The Foundations of Social Research Ch 7

The Foundations of The Foundations of Social ResearchSocial Research

Michael CrottyMichael Crotty

Chapter 7Chapter 7

Critical Inquiry ContinuedCritical Inquiry Continued

The Foundations of Social The Foundations of Social ResearchResearch

Habermas claims that Adorno, in rejecting Habermas claims that Adorno, in rejecting identity logic, ‘surrendered to an identity logic, ‘surrendered to an uninhibited scepticism concerning uninhibited scepticism concerning reason.’reason.’

Adorno, according to Habermas replaced Adorno, according to Habermas replaced reason with impulse, its opposite.reason with impulse, its opposite.

Adorno disagrees claiming that his project Adorno disagrees claiming that his project is one that actually seeks to increase is one that actually seeks to increase rationality by increasing sensitivityrationality by increasing sensitivity


Tensions between The Institute and Tensions between The Institute and HabermasHabermas

Horkheimer’s hostility and Adorno’s Horkheimer’s hostility and Adorno’s weaknessweakness

The issue of ‘reason,’ so central to The issue of ‘reason,’ so central to negative dialectics lies also at the negative dialectics lies also at the heart of Habermas’ relationship to heart of Habermas’ relationship to the tradition of the Frankfurt school the tradition of the Frankfurt school he joined in 1956he joined in 1956


Adorno and Horkheimer (Marcuse as well) Adorno and Horkheimer (Marcuse as well) depict Western society as a social and depict Western society as a social and political economy, at once capitalist and political economy, at once capitalist and bureaucratic, which reduces all social bureaucratic, which reduces all social relations to the level of objectified and relations to the level of objectified and commodified administered systems.commodified administered systems.

As they see it, the development of this As they see it, the development of this form of society springs from the form of society springs from the Enlightenment’s understanding of reason Enlightenment’s understanding of reason as instrumental rationalityas instrumental rationality


This is an understanding that decisively This is an understanding that decisively splits subject from object and looks, splits subject from object and looks, above all else, to gain control over above all else, to gain control over nature and render it predictable. On nature and render it predictable. On the basis of this understanding, the basis of this understanding, Horkheimer and particularly Adorno Horkheimer and particularly Adorno make refutation and rejection of make refutation and rejection of identity thinking pivotal to their identity thinking pivotal to their critique of capitalist society.critique of capitalist society.


Habermas had never shared the Habermas had never shared the radically anti-capitalist stance of radically anti-capitalist stance of Horkheimer and Adorno. Nor does Horkheimer and Adorno. Nor does he want to reject reason as he want to reject reason as wholeheartedly as he believes wholeheartedly as he believes Adorno has done.Adorno has done.

Seeking a praxis-oriented philosophy Seeking a praxis-oriented philosophy of history, beyond Marxist historical of history, beyond Marxist historical frameworkframework


He wants a normative basis for He wants a normative basis for critical theorycritical theory

Positive concept of reason (as Positive concept of reason (as opposed to negative concept)opposed to negative concept)

Don’t throw out the baby with the Don’t throw out the baby with the bathwater (see inset p. 142)bathwater (see inset p. 142)

Critiques MarxCritiques Marx


Habermas posits a distinction between Habermas posits a distinction between labor as instrumental action and social labor as instrumental action and social interaction as communicative action. interaction as communicative action. These two forms of action constitute the These two forms of action constitute the basis for a three-fold typology of human basis for a three-fold typology of human knowledge.knowledge.

Central epistemological tenet: Human Central epistemological tenet: Human beings constitute their reality and organize beings constitute their reality and organize their experience in terms of cognitive (or their experience in terms of cognitive (or ‘knowledge-guiding’) ‘knowledge-guiding’) interestsinterests..


Habermas’ Three-Fold Typology of Human Habermas’ Three-Fold Typology of Human ActionAction Empirical Sciences led by a technical interest in Empirical Sciences led by a technical interest in

predicting and controlling objectified processes-predicting and controlling objectified processes-This is the realm of instrumental actionThis is the realm of instrumental action

The historico-hermeneutic sciences (social The historico-hermeneutic sciences (social sciences) are guided by a practical interest in sciences) are guided by a practical interest in achieving intersubjective understandingachieving intersubjective understanding

In the critical sciences (psychoanalysis, In the critical sciences (psychoanalysis, philosophy?), which are governed by the intent philosophy?), which are governed by the intent to bring about emancipation from the relations to bring about emancipation from the relations of dependence that ideology in particular has of dependence that ideology in particular has set in place and that come to appear to us as set in place and that come to appear to us as natural.natural.


Three-Fold Typology in a nutshell:Three-Fold Typology in a nutshell: The specific viewpoints from which we The specific viewpoints from which we

can apprehend reality as such in any can apprehend reality as such in any way whatsoever are an orientation way whatsoever are an orientation toward:toward:

Technical controlTechnical control Mutual understandingMutual understanding emancipationemancipation


Habermas and the linguistic turnHabermas and the linguistic turn Language and epistemology very Language and epistemology very

intertwinedintertwined the web to whose threads subjects cling the web to whose threads subjects cling

and through which they develop into and through which they develop into subjects in the first placesubjects in the first place

Today the problem of language has taken Today the problem of language has taken the place of the traditional problem of the place of the traditional problem of consciousnessconsciousness

What raises us out of nature is the only What raises us out of nature is the only thing whose nature we can know: language.thing whose nature we can know: language.


HabermasHabermas Language-epistemology-pragmatics/Language-epistemology-pragmatics/

praxis-rationalitypraxis-rationality McCarthy quote p. 143 insetMcCarthy quote p. 143 inset Systematically distorted Systematically distorted

communicationcommunication Theory of communicative competenceTheory of communicative competence Ideal speech situationIdeal speech situation


Ideal Speech Situation: one that is free Ideal Speech Situation: one that is free from systematic distortion, allows from systematic distortion, allows unimpaired self-presentation by unimpaired self-presentation by participants, and is characterised by participants, and is characterised by mutuality of expectations rather than one-mutuality of expectations rather than one-sided norms.sided norms.

Discourse is unrestrained and universal Discourse is unrestrained and universal and enables an unconstrained consensus and enables an unconstrained consensus to emerge whereby the idea of truth can to emerge whereby the idea of truth can be analyzed.be analyzed.


Habermas: Theory of Discourse/Consensus Habermas: Theory of Discourse/Consensus theory of truththeory of truth

Discourse is distinguished from Discourse is distinguished from communicative action: communicative action: Communicative action is the interaction that Communicative action is the interaction that

takes place in everyday life and in it claims to takes place in everyday life and in it claims to validity are more or less naively accepted. validity are more or less naively accepted.

Discourse, on the other hand, constitutes an Discourse, on the other hand, constitutes an unusual form of communication in which the unusual form of communication in which the participants subject themselves to the force of participants subject themselves to the force of the better argument, with a view of coming to an the better argument, with a view of coming to an agreement about the validity or invalidity of agreement about the validity or invalidity of problematic claimsproblematic claims


Habermas: In critical inquiry, it is discourse Habermas: In critical inquiry, it is discourse with which we should be concernedwith which we should be concerned

In discourse, the beliefs, norms and values In discourse, the beliefs, norms and values that are taken for granted in everyday that are taken for granted in everyday interaction are expressly thematized and interaction are expressly thematized and subject to critiquesubject to critique

Discourses become institutionalized for Discourses become institutionalized for certain domains: that of practical certain domains: that of practical questions and political decisions (practico-questions and political decisions (practico-politico discourse)politico discourse)


Universal Pragmatics and communicative Universal Pragmatics and communicative ethics in Habermas’ thought.ethics in Habermas’ thought. Where there is consensus about norms that is Where there is consensus about norms that is

free from constraint and representative of the free from constraint and representative of the common good, Habermas is ready to accord it common good, Habermas is ready to accord it universality i.e., a normative principle of universality i.e., a normative principle of universalization.universalization.

The general and unavoidable—in this sense The general and unavoidable—in this sense transcendental—conditions of possible transcendental—conditions of possible understanding have a normative contentunderstanding have a normative content

The project of discovering and articulating these The project of discovering and articulating these conditions is universal pragmaticsconditions is universal pragmatics


So Habermas is concerned with So Habermas is concerned with communication competence, social communication competence, social evolution, systems theory, problem evolution, systems theory, problem solving (pragmatics), social learning solving (pragmatics), social learning and developmentand development

Reenvisioning historical materialism Reenvisioning historical materialism (ala Marx)(ala Marx)


Systems problems occur in any given Systems problems occur in any given societysociety

These create crises and demand a These create crises and demand a responseresponse

The systems problems coemerge The systems problems coemerge with learning processes in response with learning processes in response to them, providing the dynamism of to them, providing the dynamism of social development and processes of social development and processes of historyhistory


Two dimensions to the processes of learning Two dimensions to the processes of learning in Habermas social evolution theoryin Habermas social evolution theory Moral-practical knowledge (developments in the Moral-practical knowledge (developments in the

relations of production)relations of production) Empirical-analytic knowledge (development in Empirical-analytic knowledge (development in

the forces of knowledge)the forces of knowledge) Reenvisioning historical materialism:Reenvisioning historical materialism: Theory materialist in that it makes reference to Theory materialist in that it makes reference to

crisis-producing systems problems in the domain crisis-producing systems problems in the domain of production and reproduction; and the analysis of production and reproduction; and the analysis remains historically oriented in so far as it has to remains historically oriented in so far as it has to seek the causes of evolutionary changes in the seek the causes of evolutionary changes in the whole range of…contingent circumstanceswhole range of…contingent circumstances


Focus of Habermas on the collision Focus of Habermas on the collision between economic and political between economic and political imperatives and the communicative imperatives and the communicative structures of the lifeworldstructures of the lifeworld

Modernity is about justifying subject-Modernity is about justifying subject-centered reasoncentered reason

But, philosophy of language But, philosophy of language repudiates the subject repudiates the subject

How to reconcile this dilemma?How to reconcile this dilemma?


Can the dilemmas of modernity be Can the dilemmas of modernity be reframed in terms of a philosophy of reframed in terms of a philosophy of language and a theory of language and a theory of communication?communication?

For Habermas, communicative reason is For Habermas, communicative reason is not the same as subject-centered reasonnot the same as subject-centered reason

The structure of communicative The structure of communicative discourse is emancipatorydiscourse is emancipatory

We can save modernity.We can save modernity.


Paulo FreirePaulo Freire Who was he?Who was he? Reflection without action=‘verbalism’Reflection without action=‘verbalism’ Literacy and politicsLiteracy and politics Freire does not begin by teaching his Freire does not begin by teaching his

peasant groups the alphabet or by peasant groups the alphabet or by showing them how to spell words showing them how to spell words chosen for them to learn. He reverses chosen for them to learn. He reverses the process. He learns their language the process. He learns their language firstfirst


ConscientisationConscientisation Learn the words that are meaningful to Learn the words that are meaningful to

the people, words that evoke responses the people, words that evoke responses in them i.e., in them i.e., generative wordsgenerative words

Portray words in visual formPortray words in visual form Invite community to discussInvite community to discuss Dissect these words and put together in Dissect these words and put together in

different formsdifferent forms People realize they have power over their People realize they have power over their

words and can exercise power over themwords and can exercise power over them


To conscientise is to render conscious To conscientise is to render conscious through awakeningthrough awakening

Critical consciousness, critical perception, Critical consciousness, critical perception, critical thinkingcritical thinking

Freire defines critical thinking as “thinking Freire defines critical thinking as “thinking which discerns an indivisible solidarity which discerns an indivisible solidarity between the world and men.”between the world and men.”

Critical thinking “perceives reality as Critical thinking “perceives reality as process and transformation, rather than as process and transformation, rather than as a static entity”a static entity”

It is “thinking which does not separate It is “thinking which does not separate itself from action.”itself from action.”


There is indivisible solidarity between There is indivisible solidarity between humans and their world. No dichotomy humans and their world. No dichotomy can be made between the two.can be made between the two.

Authentic reflection considers neither Authentic reflection considers neither abstract man nor the world without men, abstract man nor the world without men, but men in their relations with the world.but men in their relations with the world.

We are not only in the world but with the We are not only in the world but with the world, that is, essentially related to it.world, that is, essentially related to it.


Through us, the world has come to Through us, the world has come to consciousness, and so the world is now consciousness, and so the world is now subject not merely to natural evolution, subject not merely to natural evolution, but to an historical revolution in which but to an historical revolution in which human beings have a guiding hand.human beings have a guiding hand.

Freedom is Freedom is notnot to realise absolute, to realise absolute, abstract ideals as such, but the freedom to abstract ideals as such, but the freedom to address themselves to their situation.address themselves to their situation.

To embody freedom in action, a To embody freedom in action, a person/persons must begin with the person/persons must begin with the relationship they have with their world, the relationship they have with their world, the here and now, the situation with which here and now, the situation with which they are submerged.they are submerged.


They must emerge from that situation, They must emerge from that situation, reflect upon it, and intervene in it.reflect upon it, and intervene in it.

Their current state is not unalterable, not Their current state is not unalterable, not fated, but merely limiting and therefore fated, but merely limiting and therefore challenging.challenging.

As a thinking and free being, the human As a thinking and free being, the human being is in the world in a unique way: being is in the world in a unique way: because they are thinking, they are because they are thinking, they are historical, creative, free, and have a unique historical, creative, free, and have a unique human presence on the planet.human presence on the planet.

It is never merely a material universe…what It is never merely a material universe…what humans do in the world never has just humans do in the world never has just physical consequences. physical consequences.


In constantly transforming the In constantly transforming the environment, women and men environment, women and men are shaping the very conditions are shaping the very conditions of their existence and their life.of their existence and their life.

Human beings have no nature, what Human beings have no nature, what they have is historythey have is history

There is no history for men, there is There is no history for men, there is only history of men, made by men only history of men, made by men and in turn making them.and in turn making them.


Freire’s epistemology rejects:Freire’s epistemology rejects: Mechanistic objectivism, wherein Mechanistic objectivism, wherein

consciousness is considered to be consciousness is considered to be merely a copy of objective realitymerely a copy of objective reality

And solipsism, which reduces the world And solipsism, which reduces the world to a capricious creation of consciousnessto a capricious creation of consciousness

We must recognize the unity between We must recognize the unity between subjectivity and objectivity in the act of subjectivity and objectivity in the act of knowing. Reality is never simply the knowing. Reality is never simply the objective datum, but is also peoples objective datum, but is also peoples perception of it.perception of it.


Implications of Freire’s EpistemologyImplications of Freire’s Epistemology Intentionality: The intentionality of Intentionality: The intentionality of

consciousness means that consciousness is consciousness means that consciousness is never a mere reflection of material reality, but never a mere reflection of material reality, but is a reflection is a reflection uponupon material reality material reality

Consciousness is already an active Consciousness is already an active intervention into reality.intervention into reality.

Critical reflection is already action.Critical reflection is already action. Both activism and serious reflection are thus Both activism and serious reflection are thus

necessary in true praxis. They must also be necessary in true praxis. They must also be simultaneous. Then they become creative.simultaneous. Then they become creative.


If humans are to take charge as If humans are to take charge as subjects and not as mere objects of subjects and not as mere objects of their own history, what direction are their own history, what direction are they to give to that history?they to give to that history?

If they must intervene in the reality If they must intervene in the reality of their own situation, to what end of their own situation, to what end are they to intervene?are they to intervene?

What kind of transformation are they What kind of transformation are they to effect?to effect?


HumanizationHumanization The historic task of human beings, and The historic task of human beings, and

their central problem as well, is to their central problem as well, is to become more fully human.become more fully human.

Dehumanization is both a possibility Dehumanization is both a possibility and a historical realityand a historical reality

Unlike animals, who cannot be de-Unlike animals, who cannot be de-animalized, humans can be animalized, humans can be dehumanized.dehumanized.


Humans can fail to become fully human and Humans can fail to become fully human and can become less human in fact via can become less human in fact via exploitation, oppression, and through all exploitation, oppression, and through all forms of injustice, marking (and I would say forms of injustice, marking (and I would say dehumanizing) both those whose humanity dehumanizing) both those whose humanity is stolen and those who have stolen it.is stolen and those who have stolen it.

The great humanistic task of the oppressed The great humanistic task of the oppressed is not only to liberate and humanize is not only to liberate and humanize themselves, but to liberate and humanize themselves, but to liberate and humanize their oppressors as well.their oppressors as well.


ConscienticizationConscienticization This is not an individual enterprise (even This is not an individual enterprise (even

epistemologically speaking)epistemologically speaking) Concienticization does not take place in Concienticization does not take place in

abstract beings but in real people and in abstract beings but in real people and in real social structures.real social structures.

The pursuit of full humanity cannot be The pursuit of full humanity cannot be carried out in isolation or in carried out in isolation or in individualism, but can only take place in individualism, but can only take place in fellowship and in solidarity.fellowship and in solidarity.


Conscienticization requires dialogueConscienticization requires dialogue Action/reflection need dialogue in Action/reflection need dialogue in

order to occurorder to occur Liberation cannot occur without Liberation cannot occur without

dialoguedialogue Dialogue cannot exist without critical Dialogue cannot exist without critical

thinking (and vice versa)thinking (and vice versa) The banking concept of learning…vs. The banking concept of learning…vs.

pedagogy of the oppressedpedagogy of the oppressed


Who are the oppressed? To Freire?Who are the oppressed? To Freire? The masses upon whom, within The masses upon whom, within

culturally alienated societies, a regime culturally alienated societies, a regime of oppression is imposed by the power of oppression is imposed by the power elites.elites.

What did Freire discover about the What did Freire discover about the concept of the “third world” when he concept of the “third world” when he went to the United States?went to the United States?

The oppressed belong to the culture of The oppressed belong to the culture of silencesilence


In the culture of silence, the oppressed In the culture of silence, the oppressed are muted. They have no voice. The are muted. They have no voice. The are excluded from any active role in the are excluded from any active role in the transformation of their society and are transformation of their society and are therefore prohibited from being.therefore prohibited from being.

What is worse is that not only do they What is worse is that not only do they not have a voice, they are most likely not have a voice, they are most likely not aware that they do not have a voicenot aware that they do not have a voice


In the culture of silence, the In the culture of silence, the oppressed internalize their oppressed internalize their oppression…what does this mean?oppression…what does this mean?

In emerging from the culture of In emerging from the culture of silence, donor-recipient solutions will silence, donor-recipient solutions will fail, why?fail, why?

There must be dialogue, requiring There must be dialogue, requiring trust (but not naïve trust) in the trust (but not naïve trust) in the oppressed and their ability to reasonoppressed and their ability to reason

Dialogue engages in problematizationDialogue engages in problematization


Problematicization requires Problematicization requires demythicizationdemythicization

Summary of critical inquiry on page Summary of critical inquiry on page 157, 158: How does it compare with 157, 158: How does it compare with my summary at the beginning of this my summary at the beginning of this section?section?

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The Foundations of Social Research Ch 7