Slide.

Shortly afterwards, two researchers at theUniversity of Bergen, John Svendsen andProfessor Jan Mangerud, proposed thatsimilar sand layers in western Norwaycould have been deposited by the sametsunami.

Flood levelsThe geological investigations of thesediment layer in eastern Scotland initiallyindicated that the tsunami must have beenassociated with flood levels that typicallyreached at least 4-6m above high-tide level.Sue Dawson identified the sand layer atWick and along the northern coastline ofSutherland – here, also, the flood levelswere estimated to be similar to thoseproposed for eastern Scotland.

However, more recent studies of thetsunami deposits in the Shetland Isles byStein Bondevik, Jan Mangerud and SueDawson in the Sullom Voe area show thathere the flood waves may have reached 25-30m above sea level on the day the tsunamistruck. A mathematical model was vital inunderstanding how the tsunami wasgenerated. The model simulated the motionof the Storegga Slide and linked the slidedynamics with the generation andpropagation of a tsunami.

High-speed travelThis detailed, painstaking work wascompleted by Carl Harbitz at theDepartment of Mathematics at theUniversity of Oslo in 1990. Carl showed that the vertical motion of theocean water during the tsunami wasextremely complex. His model predictedthat the sea level could have dropped by asmuch as an 8m along the western Norwaycoast during the initial stages of thetsunami. This was followed by a rise in sealevel of about 16m during the next twohours. His model also showed that thelandslide was likely to have travelleddownslope across the seafloor at an averagespeed of 30 metres per second.

Importantly, his estimates of flood levels atthe coast, both for northern mainlandScotland and western Norway, matched theestimated levels based on geologicalstudies of the sediment sheets.The realisation that such a large tsunamihad taken place led Jan Mangerud and hiscolleague Stein Bondevik to investigate aseries of uplifted coastal lakes in westernNorway. They were looking forsedimentary evidence for the tsunami inlakes located close to the coastapproximately 7,000 years ago.

Their sediment cores showed plenty ofevidence that a tsunami had struck. In onecore, they even discovered bone remains ofa fish washed onshore during the flood allthose years ago. Curiously, a study of thetsunami sediments in northern Sutherlandrevealed a wild cherry fruit stone. Itscondition suggests the tsunami took placeduring autumn! The Indian Ocean tsunamidisaster of December 2004 taught thewhole world about the devastating power oftsunamis. The case of the Storegga Slide7,000 years ago reminds us that thecoastline of Scotland does face a tsunamirisk from the occurrence of underwater

landslides. We can be reassured, though, bythe fact that during the last 10,000 yearsthere has only been one such tsunami. Butit was enormous! n

Sue Dawson,University of St Andrews

Alastair Dawson,Aberdeen Institute for CoastalScience and Management

The location of the Storegga Slide and locations(blue and red dots) where geological evidence forthe Storegga Slide tsunami has been found.Mathematical reconstructions for three locationsoffshore show the rapid and very large (up to16m) changes in sea level associated with thetsunami.

Stein Bondevik, Jan Mangerud, Sue Dawson, AlastairDawson and Øystein Lohne, Record-breaking Height for8000-year-old Tsunami in the North Atlantic, EOS,Transactions, American Geophysical Union, Volume 84,No. 31, pages 289-300, 5 Aug 2003. Copyright [2003]American Geophysical Union. Reproduced by permissionof American Geophysical Union.

Sedimentsdeposited by pasttsunamis arehighly variable incharacter. Thiscomplex sandlayer enclosedwithin peat nearSullom Voe in theShetland Isles,was deposited bythe StoreggaSlide tsunami. Photo by Alastair

Dawson

Approximately 7,000years ago, sea level atNoss wasapproximately 20 mlower than present. Yet,it is suspected that atsunami at this timewould have floodedacross the land area onwhich the croft house islocated. Given thetelevision images of thehuman disaster in theIndian Ocean, one canperhaps imagine thefate of the Neolithicpeople who dwelt inthis area and elsewherein eastern Scotland oneautumn day 7,000years ago. Photo by Lorne Gill SNH

Mull and Iona. ISBN 1 85397 423 4Price £4.95 Scottish Natural Heritagepubs@snh.gov.uk

The dramatic landscapes of Mull andIona are steeped in the history of StColumba and modern Scotland butbeneath the soil lies a secret, hiddenhistory. This beautifully illustratedguide peels back the stories of howthese islands came to be – from thebreak up of an ancient supercontinentto the birth of the North Atlantic. Fromviolent volcanoes, crashing waves andscouring glaciers, this book reveals thedynamic processes over millions ofyears that created Mull and Iona’sstunning scenery. It's the essential

companion foranyone interestedin the deeperScotland.

- VanessaCollingridge, author andbroadcaster

on our doorstepon our doorstep

26

RRevieweviewCornwall’s Geology and Scenery (2ndEdition). Colin M. Bristow, 2004. 167 pages. Cornish Hillside Publications,St Austell, Cornwall. ISBN 1 900147 394 clothbound: ISBN 1 900147 38 6paperback. £14.99 (paperback).

Cornwall’s Geologyand Scenery providesa description of thecounty that is aimedat the well-informedlayman. It devotesspace to explaininghow thinking aboutCornish geologydeveloped, andreviews some ofthe geologicalconcepts used in thebook. The third chapter reviews theeconomic importance of geology toCornwall, covering mining and buildingmaterials. The remainder (and bulk) ofthe book addresses the geological historyof Cornwall from the Devonian to thepresent, revising the earlier edition toinclude research such as the EarlyOrdovician date for the Man O’WarGneisses.

This is a well-written and liberallyillustrated book. Locations are generallymentioned, but I feel there is scope for afield guide to sit alongside thispublication.

– David Evans, English Nature

HARBOUR WAVESby Rab Wilson

They sound deceptively gentle, don’t they,But change that to ‘Tsunami’, the pictureSuddenly becomes much more sinister;Primeval Great White Sharks stalking theirprey.Faster though, more lethal, much moredeadly.Those which struck the coast of Easter IslandTravelled two thousand miles from themainland,Toppling those ancient idols on their way.Power, awesome in its intensity.Out on the deep ocean, a mere ripple,Incredibly fast, indiscernible,Till, growing, raging with ferocity,These suicidal waves attack the shore,With one last, great, valedictory roar.

This poem is taken from a complete workentitled Quake by Scottish poet Rab Wilson.It is a poetical work comprising a series ofsonnets interlinked by a narrative poem infree verse. The sonnets are based on themesand ideas inspired by earthquakes. Thesethemes are historical, geographical andsociological/human and are interlinked by afree verse narrative of a fictionalised accountof one person’s thoughts and experiencehaving been caught in an earthquake. In light of recent events Quake highlightsand emphasises the fragility of humanexistence, and how the world must worktogether to try and help predict suchtragedies, plan effective humanitarian reliefin their aftermath, and therefore lessen theirimpact.

Tsunami