26 WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER MARCH 2007

Afire approaches as you and your crewprepare to make a stand to protect prop-erty. It is early morning, 60 degrees F.

You know where the fire is coming from andbelieve you have defendable space based on thewater from a swimming pool, your location andpast fire behavior. You mentally check off yourlist for structure protection; you are ready.

Suddenly, fire and heat build to raise asmoke plume 18,000 feet high. Windsincrease and the roar drowns out your orders.The heat builds; the humidity drops. Spot firessurround you. Escape is no longer possible.

Should you have taken other action?Many people with knowledge of the circum-stances and outcome would say these eventswere predictable. They would also say themistakes lie in the behavior or judgment ofthe firefighters. Such an attitude protects us,allowing us to believe that a similar situationcould never happen to us.

But when we acknowledge the crewmade the right decision, a decision that we

would make, we begin to feel the time pres-sures and confusion of life-or-death situa-tions. Researchers have long understood thethought process needed to succeed in suchenvironments; they call it high-reliabilityorganizing (HRO), and wildland firefightershave long been using HRO concepts.

Recently, we traveled to France to exam-ine wildland firefighting outside the UnitedStates, and to further our understanding ofhow wildland firefighters across the globe areusing HRO practices every day to improvetheir safety and effectiveness in our never-ending battle against wildfire.

What Is HRO?Researchers have approached HRO from various directions. Researcher and authorKarlene Roberts studied U.S. Naval Aviationto codify five characteristics of high-reliabilityorganizations:

• Process auditing: An established systemfor ongoing checks designed to spotexpected as well as unexpected safetyproblems.

• Reward system: The payoff that anindividual or an organization gets forrisky behavior.

• Degradation of quality and/or inferiorquality: The essential quality of the sys-tem involved as compared to a referentsystem that is generally regarded as thestandard for quality.

• Perception of risk: Whether or not therewas any knowledge that risk existed at alland the extent to which it was acknowl-edged appropriately or minimized.

• Command and control: Hierarchy with-out negative bureaucracy (e.g., the per-son with the most expertise makes thedecision, backup systems exist, seniormanagers don’t micromanage).

Researchers Karl Weick and KathleenSutcliffe, on the other hand, focused on theprocess of HRO, rather than the organizationalaspects. They concluded that HRO requires

France’s wildland fire service finds success through high- reliability conceptsBy Daved van Stralen & Gary Provansal

Older construction, medium-duty steel unit in southern France. Note the personal pro-tective gear, including escape mask.

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The French Conne ctionThe French Conne ction

MARCH 2007 WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER 27

the user to maintain a state of mindfulness.They identified five aspects of mindfulness:

• Preoccupation with failure: Believes anylapse is a signal that something is wrong.

• Reluctance to simplify interpretations:Takes deliberate steps to create morecomplete and nuanced pictures, believ-ing the world is complex, unstable,unknowable and unpredictable.

• Sensitivity to operations: Shows ongo-ing concern with the unexpected; isattentive to the front line where the real work is done. Continuouslyadjusts to prevent errors from accumu-lating or enlarging.

• Commitment to resilience: Bouncesback from mistakes, believing that errorsare a part of the indeterminate world.

• Deference to expertise: Develops diver-sity in thinking, believing rigid hierar-chies are vulnerable to error. Givesauthority to the person with the mostexpertise.

Wildland firefighters will recognize someof these concepts from their time on the fire-line. When you assume that your decisionsand actions may not succeed, you are “preoc-cupied with failure.” When you develop aplan that recognizes the conflict betweenstructure protection and fighting head fire inexcess of 8 feet, you are “reluctant to simplifyinterpretations.” Focusing on small irritationsbecause they could herald a large failuredemonstrates “sensitivity to operations.”Working the problem as the problem growsand actions fail shows “commitment toresilience.” Listening to the rookie operatingfrom an area you cannot evaluate shows “def-erence to expertise.”

HRO AbroadSo, what does all this have to do with wild-land firefighting in France? After thoroughlystudying and documenting the presence ofHRO in U.S. wildland firefighting, we wantedto examine its presence in another country.

- reliability concepts

Typical wildland fire directattack in southern France.

PHOTO COURTESY SDIS 13ne ctione ction

28 WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER MARCH 2007

During the last week of November, we visitedCol. Luc Jorda, fire chief, and selected officersfrom Service Departmental d’Incendie et deSecours (SDIS) 13 in Marseille, France.

SDIS 13 (http://web.sdis13.fr/) covers theBouches-du-Rhone (Area 13) department, simi-lar to a county, in southern France at the mouthof the Rhone River. It’s one of the busiest wild-land fire services in France. When the 90-mphMistral winds blow on a nascent fire, you canpredict that within an hour, something majorwill be threatened: the luxury resorts of theRiviera, priceless historical buildings, small vil-lages or large cities, France’s second-largest oiland gas industrial area or nuclear facilities.

French wildland firefighting has twomajor axes, prevention and suppression, andfour major objectives: 1) prevent fires fromstarting; 2) take quick action; 3) limit devel-

opment of catastrophic fire; and 4) organizethe forest for prevention after the fire (e.g.,change the type of trees growing in the for-est). When a fire occurs, personnel beginidentification of the cause; gather informa-tion about people who live in or travelthrough the forest; develop an idea of the riskand scale of the fire; and respond with someform of dissuasive surveillance (police, gen-darmes, forest service, firefighters and gov-ernment officers).

Risk estimation is developed from areamaps. These maps draw on at least 30 yearsof past fire history and are available to theincident commanders during wildland fires.Risks are defined by weather, vegetation andterrain with a daily scale of risk developedand given to the public. In some depart-ments, forest access can be forbidden or

limited to certain hours. This differs from theUnited States, where we readily restrict someactivities, such as campfires, but hesitate toimpose travel restrictions.

A closer look at the command structureand firefighting strategies of French wildlandfirefighters reveals a reliance on HRO con-cepts, especially Roberts’ “process auditing”and “perception of risk,” and Weick andSutcliffe’s “sensitivity to operations” and“reluctance to simplify concepts.”

Incident Command SystemThe incident command system (ICS) inFrance is called the gestion operationnelle decommandement (GOC). It has the same func-tions as the U.S. ICS except it doesn’t includea finance sector. And because the Frenchstrategy focuses on fire suppression within thefirst 30 minutes, the GOC has a slightly differ-ent configuration than the ICS. Functions areprogressively transferred from the DepartmentOperations Center (CODIS), which overseesall operations, to the incident managementteam (IMT).

The basic unit of firefighting in France isthe Forest Fire Intervention Group (GIFF),which consists of four Type III engines led bya lieutenant who drives a light all-terrain vehi-cle. The lieutenant, equivalent to a battalionchief, is trained for forest fires to Level 3. 4

Newer construction, medium-duty steel unit. Note auto-protection wheel nozzles activating, white strip around door handle, whitepiping for external protection to the cab and tubing for spray nozzles to windows.

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French wildland firefighting has 4 major objectives:

1 – prevent fires from starting; 2 – take quick action;

3 – limit development of catastrophic fire; & 4 – organize the forest for prevention

after the fire.

30 WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER MARCH 2007

The lieutenant of the first GIFF dis-patched by the CODIS to arrive on scenebecomes the first IC. The IC makes situationreports to the CODIS, assesses need forresources and assigns the first goals and mis-sions. If the fire remains small, the first GIFFlieutenant remains the IC throughout thefire, dividing it into three or four sectors: left,right, front and sometimes back. Each sectoris commanded by a division chief; each sec-tor has three GIFFs.

At larger fires, usually after the first 30 min-utes, the Level 4 IMT assumes command, bring-ing with it a command post and a dedicated

safety frequency on the radio. ICS functions aretransferred from the CODIS to the IMT: anoperations/situation officer who updates the sit-uation and supervises division chiefs, an aerialofficer who coordinates air resources and mayhave a helicopter for his own use, two logisticsofficers and an aero officer who has both Level4 and aviation-specific training.

For large fires with multiple sectors, theIC must work at Level 5 and each sectorreceives its own sector command post in atruck or van. A Level 5 IMT, with a dedicatedcommand post, assumes command after thefirst hour. The command post has two parts:

the “noise” room and the “silence” room. Thenoise room is dedicated to operations with thesituation officer, operations officer, logisticsofficer, media officer and the operator in con-tact with the CODIS. The silence room isstaffed by two officers, the anticipation chiefand the logistics chief, who create scenariosfor the next 1–2 hours. The anticipation andlogistics chiefs also propose strategies andsubsequent actions to the IC.

A dedicated officer in direct contact withthe IC coordinates the command post.Because of the mindset that safety is every-body’s concern, France has traditionally not

Foreign ApparatusA look at French brush trucks

French firefighting apparatus include:• Light-duty brush engines used mainly for patrol. These 4 x 4

engines carry small amounts of foam and are made of alu-minum. They are staffed with four firefighters.

• Medium-duty engines that carry more water and have a pre-plumbed monitor mounted on top of the vehicle. These 4 x 4 vehi-cles have Class A foam capability. Staffing is four firefighters.

• Super-duty engines which hold the most water and are alsoequipped with monitors mounted on top of the vehicle. These 6 x6 vehicles carry large amounts of foam and retardant as well; theyare constructed of steel and are staffed with four firefighters.

• Large 4 x 2 water tenders confined to operation on roads only.The water tenders are not equipped to fight fire and are consid-ered support vehicles; they are staffed by two firefighters.

All of the wildland engines have the ability to shift into very lowgear ratios and have aggressive angles of attack and departure,along with good ground clearance. They have enclosed cabs and areequipped with special air filters to prevent embers from entering theair cleaners.

The French fire service has decided that the best protection forits firefighters during burnover is in the cab of the fire engine.Because 99 percent of all wildland firefighting in France involvesdirect attack with engines, firefighters remain relatively close totheir equipment. Personnel are not issued personal fire shelters.Each firefighter in the SDIS 13 region carries an emergency smokemask for retreating back to the vehicle.

In addition, each engine is equipped with special life-saving equip-ment, including:

• Windows treated with a special film for heat radiation. • GPS equipment installed inside the cab. An emergency button sends the coordinates and distress call to airtankers,

command and CODIS. The nearest airtanker will drop its payload on the coordinates to help protect the crew.• White reflective paint surrounding the door handle to make it easier to locate during heavy smoke conditions.• An air bottle and regulator with attached masks for each position in the cab and an air bottle to pressurize the cabin.• Roll bars inside the engine cab to protect the occupants during a rollover or from falling objects such as trees. • A piping system surrounding the cab to provide protection during high heat and actual flame impingement. • A water-protection system that features water nozzles that protect windows and the windshield; each tire, the

fuel tank and the battery locations; and the rear pump panel, pump and hoses. The system is activated during themaximum point of threat and is fed by either the engine’s pump or, in case of its failure, a separate electricalpump. The system is fully activated from inside the cab without any special preparation or action from outsidethe cab. The water source comes from the engine’s main tank, which has a protective system that keeps atleast 130 gallons of water available only to the auto-protection system; newer engines have a separate tank.The system provides for at least 4 minutes of water protection to the engine and its firefighters.

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Medium-duty brush engine with auto-protectionin full operation.

Auto-protection system covering the wheels.

Medium-duty brush engine with monitor in fulloperation.

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employed a safety officer, but the position isplanned this year.

France has two jurisdictional levels in rela-tion to the safety of citizens: the mayor and theprefect. As a fire approaches a town, the mayorbecomes the director of operations and allinvolved resources comply with the mayor’sgoals. When the fire threatens several towns, theprefect sets the objectives. Law enforcement, fireservice, private and public-sector organizationsall come under the command of the prefect.

SurveillanceSurveillance is two-pronged and involvesground and aerial observation. SDIS 13 doublesits engine companies for the maximum burnhours during the main wildland fire season. Halfof the ground resources are in regions underthreat and half of the increase is placed on patrolin high fire-danger areas. Ground surveillanceincludes lookout tours, roving patrols, motorcy-cles with hose and a camera that sits aboveCODIS. The camera is programmed to automat-ically recognize a new mass of smoke, providegeo-location and sound an alarm.

Aerial observation occurs by the air-tankers flying patrol fully loaded. They areconstantly in the air during the maximumburn periods with a response area of approxi-mately 10 minutes each. Jurisdictional bound-aries or restrictions do not interfere with theresponse. The National Fleet is in charge ofairtankers and can be called by any GIFF. Thepriority is preventing a new fire.

Initial AttackThe alert comes by airtanker, lookout tower,CODIS camera, ground patrols or by phoneand goes to the formal group that is closest tothe fire. The GIFF lieutenant receives themission and is the first IC. The aerial unit mayget to the fire first, explain the situation and ask

Because of themindset that safety

is everybody’s concern, France has

traditionally notemployed a safety

officer, but the position is planned

this year.

Simulated FireFrench firefighters train on a state-of-the-art simulator

The ECole d’Application deSecurite Civile (ECASC,www.valabre.com) is France’snational research, dissemi-nation and training agency forType 1 and 2 incident man-agement teams. The ECASCcreated a wildland fire simu-lator in 2000. The simulatorcovers the development of afire in the first 6 hours, about

25 square kilometers (approximately 10 square miles). The region is devel-oped from GIS data, making it possible to use actual maps and real locations.

ECASC’s training is renowned throughout Europe, and Type 1 teams fromacross the Mediterranean region train there. ECASC also leads the EuropeanUnion’s efforts to build a “network of excellence” for wildland fire sciencesand technologies.

Simulations for large fires occur by computer simulation with use of sep-arate simulators for each position, all tied together in a master simulation.Each position, from single engine to the IC, can view their actions and por-tion of the fire activity, including airtankers and helicopters that can, throughactual flight simulators, view the entire fire and make actual drops.

Real pilots operate the controls for the air bomber and helicopter simula-tors, which function in separate helicopter and aviation rooms. The chief canchoose the type of plane and payload (foam, water or retardant). The chief alsodecides how to unload the payload.

The director manages the fire simulation from a control room with threescreens, setting the fire and the smoke development based upon wind, terrainand fuel type models. The director can change any elements of the unfoldingscenario, such as wind direction, GIFF accidents and people in distress in theforest. He operates three simulators at the same time.

Simulation exercises typically last several hours. Students are watched bytwo psychologists who debrief participants on how they work in stressful sit-uations. Special attention is also paid to the relationships with the media andlocal authorities, played by the simulator staff.

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Top: Headquarters for the national fire commandschool, ECole d'Application de Securite Civile,housed in a 15th century chateau. Bottom: Controlroom for wildland fire command simulationexercise. Controller is manipulating parame-ters for the burn.

32 WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER MARCH 2007

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for authorization to make a first drop of water.Permission comes from CODIS unless theGIFF is on the fire. CODIS tells the airplanewho is on the fire and gives the frequency. TheGIFF then directs the aerial unit. If there is noGIFF, CODIS can authorize the air drop.

Action on new small fires is the mostimportant point; if you want to be quick on afire you must have planes in the air and bootson the ground. Attack must occur within 10minutes of discovering the fire. CODIS hasplanes flying in different zones and stationsfour helitankers in the region. Each GIFF ispre-positioned in an area, not at stations.

Within 20 minutes, three GIFFs (12 vehi-cles) and air units (airplanes and helicopters)will begin fighting the fire. Before the firstreport from the IC, additional GIFFs from1–2 hours away will begin their response.This method of attack without regard forjurisdictional boundaries or agency responsi-bility keeps the fire small and enables the useof direct attack with water 99 percent of thetime in addition to the air support.

HRO in France We found much evidence of the use of HROconcepts in French wildland firefighting,including:

• Perception of risk is very strong in theFrench culture because of the large forest-urban interface. Air and groundpatrols increase during the fire season.

• To reduce degradation of quality, fire-fighters travel on-site to study bad inci-dent outcomes.

• Senior managers maintain command andcontrol by observing the site and main-taining close communication withGIFFs and sectors as the fire grows.

• Showing a reluctance to simplify, theyhave created a command school forwildland firefighting using simulatorsand mandatory training.

• They increase their sensitivity to opera-tions by allowing GIFFs freedom toattack their fire.

• Deference to expertise exists; for exam-ple, air bombers can drop water onfires unattended by a GIFF.

As a result of our findings, SDIS 13 andthe San Bernardino County (Calif.) FireDepartment have started a joint program withthe County Sheriff for initial air attack; we willalso be evaluating the benefits of altering ourbrush engines related to engine protection.

ConclusionWildland firefighters in France are searchingfor new methods and structures to improvefirefighter and citizen safety. HRO continues toprovide solutions for the difficult challengesthat affect both France and the United States.

The authors would like to acknowledge the assis-tance of the following people:

Col. Luc Jorda, SDIS Bouches du RhoneLt. Sebastien Lacroix, SDIS Bouches du RhoneSgt. Laure Monrazel, SDIS Bouches du RhoneJean-Pierre Squillari, commandant, SDIS Bouchesdu RhoneCol. Robert Bardo, ECASCLt. Col. Jean-Marc Bedogni, ECASCRenaud Vidal, MS Science and ExecutiveEngineering, MS Management, University Aix-Marseille

Daved van Stralen, M.D., is a former paramedicfor the Los Angeles City Fire Department whobecame a pediatric intensive care physician andnow serves as medical director for the SanBernardino County (Calif.) Fire Department. Heis also an assistant professor in the Department ofPediatrics at Loma Linda University School ofMedicine. Van Stralen has used HRO principles inmedical care for more than 20 years and hasworked with Karlene Roberts and Karl Weick.

Division Chief Gary Provansal commands theTraining, EMS, and Safety Division of the SanBernardino County (Calif.) Fire Department. Hehas served on a Type II Fire Management Team asa Safety Officer and performed as the EmergencyOperations Center director during the 2003Southern California firestorm. He has 27 years offire service experience and has used HRO andits elements for more than 20 years.

34 WILDLAND FIREFIGHTER MARCH 2007

Action on new smallfires is the most

important point; ifyou want to be quick

on a fire you musthave planes in the air

& boots on theground. Attack must

occur within 10 minutes of

discovering the fire.