The Evolution of Fire Life Safety in Building Codes

Disclaimer:+This+presenta1on+was+developed+by+a+third+party+and+is+not+funded+by+WoodWorks+or+the+So=wood+Lumber+Board.!

The$Evolu*on$of$Fire$Life$Safety$in$Building$Codes$

A!look!at!the!history!of!development!of!our!building!codes!and!safety!opportuni8es!to!facilitate!wood!design!ini8a8ves.!

Presented!on!March!4,!2015!by!Keith!Calder,!Sereca!Consul8ng!Inc.!

“The!Wood!Products!Council”!is!a!Registered!Provider!with!The!American!Ins8tute!of!Architects!Con8nuing!Educa8on!Systems!(AIA/CES),!Provider!#G516.!!!Credit(s)!earned!on!comple8on!of!this!course!will!be!reported!to!AIA!CES!for!AIA!members.!Cer8ficates!of!Comple8on!for!both!AIA!members!and!nonTAIA!members!are!available!upon!request.!!!

This!course!is!registered!with!AIA!CES!for!con8nuing!professional!educa8on.!As!such,!it!does!not!include!content!that!may!be!deemed!or!construed!to!be!an!approval!or!endorsement!by!the!AIA!of!any!material!of!construc8on!or!any!method!or!manner!oVandling,!using,!distribu8ng,!or!dealing!in!any!material!or!product.!__________________________________

Ques8ons!related!to!specific!materials,!methods,!and!services!will!be!addressed!at!the!conclusion!of!this!presenta8on.!!

!

Course$Descrip*on$

›  Over!the!last!80!years,!prescrip8ve!height!and!area!limita8ons!have!remained!rela8vely!unchanged!in!North!American!building!codes!while!technological!advances!and!fire!service!capabili8es!have!improved!considerably.!Through!an!examina8on!of!historical!code!development!and!iden8fica8on!of!the!risk!factors!on!which!codes!are!based,!we!can!set!the!stage!for!a!reTexamina8on!of!public!percep8on!with!regard!to!combus8ble!construc8on.!This!presenta8on!will!cover!techniques!for!mi8ga8ng!fire!damage!and!reducing!fire!spread!while!describing!how!an!understanding!of!code!intent!can!be!used!to!argue!equivalent!fire!performance!when!wood!solu8ons!lie!outside!typical!codeTapproved!applica8ons.!!

Learning$Objec*ves$

›  Evaluate!the!evolu8on!of!fire!life!safety!codes,!including!the!impact!of!historical!fire!events!on!current!requirements.!!

›  Review!the!building!size!limita8ons!in!current!codes!and!the!original!risk!factors!on!which!they!were!based.!t!.!!

›  Explore!techniques!for!mi8ga8ng!fire!damage!and!methods!for!reducing!fire!spread.!!

›  Demonstrate,!with!an!understanding!of!code!intent,!how!equivalent!fire!performance!can!be!achieved!through!the!alternate!means!and!methods!procedure.!

Objec*ve$

›  The!Interna8onal!Building!Code!(IBC)!limits!the!use!of!wood!in!larger!and!taller!buildings!rela8ve!to!other!materials!based!on!its!combus8bility!

›  How!can!the!limita8ons!to!the!use!of!wood!be!addressed?!–  Development!of!alterna8ve!solu8ons!to!the!IBC!

requirements!(equivalents),!or!–  Changes!to!the!IBC!requirements!

›  How!is!this!achieved?!–  Iden8fica8on!of!the!risk!basis!of!the!limits!–  ReTexamina8on!of!the!risk!basis!in!a!current!context!–  Development!of!means!to!address!the!risk!

The$Challenge$

Building$Code$Regula*ons$

›  The!pace!of!innova8on!in!the!built!environment!is!increasing!and!innova8on!results!in!change!

›  The!adaptability!of!a!building!code!to!change!is!a!func8on!of!its!regulatory!structure!

›  The!IBC!is!a!compila8on!of!primarily!specifica8onTbased!regula8ons!supplemented!by!a!few!performanceTbased!regula8ons!

Specifica*ons$–$Building$Size$Limits$

›  Building!size!limits!are!expressed!in!specifica8on!format:!

Specifica*ons$E$Development$

›  Incidents!of!significant!scale!or!impact!occur!and!draw!acen8on!to!building!design!issues!

›  Inves8ga8on!and!analysis!follow!to!establish!the!condi8ons!that!led!to!the!incident!

›  Solu8ons!are!developed!to!limit!future!incidents!and!are!based!on!contemporaneous!knowledge,!capability,!materials!and!methods!

›  The!solu8ons!are!wricen!in!specifica8on!format,!becoming!frozen!in!8me!

San Francisco Conflagration - 1904

Specifica*ons$–$Challenges$for$Alterna*ves$

›  2012!IBC!–!Sec8on!104.11,!Alterna8ve!materials,!design!and!methods!of!construc8on!and!equipment:!–  “An!alterna8ve!material,!design!or!method!of!construc8on!

shall!be!approved!where!the!building!official!finds!that!the!proposed!design!is!sa*sfactory$and$complies$with$the$intent$of$the$provisions$of$this$code,!and!that!the!material,!method!or!work!offered!is,!for!the!purpose!intended,!at$least$the$equivalent$of!that!prescribed!in!this!code!in!quality,!strength,!effec8veness,!fire!resistance,!durability!and!safety”!

Specifica*ons$–$Challenges$for$Code$Changes$

›  ICC!Code!Change!Policy:!–  Reasons:!The!proponent!shall!jus*fy!changing!the!current!

Code!provisions,!sta8ng!why!the!code!change!proposal!is!superior$to$the$current$provisions$of$the$Code.!Code!change!proposals!which!add!or!delete!requirements!shall!be!supported!by!a!logical$explana*on$which$clearly$shows$why$the$current$Code$provisions$are$inadequate$or$overly$restric*ve,$specifies$the$shortcomings$of$the$current$Code$provisions$and$explains$how$such$code$change$proposals$will$improve$the$Code.!

Specifica*ons$E$Challenges$

›  What!can!be!done?!

›  This!is!the!case!for!the!height!and!area!limits!and!a!proposed!approach!to!a!solu8on!follows!

R.S. Ferguson, NRC, 1959

Approach$to$a$Solu*on$

›  Implicit$Risk:$What!is/was!the!risk!that!ini8ated!the!development!of!the!specifica8on(s)?!

›  Mi*ga*ng$Measures:$What!knowledge,!capability,!materials!and!methods!were!considered!in!mi8ga8ng!the!risk?!

›  Acceptable$Risk:$To!what!level!is/was!the!risk!mi8gated?!

›  Current$Context:$Are!the!specifica8ons!s8ll!relevant?!ReTexamina8on!of!implicit!risk,!mi8ga8ng!measures!and!acceptable!risk.!

Implicit$Risk,$Mi*ga*on$Measures$and$Acceptable$Risk$

Great$Fire$of$Rome$in$64$AD$

Summary$–$Early$Times$

›  Conflagra8ons!in!1087!and!1135!resul8ng!in!destruc8on!of!most!of!the!City!of!London!

›  Majority!of!buildings!at!that!8me!were!constructed!of!wood,!roofed!with!straw.!

›  High!building!density!

Implicit$Risk:$ Fire!spread!from!building!to!building!resul8ng!in!conflagra8on.!

Mi*ga*on:$ Stone!wall!between!houses:!3!feet!thick!(party!wall/firewall)!

Acceptable$Risk:$ Limit!fire!spread!to!individual!buildings!(primarily!houses)!

London$–$Great$Fire:$1666$

Summary$–$London$1666$to$1774$

›  Implicit!Risk!Considera8ons!

Implicit$Risk:$ •  Fire!spread!from!building!to!building!resul8ng!in!conflagra8on.!

Mi*ga*on:$•  Brick!or!stone!wall!between!houses:!13!inches!thick!and!18!inches!

above!the!roof!(party!wall/firewall)!•  Brick!or!stone!exterior!walls!

I n t e n d e d$Result:$ •  Limit!fire!spread!to!individual!buildings!(primarily!houses)!

London$1850’s$

60 ft

60 ft 60 ft

London$–$Tooley$Street:$June$22,$1861$

Summary$–$London:$1774$to$1873$


Implicit$Risk:$ •  Single!buildings!(warehouses)!increasing!in!size!resul8ng!in!fire!size!beyond!the!capability!of!the!responding!fire!department.!

•  Increased!poten8al!for!conflagra8on.!

Mi*ga*on:$ •  Containment!by!limi8ng!height/volume!assuming!fire!service!interven8on!

•  Height!of!60!to!65!l!and!cubic!capacity!of!216,000!cubic!feet.!I n t e n d e d$Result:$ •  Limit!fire!spread!to!individual!buildings.!

USA$1872$to$1930’s$

›  Great!Fire!of!Chicago!–!October!10,!1871!›  Great!Fire!of!Boston!–!November!9,!1872!›  These!fires!called!acen8on!to!the!substandard!condi8ons!of!construc8on!in!ci8es!across!the!United!States!

Great Fire of Chicago

USA$1873$–$Standard$Building$

›  New!York!Board!of!Fire!Underwriters!–!January!1873:!“Standard!Building”!height!and!area!limits!

Note!that!the!volumetric!limit!based!on!an!area!of!5,000!l2!and!height!of!60!feet!is!300,000!l3.!This!was!the!limit!for!exis8ng!warehouses!in!the!City!of!London!

USA$1872$to$1930’s$–$Insurance$Ra*ng$System$

›  Insurance!ra8ng!system!modifiers:!

Feature$ Modifiers$

Occupancy:! A!func8on!of!hazard!level!(experien8al)!

Type!of!Construc8on:! Fireproof!and!nonTfireproof!

Accessibility:! Number!of!building!sides!facing!a!street!

Sprinklering:! Gradual!recogni8on!of!benefit!with!increased!reliability!

Area:! Incremental!increases/decreases!as!a!func8on!of!area!

Height:! Incremental!increases!to!a!threshold!level!of!7!storeys!then!significant!increases!

USA$1890$to$1930’s$–$Model$Building$Code$

›  Insurance!ra8ng!schedule!translated!into!regula8on!›  Published!by!the!Na8onal!Board!of!Fire!Underwriters!in!1905!›  Base!area:!5,000!l2!

›  Area!modifiers:!–  Occupancy!–  Height!–  Type!of!construc8on!–  Streets!Facing!–  Sprinklers!

Summary$–$USA$1872$to$1930’s$


Implicit$Risk:$ •  Fire!size!beyond!the!capability!of!the!responding!fire!department!

•  Significant!property!loss!

•  Increased!poten8al!for!conflagra8on!

Mi*ga*on:$ •  Height!of!5!to!6!storeys!(50!to!60!l)!and!base!area!of!5,000!square!feet!

•  Increases!in!height!and!area!based!on!type!of!construc8on,!occupancy,!streets!facing!and!sprinklering!

I n t e n d e d$Result:$ •  Limit!fire!spread!to!individual!buildings.!

USA$1920’s$to$Current$

›  Limits!included!in!the!three!model!codes:!–  1927!Uniform!Building!Code!(UBC)!–  1946/1947!Southern!Standard!Building!Code!(SSBC)!–  1950!Basic!Building!Code!(BBC)!

›  These!limits!were!revised!and!evolved!up!to!1996!›  1996!IBC!Occupancy!Commicee!

–  Maximum!height!and!area!of!each!of!the!three!model!codes!was!adopted!for!use!in!the!IBC!

–  Some!modifica8ons!as!a!result!of!differences!in!format!

Summary$–$$USA$1930’s$to$Current$

›  Implicit!Risk!Considera8ons!Implicit$Risk:$ •  Inadequate!evacua8on!

•  Full!building!involvement!

•  Fire!size!beyond!the!capability!of!the!responding!fire!department!

•  Collapse!of!high!buildings!!

•  Increased!poten8al!for!conflagra8on!

Mi*ga*on:$ •  Height!of!6!storeys!(50!to!60!l)!and!area!limits!as!a!func8on!of!occupancy,!type!of!construc8on,!fireTresistance,!streets!facing!and!sprinklering.!

•  Increases!in!height!and!area!based!on!type!of!construc8on,!occupancy,!streets!facing!and!sprinklering!

Intended$Result:$ •  Combus8ble!buildings:!Limit!fire!spread!to!building!

•  Noncombus8ble!buildings!(no!ra8ng):!Limit!fire!spread!to!building!

•  Noncombus8ble!buildings:!Limit!fire!spread!to!storey!

Considera*ons$–$Current$Context$

›  Exis8ng!limits!set!long!ago!when!understanding!of!fire!engineering!was!limited!

›  Since!then:!–  Firefigh8ng!techniques,!equipment,!response!

and!overall!capability!has!advanced!significantly!

–  Construc8on!methods!and!materials!have!advanced!

–  Analysis!techniques!have!evolved!significantly!–  Sprinkler!effec8veness!has!increased!

Current$Context$

Approach$to$a$Solu*on$

›  Implicit$Risk:$What!is/was!the!risk!that!ini8ated!the!development!of!the!specifica8on(s)?!

›  Mi*ga*ng$Measures:$What!knowledge,!capability,!materials!and!methods!were!considered!in!mi8ga8ng!the!risk?!

›  Acceptable$Risk:$To!what!level!is/was!the!risk!mi8gated?!

›  Current$Context:$Are!the!specifica8ons!s8ll!relevant?!ReTexamina8on!of!implicit!risk,!mi8ga8ng!measures!and!acceptable!risk.!

Current$Context$

›  AAA! Will changes to the Building Code to allow greater use of wood result in an increase in fire risk beyond that currently permitted in the 2012 IBC?

Current$Context:$Sta*s*cal$Analysis$

›  Growth!and!spread!of!fire!can!be!characterized!as!a!func8on!of!fire!type!–  Compartment!–  Concealed!space!–  Exterior!

›  Current!fire!loss!sta8s8cs!collected!in!a!manner!that!does!not!correlate!with!building!code!principles!

›  Data!collected!within!a!“fire!type”!framework!to!gauge!effec8veness!of!Codes!

›  Published:!Interflam!2013,!London!

Completed$Context:$Sta*s*cal$Analysis$

›  Used!inThouse!fire!inves8ga8on!data!to!examine!framework!

›  Data!collected!from!89,!3T4!story,!mul8Tfamily!(apartment)!residen8al!fire!losses!over!a!10!year!period!

›  Buildings!details!–  Built!between!1912!and!2008!–  Combus8ble!woodTframe!construc8on!

–  3!to!4!storeys!in!building!height!–  Mostly!unsprinklered!buildings!

Compartment$Fires$

›  Common!Causes!–  Smoking!–  Electrical!Equipment!–  Appliances!–  Incendiary!

›  Fuel!Load!–  Combus8ble!contents!–  Combus8ble!interior!finish!

›  Spread!Mechanisms!–  Exterior!spread!primarily!via!balconies!–  Inadequate!or!failure!of!enclosure!fire!separa8on!

Example$Compartment$Fire$

›  Three!storey!residen8al!apartment!structure!

›  Fire!ini8ated!in!centre!of!living!room!as!a!result!of!smoking!materials!

›  Fire!damage!contained!to!single!residen8al!unit!

Sta*s*cal$Summary$–$Compartment$Fires$

0!

2!

4!

6!

8!

10!

12!

14!

16!

Num

ber$o

f$Fire

s$

Increasing$Damage$

90% Fire contained to (fire-rated) compartment of origin

10% Fire spread beyond (fire-rated) compartment of origin

Characteristics: •  5 Fires •  Spread primarily via exterior

balcony/windows or suite door

48!Fires!

Current$Context:$Compartment$Fire$Spread$

›  10%!spread!beyond!fire!rated!compartment!of!origin:!

Spread$Mechanism$ Poten*al$Consequence$

Fire!in!compartment!with!open!door!to!corridor!

a)  Localized!burn!damage!to!public!corridor!

Fire!in!compartment!impac8ng!window!to!exterior!

a)  Spread!up!cladding/balconies!b)  Spread!into!arc!space!c)  Spread!through!roof!structure,!drop!down!to!other!

balconies!

Fire!in!compartment!impac8ng!window/door!to!balcony!

a)  Balcony!fire!growth!b)  Spread!up!cladding/other!balconies!c)  Spread!into!arc!space!d)  Spread!through!roof!structure,!drop!down!to!other!

balconies!

Concealed$Space$Fires$

›  Common!Causes!–  Electrical!–  Worker’s!torch!

›  Fuel!Load!–  Combus8ble!construc8on!–  Combus8ble!insula8on!–  Combus8ble!cables!

›  Spread!Mechanisms!–  Inadequate!fire!stopping!–  Service!penetra8ons!

Example$Concealed$Space$Fire$1$

›  Three!storey!residen8al!apartment!structure!separated!into!three!buildings!by!2!firewalls!

›  Fire!ini8ated!in!concealed!wall!space!of!first!storey!as!a!result!of!worker!ac8vi8es!

›  Fire!damage!to!two!building!components!and!water/smoke!damage!to!all!three!building!components!

›  Structure!eventually!demolished!as!a!result!of!extent!of!damage!

Firewall

Main$Floor$


Service Penetrations Through a Firewall

Fire Damage at Roof Level


›  Fire!ini8ated!in!concealed!wall!space!of!first!storey!as!a!result!of!worker!ac8vi8es!

›  Fire!spread!to!roof!level!through!concealed!wall!assembly!with!inadequate!firestopping!

›  Fire!spread!from!one!end!of!structure!to!other!through!roof!mansard!

›  Structure!demolished!as!part!of!fire!figh8ng!ac8vi8es!


5/8-inch Gypsum Board 5/8-inch Donna-Conna

2 inch insulation located between joists

2x7 inch joists

5/8-inch Gypsum Board

2x4 inch framed drop ceiling

Top Plate ¾-inch T&G Shiplap

2x4 inch stud 2x4 inch stud

Wall void space

Floor assembly void space

Floor assembly void space

Unit 4 washroom

2 inch insulation located between joists


Mansard Roof

Interior of Mansard




Sta*s*cal$Summary$–$Concealed$Space$Fires$

0!

1!

2!

3!

4!

5!

6!

7!

8!

9!

Num

ber$o

f$Fire

s$

Increasing$Damage$

44% Fire contained to (fire-stopped) concealed space of origin

Characteristics: •  9 Fires •  Spread primarily via lack of

fire stops/blocks

Fire spread out of (fire-stopped) concealed space of origin

56%

16!Fires!

Completed$Building$Fire$Risk:$Eviden*ary$Risk$Concealed$Space$Fires:$Fire$Spread$

›  56%!spread!to!adjacent!concealed!spaces!or!compartments!›  :!


Fire!in!space!with!nonexistent!or!inadequate!fire!stopping/blocking!

a)  Spread!to!adjacent!fire!compartment!b)  Spread!to!adjacent!concealed!space!

Fire!in!space!with!nonexistent!or!inadequate!fire!stopping/blocking!

a)  Spread!from!storeyTtoTstorey!b)  Spread!into!arc!space!c)  Spread!through!roof!structure,!drop!down!to!other!

balconies!

Exterior$Fires$

›  Common!Causes!–  Smoking!–!peat!moss!–  Worker’s!torch!

›  Fuel!Load!–  Combus8ble!construc8on!–  Combus8ble!cladding!

›  Spread!Mechanisms!–  Underside!of!balcony!–  Roof!soffit!

Example$Exterior$Fire$1$

›  Four!level!residen8al!apartment!structure!separated!into!three!buildings!by!2!firewalls!

›  Fire!ini8ated!on!balcony,!spread!on!exterior!of!structure!to!concealed!roof!space!

›  Roof!of!all!three!building!components!heavily!fire!damaged!›  Water!and!smoke!damage!to!remainder!of!the!structure!›  Structure!reconstructed!


Roof Level Damage


¼ inch Space at Top of Fire Block



›  Four!level!residen8al!apartment!structure!›  Fire!ini8ated!inside!and!was!transferred!to!the!balcony!by!the!tenant!

›  Fire!spread!along!cladding!to!roof!space.!›  Roof!heavily!fire!damaged!›  Water!and!smoke!damage!to!remainder!of!the!structure!




›  Four!level!residen8al!apartment!structure!›  Sprinklered!in!accordance!with!NFPA!13R!›  Fire!ini8ated!on!balcony,!spread!through!aluminum!clad!soffit!to!unsprinklered!concealed!roof!space!

›  Roof!heavily!fire!damaged!›  Water!and!smoke!damage!to!remainder!of!the!structure!




Sta*s*cal$Summary$–$Exterior$Fires$

0!

5!

10!

15!

20!

25!

Num

ber$o

f$Fire

s$

Increasing$Damage$

8% Fire spread limited to single storey

92% Fire spread beyond single storey to entire wall/roof

Characteristics: •  23 Fires •  Spread

primarily via cladding/soffit, into roof space

25!Fires!

Completed$Building$Fire$Risk:$Eviden*ary$Risk$Exterior$Fires:$Fire$Spread$

›  92%!spread!beyond!fire!rated!compartment!of!origin:!


Exterior!fire!impinging!on!cladding!

a)  Spread!up!cladding/balconies!b)  Spread!into!arc!space!c)  Spread!through!roof!structure,!drop!down!to!other!

balconies!

Balcony!fire! a)  Balcony!fire!growth!(limited!detec8on)!b)  Spread!up!cladding/other!balconies!c)  Spread!into!arc!space!d)  Spread!through!roof!structure,!drop!down!to!other!

balconies!

Overall$Sta*s*cal$Summary$

0!

5!

10!

15!

20!

25!

Num

ber$o

f$Fire

s$

Increasing$Damage$

57%

Course!of!Construc8on!

43%

Exterior!Concealed!Compartment!

Current$Context:$Summary$

›  FireTrated!compartments:!–  Unsprinklered:!perform!as!intended!by!the!Codes,!limi8ng!the!

growth!and!spread!of!fire!to!the!compartment!of!origin!regardless!of!building!size!or!height.!

–  Sprinklered:!rarely!result!in!fire!spread!beyond!compartment.!–  Compartmenta*on$is$effec*ve!$Na8onal!Research!Council!Canada:!

–  Canada!T!Standing!Commicee!on!Fire!Protec8on!1990’s:!


›  Concealed!Spaces:!–  Fire!spread!predominantly!as!a!result!of!lack!of!fire!stopping/

blocking!–  Lack!of!fire!stopping/blocking!observed!in!older!preT1980’s!

buildings!–  Use!of!fire$stopping/blocking$has!improved!significantly!since!the!

1980’s!and!is$effec*ve!$

›  Exterior!Fires:!–  Fire!spread!predominantly!as!a!result!of!balcony!fire!development,!

combus8ble!exterior!cladding!and!spread!into!arc!spaces!–  Significantly!reduced!by!sprinklering!balconies!and!arc!spaces!–  Sprinklering$is$effec*ve!$


› Fire!compartmenta8on!› Fire!stopping/blocking!› Sprinklering!

Future$Considera*ons$

Future$Considera*ons$E$Capability$

›  ReTexamine!fire!service!capability!rela8ve!to!building!size!

Equitable building fire, New York, 1912 Los Angeles, February 05, 2007 Fire engine design Jacques Besson, 1570

Future$Considera*ons$E$Materials$

›  Consider!materialTindependent!fire!performance!›  Original!assump8on:!Material!contribu8on!to!fire!considered!significant!T!conflagra8ons!

›  What!is!the!actual!risk!associated!with!material!contribu8on?!–  Limited!research!–  Forensic!experience!suggests!material!contribu8on!to!fire!

not!significant!–  More!research!required!

Future$Considera*ons$–$Analyses$Techniques$

›  Analysis!techniques!have!advanced!significantly!in!the!last!several!decades!and!!

›  Becer!able!to!analyze!and!predict:!–  Material!behavior!to!fire!–  Fire!growth!and!spread!–  Occupant!response!and!movement!–  Risk!analysis!

Future$Considera*ons$–$Methods$

›  Original!limits!were!established!at!a!8me!when!building!compartmenta8on!was!minimal:!–  Open!stairs,!!–  Unprotected!elevators/shals!

›  Risk!of!fire!spread!to!involve!en8re!building!was!greater!than!it!is!today!(sta8s8cs)!

›  Fire$compartmenta*on$has$increased$significantly$over$*me$

›  Consider!the!fire!compartment!as!the!unit!of!control!

Future$Considera*ons$–$Methods$Con*nued$

›  Limit!fire!compartment!areas!rather!than!building!height!and!area:!–  NFPA!5000,!Appendix!D,!Enhanced!

Fire!Compartments!–  New!Zealand!approach!

Summary$

›  Current!codes!are!not!en8rely!based!on!current!technology!or!relevant!fire!data!

›  Life!safety!and!property!can!be!preserved!in!woodTbased!structures!through!reasonable!design!measures!to!address!the!risk!of!fire!spread!

›  Codes!need!to!change!to!keep!pace!with!innova8on!and!embrace!current!technology!–  Implementa8on!of!material!independent!fire!performance!–  Compartmenta8on!as!unit!of!control!rather!than!a!building!

Ques8ons?$

[email protected]$

Documents

The Evolution of Fire Life Safety in Building Codes