Upload
others
View
1
Download
0
Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
THE ETHICS OF ART - an exploration of the role and significance of art/artists in health care settings. Elizabeth Jean Deshon Smith Woodhams, Bachelor of Theology. School of Humanities Applied Ethics and Human Change Research Concentration Faculty of Arts Master of Arts ( Research ) 1995.
KEY WORDS FOR CATALOGUING: Applied Ethics, Art, Artists, Experience, Flourishing, Health, Healing, Health Care Settings, Illness, Spirituality, Suffering. ABSTRACT: The presence of art and artists in health care settings raise many questions of an ethical nature. The presence of art in such milieux challenges the manner in which notions of art, persons, health, healing, community, ethics and aesthetics are presently conceptualized. This thesis will argue that art ought properly be considered an essential human need - integral to the health, flourishing and well-being of all persons - particularly those who are sick and suffering. An ethical care of sick persons would demand that both artistic practice and health care practice be revisioned in the light of this different understanding.
TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter 1.Introduction - sketching the landscape.1. Chapter 2.A Bio-evolutionary Understanding of Art34. in What it means to be Human. Chapter 3.The Modern Period - some decisive56. influences on humans and art. Chapter 4.The Nature of Experience and The Nature 100. of Artistic Experience. Chapter 5.Medicine, Art, Health and Healing. 129. Chapter 6.Art, Health and The Good - Flourishing.165. References.197. Bibliography.206.
In memory of Keith Robinson and For those who grace my landscape
"The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or
diploma at any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.
Signed:.......................... Date:............................"
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. There is a Light in this world, a Healing Spirit more powerful than any darkness we may
encounter. Sometimes we lose sight of this force when there is suffering, too much pain. Then suddenly, the Spirit will emerge through the lives of ordinary people who hear a call and answer in extraordinary ways.
Mother Teresa of Calcutta. Andrew Carter, the co-founder of the Australian AIDS Memorial Quilt Project, read these words of Mother Teresa at each unfolding of the Quilt. My first debt of gratitude is to him - and to those with whom I have shared the privileged friendship of art in various health care settings. Many of those have died - Keith Robinson and Wardi Hazzaz were among those artists whose manner of living as they died exemplified the hope of Foucault that our lives may be `works of art'. The medical staff who cared for them have personified a Healing Spirit that was `extraordinary' - but which I hope will become the `ordinary' way of caring for those who are sick and suffering. I cannot remove the colours of others from the works that I produce. This thesis is my creation - yet it is `not' - it is shaped and given form by the colours and textures of so many who have, not only given impetus to its creation, but who have enabled the survival and well-being of its author. I gratefully - and humbly - acknowledge the support I have received from my family, colleagues and many friends during the time of this research. They have provided a paint pot of energy and encouragement into which I have lavishly dipped. I am especially grateful to Tom and Sue Graham for their generosity in lending `the cottage' which encouraged and sustained the quiet solitude necessary for `thinking and reflection'. To my supervisors Dr.Peter Isaacs, Mr.David Massey and Associate Professor David Hawke I owe an inestimable debt of gratitude. My principal supervisor, Peter Isaacs, particularly, has provided a level and quality of supervision that has been inspirational. For their humour, care, trust and patience - as Lloyd Rees has said - I can only `bow my head in thanks'.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 1.Palm Valley, N.T. 2.Rock Face - Ormiston Gorge, N.T. 3.Ormiston Gorge, N.T. 4.Mt. Hermansberg, N.T. 5.Ormiston Gorge, N.T.
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION - sketching the landscape.
`What strikes me is the fact that in our society, art has become something which is related only to objects and not to individuals, or to life. That art is something which is specialized or done by experts who are artists. But couldn't everyone's life become a work of art? Why should the lamp or house be an art object, but not our life?'
Michel Foucault in Rabinow, 1986,p.350.
The black skeleton ( that was a man with AIDS) lifted itself slightly
from the pillow and said `Libby, I 'd like to paint today'. It was at
the Hospice where I went to teach painting on silk. The man could
no longer sit, even in the cocoon of a water bed chair, so we wheeled
him ( in his bed) through the ward, down the corridor, into the lift,
and down to the `art room'. It required several people to enable him
to paint, one to hold his silk screen, one to hold his palette, and one
to dip and clean his brush when the strength was not in his own
fingers. I used the frame that protected his feet as a `table' for
another painting. When he had finished, the blackness of his face
gave way, for a time, to an incandescence that was almost palpable.
He (in his bed) went back to his ward, basked in the admiration of
his friends and family, gave the silk he had painted as a present to
his mother, and died the next day.
What is art? What role and significance do the arts have in the care
of people who are sick, dislocated and traumatised by accident, or
who, in fact, may be dying? Foucault, in the passage quoted above,
describes how art is commonly understood in contemporary Western
societies ie. as concerned with art objects that are made by special,
2
expert people called artists. The presence of the arts and artists in
health care settings radically challenges this understanding. The
experience of people such as the man with AIDS painting the day
before he died opens up the possibility of some very different
understandings of what art is and what significance it has in what it
means to be a person, to be healed, to flourish, to be `healthy', to be
within a community. The arts in health care milieux, in fact,
challenge how the very notion of health is conceived - and,
therefore, what constitutes an ethical and compassionate care of
those who are sick and suffering. The man with AIDS could be seen
to make manifest Foucault's notion that our lives can be works of art
- a work whose creation begins with our birth and continues to be
painted and created until the time of our death. Works of art ( as
persons and as works created) spring from and return to a
community. These experiences and these different understandings,
therefore, raise many questions and challenge some long held
assumptions about the arts, health care, and about what constitutes
community. Some of the assumptions that are challenged by art
practice in health care settings may include those that tend to
disparage the cultural worth of local artistic practices (Arnheim
1986;Binns 1994); that perceive `ordinary' people, especially older
people, as the least creative; that suggest the aged, the handicapped,
the dying do not need to grow (Aldridge 1993a;Sarison 1990); and
that expect art to happen within the parameters and styles as defined
by the establishments of art colleges and art galleries ( Cork 1984).
A further assumption that is undermined by art practices in such
milieux is that a person, as patient, must be passive, divided and
3
powerless - whereas, on the contrary, art practice expects them to be
self-defining moral agents (Aldridge 1993a,p.288).
This research has grown out of my experiences whilst working as an
artist in a variety of health care settings - notably a Day Centre for
People Living with AIDS, a Hospice in Sydney, my work as the
National Convenor of the Australian AIDS Memorial Quilt Project
and latterly as Artist In Residence in an Acute Psychiatry Unit at a
large regional hospital. While some of my work has been in
institutional settings such as hospitals and hospices, some has been
in more informal milieux like the Day Centre and the AIDS Quilt.
However, whatever their physical surrounds, health care settings are
characterized by dislocation, trauma, uncertainty, anxiety, pain and
suffering. Illness and accident often bring home with a stark, brutal,
harshness the contingent, chancy, and uncertain nature of a lived
human existence. Seymour (1989), for instance, has explored the
many poignant questions of identity and sense of Self that arise for
people who have become paraplegics and quadriplegics when the
integral unity and cohesion between the various aspects of our
Selves - mind, body, spirit, senses and imagination - has been
shattered.
The person's self no longer relates to the physical body that
houses it, nor to the social world from which it arose. The
relationship between the body, the self and society is rendered
chaotic. (Seymour 1989,p.60)
The issues, therefore, that are of such concern to health care
professionals in rehabilitation units - for example, the intense
concentration on the physical body - paradoxically, intensify and
compound the suffering of the ill person by reinforcing the
4
estrangement of the body from the other aspects of their Selves -
and, in fact, creates another and more profound form of alienation
(p.61). The suffering occasioned by dislocation and trauma to the
sense of Self is not confined to such extreme forms of illness and
injury as paraplegia and quadriplegia, but can equally be
experienced in all forms of sickness and ill health, and in all health
care settings - psychiatric units, nursing homes, community health
centers and intensive care wards.
Health care settings, like hospitals and nursing homes, may be seen
as total institutions ( Goffman 1961). Goffman (1961) has described
the demands of institutional settings in a series of studies concerning
asylums, prisons, the monasteries of religious orders and
concentration camps. Total institutions demand nothing less than the
person's `all ' - their lives are regimented and dictated by the routine
of the institution - one rises, eats, sleeps, receives visitors within a
defined space, according to a timetable not of one's choice, and
under constant surveillance by health care professionals; privacy and
personal autonomy is invaded and eroded by a `clinical gaze' that
sees every part of their body and their sense of Self - their every
gesture, word and emotion - all equally available to be interpreted
and written up in the clinical chart and `patients file' without
reference to the person concerned. Even characteristics of
personality, like assertiveness and discretion, that are considered
desirable qualities in `ordinary' life, may make a person a `bad
patient' ( and liable to `punishment' ) in health care settings
(Hastings-Smith 1987,p.15). Added to the pressures of continual
surveillance, manipulation and control, are the alienating
architectural features of many institutional settings - devoid of
5
sensory stimulation, and designed, as Brody (1992) suggests, to
intimidate those ` not in the know', and which reinforce the
perception that the sick and the disordered are to be isolated and
separated from the communities to which they belong.
Health care settings may also be places of great humour and fun.
However, this possibility does not change the constant - that they are
generally places where people are troubled and have been thrown out
of the security of their everyday existence by illness or accident and
`where the patient often experiences the treatment of his afflictions
as another, longer affliction '(May 1991,p.8).
What is the role of art in health care settings? Art in such milieux is
almost invariably understood instrumentally ie. as an adjunct to a
medical process of curing. Thus art is understood as `art therapy'
and the artists who work in such settings are therefore `art therapists'
whose function it is to elicit and interpret works produced by
patients to accord with a treatment or therapy program. Another
common understanding is that art is ` a diversion to alleviate
boredom and to keep people occupied'. The artist is then termed a
`diversional therapist' and their work as another form of therapy -
diversional therapy. While there are many approaches to both art
therapy and diversional therapy, both are grounded in a professional
relationship between a therapist and a person who is defined in
relation to that medical relationship as a patient or client.
Frequently the relationship is informed and coloured by the dominant
bio-medical model of health care. Adamson (1984), an artist who
pioneered work in psychiatric hospitals in the 1960's, has challenged
6
both these instrumental and reductionist understandings of the role
and significance of art ( and artists) in health care settings.
Adamson speaks of art and the hospital art room as opening up a
space of non-judgmental freedom within an institutional setting - a
space that is free of coercion, surveillance and interpretation. This
notion of art then informs the personal qualities needed by those
working with art in health care settings;
Anyone who wishes to do this type of work should, first and foremost be an artist. (Artists) holds the quiet authority of their vocation and can give a professional welcome to individual expression. The artist is uniquely placed to embrace the enigma of commencing a journey to an unknown destination. The artist is also on familiar terms with the inner self, and is therefore a little closer to those who are obliged to wrestle with its problems. The hospitals artists' main role is to be a catalyst who allows the healing art to emerge (Adamson 1984,p.4).
Art thus understood, can be conceived as a space, a landscape
wherein a journey towards healing, wholeness, freedom, liberation
and well-being can be undertaken. Art understood in these terms is
both subversive and emancipatory and is thus, truly and essentially,
political ie. it concerns not only the personal responsibility that we
each must have for our own `vocation' of Selfhood; what is a just
and appropriate care of those members of a society who are sick and
suffering, but further, what kind of society ought to be sought. By
challenging the monopoly of an established reality - a view which, as
I have described earlier, sees the sick person as alienated,
dislocated, powerless and objectified - art presents the possibility of
a human fulfilment which only a transformed society could offer
(Becker 1994,p.117). By opening up a space wherein freedom can be
experienced art, not only subverts the dominant ideology of a bio-
medical model of health care, but it enables the person to both
7
transform and to transcend the debilitating and destructive features
inherent in an institutional existence.
My own experiences of working in various health care settings
would accord with Adamson's understanding ie. that the main role
and function of the arts is to open up a refuge, a space, a space
which enables people to heal and to flourish, to define and create
themselves as they need to, to give and to contribute, to live rather
than to just exist, to be whole and `healthy' - to recreate the integrity
of their Being. Art, then, encompasses both the notion of healing
and wholeness and notions of redemption and transformation and is,
thus, also essentially religious ie. it is has to do with grave and
serious concerns that go to the ends of human existence.
Understanding art in these terms is rendered difficult in health care
settings because of some further common misunderstandings where,
for instance, notions of cure and notions of healing are confused or
collapsed into each other. The man with AIDS, for example, may
have experienced his painting as a part of his journey towards
wholeness and being healed - his mother may have experienced his
silken gift as a moment of grace and as, for a time, transforming her
grief. However, becoming whole and being healed is not directly
related to the state of our physical bodies, nor does it mean an
absence of il lness and disease, nor does it mean that we will not
die.
Two further notions, essential to a proper understanding of the role
and the significance of the arts in health care settings, are often
similarly confused or collapsed into each other - the notion of pain
8
and the notion of suffering. The notion of suffering is a thread that
is inextricably woven throughout this research - not only because the
experience of illness often entails personal suffering, but because the
interrelated and independent nature of what it means to be a Person
means that suffering entails a communal dimension as well. Cassell
(1991,p.38) has described the manner in which our sense of Self as
Person is made up of an integration of a number of Selves or modes
of Being, for example we have a social Self - a self that is defined in
relationship with family, friends, work colleagues, and society at
large. We have a secret Self of dreams, fantasies and longings that
we ought not have to reveal to anyone else; we have a sense of
ourselves as a physical body and we have, as Persons, a past, a
history, and we look towards a future, to the achievement of certain
goals, dreams and aspirations. We also have a political Self that has
certain roles, rights and responsibilities within a particular society.
Cassell (1991b,p.24) has described suffering ( as distinct from
illness ) `as the distress brought about by the actual or perceived
impending threat to the integrity or continued existence of the whole
person'. Toombs (1988,p.349), however, has described how
`medicine has, for the most part, adopted a "Cartesian" paradigm of
embodiment (ie. a dualistic notion which separates mind and body
and which conceptualizes the physical body in purely mechanistic
terms)...(and which)...in a very explicit way...omits the person to
whom the body belongs'. As it is the Self, the Person which
experiences suffering, in health care settings suffering is often not
recognised, or is denied, or is confused with pain. Pain is a bodily
phenomenon which often accompanies an injury, malfunction or
disease (Isaacs 1995,p.73) but it is not the same as suffering. Each
9
person experiences their Being in the world in their own unique way.
Each person paints differently - even if they are painting the same
`scene' as another, Therefore, no two people will experience the
same illness in the same way - some may experience pain but do not
experience suffering - some may experience no pain but may suffer
acutely (Isaacs 1995,p.74).
In view of all the above, art ( rather than being considered as
instrumental within a bio-medical model of health care ) might be
considered as fulfilling an essential human need - for freedom and
liberation, to enable the construction of a coherent web of meaning,
for hope, for control, for power, for giving voice to a responsible
and responsive expression and creation of Self in relation to the
particular circumstances of a person's life in their relationship with
Others and the Other. Thus, art in health care settings takes on an
ethical and ontological significance and ought properly be
considered an intrinsic Good. The questions that are raised by the
presence of art in health care settings also take on a particular
ethical dimension and significance. The question of the ownership
of works created, for example, is rarely problematic in `ordinary'
life. There is a practice in many health care settings, however, that
see works that are created within the institutional settings as, either
belonging to ( or being available to be appropriated by ) the
institution or by the health care professionals who have charge of a
person's treatment. Questions of the interpretation given to art
works also carry serious implications in health care settings
( particularly psychiatric settings) where they may be used to
reinforce a diagnosis which has profound social repercussions and
10
which may also renders a person liable to be `committed' to a mental
health institution.
The Dimensions of Experience.
In the specific context of an exploration of the ethical issues that
surround the presence of art in health care settings how are personal
experiences - the experiences of people who are sick, health care
professionals, and artists - to be viewed? Experience is not a static
phenomenon. As Sacks (1995,p.111) has it,`one does not see, or
sense, or perceive in isolation - perception is always linked to
behaviour and movement, to reaching out and exploring the world.'
Shea (1978,p.16) remarks that experience is never limited, and it is
never complete; it is an immense sensibility, a kind of huge spider
web of the finest silken threads suspended in the chamber of
consciousness, and catching every air-borne particle in its tissue. It
is the very atmosphere of the mind. Personal experiences then, are `
not headless' as McDermott would further phrase it. `(They team)
with relational leads, inferences, implications, comparisons,
retrospections, directions, warnings and so on ' (McDermott
1973,p.xxv). In a certain sense personal experiences could be
likened to works of art that have been painted with the particular
colours of our perception and imagination - and many experiences
may remain in this personal space. The Australian painter John
Brack has suggested, however, that a painting is not finished until it
is exhibited ie. it is brought into the public and the communal
domain. A work of art can then define the artist as a valuable
11
member of the community - as contributing to the complex texture of
community life. The art work ( and experience) then functions as a
partner in a conversation, a dialogue, between the work created, the
artist and the viewer - the community.
There are many ways in which an art work ( or an experience) may
be interpreted. Art and experience may be considered as
intrinsically social - there is a fecundity in both which means that
they properly belong to both the personal and the communal.
However, it could be suggested that an aesthetic sense of `rightness'
applies as much to the perceptions of an experience as it does to
perceptions of an art work. Further, if our experiences remain only
personal and within ourselves, it could be described as a denial of
life, a denial of the fact that our identity and our sense of Self is
interdependent and interrelated with Others and the Other. What
seems to be demanded by the imperative to flourish, to live in
community with others - and to create our lives as works of art - is
to move our experiences from the introspective into the
intersubjective - the moral and the communal. This is a movement
which entails taking responsibility, taking risks - and is, therefore,
requiring of courage. It entails opening up our personal experiences
in a dialectical relationship with another - and the Other (
understood in this context as the abstract and the theoretical) where
our perceptions may be challenged, affirmed, added to or shown to
be an illusion - we may have `looked' rather than `seen'.
There is a further dimension in this dialectical relationship - how
does the concrete experience inform, and, be critiqued by, the
12
abstract and the theoretical? For example, it is one thing to have a
theoretical understanding of the importance of autonomy in what it
means to be a Person. What is of particular importance, particularly
in health care settings, is to be able to recognise how this abstract
notion takes on texture, shape and colour within a dialectic with the
ordinary, everyday experiences of health care and artistic practice.
Art and Health Care as Ethical Endeavours.
May (1991,p.8), in his work The Patient's Ordeal, describes some of
the more extreme occasions of illness and accident and argues that
the extreme cases illuminate what often happens in the less
`cataclysmic' experiences of illness, and more broadly, what often
happens in non-medical crises. I would agree that experiences of
health care and health care settings can be seen as more intense and
extreme forms of the dislocation, trauma and loss that is experienced
in everyday life. However, I wish to take a different approach. I
wish to highlight the ethical chaallenges - and the pain and the
suffering that may be caused - in the very ordinary and commonplace
occurrences of health care and artistic practice. In taking this
approach I am not in disagreement with that taken by May (1991).
While many people see ethical questions as arising from
problematical cases in health care, for example organ transplants,
euthanasia and so on, few people see an ethical dimension attending
such mundane examples of practice as an artist 's response to the
endemic `I can't draw. Can you do it for me?' Lauritzen (1991,p.10),
in discussing the authority of personal experience in moral
13
deliberation, has suggested that one important role for personal
experience is that it can ` draw attention to features ( of the
particular situation ) that would not be readily noticed from outside'.
So it is that in reflecting on my practice with those in health care
settings, I would agree with the authors of Arts Injection Youth Arts
in Hospital (1994) in their assertion that some very different
dynamics attend art practice in health care settings when compared
to that conducted in a studio setting - with consequently different
qualities required of the artist who seeks to work in health care
surrounds. I realise that I work somewhat differently with people
who are `ill ' than I do in giving a more `conventional' art workshop
because many people in health care settings are often very
vulnerable - not only because of their illness, but because of the
demands of the institutional setting in which they find themselves.
Often this vulnerability (from wherever it stems) manifests itself in
loss of a sense of personal power, autonomy, confidence and esteem
- feelings and sentiments that are not conducive to health and
flourishing. The way in which I approach my work, therefore, will
either increase this sense of powerlessness or might help alleviate it.
Powerlessness in health care has many complex layers. Firstly, the
experience of illness itself reveals that the control we have over our
physical and mental health is tenuous or illusory - it is often beyond
our choice and control. Secondly, as I have described earlier, the
integrity of a person's Self is dislocated and traumatised by the
pressures of institutionalisation. Relationships between the person
who is sick and the health care professional are defined in terms of
power and control - power to define the person in terms of a medical
diagnosis, power to limit and constrain freedom of movement, and
14
power to control access to information concerning the person as
patient. Thirdly, powerlessness is experienced in relation to bodily
dysfunction and medical treatments - one's eyes cannot focus clearly
because of the effects of medication; one cannot control the tremors
of one's limbs; one's mobility is curtailed by nausea, plaster casts or
dependence upon various drips and tubes. Lastly, many people have
been rendered powerless to express and define themselves by way of
the arts because they have been alienated from any personal
experience of art making since their time in primary school. I
believe, therefore, that art practice, in common with health care
practice, ought to be regarded as an ethical endeavour. A prosaic,
but common, example of the integral mix of ethical practice and
artistic practice is how an artist responds to the commonplace
example `I can't draw. Can you do it for me?' If I automatically and
unquestioningly accede to requests such as these, I may be
contributing to the various forms of powerlessness and reinforcing a
person's belief that they cannot draw - that drawing is something that
only Artists do. My practice is to draw on a piece of paper beside
theirs. Almost invariably the person recognises that, if this is what
drawing is, they can do it, and goes on to draw something of their
own.
There is another form of powerlessness which is deeply embedded
within the practice of art making itself. The healing potential of art
invokes a paradox. At the same time as art practice requires a
precision of `seeing', an exactitude of mark making - it also involves
a surrender to something that is often beyond control and
determination. The nature of art enables a healing, an integration of
15
the dislocated parts of our Selves - but this coming to wholeness has
a force - and a direction of its own. This paradoxical dimension is
manifested in several ways. The process of using our hands in the
making of art frequently results in an almost involuntary disclosure
of very deep and intimate aspects of our Selves. These involuntary
disclosures have a different, undemanding quality that distinguishes
them from a cathartic expression - it is as though the very act of
giving voice is sufficient - there is no demand for the disclosures to
be `acted upon'. However, the ethical demands that attend such
disclosures are more acute in health care settings - they are not the
same as the disclosure of personal information that may be made,
say, in a clinical interview - and ethically ought not be regarded as
equally available to be recorded and interpreted. In a sense, then,
such aspects of art making could be seen as evidence of a
powerlessness and vulnerability - but also as evidence of a healing
power that art often engenders in a person.
Art in health care settings can thus be seen to raise many complex
questions as two separate experiences might serve to illustrate. The
Hospice had an art program where a number of artists and
craftspeople would come and teach. I was attending a pottery
session with a great friend of mine ( also my Ankali client).1 As we
were playing with the clay my friend said `This is what friendship is
all about - doing art together. ' In a later incident I was cleaning up
the tiny, cluttered and cramped art room of a Psychiatry Unit when a
1Ankali is an aboriginal word that means "friend". Ankali is a volunteer organization designed to provide emotional support for people living with HIV/AIDS.
16
patient wandered in looking lost. After some desultory conversation
I asked;
What are you looking for?
The meaning of life, Libby. Just the meaning of life.
Notions of friendship, the search for meaning - these are some of the
complex contours of the landscape against which this investigation is
conducted. They anchor the research in the `ordinary' lived
experience of an artist working within health care settings. The
exchanges lay bare some of the profound moral and religious
questions which are an inevitable part of human existence - and
especially experiences of illness. The ` everyday ordinariness' of
the exchanges and the settings in which they took place will serve to
critique the language in which the research is described and in which
it is written.
The Ethical Dimensions of Language.
What is the `right' language for a cross disciplinary exploration
which seeks to bring together the domains of art, health and ethics?
McDermott (1973,p.xxvi) says of the language style of the American
philosopher John Dewey ` the gnarled character of some of his
writing traces to a determined effort to articulate the character of our
experiences in a language faithful to our way of having them and in
as rich a descriptive version as possible. ' Furthermore, `this
approach rarely finds ( Dewey) introducing a technical term as a
shortcut for the describing of the ongoing experience.' As
McDermott goes on to say `the use of technical terms often gains
17
clarity but at the price of isolating the language of the discipline
from that of other disciplines and from common recognition by the
larger community of inquiry' (McDermott 1973,p.xxvi). The
separation and isolation of disciplines, with all the attendant
difficulties and questions, is a further strand recurring throughout
this research. With Aldridge (1993b,p.199) I would agree that the
use of language has political and moral significance. Describing art
in health care settings as ` art therapy', for example, immediately
sites the person and their work within a clinical horizon and further
defines those activities according to a pathology rather than to the
broader notions of health, autonomy, justice and flourishing.
Similarly, if art were to be recognised as an integral and essential
part of what it means to be flourishing human Person - that it enables
us to heal, to create and recreate our sense of Selves to take account
of loss and suffering - then it ought be recognised that the need for
art escalates in times of crisis (Spencer in Coles 1983,p.4) and
therefore art ought to be an integral part of health care practice - as
essential as drugs and other treatment programs.
Each particular discipline has its own language, its own jargon and
styles of humour. All these factors are important in establishing a
communal sense of identity. In the medical professions technical
language and categorization are often used as shorthand to convey,
not only a diagnosis, for example `a borderline personality
disorder ', but a particular socio-political way of `seeing' a person
who behaves in a certain manner. However, as Brody (1992,p.x,xi)
says, these common devices frequently set up barriers between health
care professionals and people outside these professions. Further the
18
unconscious use of such categorization often means that different
ways of `seeing' are rendered difficult, if not impossible.
If the care of the sick and suffering ought to be seen as a
responsibility of the community - of which health care professionals
and artists are both members - experiences and the critical reflection
on them ought to be described in a language that is accessible to the
`larger community of inquiry' (McDermott 1973,p.xxvi).
The Roles of the Artist in Health Care Settings.
I work as a visual and textile artist. When I work in health care
settings my role switches and changes constantly - at times I am a
teacher of art and crafts ( although I do not draw a distinction
between the two), at times a lecturer, an administrator, a co-
ordinator, a catalyst. However, the mediums with which I have
chosen to work have also influenced the style of my academic
writing. My experiences with painting, drawing and fabric collage
have made me acutely aware of the difficulties in achieving
simplicity, strength, harmony and `life' in my work - I realise, along
with countless other craftspeople, the critical significance of exactly
the ` right' brushstroke, the `right' tone of colour in the `right' place.
What constitutes this notion of `rightness' is another constant thread
woven throughout this research - one that, with Beauty and Truth,
will largely influence the later analysis of notions of the aesthetic
and the ethical.
19
The experiences that I have had working in health care settings have
been some of the most satisfying, challenging and enriching of my
`career'. At the same time, as many `community' artists have
attested ( Binns 1994; Yardley 1995; Kaspari 1995) at times, the
work has not been `comfortable'. Artists working in health care
settings do not fit easily into the `Art establishment model' nor do
they fit into a traditional medicalized model of health care. I,
together with other artists working within health care settings, have
been described as a members of a `multidisciplinary team', without
any real reflection on what responsibilities ( or rights) attend such
membership.
During my times at the Quilt, the Hospice and the Hospital I
frequently observed physical changes in people during and after their
participation in various art practices. Often there would be a
lightness in the face, a sense of exhilaration, freedom, exuberance -
and often surprise and awe at what had been created - a ` Where did
that come from?' response. Sometimes the participation would
unlock distress, discomfort, anger and grief. In health care settings
art has many roles; as teacher; as healer; as diagnostic tool; as a
companion and so on. The roles of art, as with the artist, will
frequently overlap and change according to a variety of factors - the
needs of the particular moment, the relationship between the
participants and so on. However, these various experiences and
observations have sown the seeds for this research and have had a
major influence on the methodology employed.
20
Gadamer (1975) has asserted that our `pre-judgments' and prejudices
are our ontological reality ie. they are our opening to the world and
are the very means by which we learn and grow. Thus, it appears
demanded, as an integral part of exploring the ethical challenges I
have already described, to reflect upon my own prejudgments. Binns
(1994,p.56), a community artist, says she has wondered for years
what motivated her in her work. Difference was one of the things
that endlessly attracted her - `difference, variety and the fascination
with the ways things could differ and be similar at the same time.' I,
too, am fascinated by difference, by how each person paints
differently, tells their stories differently - yet there is a comforting (
and challenging) solidarity in the similarities. I, too, have tried for
years to articulate what it is that drives me. On the one hand I need
to paint, draw and make things myself. At the same time there has
been an increasing attraction to working with others, as Binns says,
to enable them to become more comfortable and confident with their
own modes of expression - to lessen the separation that frequently
exists between art and their lives (Binns 1994,p.56). Increasingly
there is also a need to contribute to an public debate concerning the
role and significance that the arts might play in the health and
flourishing of all.
Fundamentally, I am attracted to and fascinated by what I perceive
( and describe ) to be beauty. When people are creating, their
Beings seem to radiate - their eyes appear to shine with Life. Even
though it may be a momentary glimpse -that trusting, accepting
vulnerability invites a sense of solidarity, of kinship; a sense that
21
much is possible; that the islands of good of which Marcuse (1978)
speaks, where we can `rest for a while, ' can, perhaps, be extended.
The Role of Personal Experience.
Personal exper ience - and a cr i t ical ref lect ion on those
exper iences - plays a large part in this research. The importance I
place on these two aspects comes from my experience of various art
practices. Often the work will reveal that the head betrays the
heart or vice versa, and I find myself surprised ( and therefore able
to be `taught') by what I have painted or what I have written. The
experience of il lness often causes a dislocation in multiple aspects
o f a p e r s o n ' s l i f e - i t f o r c e s u s t o s e e m a n y t h i n g s , m a n y
s i t u a t i o n s , many relationships `differently'. Often, too, as we have
seen, suffering does not stem from physical pain, but from a sense
that the ways in which our maps of meaning are constructed have been
rendered chaotic and unreliable. We have to learn a new sense of
being ourSelves as whole Persons. Some artists working in health
care see that `elements of "art for self-awareness" should be minor
or ignored altogether as this line of research reaffirms the health
worker as the healer and teacher, and this just reinforces the
medical model' (Gerrand 1995,p.13) I would assert the contrary. The
ability to `know' ourselves - in our disintegration as well as in our
wholeness ( as ref lected in our ar t as wel l as in a l l o ther aspects
of our l ived exis tence ) - i s an essent ia l par t of heal ing, of
becoming whole and taking responsibility, as Aldridge (1993a p.290)
says, for answering the questions life asks ( of us). Further, self
awareness is an essential ingredient of both an ethical health care
22
practice and an ethical artistic practice (see Kekes 1990). The
ability to disclose of ourSelves is intimately linked to our capacity
to know ourSelves and has a particular relevance to health care.
Cassell (1991,p.x) has suggested that improvement in medical care in
the nineteenth century was hampered by a reticence about the body,
and that a reticence about revealing ourselves presently retards
learning about persons and, thus, might be hampering changes in
medical care in the twentieth century.
I am not advocating indiscriminate disclosure - which in itself might
be a cause of suffering to oneself and to others. However, the
reciprocal nature of the ethical engagement ( fundamental to notions
of love, care, friendship and community) must inevitably involve
some degree of intimate disclosure. Dissanayake (1988) has
suggested that we have evolved to live together committed to one
another in social groups. Part of this commitment to nurturing and
sustaining communities ( however they are conceived - a point that
will be explored in some depth as critical to this research), might be
the sharing of the motivations which inform our sense of values and
meaning. Again, it could be suggested, that part of the
responsibilities of a communal existence is sharing ( in whatever
manner, and I would argue that art is one of those ways) how we
individually cope with the difficulties and joys inherent in a complex
lived existence. Crimp, an American art historian and AIDS
activist, has pointed out that;
we all of us going to have to continue to cope. This particular horrendous thing (AIDS) that (has) happened to us is something that we have to learn how to continue to cope with (in Clark 1995,p.25).
23
I would suggest that one of the ways by which we learn to cope - or
to cope better - is by sharing of ourselves, sharing the strategies or
mechanisms that we have devised that, somehow, have enabled us to
survive and to live. The importance that I place on appropriate
personal disclosure also stems from my reaction and response to
what the Modernist artist Mies van der Rohe describes as the `trend
of our time towards anonymity - that the individual is losing
significance; his destiny is no longer what interests us; the decisive
achievements in all fields are impersonal and their authors for the
most part unknown' (in Fuller 1986,p.11). It is precisely this trend
towards anonymity that can result in so much suffering in health
care. The experience of the AIDS Quilt demonstrates that one of the
valuable functions of art lies, in part, in how the pain of an isolated
anonymity can be transformed.
In the discussion of what it means to be a Person, begun in chapter
three, I will suggest, however, that anonymity can be understood in
several ways - some forms of which may be completely contrary to what
is required to enable human beings to grow, develop and flourish -
while some forms are an integral part of our transcendent self.
Cri t ical personal ref lect ion is a lso essent ia l for an unders tanding
of the nature of ethics and the importance of moral reasoning ( see
Kekes 1990 and Johnson 1993) . Teaching the `tools' or `skills' of
cr i t ical se l f ref lect ion is an integral par t , I bel ieve, of my work
as an ar t is t . As I have descr ibed ear l ier , on one level the abi l i ty
to critique one's own work - and to learn from it - is an essential
part of making or doing art. On another level, that same ability to
24
stand back from oneself and ones actions and to `see' and imagine
the various implications of actions, ideas and goals is not only
necessary to enable one to change, adapt and grow, but can enhance
a sense of self-esteem, dignity, and autonomy in relationship with
the Other.
Methodology.
If painting subsequently proved the basis for many surprising insights and actions, I still thought of myself as on holiday from my formal research and free of any scholarly agenda. But good ethnographic questions are not always imposed, some may emerge from the fieldwork itself. The difference between Yuendumu and Papunya painting posed a contrast with considerable implications. These desert landscapes looked to me like the oldest in the world. The mountains were worn down to craggy hills, the valleys flat with millennia of settled sands. Everything about the place spoke to me of an indescribable age. But did it? . . .but I recognised that the epistemic problem raised here is precisely the one of such interest to Aboriginal philosophy, and the one the paintings themselves attempt to bridge. These paintings make the claim that the landscape does speak, and that it speaks directly to the initiated, and explains not only its own occurrence, but the order of the world. Perhaps this meditation brings me closer to some appreciation of Aboriginality than all my other efforts ( Michaels 1994,p 60).
These lengthy passages are quoted here for several reasons. In the
same way that Michaels ( an anthropologist ) came to a different
understanding of Aboriginality by participation in the art activities
of the Aboriginal community with which he was working, I believe that
i t may be from par t ic ipat ion in the var ious ar t pract ices within
heal th care settings that a different understanding of the ethical
dimensions of health care and artistic practice may emerge. However,
while some health care professionals have said that ` art activities
25
make cl inical pract ice easier ' - that by a shared par t ic ipat ion in
art they come to know the Person of the patient in ways that were not
open to them before - others have felt guilty - `art is not proper
health care practice' - or have been criticised for `wasting time
playing with paint when they should be doing proper work'. How these
various tensions are resolved will have great impact on the ways in
which art might be made an integral part of health care practice.
Secondly, as I have indicated before, the journey towards healing
and wholeness can be described as taking place within a landscape -
not only the physical landscape of the health care setting - but also a
metaphysical and spiritual landscape which is coloured and shaped
by a person's history and which continues to inform how present
experiences are interpreted and translated. Art works reveal, not
only the physical landscapes which have shaped our sense of Selves,
but also the landscape of illness as it is experienced by a particular
person.
Thirdly, Michaels' questions go to the heart of research methodology.
What is the appropriate methodology for a particular `subject'- in
this instance the ethical significance of artists and art programs in
health care settings? Inevitably, questions and hypotheses do form
the framework of a research agenda, as certain questions have framed
the landscape of mine. The question remains, however, how does the
framing of questions influence the wisdom or truth that is sought?
Michaels here seems to recognise that insights that emerge from `the
bottom up' - and from within art practice - will cri t ically affect
some questions that have been `imposed'. Allowing for something new
26
to emerge, something that might change the entire course of an
endeavour, is precisely what is involved in the process of art making
- and I would further suggest that such an approach ( of allowing a
different `seeing' to emerge ) is also demanded by ethical health care
practice. The quotations also raise the critical point of the status of
the researcher ie. that language ( and insights) are often privileged,
protected, or sanctioned by status. I am conscious of the latitude
that is often accorded some of my pronouncements in health care
settings because I am `an artist '. It is not considered strange for an
artist ( nor presumably for an eminent anthropologist) to speak of
craggy hills `speaking' to us. However, similar assertions made by a
person labelled `mentally ill ' or psychotic may receive a very
different response - they might be taken as evidence of delusion or
paranoia thus legitimising medical control and supporting a
treatment program (see Laing 1969; Foucault 1973; Szasz
1974,1991).
The art practices of many Aboriginal communities raise the further
question: is art essentially a communal activity or an individual
practice, or a combination of both? If so, what is the ethical
relationship between the individual and the communal - and a viewer?
As I have indicated previously in this chapter, I believe that the
dichotomy sometimes perceived to lie between the individual and the
communal is a false one (see Rank 1989). In this connection Michaels
(1994,p.53) refers to a notion of social responsibility of art ie. to the
relationship that exists within Aboriginal philosophy between
knowledge and responsibility - that access to the `meaning' of
paint ings is not ` f ree ' - i t carr ies a corresponding responsibi l i ty
27
to safeguard the welfare of the community. The resolution of these
several questions will have great importance in discussing how art
works produced in health care settings ought be regarded.
I have chosen the landscape of paradox as the way into my research
as it would appear that the issues surrounding the role and
significance of art in health care settings are a minefield of
paradoxes, or, as Mark Taylor (1993) has it, a series of `nots'. The
question is where does one start? The quotations above go to the
heart of epistemology - how we know what we know. Knowledge is
integral to notions of ontology - what is it to Be a knowing person?
Knowing persons are active. The nature of human actions leads to
notions of ethics and aesthetics. Central to all these questions is the
notion of an individual. What does it mean to be human - and
furthermore, what does it mean to be a Person - and what place does
art have in that personhood? On the one hand it would seem that
the basic constituents of our humanity are self evident - as Maritain
(1972) observes we are not skylarks or bears ie. we are not birds and
animals. However, as the various contemporary campaigns for and
against euthanasia, abortion and so forth have amply demonstrated,
modern notions of what constitutes a human person are far from such
simplicity. The notion of human identity is conceived not only as a
matter of biology, but as of requiring a certain quality of life, of
well-being ( see Goodman,M.F.1988, What is a Person?, Humana
Press, Clifton, N.J.).
In accord with all the above the methodology employed in this
exploration will take the form of what I have termed a `weaving'
28
approach. This form starts from `the silken threads' of an experience
and moves reflexively in a dialectic between the linear, the lateral
and the oblique, the abstract and the concrete. It is akin to the
orchestration of a group conversation rather than a linear dialogue -
although elements of this are incorporated as well. I do not think it
is necessary to say that one approach is `better' than another, merely
that they are different while there are many overlapping elements in
both. However, it could be suggested that recent developments in
the cognitive sciences would suggest that the `weaving' pattern of
exploration, research and evaluation mirrors more closely the way in
which human persons reason more so than a purely linear approach (
see Lakoff 1987; Buzan 1993; Johnson 1993).
From a feminist perspective, Nielsen (1990) has argued that there
cannot be just one `right' methodological approach to research and
investigation. Humans perceive, feel, and reflect in a multiplicity of
ways. In using this weaving approach, therefore, some strands
could be called autobiographical, some could be called realist, some
may be termed confessional (Van Maanen 1988) and some may be
termed philosophical and some theological. Lauritzen (1991) has
argued that moral reflection ought to involve a dialectical movement
between theoretical principles and personal experience ie. our
reactions to particular cases (p.9). Thus, the weaving approach
reflects similar concerns and seeks to mirror the way in which
experience gives birth to a number of strands of thought and
description, links up the present with the past and suggests different
ways of seeing the future - that is, personal experience is integrated
into the research.
29
The weaving approach that I have adopted shares some of the elements
of Rawls'(1971) procedure of `reflective equilibrium' but shares
more with Nussbaum's (1990) drawing together of literary theory
and ethical theory in a `perceptive equilibrium in which concrete
perceptions "hang beautifully together", both with one another and
with the agent's general principles; an equilibrium that is always
ready to reconstitute itself in response to the new'(Nussbaum
1990,p.182,183). This procedure would also include a recognition,
as Nussbaum further says;
.. .that procedures ( of perceptive equilibrium) themselves are value-laden, and thus part and parcel of the holistic enterprise they organize; replaceable, like any other part, to the end of deeper and more inclusive attunement. So we must examine them at each stage, asking whether they are capable of doing full justice to everything that our sense of life wants to include (1990,p.186).
In this sense, there is a parallel to be drawn between this research
work and the work of painting. Each `work' is an attempt to find
meaning in a range of personal experiences - and `make visible' those
meanings so that they may be shared with others. As I have said
previously in this chapter, sharing of ourselves is an imperative of
our humanity - it is an essential need that we have as social beings.
The `weaving' approach could then be described as coming within the
methods of Qualitative Research as described by Denzin and Lincon
(eds. 1994,p.417) I have used this approach extensively. For
example, in some health care settings I was, initially, invariably
introduced as `the art therapist ' and my work was described as `art
therapy'. That experience could be described as a personal and
singular experience and my `gut resistance' to such an introduction
30
and description as a personal and idiosyncratic response. I may
perceive the experience in a certain way, for example that it was felt
that only `therapists' should work in health care settings. I may
draw certain other conclusions, for example I may think that in this
particular setting the role and significance of art in the health and
flourishing of Persons was poorly understood or misunderstood. I
may further think that art is only viewed as a diversion, an activity
to keep people occupied and to have, perhaps, some art work to
interpret and use for diagnosis and other therapy regimes. If,
however, other artists working in health care settings report ( either
in the form of personal conversations or in the form of published
work (Hastings-Smith 1987;Kaspari 1995) the same attitudes
expressed towards them, it could be suggested that my personal
experiences and perceptions take on a different hue. These
experiences, responses, and the hypotheses derived from them might
be described as indicating a practice which must be examined and
analysed in the manner I have outlined above.
In researching the fields surrounding my hypotheses, a number of
authors will enter the weaving process, some adding directly to and
confirming the pattern, some suggesting novel motifs or textures that
add a depth and character to the emerging textile of thought. Some,
for example Mark Taylor (1995) in his observation that ` often
opposition finds itself in imitation', will send me back to re-examine
some of my initial resistances to being described as an art therapist.
In so doing, I must also critically re-examine some of my own
practices and pre-judgments.
31
The Structure of Presentation.
Returning to the words of Foucault and to the questions raised by the
experience in the Hospice where the man with AIDS defined himself
as an artist and creator until the time of his death - it could be
possible to structure this exploration in a number of ways. It could
be that the important question `What is Art?' would be the logical
place to begin. The answers to that question would then operate
`upwards' to suggest ways that `art ' might (or should) inform models
of persons, models of health care and models of community.
However, as Art is done and experienced by Persons within
communities (however they are understood), this investigation will
begin with an exploration of what it means to be a Person - starting
from a exploration of Dissanayake's question ie. `If art is present in
all cultures ( which it is to some degree or another) it must have
some evolutionary benefit? What is that benefit? What is art for? '
(1988,1992) What is the purpose of art for a `sick' person or for
someone who may be at the point of death? The results of this
exploration will in turn influence and inform the question `what does
it mean to be a person?' and this in turn will influence, inform and
critique notions of ethics, aesthetics, health, health care practice and
community. This chapter has sought to situate the thesis and to
identify the central issues. The following outline briefly summarises
the structure of the remaining chapters of the thesis;
Chapter two. A bio-evolutionary approach to the question `What is
ar t? ' wi l l suggest that i f ar t i s present in a l l cul tures of the world
it must have some evolutionary benefit. What that evolutionary
32
benefit may be is the question to be explored. However, as
Dissanayake ( 1988,1992) has suggested, an understanding of the
function of art as an essential human need as it appears in many
`traditional' societies, may critique the current Western view of art
which sees it as the province of an elite group of people called
Artists. The ontological and ethical significance of art will also
critique some modern notions of what it means to be a Person.
In Chapter three I will consider the significance of the Modern
Period in shaping contemporary notions of person, art, ethics and
aesthetics. Critical paradigms of health care, for example, the bio-
medical model, owe much to the influence of rationalism begun with
the work of Rene Descartes in the seventeenth century.
Chapter four. The Nature of Experience and the Nature of Artistic
Experience. Persons experience themselves in their embodiness.
Understanding the nature of Persons as imaginative, interpretative,
interrelated and interdependent must mean that the form and function
of art is intrinsically relational. Art can be considered as the visible
form of an experience - a visible form of a person's way of `seeing'.
`Visible form' applies literally to the visual arts. However, I would
suggest that other art forms - drama, music, dance, poetry and
literature - also `make visible' if `seeing' is understood in a multi -
dimensional way. Again, it could be suggested that if art is the
visible expression of interdependence and interrelatedness, then it is
essentially grounded in community. May (1991) has suggested that
experiences of illness illuminate the trauma, suffering and
33
dislocation that is experienced in `ordinary' life. This chapter will
explore the nature of those various experiences.
Chapter five. Medicine, Art, Health and Healing. How does a
person experience illness and suffering within the context of a health
care setting? As art in health care settings is commonly
conceptualized as meaning only art as `therapy', this chapter will
begin with an overview of some approaches to art therapy. The
limitations of such models of art in health care will be discussed and
some different ways of understanding the significance of art - as
essential for flourishing and well-being - will be considered.
Chapter six. The Ethics of Art/ Artists in Health Care Settings.
This chapter will consider some particular ethical concerns which
arise from the conceptualizing of art in health care as an ethical
endeavour. I will suggest that the fields of aesthetics and ethics be
reunited and that both ought inform notions of a just care for those
who are sick and suffering. The implications of this for notions of
community will be explored.
34
C H A P T E R 2 A BIO-EVOLUTIONARY UNDERSTANDING OF ART IN WHAT IT MEANS TO BE HUMAN.
S i n c e a l l h u m a n s o c i e t i e s , p a s t a n d p r e s e n t , s o f a r a s w e k n o w , m a k e a n d r e s p o n d t o a r t , i t m u s t c o n t r i b u t e s o m e t h i n g e s s e n t i a l t o h u m a n l i f e . B u t w h a t ?
E l l e n D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 , p . x .
L i k e m a n y q u e s t i o n s n o o n e b o t h e r s t o a s k , ` W h a t i s a r t f o r ? ' o n l y s h o w s i t s i n t r i g u i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s w h e n o n e s t a r t s p r o d d i n g i t a b o u t . A n d t h e n o t h e r n u m e r o u s q u e s t i o n s a r e r e v e a l e d n e s t l i n g u n d e r i t s s k i r t s : W h a t i s a r t ? I s a r t n e c e s s a r y ? W h e r e d i d a r t c o m e f r o m ? W h a t e f f e c t s - o n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d o n s o c i e t i e s - d o e s a r t h a v e ?
E l l e n D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 , p . 3 .
H o w a r e w e t o u n d e r s t a n d a r t ? T h e a r t o f t h e A I D S Q u i l t a n d t h e m a n
w i t h A I D S p a i n t i n g w i s h i n g t o p a i n t t h e d a y b e f o r e h e d i e d s u g g e s t
t h e r e a r e s o m e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f a r t t h a t a r e c o n t r a r y t o t h e t h r u s t
o f t h i s t h e s i s . T h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s
c h a l l e n g e s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s t h a t w o u l d s e e a r t , f o r e x a m p l e , a s
e x c l u s i v e a n d a s s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e l i v e s o f ` o r d i n a r y ' p e o p l e ; a s
b e i n g c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n i s o l a t e d p r a c t i c e p e r f o r m e d b y ` t e c h n i c a l
e x p e r t s ' c a l l e d A r t i s t s ; a s b e i n g d e f i n e d b y t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f ` a r t
o b j e c t s ' w h o s e n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m e n t i s a n a r t g a l l e r y o r , a s a
c l i n i c a l i n s t r u m e n t - a s a ` t h e r a p y ' o r a ` d i v e r s i o n ' . T h e v i e w o f
a r t t h a t I r e t u r n t o i s b a s e d o n a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h . T h i s
p a r t o f t h e r e s e a r c h w i l l s e e k a f u l l a c c o u n t o f a r t u n d e r s t o o d a s
e s s e n t i a l t o h u m a n l i f e a n d w e l l - b e i n g a n d w i l l d e s c r i b e t h e p l a c e i t
h a s i n w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p e r s o n . T h e c l a i m s b y D i s s a n a y a k e a b o v e
s u g g e s t t h a t i f a r t i s p r e s e n t i n a l l c u l t u r e s ( a s i t i s t o s o m e
d e g r e e o r o t h e r ) i t m u s t h a v e s o m e e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t o t h e r w i s e i t
w o u l d n o t h a v e s u r v i v e d . E v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t s ( o r a d a p t a t i o n s )
35
s p e a k o f e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s f o r s u r v i v a l i e . f l o u r i s h i n g r a t h e r
t h a n j u s t e x i s t i n g . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , i l l n e s s
a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g w h i c h o f t e n a c c o m p a n i e s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s ,
f r e q u e n t l y m e a n s t h a t t h e s i c k p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e t h e m s e l v e s a s
` s u b s i s t i n g ' r a t h e r t h a n ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' . T h e r e f o r e , i t m i g h t b e
a r g u e d t h a t a n y e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s t h a t w e h a v e a s P e r s o n s a r e
i n f o r m e d b y s o m e n e c e s s a r y d i m e n s i o n s o r b e n e f i t s t h a t a r e d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o h o w w e l i v e a n d f l o u r i s h a s ` h e a l t h y ' - a n d a s ` s i c k ' -
p e r s o n s . F u r t h e r , i t w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o s a y , a s S p e n c e r ( i n
C o l e s 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 ) h a s d o n e , t h a t s u c h e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s w o u l d
e s c a l a t e i n t i m e s o f c r i s i s - s u c h a s w h e n p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s a r e
b r o u g h t a b o u t i n a p e r s o n ' s l i f e d u e t o a c c i d e n t , i l l h e a l t h , l o s s o r
s u f f e r i n g . I t w o u l d f u r t h e r s e e m u n r e a s o n a b l e t o a s s e r t t h a t
e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s a r e n o t s h a r e d b y a l l p e r s o n s t o s o m e d e g r e e o r
o t h e r .
F r o m a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e a r t i s p r o p e r l y t o b e c o n c e i v e d
a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d a n d i n t e g r a l t o h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g . A r t ,
t h e n , i s e s p e c i a l l y d e m a n d e d a t t h o s e t i m e s w h e n f l o u r i s h i n g i s
t h r e a t e n e d o r h a m p e r e d . A s a r t m a k i n g e n a b l e s t h e s u r v i v a l a n d
w e l l - b e i n g o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e g r o u p i t h a s o n t o l o g i c a l
a n d e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e w h i c h h a s b o t h p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l
d i m e n s i o n s . I n t h i s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a r t i s s e e n a s d i s p l a y i n g f o u r
d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . F i r s t l y , a r t i s e s s e n t i a l l y p r a c t i c a l . I t i s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f u n d a m e n t a l w a y s i n w h i c h p e r s o n s e x p e r i e n c e
t h e m s e l v e s a s i n t e r a c t i n g w i t h o t h e r s a n d t h e i r s u r r o u n d s . I t h a s t o
d o w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n c a p a c i t y t o s t r u c t u r e p e r c e p t i o n - t o
c r e a t e a n d i m p o s e f o r m w h i c h e n a b l e p a t t e r n s o f m e a n i n g s t o b e
36
c o n s t r u c t e d . S e c o n d l y , a r t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h o t h e r e s s e n t i a l a n d
s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n n e e d s i e . t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e , t o h o p e , t o
o r d e r t h e w e b s o f m e a n i n g b y w h i c h p e r s o n s ` m a k e s e n s e ' o f t h e
v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e i r l i v e s . T h e s e v a r i o u s c a p a c i t i e s w e r e
n o t ( a n d a r e n o t ) f r i v o l o u s n o r u s e l e s s - t h e y h a v e a m o r a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h a t t h e y e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o c r e a t i v e l y r e s p o n d t o
c h a n g e s i n t h e i r s u r r o u n d s b y m e a n s o f w h a t w e n o w c a l l ` t h e a r t s ' -
d r a m a , m u s i c , p a i n t i n g , d a n c e a n d s o o n . T h e a b i l i t y t o t r a n s f o r m
a n d t r a n s c e n d f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y e v o k e d b y t h e
p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e b y w a y o f a r t m a k i n g b e h a v i o u r s e n a b l e d t h e
s u r v i v a l o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e g r o u p t o w h i c h t h e y
b e l o n g e d . T h i r d l y , t h e n , a r t h a s a n e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t w a s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h g r a v e a n d s e r i o u s m a t t e r s - o f t e n o f a r e l i g i o u s o r
s p i r i t u a l n a t u r e - t h a t w e n t t o t h e e n d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e
g r o u p - t h e i r s u r v i v a l a n d ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' . F o u r t h l y , t h e b e h a v i o u r s o f
a r t m a k i n g d r a w t o g e t h e r t h e e t h i c a l a n d t h e a e s t h e t i c . A r t m a k i n g
i s e x p e r i e n c e d a s a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g a n d s a t i s f y i n g b y a l l
d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e p e r s o n - p h y s i c a l , c o g n i t i v e , i m a g i n a t i v e a n d
s e n s u a l . T h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m e v o k e d i n b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d
t h e g r o u p f e e l i n g s o f d e l i g h t a n d p l e a s u r e a n d p r o m o t e d a s e n s e o f
m a s t e r y , c o n t r o l , s e l f a n d c o m m u n a l d i s c i p l i n e . T h e s e v a r i o u s
f a c t o r s e n a b l e d a c o m m u n a l l i f e t o b e l i v e d a n d e n h a n c e d t h e
c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l o f b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e g r o u p .
T h e n e c e s s i t y f o r r e t u r n i n g t o t h e ` p a s t ' t o s e e k s o m e d i f f e r e n t
a p p r e c i a t i o n s o f t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r t s l i e s , i n p a r t , i n
a p h e n o m e n o n c a l l e d ` p r e s e n t i s m ' . P r e s e n t i s m p r i v i l e g e s t h e p r e s e n t
a n d t e n d s t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e a p e x o f a l l w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e i s
37
t o b e f o u n d i n t h e p r e s e n t , o r , i f n o t i n t h e i m m e d i a t e p r e s e n t , t h e
f u l f i l m e n t o f k n o w l e d g e i s o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e - a n d / o r m o n e y .
P a r a d o x i c a l l y , a s R a k a t a n s k y ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 7 4 ) s a y s , h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m s
o f t e n p r i v i l e g e a p a t i e n t ' s p a s t ;
I t i s o f t e n t h e c a s e i n t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l c a r e o f o l d e r a d u l t s , t h a t t h e i r p a s t i s p r i v i l e g e d a s t h e n o r m a t i v e t i m e o f t h e i r l i v e s , a g a i n s t t h e p r e s e n t , w h i c h i s a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d a s s o m e t h i n g l e s s .
A c o n c e n t r a t e d f o c u s o n t h e p r e s e n t t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f a l l h i s t o r i c a l
m o v e m e n t s o b s c u r e s t h e f a c t t h a t h u m a n s a r e , n o t o n l y h i s t o r i c a l
c r e a t u r e s b u t , a r e , o f n e c e s s i t y , i n a c o n s t a n t s t a t e o f e v o l u t i o n i e .
t h a t t h e y a r e c o n s t a n t l y f i n d i n g w a y s o f a d a p t i n g - w e l l o r b a d l y - t o
e v e r c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s - b e t h o s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t r i v i a l o r
m a j o r . A t r i v i a l e x a m p l e - t h a t I a m w r i t i n g t h i s p a p e r o n a c o m p u t e r
r a t h e r t h a n w r i t i n g i t i n l o n g h a n d w i t h p e n a n d p a p e r - t e s t i f i e s t o t h e
f a c t t h a t I h a v e c h a n g e d a n d a d a p t e d t o s o m e a s p e c t s o f m o d e r n
t e c h n o l o g y . I t m i g h t n o t b e s u c h a t r i v i a l e x a m p l e w h e n o n e
c o n s i d e r s t h e i m p a c t o f c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g y o n t h e a r c h i v a l w e a l t h o f
a s o c i e t y , n o r , t h e i m p a c t o f m o d e r n m e d i a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ( l i k e t h e
I n t e r n e t ) o n w h a t a r e p r e s e n t l y c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f
p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y s u c h o w n e r s h i p a n d a u t h o r s h i p . S o m e o f t h e
c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s d o n e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d
s o m e j o u r n a l a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n o n t h e I n t e r n e t , r a i s e s i m i l a r e t h i c a l
q u e s t i o n s o f o w n e r s h i p a n d a u t h o r s h i p a n d c h a l l e n g e t h e s t a t u s w e
c u r r e n t l y a c c o r d b o t h n o t i o n s .
G a b l i k ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 3 ) ( t h e a u t h o r o f T h e R e e n c h a n t m e n t o f A r t ) a s s e r t s
t h a t i t d o e s n o t m a t t e r h o w w e g o t t o w h e r e w e a r e n o w ( d e s c r i b e d a s
38
a s o c i a l l y f r a g m e n t e d a n d d i s e n c h a n t e d e x i s t e n c e ) w h a t m a t t e r s i s
w h a t w e a r e g o i n g t o d o n o w a n d i n t h e f u t u r e . I d i s a g r e e . U n l e s s w e
c a n u n d e r s t a n d s o m e o f t h e d e e p l y r o o t e d c a u s e s o f o u r p r e s e n t
f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d d i s e n c h a n t m e n t ( w i t h w h i c h d e s c r i p t i o n I d o
a g r e e ) t h e r e m e d i e s w e s e e k t o i m p l e m e n t m i g h t h a v e l i t t l e c h a n c e o f
s u c c e s s , o r , m i g h t , i n d e e d , b e t h e w r o n g r e m e d i e s .
T h e c l a i m b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 2 ) t h a t a r t h a s a n e v o l u t i o n a r y
b e n e f i t i s o n e t h a t I s e e k t o e s t a b l i s h a s c r i t i c a l a n d c e n t r a l t o t h i s
r e s e a r c h . T h e q u e s t i o n s t o b e a n s w e r e d a r e W h a t i s t h a t b e n e f i t ? a n d
W h y i t i s o f s u c h e v o l u t i o n a r y i m p o r t a n c e ? F u r t h e r m o r e , w h a t e v e r
t h a t e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t m i g h t b e , r e a s o n a b l y , i t m u s t e i t h e r s t i l l b e
o p e r a t i v e , o r t h e r e m u s t b e s t r o n g a n d c o m p e l l i n g e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t
t h a t h u m a n s n o l o n g e r n e e d a r t ( h o w e v e r i t i s d e f i n e d ) . T h e l a t t e r
p o s i t i o n i s , I b e l i e v e , i n c o r r e c t .
A ` T r a d i t i o n a l ' U n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e R o l e a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A r t .
I n w h a t h a v e b e e n t e r m e d ` t r a d i t i o n a l ' o r ` p r e - m o d e r n ' s o c i e t i e s t h e r e
w a s n o s p e c i a l w o r d f o r ` a r t ' o r a r t m a k i n g a c t i v i t i e s . S u c h a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g m i g h t s t i l l p r e v a i l i n s o m e A u s t r a l i a n A b o r i g i n a l
c o m m u n i t i e s a l t h o u g h i t m a y b e a m i s t a k e t o s u b s u m e a l l
c o n t e m p o r a r y A b o r i g i n a l a r t u n d e r t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n . N i c k o l l s
( 1 9 9 4 , p . 7 9 ) , a c o n t e m p o r a r y A b o r i g i n a l a r t i s t , a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s a m y t h
t h a t A b o r i g i n a l a r t i s t i m e l e s s a n d u n c h a n g i n g . S u c h a v i e w i g n o r e s
t h e i n n o v a t i v e w a y s A b o r i g i n a l a r t i s t s i n c o r p o r a t e n e w i d e a s , d e s i g n s
a n d m a t e r i a l s i n t o t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k . F u r t h e r , a s M i c h a e l s
( 1 9 9 4 ) p o i n t s o u t , t h e t e r m ` A b o r i g i n a l A r t ' o n l y h a s r e l e v a n c e
39
o u t s i d e a n A b o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t y - i n s i d e t h e c o m m u n i t y t h e a r t
f u n c t i o n s a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f c o m m u n a l l i f e . H o w e v e r , i t m i g h t b e
t r u e t o s a y t h a t w h a t w e i n M o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s c a l l a r t -
p a i n t i n g s , d a n c e , m u s i c a n d s o o n - w e r e n o t ` a r t o b j e c t s ' m a d e b y
s e p a r a t e d a n d i s o l a t e d i n d i v i d u a l s c a l l e d ` a r t i s t s ' . S u c h a r t w o r k s ,
D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r g u e s , w e r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f g r o u p a n d
c o m m u n a l l i f e a n d p e r f o r m e d s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s . O f t e n t h e y w e r e a n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f c e r e m o n i e s a r t i c u l a t i n g c o m m o n m e a n i n g s a n d
v a l u e s , f r e q u e n t l y o f a s p i r i t u a l o r r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e ( s e e R a n k 1 9 6 8
a n d M i c h a e l s 1 9 9 4 ) . A s s u c h t h e s e a r t a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s
a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e ` l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ' o f a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p .
S u c h t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s w e r e a l s o ` p r e - l i t e r a t e ' , t h a t i s , c o m m u n a l
b e l i e f s a n d k n o w l e d g e - o r t h e w a y s i n w h i c h t h e g r o u p ` m a d e s e n s e '
o f t h e i r v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s - w e r e t r a n s m i t t e d o r a l l y b y w a y o f
s t o r i e s a n d w h a t w e w o u l d t e r m ` t h e a r t s ' .
T h e E v o l u t i o n o f C u l t u r a l F o r m s .
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t w a y s i n w h i c h h u m a n s h a v e e v o l v e d a n d
a d a p t e d t o t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t i s b y w a y o f ` i m p o s i n g c u l t u r e ' o n t h e i r
s u r r o u n d i n g e n v i r o n m e n t . A m o d e r n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s o m e c r i t i c a l
t e r m s - s u c h a s ` i m p o s i n g ' a n d ` s u r v i v a l ' - m i g h t a l s o b e t e r m e d
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , D a r w i n ' s o f t q u o t e d p h r a s e ` t h e
s u r v i v a l o f t h e f i t t e s t ' i s o f t e n c o n s t r u e d , i n m o d e r n p a r l a n c e , a s t h e
s t r o n g e s t , t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l , w i l l w i n o u t . I t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t
s u c h a t e r m i s o f t e n u s e d t o e x c u s e ` b u l l y b e h a v i o u r ' a n d s o m e
q u e s t i o n a b l e b u s i n e s s a n d m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s . T h e i m p l i c a t i o n
o f t e n b e i n g d r a w n i s t h a t , i f o n e c a n n o t s u r v i v e s u c h u n e t h i c a l
40
p r a c t i c e s , o n e i s w e a k , ` h a s n ' t g o t w h a t i t t a k e s ' a n d t h e r e f o r e
d e s e r v e s t o l o s e . D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t s u c h a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g i s a m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g - ` f i t n e s s ' o u g h t m o r e t o b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s ` f i t t i n g ' i e . i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e n a t u r e o f h u m a n s a n d
w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e . S i m i l a r l y , ` t h e i m p o s i t i o n
o f c u l t u r e ' o u g h t n o t t o b e u n d e r s to o d i n a m o d e r n d e r o g a t o r y s e n s e a s
i n d i c a t i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e d e g r a d a t i o n o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o r a n
u n c a r i n g d e s t r u c t i o n o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' s c u l t u r e . I n D i s s a n a y a k e ' s
u n d e r s t a n d i n g , w h i c h s e e m s m o r e r e a s o n a b l e , t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f
c u l t u r e o u g h t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d m o r e i n t e r m s o f a ` h u m a n i s i n g ' o f
t h e i r s u r r o u n d s - i m p o s i n g f o r m o n n a t u r e . S u c h i m p o s i n g o f f o r m
m u s t a g a i n b e ` f i t t i n g ' a n d h a r m o n i o u s w i t h t h e n e e d s o f b o t h h u m a n s
a n d t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , o t h e r w i s e , a s D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s , t h e
i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m w o u l d n o t b e o f e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t i e . i t w o u l d
d e s t r o y t h e v e r y e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t h u m a n s n e e d e d t o s u r v i v e . S o m e o f
t h e m o d e r n e c o l o g i c a l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l m o v e m e n t s w o u l d a p p e a r t o
b e s e e k i n g t h i s m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f h a r m o n y a n d f i t n e s s
o f h u m a n s w i t h t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t - a v i e w s u p p o r t e d b y m a n y w r i t e r s ,
a m o n g t h e m H i l l m a n 1 9 7 5 ; G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 ; M o o r e 1 9 9 2 ; a n d
S k o l i m o w s k i 1 9 9 4 .
T h e C a p a c i t y t o R e a s o n , t o I m a g i n e a n d t o H o p e .
A s h u m a n s e v o l v e d t h e y d e v e l o p e d t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e a s o n , t o i m a g i n e ,
a n d t o h o p e i e . t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s w e r e n o t j u s t
i n s t i n c t i v e a s w i t h a n i m a l s b u t w e r e s t r u c t u r e d i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y
h u m a n w a y ( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 ; 1 9 9 2 ) . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y
i m p o s e d c u l t u r a l f o r m s o n t h e w a y t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d t h e m s e l v e s a s
41
b e i n g e m b o d i e d i n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t - t h e y w e r e a b l e t o c o n s t r u c t
c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n i n g w h i c h c o u l d ` c o n t r o l ' o r ` m a k e s e n s e ' o f t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e s i e . a s e n s e o f m e a n i n g w a s d e v e l o p e d . T h e c a p a c i t y t o
i m a g i n e a n d t o h o p e i s o f g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h i s s t u d y . T h e
n o t i o n o f a n i m a g i n a t i o n i s a c o m p l e x o n e w h i c h W a r n o c k
( 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 9 6 ) d e s c r i b e s t h u s ;
T h e r e i s a p o w e r i n t h e h u m a n m i n d w h i c h i s a t w o r k i n o u r e v e r y d a y p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e w o r l d a n d i s a l s o a t w o r k i n o u r t h o u g h t s a b o u t w h a t i s a b s e n t ; w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o s e e t h e w o r l d , w h e t h e r p r e s e n t o r a b s e n t a s s i g n i f i c a n t a n d a l s o t o p r e s e n t t h i s v i s i o n t o o t h e r s , f o r t h e m t o s h a r e o r r e j e c t . A n d t h i s p o w e r . . . i s n o t o n l y i n t e l l e c t u a l . I t s i m p e t u s c o m e s f r o m t h e e m o t i o n s a s m u c h a s f r o m r e a s o n , f r o m t h e h e a r t a s m u c h a s f r o m t h e h e a d .
T h e i m a g i n a t i o n ( a n d t h e v a r i o u s d e v i c e s o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n s u c h a s
m e t a p h o r ) t h e n d e r i v e s b o t h f r o m t h e ` d e s i r e f o r s e n s o r y c o n c r e t e n e s s '
( A r n h e i m 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 5 3 ) a n d f r o m a d e s i r e t o ` g o b e y o n d w h a t i s
i m m e d i a t e l y i n f r o n t o f o u r n o s e s ' ( W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 , p . 2 0 1 ) - t o t h e r e b y
c o n s t r u c t a n o t h e r r e a l i t y t h a t ` e x i s t s ' b u t i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m . T h i s
p r o c e s s c a n b e i l l u s t r a t e d b y r e f e r e n c e t o t h e ` r e a l i t y ' c o n s t r u c t e d b y
a n a r t i s t i n a w o r k o f a r t . T h e r e , t h e a r t i s t ;
c o n s t r u c t s a n e x t e r n a l f o r m w h i c h i s t o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s s i g n i f y i n g s o m e t h i n g w h i c h d o e s n o t , i n t h e s a m e s e n s e , e x i s t . B o t h a r t i s t a n d s p e c t a t o r h a v e t o d e t a c h t h e m s e l v e s f r o m t h e w o r l d i n o r d e r t o t h i n k o f c e r t a i n o b j e c t s i n t h e w o r l d i n a n e w w a y , a s s i g n i f y i n g s o m e t h i n g e l s e ( W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 , p . 1 9 7 )
H o p e , t o o , c a n b e v a r i o u s l y d e f i n e d , b u t t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t I
w o u l d a d o p t a s f i t t i n g t o t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y n a t u r e o f h u m a n s i s
p r o v i d e d b y A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) q u o t i n g H e r t h ` h o p e . . . i s a n i n n e r
p o w e r d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f b e i n g ' . M a c I n t y r e , q u o t e d
b y C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 4 3 ) , p r o v i d e s a n o t h e r d e f i n i t i o n t h a t i s a l s o
v a l u a b l e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h i s n o t i o n . ` H o p e i s i n
p l a c e p r e c i s e l y i n t h e f a c e o f e v i l t h a t t e m p t s u s t o d e s p a i r , a n d
42
m o r e e s p e c i a l l y t h a t e v i l t h a t b e l o n g s s p e c i f i c a l l y t o o u r a g e a n d
c o n d i t i o n . . . t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f h o p e i s , t h e r e f o r e , a b e l i e f i n a
r e a l i t y t h a t t r a n s c e n d s w h a t i s a v a i l a b l e a s e v i d e n c e ' .
T h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m o n n a t u r e - o r t h e h u m a n i s i n g o f n a t u r e - c a n
b e u n d e r s t o o d , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , i n t h e p r o s a i c b u t c o m m o n i m p u l s e
t o g a r d e n - t o c r e a t e a g a r d e n - t o h u m a n i s e a p e r s o n ' s p a r t i c u l a r
e n v i r o n m e n t . F u r t h e r , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n g a r d e n i n g u n d e r
d i f f i c u l t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , f o r e x a m p l e i n a r e a s w h e r e b o r e w a t e r i s
n o t o r i o u s l y h a r s h o n p l a n t s , o r d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f p r o l o n g e d d r o u g h t ,
t h e t e x t u r e o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n o f h o p e m a y b e s e e n . T h e s u r v i v a l
o f a s t r u g g l i n g g e r a n i u m o r r o s e b u s h b e c o m e s t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h
t h e h u m a n g a r d e n e r c a n k e e p t h e c h a o s , o r t h e ` t e r r i b l e ' u n r e l e n t i n g ,
c o n t i n g e n t w o r l d o f n a t u r e a t b a y . T h e s t r u g g l i n g p l a n t b e c o m e s a
t a c t i l e a n d t a n g i b l e s y m b o l o f c o n t i n u i t y a n d o f h o p e .
O f n e c e s s i t y t h i s b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y e x p l o r a t i o n i s b r i e f a n d s k e t c h y .
H o w e v e r , D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a r g u e s t h a t , a s h u m a n s e v o l v e d , t h e y
d e v e l o p e d d i s t i n c t i v e l y h u m a n n e e d s , s o m e o f w h i c h w e r e t h e n e e d
f o r p l a y , f o r r e l i g i o n , f o r r i t u a l , a n d f o r a r t . P l a y , r i t u a l , r e l i g i o n
a n d a r t m a k i n g s h a r e m a n y s i m i l a r f e a t u r e s , b u t t h e y a r e n o t t h e
s a m e t h i n g . I t m i g h t b e s a i d , h o w e v e r , t h a t ` t h e a e s t h e t i c i s n e i t h e r
r e d u c i b l e t o n o r s e p a r a b l e f r o m e t h i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s c o n s i d e r a t i o n s '
a n d t h a t t h e r e i s a n i n t e g r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e m ( M a r k T a y l o r
1 9 9 3 , p . 4 ) .
43
T h e E v o l u t i o n o f ` t h e A r t s ' .
O n e o f t h e c u l t u r a l f o r m s t h a t e v o l v e d i n t h i s p a t t e r n o f m a k i n g
s e n s e o r m e a n i n g o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e , w a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f w h a t
w e c a l l ` t h e a r t s ' . A r t i n t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e i s w h a t D i s s a n a y a k e
( 1 9 8 8 ) h a s t e r m e d ` m a k i n g s p e c i a l ' - a m u l t i f a c e t e d t e r m b u t
e s s e n t i a l l y i t m e a n s t h a t a r t m a k i n g w a s i n v o l v e d w i t h t h i n g s t h a t
w e r e o f p r o f o u n d , h u m a n s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . t h e y w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h
m a t t e r s t h a t w e n t t o ` t h e e n d s ' o f h u m a n l i f e , t h a t i s s u r v i v a l o r
l i v i n g i n t h e g r e a t e s t h a r m o n y w i t h s e l f , t h e g r o u p a n d t h e
e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t c h a l l e n g e s a n d c r i t i q u e s
s o m e m o d e r n n o t i o n s w h i c h s e e a r t - o r a r t o b j e c t s - a s t r i v i a l , a s
p u r e l y d e c o r a t i v e , a s a f i n a n c i a l ` i n v e s t m e n t ' , a s a l u x u r y , a
d i v e r s i o n o r a s a ` l e i s u r e p u r s u i t ' .
I t m a y b e a s w e l l t o t a k e a s h o r t p a u s e i n t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y
e x p l o r a t i o n a t t h i s s t a g e t o h i g h l i g h t t h e i m p o r t a n c e t h a t I a s c r i b e
t o t h i s t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f a r t a n d a r t m a k i n g . F i r s t l y , r e f e r r i n g
a g a i n t o t h e t e n d e n c y t o p r i v i l e g e t h e p r e s e n t , i t i s o f t e n f o r g o t t e n
t h a t A u s t r a l i a , a s a W e s t e r n s o c i e t y , i s o n l y s o m e 2 0 0 y e a r s o l d ;
t h e C h r i s t i a n t r a d i t i o n , s o i n f l u e n t i a l i n W e s t e r n p h i l o s o p h y ( a n d
h e n c e t o A u s t r a l i a ) , i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 , 0 0 0 y e a r s o l d ; a n d
A u s t r a l i a n A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e i s t h o u g h t t o b e a r o u n d 4 0 , 0 0 0 y e a r s
o l d . I m p o r t a n t t h o u g h a l l t h e s e p e r i o d s o f c u l t u r e m i g h t b e , t h e y
m i g h t a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d ` b l i n k s o f a n e y e ' i n e v o l u t i o n a r y t e r m s .
I t s e e m s r e a s o n a b l e , t h e r e f o r e , t o a s s u m e t h a t w e , a s m o d e r n
W e s t e r n h u m a n b e i n g s , s t i l l c a r r y w i t h i n u s t h e n e e d , a n d t h e
44
` m e m o r y ' , o f a t r a d i t i o n a l f u n c t i o n o f t h e a r t s ( s e e R a n k 1 9 8 4 ;
N c N i f f 1 9 8 6 ; a n d A r n h e i m 1 9 9 2 ) .
I t w o u l d s e e m e s s e n t i a l , t h e n , t o f i r s t f u l l y e x p l o r e w h a t w a s
i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e a r t s i n a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . S e c o n d l y , a
c e n t r a l t h r e a d o f t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t h e n o t i o n o f ` h e a l i n g a r t ' i e .
t h a t t h e a r t s f u l f i l e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s t h a t e n a b l e u s t o
t r a n s f o r m , t r a n s c e n d o r r e d e e m t h e s u f f e r i n g t h a t a p p e a r s a n e s s e n t i a l
f e a t u r e o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s .
T h e m e d i u m s o f a r t e n a b l e u s t o s u r v i v e , t o f l o u r i s h a n d t o r e a c h o u r
f u l l p o t e n t i a l a s h u m a n p e r s o n s . A n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h a t w a s
i n v o l v e d w i t h a r t m a k i n g i n a t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e m a y s e r v e t o c r i t i q u e
s o m e w e l l m e a n t , b u t o f t e n , I w o u l d s u g g e s t , m i s g u i d e d , a t t e m p t s t o
r e t u r n t h e a r t s t o a m o r e ` c o m m u n a l f o c u s ' - w i t h o u t a n y r e a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e i t h e r t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t n o r w h a t r o l e i t m i g h t
p l a y i n t h e c r e a t i o n a n d s u s t e n a n c e o f c o m m u n i t i e s ( s e e G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 ;
a n d B e c k e r 1 9 9 4 ) . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e
a r t s c a n s e r v e a c o m m u n a l f u n c t i o n , I b e l i e v e ( w i t h M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 ;
B a r z u n 1 9 7 4 ; M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 a n d R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) t h a t t h e y d o - a s w e l l a s
t h e n e e d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h i n c o m m u n i t i e s . H o w e v e r , I d o n o t
b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a r t s w i l l s e r v e t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l ` h e a l i n g ' f u n c t i o n i e .
h e a l t h e f e l t s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n , i s o l a t i o n a n d d i s l o c a t i o n o f t e n
e x p e r i e n c e d i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ( a n d t h e w i d e r c o m m u n i t y )
m e r e l y b y e n c o u r a g i n g g r o u p p a i n t i n g s a n d d i s c o u r a g i n g i n d i v i d u a l
o n e s .
A f u l l e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f t h e a r t s i n a
t r a d i t i o n a l s e n s e m a y a l s o s e r v e t o c r i t i q u e s o m e o f t h e u n e t h i c a l
45
c l a i m s m a d e f o r a n d a g a i n s t a r t i n t e r m s o f h e a l t h , h e a l i n g a n d c u r e .
F o r e x a m p l e , I w a s r e c e n t l y a s k e d t o s u p p l y s o m e b i b l i o g r a p h i c
r e f e r e n c e s t o s u p p o r t a c l a i m t h a t a r t c a n c u r e c a n c e r . A p a p e r w a s
t o b e w r i t t e n b y a w o m a n w h o h a d b e e n d i a g n o s e d a s h a v i n g b r e a s t
c a n c e r . T h e w o m a n ` u s e d ' a r t p r a c t i c e s ` t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y ' e x t e n s i v e l y
d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d b e t w e e n h e r d i a g n o s i s a n d l a t e r d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t
h e r c a n c e r w a s e i t h e r c u r e d o r i n r e m i s s i o n . T h e w o m a n b e l i e v e d i t
w a s h e r a r t t h a t h a d c u r e d h e r . I r e f u s e d t h e r e q u e s t s a y i n g t h a t I d o
n o t b e l i e v e t h a t o n e c a n , e t h i c a l l y , s u p p o r t s u c h a c l a i m . I n s a y i n g
t h i s I a m c e r t a i n l y n o t s a y i n g t h a t a r t c a n n o t b e a c a t a l y s t f o r
h e a l i n g . I b e l i e v e i t c a n , a n d f r e q u e n t l y i s . H o w e v e r , h e a l i n g , l i k e
l o v e , i n t e g r i t y a n d s o o n c a n n o t b e w i l l e d , d e m a n d e d o r f o r c e d - a n d
t h e r e i s , I b e l i e v e , a l w a y s a n e l e m e n t o f m y s t e r y i n t h e p r o c e s s .
W h i l e r e c o g n i s i n g t h a t w e c a n h a v e a g r e a t d e a l o f ` c o n t r o l ' o v e r o u r
h e a l t h a n d w e l l b e i n g , i t i s , I b e l i e v e , c r u e l a n d d i s h o n e s t t o c l a i m
t h a t a r t , m e d i c i n e o r m e d i t a t i o n - w h a t e v e r m e d i u m i s a d v o c a t e d -
c a n c u r e a l l . T o d o s o w o u l d b e a d e n i a l o f t h e r e a l c o n t i n g e n c i e s o f
a l i v e d h u m a n r e a l i t y - w h i c h , a s M u r d o c h ( 1 9 7 0 , p . 8 7 ) h a s i t , e n t a i l s
a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t l i f e i s n o t f a i r , i t i s c h a n c y a n d i n c o m p l e t e .
F u r t h e r , t h e l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n o f s u c h c l a i m s i e . t h a t a r t ( o r
m e d i c i n e ) c a n c u r e a l l , i s t h a t w e s h o u l d n e v e r d i e - a n d t h a t i s
p a t e n t l y n o t t r u e . N o t o n l y d o w e a l l h a v e t o a c c e p t d e a t h , b u t m o s t
o f u s h a v e n o i d e a w h e n o u r d e a t h s w i l l o c c u r . S u c h a c l a i m f o r a r t
t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y c u r e i s a l s o a d e n i a l o f s o m e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l
e l e m e n t s o f a r t p r a c t i c e a s t h e p o e t R i l k e ( 1 9 8 7 , p . 2 9 7 ) m a k e s p l a i n
w h e n s p e a k i n g o f t h e d e s p a i r i n d u c e d i n h i m w h e n t h e ` a n g e l o f
r h y t h m ' d o e s n o t v i s i t - h e h a s t o w a i t u p o n h e r .
46
T h e O n t o l o g i c a l a n d E t h i c a l S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A r t .
T o r e t u r n t o t h e e x p l o r a t i o n o f a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t .
D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 , c h . 3 ) a s s e r t s t h a t i t i s t h e ` m a k i n g s p e c i a l ' o f a r t
m a k i n g t h a t i s t h e e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d a n d h e n c e o f s u c h
e v o l u t i o n a r y s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t t h e ` a r t w o r k ' w a s
o f n o s i g n i f i c a n c e o r a c c o u n t ( m a k i n g s o m e t h i n g s p e c i a l n e c e s s a r i l y
i m p l i e s t h a t m u c h c a r e a n d t h o u g h t h a s g o n e i n t o i t s m a k i n g - a
v a l u a b l e i n s i g h t i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f a e s t h e t i c s t h a t I w i l l r e t u r n t o
l a t e r ) . T h e a r t w o r k , h o w e v e r , w a s n o t t h e c r i t i c a l t h i n g t h a t
e n h a n c e d c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e , i t i s n o t
a s s i m p l e a s s a y i n g t h a t ` t h e p r o c e s s ' o f a r t m a k i n g i s t h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t t h i n g ( a n o t h e r c o m m o n m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g ) - i t i s r a t h e r
m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n t h a t . I t c o u l d b e s t a t e d a s s a y i n g f o r m , c o n t e n t
a n d p r o c e s s h a s a n i n t e g r a l a n d i n t e r n a l u n i t y . A s R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 )
w o u l d h a v e i t , f o r m a n d c o n t e n t w e r e o n e . D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) t a k e s
i t a s t e p f u r t h e r w h e n s h e a r g u e s t h a t t h e ` w h y ' o f t h e p r o c e s s r e f e r s
d i r e c t l y t o t h e s k i l l s / q u a l i t i e s / t r a i t s n e c e s s a r y f o r s u r v i v a l . T o
t a k e a n e x a m p l e , t h e a w a r e n e s s o f c h a n g e ( f e l t o r s e n s e d ) m a y b e
e i t h e r p o s i t i v e o r i t m a y r e p r e s e n t d a n g e r . A n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y
a r e n a t u r a l h u m a n r e s p o n s e s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e a n d a r e
f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s t h a t h a v e m o r e t h a n o n e d i m e n s i o n . O n t h e
o n e h a n d t h e y c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e i m p e t u s n e c e s s a r y t o a d a p t t o
c h a n g i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s , w h i l e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e y c a n a l s o s o
p a r a l y s e a p e r s o n w i t h f e a r t h a t t h e y a r e u n a b l e t o t a k e t h e n e c e s s a r y
a c t i o n s t o e n h a n c e t h e i r s u r v i v a l . D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s t h a t
o n e o f t h e w a y s t h a t h u m a n s h a v e e v o l v e d t o c o p e w i t h s u c h
e m o t i o n s ( a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y ) p r o v o k e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f
47
c h a n g e , i s d r o m e n a - t h e n e e d a n d i m p u l s e t o ` d o s o m e t h i n g ' . O n e o f
t h e f u n d a m e n t a l t e n e t s o f h e r a r g u m e n t i s t h e n o t i o n o f p l e a s u r e , t h a t
i s , h u m a n s l i k e d o i n g t h i n g s t h a t t h e y e n j o y a n d w h i c h g i v e p l e a s u r e ,
s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d e l i g h t . T h e t h i n g s t h a t a r e e s s e n t i a l t o f u l f i l h u m a n
n e e d s a r e g o o d i e . t h e y m a k e p e o p l e f e e l g o o d , g i v e p l e a s u r e a n d s o
f o r t h , h e n c e t h e y a r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e t o d o t h e m a n d t h u s
m a x i m i s e t h e i r c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l .
A s h u m a n s e v o l v e d a n d d e v e l o p e d , o n e o f t h e u n i q u e f e a t u r e s o f w h a t
i t m e a n t t o b e h u m a n e m e r g e d - t h e n e e d a n d d e s i r e t o i m p o s e a
c u l t u r a l f o r m o n n a t u r e . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e y h u m a n i s e d n a t u r e . T h i s
i m p o s i t i o n s h o u l d n o t b e u n d e r s t o o d , a s I e m p h a s i s e d e a r l i e r , i n a
m o d e r n d e r o g a t o r y o r c o n q u e r i n g s e n s e a s t h i s w o u l d u l t i m a t e l y
d i m i n i s h c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l , b u t m o r e i n t h e s e n s e o f h u m a n i s i n g
n a t u r e w i t h a c o r r e s p o n d i n g a w a r e n e s s t h a t o n e h a s t o l i v e i n h a r m o n y
w i t h n a t u r e a s w i t h o n e s e l f a n d w i t h o t h e r s . T h e b e g i n n i n g s , o n e
c o u l d s a y , o f a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t o u r s u r v i v a l , o u r f l o u r i s h i n g , b o t h a s
i n d i v i d u a l s a n d a s m e m b e r s o f a s o c i e t y , h a s e l e m e n t s o f b o t h
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s . H o w e v e r , t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f
f o r m i s o n e o f t h e k e y t h e m e s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g b o t h t h e n a t u r e o f
w h a t i t i s t o b e a ` k n o w i n g ' h u m a n p e r s o n a n d t h e r o l e a n d
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r t s i n t h a t h u m a n i t y . I m p o s i n g f o r m m a k e s u s
f e e l g o o d , m a k e s u s f e e l i n c o n t r o l , i n d i c a t e s m a s t e r y a n d w e t h u s f e e l
l e s s a n x i o u s a n d u n c e r t a i n . R h y t h m , r e p e a t i n g p a t t e r n s a n d s o o n c a n
t h e n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s f o r m s o f i m p o s i n g c o n t r o l . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) a r g u e s , t h e r e p e t i t i o n , t h e r h y t h m a n d s o o n a r e
e x p e r i e n c e d a s a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g a n d s a t i s f y i n g b y a l l a s p e c t s
o f o u r s e l v e s - t h e c o g n i t i v e , t h e e m o t i o n a l , a n d t h e p h y s i c a l - a n d
48
e v o k e a s e n s e o f m a s t e r y a n d c o n t r o l . O t h e r t h i n g s l i k e v i v i d
c o l o u r s , v i g o u r a n d s o o n a r e s o u g h t a n d d e s i r e d b e c a u s e t h e y
i n d i c a t e t h e q u a l i t i e s t h a t m a x i m i s e d t h e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l . F o r
e x a m p l e , s h e e n i n d i c a t e s h e a l t h a n d l i v e l i n e s s - t h e o p p o s i t e o f d u l l
a n d l i f e l e s s , f a c t o r s t h a t w o u l d n o t i n d i c a t e e n h a n c e d c h a n c e s o f
s u r v i v a l .
D o t h e s e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t
a n d a r t m a k i n g s t i l l o b t a i n t o d a y ? I f t h e s e e l e m e n t s o f a r t m a k i n g
a r e s t i l l r e l e v a n t t o o u r s u r v i v a l i t w o u l d b e r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t
t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e r e v e a l e d i n m y o w n p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e , b o t h i n
t e r m s o f m y o w n a r t p r a c t i c e a n d i n t e r m s o f m y w o r k w i t h p e o p l e i n
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . L a s t y e a r w h i l s t p a i n t i n g i n O r m i s t o n G o r g e I
h a d a n e x p e r i e n c e t h a t w a s o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 )
d e s c r i b e s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n o u r o r d i n a r y w a y o f ` n o t
e x p e r i e n c i n g ' w i t h a n e x p e r i e n c e , i e . w e a r e c o n s c i o u s t h a t w e h a v e
e x p e r i e n c e d s o m e t h i n g . W h i l s t p a i n t i n g o n t h i s o c c a s i o n I w a s
a w a r e - I ` k n e w ' - s o m e t h i n g h a d h a p p e n e d t o m e . I f e l t I w a s b e i n g
a s k e d t o d o , o r B e , s o m e t h i n g d i f f e r e n t . I d i d n o t k n o w w h a t t h a t
` s o m e t h i n g ' w a s . I t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t i n D i s s a n a y a k e ' s ( 1 9 9 2 ) t e r m s
I w a s a w a r e o f t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e . I n i t i a l l y , i t w a s a
c o m f o r t a b l e f e e l i n g . T h e n , a s t h e d a y s , w e e k s a n d m o n t h s w e n t o n , I
b e c a m e a n x i o u s a n d f e l t u n c e r t a i n ( a n d i m p a t i e n t ! ) I d i d n o t k n o w
w h a t w a s g o i n g t o h a p p e n n o r w h a t I w a s b e i n g a s k e d t o B e . H o w
d i d I c o p e w i t h t h o s e f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y - t h e
a p p r e h e n s i o n c o n c e r n i n g c h a n g e ? I n a ` t r a d i t i o n a l ' f a s h i o n - I d r e w
t h e s a m e v i e w o v e r a n d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n , o f t e n i n v o l u n t a r i l y - a s
49
s o o n a s I p i c k e d u p a p e n o r p a i n t b r u s h , o u t w o u l d c o m e t h i s s a m e
v i e w . I n D i s s a n a y a k e ' s t e r m s ( 1 9 9 2 ) t h i s c o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d a s
r e p e t i t i o n , r h y t h m a n d s o o n . T h e c o l o u r s t h a t I u s e d w e r e b r i g h t ,
t r u e a n d l i v e l y a n d I d r e w a n d p a i n t e d t h i s s a m e s c e n e u n t i l t h e
` m e a n i n g ' o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e e m e r g e d ( t h e ` d a n g e r ' , a n x i e t y a n d
u n c e r t a i n t y h a d p a s s e d o r w a s u n d e r ` c o n t r o l ' ) - t h e i m p o r t o f t h e
e x p e r i e n c e h a d b e e n f i t t e d i n t o a p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g . I t h e n f e l t g o o d
i e . r e l i e f , s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d p l e a s u r e a t t h e c o m p l e t i o n a n d t h e
r e s o l u t i o n . A n d o f t h e p a i n t i n g s p r o d u c e d ? T h e p a i n t i n g s w e r e n o t
u n i m p o r t a n t ( a n a c t i o n - o r a n i m a g e - m u s t h a v e a d e e p s i g n i f i c a n c e
i f o n e k e e p s r e p e a t i n g i t o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n ) b u t t h e y c a n n o t b e
l o o k e d a t i n i s o l a t i o n f r o m t h e o t h e r e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t - t h e d r a w i n g
o v e r a n d o v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n . B o t h m u s t b e r e g a r d e d a s i n t e g r a l t o
t h e ` k n o w i n g a n d b e c o m i n g p r o c e s s ' .
T h e f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n t o b e a s k e d i s ` A r e t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s p e c u l i a r t o
m y s e l f b e c a u s e I h a v e c e r t a i n ` a r t i s t i c ' t e n d e n c i e s a n d t a l e n t s ? ' F r o m
m y e x p e r i e n c e s i n a v a r i e t y o f ` o r d i n a r y ' a n d h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s I
w o u l d s u g g e s t n o t . T o t a k e o n e e x a m p l e o f m a n y . D u r i n g m y t i m e a s
A r t i s t i n R e s i d e n c e i n a n A c u t e P s y c h i a t r y U n i t I m e t a w o m a n w h o
h a d b e e n a d m i t t e d t o t h e U n i t o n n u m e r o u s o c c a s i o n s . I d i d n o t k n o w
a t t h e t i m e w h a t h e r ` p s y c h i a t r i c ' d i a g n o s i s w a s , n o r , w o u l d I a r g u e ,
i s i t r e l e v a n t t o w h a t I a m a b o u t t o d e s c r i b e . T h i s w o m a n h a d
s u f f e r e d a m i s c a r r i a g e a n d / o r h y s t e r e c t o m y s o m e t h r e e y e a r s p r i o r t o
m y m e e t i n g h e r . I h a d s e e n s o m e o f h e r p r e v i o u s w o r k s a n d t w o
` t h e m e s ' s e e m e d t o r e c u r c o n s t a n t l y - s y m b o l s o f h e r h o m e l a n d a n d
s y m b o l s t h a t c o u l d o n l y b e d e s c r i b e d a s g y n a e c o l o g i c a l - a s I d r e w
t h e s a m e v i e w o f N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y h i l l s , t h i s w o m a n c o n s t a n t l y
50
p a i n t e d t h e s a m e ` v i e w ' o f f a l l o p i a n t u b e s , w o m b s , o v a r i e s a n d s o
o n . O n e d a y s h e a s k e d f o r a v e r y l a r g e c a n v a s , ` s h e k n e w w h a t s h e
w a n t e d t o d o ' - a n d p r o c e e d e d t o p a i n t t h e s a m e f a l l o p i a n t u b e s a n d
s o o n . H a l f w a y t h r o u g h t h e p a i n t i n g s h e s t o p p e d . W h e n I a s k e d h e r
i f a n y t h i n g w a s w r o n g , s h e r e p l i e d ` I d o n ' t w a n t t o p a i n t a n y m o r e ' .
` H a v e y o u p a i n t e d t h i s b e f o r e ? ' I a s k e d . ` C o u n t l e s s t i m e s ' s h e
r e s p o n d e d . ` D o n ' t y o u n e e d t o p a i n t i t a n y m o r e ? ' ` N o ' s h e r e p l i e d
a n d b u r s t i n t o t e a r s . T h e w o m a n l e f t t h e U n i t s h o r t l y a f t e r t h i s
i n c i d e n t a n d I b e l i e v e s h e h a s n o t b e e n r e a d m i t t e d s i n c e .
I d o n o t w a n t t o s u g g e s t , i n r e c o u n t i n g t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s , t h a t t h e
r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t m a k i n g c a n b e r e d u c e d t o b i o l o g y , n o r t o
a m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m n o r t o a n ` e q u a l s s y n d r o m e ' - m e a n i n g t h a t i f I
d o t h i s a n d t h i s ( d r a w r e p e a t e d l y , f o r e x a m p l e ) a c e r t a i n r e s u l t ( e g .
h e a l i n g ) w i l l a u t o m a t i c a l l y o c c u r . A s I h a v e s a i d b e f o r e I d o
n o t t h i n k t h a t o n e c a n e t h i c a l l y m a k e s u c h c l a i m s , a n d f u r t h e r , i t i s
a s i m p l i s t i c a n d m e c h a n i c a l l y r e d u c t i o n i s t v i e w o f a r t a n d h u m a n
p e r s o n s - a v i e w t h a t i s u n f o r t u n a t e l y p r e v a l e n t i n s o m e a r e a s o f a r t
t h e r a p y . A r t t h e r a p i s t s O s t e r a n d G o u l d ( 1 9 8 7 ) , f o r e x a m p l e , h a v e
p r o d u c e d a b o o k e n t i t l e d ` U s i n g D r a w i n g s i n A s s e s s m e n t a n d T h e r a p y .
A G u i d e f o r M e n t a l H e a l t h P r o f e s s i o n a l s . ' T h e b o o k c o n t a i n s a l i s t
o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f d r a w i n g s - a l b e i t w i t h a f a i n t r e j o i n d e r t h a t a n y
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o u g h t t o b e ` c h e c k e d ' w i t h t h e p a t i e n t . T h e l i s t
c o n t a i n s , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t a d r a w i n g o f a h o u s e
w i t h o u t a c h i m n e y i s s a i d t o d e n o t e a l a c k o f w a r m t h i n t h e c h i l d
a r t i s t . I w i l l t a k e u p t h e e t h i c s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i n a l a t e r
c h a p t e r - a n d h o w c u l t u r a l l y c o n d i t i o n e d a n y i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t
w o r k s m i g h t b e . M a n y A u s t r a l i a n c h i l d r e n , f o r e x a m p l e , w o u l d n e v e r
51
h a v e h a d t h e o p p o r t u n i t y o f l i v i n g i n a h o u s e w i t h a c h i m n e y . S u c h
a r e d u c t i o n i s t a t t i t u d e d o e s l i t t l e j u s t i c e t o t h e o f t e n m y s t e r i o u s
p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g - a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e a r t s i n t h a t h e a l i n g .
H o w D o W e U n d e r s t a n d a n d C a t e g o r i z e A r t ?
I n s e e k i n g a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t , t h i s c h a p t e r h a s
c o n f r o n t e d o n e o f t h e m a n y p a r a d o x e s o f t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n -
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n a n d d e f i n i t i o n . O n t h e o n e h a n d , a s A r n h e i m ( 1 9 8 6 ) ,
L a k o f f ( 1 9 8 7 ) a n d J o h n s o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) h a v e a r g u e d , t h e c a p a c i t y a n d t h e
n e e d t o c a t e g o r i z e - t o s t r u c t u r e o u r p e r c e p t i o n a n d t o i d e n t i f y o u r
e x p e r i e n c e o f r e a l i t y i n t e r m s o f c a t e g o r i e s - i s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n
n e e d , a n o n t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y , a n d i t i s , t h e r e f o r e , o n e o f t h e
c r i t i c a l b u i l d i n g b l o c k s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y . I t i s h o w w e c o m e t o
k n o w . T h e r e f o r e , n o t o n l y c o u l d s u c h c a p a c i t y b e d e s c r i b e d a s a
G o o d i e . i t s e r v e s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d , b u t a n e c e s s a r y o n e i n
t h a t , w i t h o u t s u c h a c a p a c i t y t h e a b i l i t y t o f l o u r i s h m i g h t b e
c o m p r o m i s e d . F u r t h e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , o n e o f
t h e c a u s e s o f s u f f e r i n g i n a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s l i e s i n a n
i n c a p a c i t y t o s t r u c t u r e a p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g t h a t c a n t a k e a c c o u n t o f
t h e c h a n g e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a p e r s o n ' s l i f e . H o w e v e r ,
p a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t c o u l d a l s o b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e i n h e r e n t n e e d t o
c a t e g o r i z e - o r r a t h e r t h e t e n d e n c y t o r e m a i n f i x e d i n a c e r t a i n m o d e
o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n - m i g h t a l s o h a m p e r o u r f l o u r i s h i n g . O u r n e e d t o
s a f e l y s o r t p e r c e p t i o n i n t o f a m i l i a r n e a t p i l e s m i g h t n o t b e t h e m o s t
u s e f u l ( o r h e a l t h y ) t h i n g t o d o . F u r t h e r , a r e l i a n c e o n ` o l d ' w a y s o f
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n m i g h t i n h i b i t o u r a b i l i t y t o ` s e e ' d i f f e r e n t l y t h u s
o b s c u r i n g s o m e v e r y i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n s w h y a ` f i x e d ' c a t e g o r i z a t i o n
52
m i g h t b e h a r m f u l f o r o u r g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . F o r e x a m p l e , i f
a s o c i e t y s e e s a r t a s r e f e r r i n g o n l y t o a c e r t a i n q u a l i t y o f ` a r t
o b j e c t s ' , o r t o t h e ` a r t i s t i c t a l e n t s ' o f c e r t a i n p e o p l e c a l l e d ` a r t i s t s '
i t m a k e s i t m o r e d i f f i c u l t t o s e e t h e a r t s a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f w h a t
i t m e a n s t o b e h u m a n f o r a l l p e o p l e . I n p l a c e s l i k e h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s i t t h e n b e c o m e s n e c e s s a r y t o c a t e g o r i z e a r t a s h a v i n g s o m e
o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t a l p u r p o s e ( s u c h a s ` a t h e r a p y ' o r a s a ` d i v e r s i o n '
) . T h e n , o n c e t h a t i n s t r u m e n t a l p u r p o s e h a s b e e n a c h i e v e d , a r t
a g a i n b e c o m e s n o l o n g e r n e c e s s a r y . S o i t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t t h e
t e n d e n c y t o r e m a i n f i x e d i n a c e r t a i n w a y o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n m i g h t
a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d ` n o t ' a G o o d - a n d , i n d e e d , m i g h t b e a f u r t h e r
c a u s e o f h a r m a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e p a r a d o x i c a l d i l e m m a i s w e l l
i l l u s t r a t e d b y H a r t ' s c o m m e n t s ( 1 9 9 4 , p . x i ) p r e f a c i n g a c o l l e c t i o n o f
A u s t r a l i a n R e l i g i o u s P o e t r y ;
T h e b o r d e r s s u r r o u n d i n g p o e t r y a r e b r o k e n a n d s h i f t i n g , n o t o n o n e f r o n t b u t s e v e r a l . . . . T h e q u e s t i o n " I s t h i s a p o e m ? " c a n a l w a y s b e a s k e d , a n d t h e r e a r e m o m e n t s w h e n i t n e e d s t o b e a s k e d . . . . A n d y e t t h e r e a r e a l s o c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e n i t i s n o t t h e m o s t u r g e n t o r e v e n t h e m o s t u s e f u l q u e s t i o n t o p o s e . . . . S o m e t i m e s r e c o u r s e t o d e f i n i t i o n c a n b e a s t e p b a c k w a r d s , a n e v a s i o n o f p o e t r y a n d a f e a r o f t h e u n k n o w n .
A s H a r t p o i n t s o u t , a t i s s u e i s a c o n f u s i o n o f q u e s t i o n s o f v a l u e
w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f d e f i n i t i o n s - a s i f a n a f f i r m a t i v e a n s w e r t o t h e
q u e s t i o n ` I s t h i s a p o e m ? ' g i v e s s o m e c e r t a i n t y , s o m e w a r r a n t o f
w o r t h a n d v a l u e . T h e t e n d e n c y t o r e l y o n f a m i l i a r m o d e s o f
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n c o u l d a l s o b e s e e n a s f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e o f w h a t
M i c h a e l s ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 5 1 ) h a s e a r l i e r r e f e r r e d t o a s ` a t e r r o r o f t h e
a m b i g u o u s ' - a n d o f m y s t e r y - b o t h , i r o n i c a l l y , h a l l m a r k s o f b o t h a r t
a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g . T h e t a s k w o u l d s e e m t o r e q u i r e
a c k n o w l e d g me n t o f a n i n e s c a p a b l e t e n s i o n - b e t w e e n o u r i n h e r e n t n e e d
53
t o c a t e g o r i z e a n d a n a w a r e n e s s t h a t a f i x a t i o n o n c a t e g o r i e s m a y a l s o
b e o u r p r i s o n , o u r w e a p o n s o r a r a b b i t t r a p a r o u n d o u r i m a g i n a t i o n .
M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 8 3 ) o f f e r s a n o t h e r w a y o f s e e i n g t h e t e n s i o n
t h a t i s i n h e r e n t i n c h o o s i n g ( I a m r e f e r r i n g h i s r e m a r k s h e r e t o t h e
c h o i c e s i m p l i c i t i n c a t e g o r i z a t i o n ) ;
E v e n t h o u g h c h o i c e i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e s a n e i t h e r / o r , t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f d e c i s i o n c a n n o t b e r e d u c e d t o e x c l u s i v e a l t e r n a t i v e s . W h i l e a l w a y s s i n g l i n g o n e o u t , t h e d e c i s i o n t h a t c u t s o n e o f f f r o m o t h e r s a l s o e s t a b l i s h e s r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
T h e e m i n e n t a r t h i s t o r i a n a n d c r i t i c E H G o m b r i c h ( 1 9 8 5 , p . 4 ) a s s e r t s
q u i t e p l a i n l y t h a t ` t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s A r t . T h e r e a r e o n l y
a r t i s t s ' . G o m b r i c h w o u l d f u r t h e r a s s e r t t h a t i t d o e s n o t r e a l l y
m a t t e r i f w e d e s c r i b e b o t h t h e c o m m e r c i a l a r t o f a d v e r t i s i n g
h o a r d i n g s a n d c a v e p a i n t i n g s a s a r t - a s l o n g a s w e k e e p i n m i n d t h a t
t h e r e i s n o s u c h t h i n g a s A r t w i t h a c a p i t a l A . A t f i r s t r e a d i n g , t h i s
v i e w w o u l d s e e m t o s u p p o r t a n a s s e r t i o n t h a t a l l a r t w o r k s a r e o f t h e
s a m e v a l u e a l t h o u g h t h a t i s n o t G o m b r i c h ' s p o s i t i o n . H o w e v e r , t h e
t e r r o r a n d a n x i e t y t h a t s u c h a p r o p o s i t i o n m a y i n d u c e i n s o m e
m o d e r n G a l l e r y D i r e c t o r s w a s w e l l i l l u s t r a t e d b y t h e s t a g i n g o f a
r e c e n t E x h i b i t i o n i n a m a j o r R e g i o n a l A r t G a l l e r y . T h e E x h i b i t i o n
c o m p r i s e d w o r k s b y r e s i d e n t s o f s e v e r a l n u r s i n g h o m e s a n d
p s y c h i a t r i c c e n t r e s . P e r h a p s i t w a s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w o r k s w e r e
` o u t s i d e ' m a i n s t r e a m a r t - a n d t h e r e w e r e n o ` r u l e s ' f o r t h e i r
a p p r e c i a t i o n a n d v a l u a t i o n - t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e c o n s i d e r a b l e
o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e E x h i b i t i o n . I t w a s a s i f t h e m e r e p r e s e n c e o f t h e s e
w o r k s w o u l d l e s s e n t h e v a l u e o f t h e o t h e r ` p r o p e r ' a r t w o r k s i n t h e
G a l l e r y . E v e n t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f w o r k a s ` c o m m u n i t y a r t ' a n d
` o u t s i d e r a r t ' ( t h e l a t t e r d e s c r i p t i o n c o m m o n i n r e f e r r i n g t o t h e
54
w o r k s o f p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s s e e M a c l a g a n 1 9 9 3 ) d e f i n e s s u c h a r t a n d
a r t p r a c t i c e a s s o m e h o w ` d i f f e r e n t ' f r o m s o m e o t h e r t y p e o f a r t - o f t e n
u n c o n s c i o u s l y u n d e r s t o o d t o b e ` p r o p e r a r t ' o r ` b e t t e r a r t ' . T h e w a y
i n w h i c h c a t e g o r i z a t i o n i s e m p l o y e d a l s o r e v e a l s a p a r t i c u l a r w o r l d
v i e w , a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f s e e i n g a s o c i e t y a n d t h e m u l t i p l e e l e m e n t s
w i t h i n i t . F o r e x a m p l e , a t a r e c e n t m e e t i n g o f a ` c o m m u n i t y a r t s '
o r g a n i z a t i o n , m y p l e a f o r m o r e a r t i s t s t o w o r k i n h o s p i t a l s a n d
n u r s i n g h o m e s w a s m e t b y t h e c o m m e n t ` W e a r e m o r e i n t e r e s t e d i n
p r o p e r c o m m u n i t y a r t s ' - i n v i t i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s a n d t h e s i c k d i d n o t f o r m p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t h e y s o u g h t
t o s e r v e .
T h i s c h a p t e r h a s e x p l o r e d t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f r o m a
b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e . H u m a n s , a s t h e y e v o l v e d , d e v e l o p e d
t h e c a p a c i t y t o c r e a t e a n d i m p o s e f o r m o n t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t a n d o n
t h e v a r i o u s w a y s i n w h i c h t h e y i n t e r a c t e d w i t h n a t u r e a n d o t h e r s
w i t h i n a g r o u p . T h e s e v a r i o u s f o r m s - w h i c h c o u l d b e t e r m e d t h e
c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e , t h e c a p a c i t y t o c o n s t r u c t a n d c r e a t e p a t t e r n s o f
m e a n i n g , t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d c r e a t i v e l y a n d ` h e a l t h i l y ' t o c h a n g e ,
t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e s p o n d t o t h e v a r i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f l i f e v i a a r t
m a k i n g f o r m s ( d a n c e , d r a m a , m u s i c , p a i n t i n g a n d s o o n ) h a d p r a c t i c a l
b e n e f i t i e . t h e y e n a b l e d p e o p l e t o s u r v i v e a n d f l o u r i s h . T h i s a r t
m a k i n g , t h e n , h a d e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A r t w a s
c o n c e r n e d w i t h m a t t e r s t h a t w e r e o f s e r i o u s c o n c e r n f o r t h e m e m b e r s
o f t h e g r o u p . T h e a r t ` b e h a v i o u r s ' p r o m o t e d i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - c o n t r o l
a n d m a s t e r y , e n h a n c e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d
i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p a n d t h u s e n h a n c e d
t h e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l o f b o t h . A r t m a k i n g w a s i n t e g r a l t o ( n o t
55
s e p a r a t e d f r o m ) a l l a s p e c t s o f c o m m u n i t y l i f e - a s w a s t h e p l e a s u r e
a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e f o r m m a k i n g i t s e l f . I t m i g h t b e
s a i d t h a t a r t m a k i n g e n a b l e d a c o m m u n a l l i f e t o b e L i v e d - a n d t h e
m e m b e r s t o f l o u r i s h . .
56C H A P T E R 3
THE MODERN PERIOD - some decisive influences on humans and art
Y e t n e i t h e r i n c l a s s i c a l o r m e d i e v a l t i m e s , n o r i n d e e d i n a n y o t h e r c i v i l i z a t i o n o r t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y t h a t w e k n o w o f , h a v e w o r k s b e e n m a d e t o s e r v e a s ` a r t o b j e c t s ' , t o b e j u d g e d b y a e s t h e t i c c r i t e r i a a l o n e , o r a p p r a i s e d p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e i r p o w e r t o e v o k e a e s t h e t i c e n j o y m e n t . E v e n t h o u g h a e s t h e t i c e x c e l l e n c e i n a w o r k m a y h a v e b e e n o b l i g a t o r y , t h i s w a s s o b e c a u s e t h e o b j e c t o r p e r f o r m a n c e w a s a l r e a d y i n t r i n s i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t f o r o t h e r r e a s o n s a n d t h u s r e q u i r e d t o b e d o n e b e a u t i f u l l y , a p p r o p r i a t e l y o r c o r r e c t l y .
E l l e n D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 , p . 4 1 .
T h e r o m a n t i c i m p u l s e h a s h a d a b a d r e p u t a t i o n i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p h i l o s o p h y s i n c e i t s e e m s t o i d e n t i f y i t s e l f w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f i r r a t i o n a l i s m . I t h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e d i m i n i s h i n g o f t h e r a t i o n a l . . . o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t i s a q u e s t i o n o f t h e i r f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t . . . . I n t h e s e s o r t o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s ( t h e s h o p k e e p e r s r a t i o n a l i t y ) t h e ` r e a s o n a b l e ' t h i n g t o b e i s p o e t i c , t h a t i s , o n e s h o u l d d e m a n d n o l e s s f r o m r e a s o n t h a n w h a t r e a s o n c a n f u l l y g i v e . T h i s s i c k n e s s o f a s k i n g t o o l i t t l e f r o m r e a s o n i s r e a l l y w h a t t h i s n a r r o w - m i n d e d r a t i o n a l i s m h a s b e e n i n f l i c t i n g u p o n u s f o r t h e l a s t 2 0 0 y e a r s .
S l o t e r d i j k i n P o l i t i 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 8 , 1 1 9 .
T h e q u e s t i o n t o b e a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r i s ` H o w i s i t t h a t
W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s h a v e g o n e f r o m a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a r t a s a n
e s s e n t i a l , i n t e g r a l a n d n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e a n d
c o m m u n i t y l i f e , t o t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 )
a n d F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 8 6 ) - w h e r e a r t i s u n d e r s t o o d t o m e a n ` a r t o b j e c t s '
m a d e b y a s p e c i a l , e l i t e g r o u p o f p e o p l e c a l l e d ` a r t i s t s ' a n d w h e r e ,
t h e r e f o r e , t h e g r e a t e r m a j o r i t y o f a d u l t s ( a n d i n c r e a s i n g l y c h i l d r e n )
c a n n o t d e s c r i b e a r t a s p l a y i n g a n y r e a l p a r t i n t h e i r l i v e s ? T h i s
c h a p t e r w i l l s e e k a n a c c u r a t e a c c o u n t o f t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e
m o d e r n i n f l u e n c e s w h i c h h a v e s o s t r o n g l y s h a p e d c o n t e m p o r a r y
n o t i o n s o f p e r s o n , h e a l t h , w e l l - b e i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . T h e p r e v i o u s
c h a p t e r s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t m a n y o f o u r m o d e r n n o t i o n s o f a r t a n d
57
o f h e a l t h a r e s e r i o u s l y i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d c a n n o t t a k e p r o p e r a c c o u n t
o f h u m a n s u f f e r i n g a n d t h e n e e d s f o r h e a l i n g - f o r p e r s o n s a n d f o r
t h e i r e n v i r o n m e n t . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l s k e t c h s o m e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f
` s e e i n g ' p e r s o n s e m b e d d e d i n a c o m m u n a l f l o u r i s h i n g .
T h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a s d e s c r i b e d h o w a r t e v o l v e d t o f u l f i l c e r t a i n
s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n n e e d s - t o c r e a t e c u l t u r e - t o c r e a t e c u l t u r a l
f o r m s t h a t ` h u m a n i s e d ' a p e r s o n ' s e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d t o g i v e a n
e x p l i c i t l y h u m a n f o r m t o t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a n d w a y s
o f r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s . T h e s e c u l t u r a l f o r m s , s o m e o f
w h i c h w e n o w c a l l ` t h e a r t s ' , w e r e n o t ` u s e l e s s ' - t h e y h a d a d i r e c t
a n d i m m e d i a t e p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . t h e y e n a b l e d p e o p l e t o
r e s p o n d i n a s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n w a y t o t h e v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f
t h e i r l i f e ( e s p e c i a l l y e x p e r i e n c e s f r a u g h t w i t h d a n g e r o r
u n c e r t a i n t y ) i n w a y s t h a t e n h a n c e d t h e c h a n c e s o f t h e i r s u r v i v a l a n d
f l o u r i s h i n g . I n t h e c o n t e x t o f h e a l t h c a r e i t c o u l d b e s a i d , t h e n , t h a t
a r t e n a b l e s a p e r s o n t o s u r v i v e t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d
s u f f e r i n g . R e a d ( i n S t o r r 1 9 9 1 , p . 3 2 ) h a s s a i d ;
F a r f r o m b e i n g a n e x p e n d i t u r e o f s u r p l u s e n e r g y , a s e a r l i e r t h e o r i e s h a v e s u p p o s e d , a r t , a t t h e d a w n o f h u m a n c u l t u r e , w a s a k e y t o s u r v i v a l , a s h a r p e n i n g o f t h e f a c u l t i e s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e s t r u g g l e f o r e x i s t e n c e . A r t , i n m y o p i n i o n , h a s r e m a i n e d a k e y t o s u r v i v a l .
M y e x p e r i e n c e s i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a n d t h e c o m m u n i t y a t l a r g e
w o u l d t e n d t o s u p p o r t t h i s v i e w . H o w e v e r , i t m u s t a l s o b e
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t t h e w i d e s p r e a d l a c k o f a r t t o u c h i n g p e o p l e s l i v e s
i n a n y s i g n i f i c a n t m a n n e r m i g h t a l s o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e m o d e r n w a y o f
v i e w i n g a r t f o r m s m i g h t h a v e t o b e r e v i e w e d . F u r t h e r , i f t h e
i m p u l s e f o r a r t m a k i n g i s o f s u c h c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r h u m a n
f l o u r i s h i n g - a n d y e t s o m a n y p e o p l e h a v e b e e n a l i e n a t e d f r o m i t - i t
58
m i g h t a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y t o c l o s e l y e x a m i n e s o m e o t h e r a s p e c t s o f
m o d e r n l i f e t o s e e i f t h i s e v o l u t i o n a r y n e c e s s i t y h a s m a n i f e s t e d
i t s e l f i n s o m e o t h e r l e s s e a s i l y r e c o g n i s e d w a y s . O r , w h e t h e r t h e
s i g n i f i c a n t a b s e n c e o f a r t i n p e o p l e ' s l i v e s i s o n e o f t h e d i r e c t
c a u s e s o f t h e m o d e r n m a l a i s e s t h a t h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n i d e n t i f i e d i n
t h i s r e s e a r c h - t h e s e n s e d l a c k o f m e a n i n g , o f p o w e r l e s s n e s s , o f
s o c i a l i s o l a t i o n a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
M o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e , a s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , i s
d o m i n a t e d b y a b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l w h i c h s e e s t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y a s
t h e p r i m a r y f o c u s o f c a r e . A i l m e n t s o f t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y a r e
d e s c r i b e d i n g e n e r a l t e r m s - a s c a t e g o r i e s o f d i s e a s e a n d
d y s f u n c t i o n . L a t t e r l y , u n d e r s u c h i n n o v a t i o n s a s ` C a s e m i x
f u n d i n g ' , t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s o f d i s e a s e s a n d a i l m e n t s b e c o m e p a r t o f
m a t h e m a t i c a l a n d s t a t i s t i c a l f o r m u l a e w h i c h d e t e r m i n e w h a t t y p e
o f t r e a t m e n t a n y p a r t i c u l a r c a t e g o r y w i l l r e c e i v e - a n d f o r h o w
l o n g . T h e s e d e c i s i o n s a r e m a d e w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p e r s o n
w h o i s i l l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f a p e r s o n ' s l i f e o f t e n
p l a y s a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t i n e i t h e r d i a g n o s i s o r c a r e . C a s s e l l
( 1 9 9 1 ) , h o w e v e r , h a s d e s c r i b e d , a p e r s o n a s a c o m p l e x m i x t u r e o f
S e l v e s - o n l y o n e o f w h i c h i s a ` p h y s i c a l ' s e l f . Y e t i n h e a l t h c a r e
t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y i s d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d f r o m t h e p e r s o n w h o s e b o d y
i t i s a n d t h e v a r i o u s l i f e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h h a v e s h a p e d i t - t h e
v e r y c o n t e x t w h i c h l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n e t h e n a t u r e o f a p e r s o n ' s
s u f f e r i n g . M o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m s t h e n s w i n g f r o m e i t h e r a n
i n t e n s e r a n g e o f p h y s i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s t o a c o r r e s p o n d i n g d e a r t h
o f a t t e n t i o n w h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r e o f t h e a g e d p e r s o n ,
59
t h e c h r o n i c a l l y i l l , o r t h e d y i n g f r e q u e n t l y r e v o l v e s a r o u n d t h e
p r o v i s i o n o f a t e l e v i s i o n s e t .
M o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s c a n b e j u s t i f i a b l y p r o u d o f m a n y
i n n o v a t i o n s , d i s c o v e r i e s a n d p r o g r e s s i v e m o v e m e n t s i n s c i e n c e ,
m e d i c i n e , t e c h n o l o g y , p o l i t i c s a n d s o o n . Y e t t h e s e s a m e s o c i e t i e s
h a v e d e v e l o p e d ( o r t o l e r a t e d ) p a r a d i g m s o f h e a l t h c a r e - a n d o f a r t
- w h i c h h a v e c a u s e d m u c h s u f f e r i n g . I f t h e a r t s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r
h u m a n s u r v i v a l a n d f l o u r i s h i n g , w h y a r e s o m a n y p e o p l e a l i e n a t e d
f r o m t h e m ? S y s t e m s o f p r a c t i c e s u c h a s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d d o n o t
e v o l v e o v e r n i g h t , n o r d o t h e y c o m e o u t o f a ` b l u e s k y ' a s T o u l m i n
( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s i t , h a v i n g n o c o n n e c t i o n w i t h w h a t w e n t b e f o r e . B r a d y
( 1 9 9 5 , p . 1 9 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d o u r p r e s e n t t i m e a s ` a t t h e e n d o f t h e
W e s t e r n e r a , t h e e r a o f t h e E n l i g h t e n m e n t , i n a p o s t - c o l o n i a l w o r l d ' .
T o p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t a n d a p e r s o n , o n e h a s t o h a v e a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f
t h e i r h i s t o r y , t h e i r c o n t e x t , t h e i r l a n d s c a p e s - t h e v a r i o u s
e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s t h a t h a v e s h a p e d t h e m i n p r o f o u n d a n d
s i g n i f i c a n t w a y s . S o i t i s i n t r y i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r
c o n t o u r s o f o u r p r e s e n t p r e d i c a m e n t i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o r e t u r n t o a n
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f s o m e h i s t o r i c a l r o o t s .
T h e E m e r g e n c e o f M o d e r n T h o u g h t .
T h i s c h a p t e r s e e k s o n l y t o s k e t c h i n t h e b r o a d p h i l o s o p h i c a l s y s t e m s
o f t h o u g h t t h a t h a v e s h a p e d W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f a r t , e t h i c s , o n t o l o g y
a n d e p i s t e m o l o g y . I t c o u l d b e t r u e t o s a y t h a t m o s t m o d e r n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e s e n o t i o n s h a v e l a r g e l y b e e n i n f l u e n c e d b y
R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t w h i c h e m e r g e d i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y
60
- p r i n c i p a l l y t h r o u g h t h e w o r k o f R e n e D e s c a r t e s a n d G a l i l e o - a n d
h a s r u n t h r o u g h a l m o s t u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t t i m e . T h e p e r i o d f r o m a b o u t
t h e 1 9 6 0 s o n w a r d s h a s b e e n t e r m e d ` p o s t - m o d e r n ' a l t h o u g h M a r k
T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 5 ) d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e m o v e m e n t s o f t h e p r e s e n t t i m e
a s ` M o d e r n i s t p o s t - m o d e r n ' . T h e M o d e r n ( t h e t e r m u s e d t o
d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d o f h i s t o r y ) h a s o f t e n b e e n c o n f u s e d w i t h
` M o d e r n i s m ' a p a r t i c u l a r s t y l e o f p o s t S e c o n d W o r l d W a r a r t a n d
a r c h i t e c t u r e - e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e w o r k o f M i e s v a n d e r R o h e
( T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 ) - a n d i n A u s t r a l i a , f o r e x a m p l e , b y s o m e o f t h e
w o r k o f a r c h i t e c t H a r r y S i d l e r . W i t h T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 ) I b e l i e v e
` a r c h i t e c t u r e i s n e i t h e r i r r e l e v a n t n o r u n i n t e r e s t i n g ' f o r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e w o r l d v i e w o f a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y . A r c h i t e c t u r e ,
l i k e a n y o t h e r w o r k o f a r t , ` m a k e s v i s i b l e ' a p a r t i c u l a r w a y o f s e e i n g
t h e w o r l d a n d t h e p e o p l e w i t h i n i t . T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 ) , f o r
i n s t a n c e , d e s c r i b e s t h e b u i l d i n g s o f M o d e r n i s m a s ` a n o n y m o u s ,
t i m e l e s s a n d i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e ' . I d e s c r i b e m a n y s u c h b u i l d i n g s a s
a r r o g a n t a n d i n h u m a n i e . l a c k i n g a p r o p e r c o n c e r n f o r t h e n e e d s o f
p e o p l e w h o m u s t l i v e a n d w o r k w i t h i n a n u r b a n l a n d s c a p e .
W h a t , h o w e v e r , i s t h e M o d e r n ? I n c o m m o n p a r l a n c e ` m o d e r n ' i s
u n d e r s t o o d t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g ` n e w ' s o , l o g i c a l l y , i t m u s t b e s e e n i n
r e l a t i o n t o s o m e t h i n g w h i c h i t ` n o t ' . S o i t i s w i t h t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d
w h i c h i s c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d , a s I h a v e s a i d p r e v i o u s l y , t o h a v e
b e g u n w i t h t h e w o r k o f D e s c a r t e s a n d G a l i l e o i n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h
c e n t u r y . D e s c a r t e s t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e w h i c h u t i l i z e d a
m e t h o d o l o g y o f d o u b t - l e a d i n g t o t h e f a m o u s ` c o g i t o e r g o s u m ' - ` I
t h i n k , t h e r e f o r e I a m ' - l a i d t h e f o u n d a t i o n f o r a n e w s y s t e m o f
e p i s t e m o l o g y . T h a t s y s t e m r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e m i n d b e e m p t i e d a n d a l l
61
p r e v i o u s t h e o r i e s o r b e l i e f s b e e r a s e d s o t h a t o n e h a s a ` c l e a n s l a t e '
o n w h i c h t o b u i l d a n e w t h e o r y o f k n o w l e d g e - a t h e o r y t h a t w a s
u n c o l o u r e d b y a p a r t i c u l a r h i s t o r y , a p a r t i c u l a r c u l t u r e a n d
p a r t i c u l a r h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e ` c l e a n s l a t e ' t h e n m e a n t t h a t t h e
m o d e l s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y a n d m e t a p h y s i c s t h a t d e r i v e d f r o m
D e s c a r t e s ' t h i n k i n g h a d t o b e d e v o i d o f s u r r o u n d i n g s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l
i n f l u e n c e s . D e s c a r t e s i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e f o r a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h c a r e a s t h e b i o -
m e d i c a l m o d e l o w e s m u c h t o ` C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m ' - t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f
t h e m i n d f r o m t h e b o d y - a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f D e s c a r t e s '
t e a c h i n g . T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s c h a l l e n g e d a n d r e j e c t e d a n o t i o n o f
t h e m i n d t h a t i s a - h i s t o r i c a l a n d a - c u l t u r a l b u t s u g g e s t s t h e w o r k o f
D e s c a r t e s m i g h t b e m o r e p r o p e r l y u n d e r s t o o d a s a r i s i n g i n r e s p o n s e
t o p a r t i c u l a r c r i t i c a l i s s u e s o f h i s t i m e - a n d w h a t w e n t b e f o r e - t h e
p e r i o d o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s m ( e x e m p l i f i e d i n
t h e w o r k o f M i c h e l d e M o n t a i g n e ) . D e s c a r t e s ' e n d e a v o u r w a s
a c u t e l y i n f l u e n c e d b y t h e p a r t i c u l a r u r g e n t s o c i o - p o l i t i c a l a n d
r e l i g i o u s c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f h i s t i m e . I t w o u l d s e e m n e c e s s a r y ,
t h e r e f o r e , t o u n d e r s t a n d h o w t h e R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s t s r e g a r d e d
t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n a s i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f
h u m a n i s t s l i k e d e M o n t a i g n e s h a r e d m u c h w i t h t h a t o f A r i s t o t l e -
a n o t h e r p r o f o u n d i n f l u e n c e o n m o d e r n t h o u g h t . H u m a n i s m i n t h i s
c o n t e x t i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g a c e r t a i n s c e p t i c i s m a b o u t a n y
c l a i m s c o n c e r n i n g t h e c e r t a i n t y o f k n o w l e d g e - i n c l u d i n g r e l i g i o u s
b e l i e f s . I t i s n o t t o b e e q u a t e d w i t h a m o d e r n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
` s e c u l a r h u m a n i s m ' a s i n d i c a t i n g a g n o s t i c i s m o r a t h e i s m .
62
A t t h e r i s k o f g r o s s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n , R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s t i c t h o u g h t
w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a c o n c e r n f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r , l o c a l , c o n c r e t e
c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r c a s e o r s i t u a t i o n a s
w e l l a s w i t h a b s t r a c t i s s u e s o f t h e o r y ( s e e T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 3 0 - 3 5 ) .
T o u l m i n s a y s t h a t t h e s e a p p r o a c h e s , f o r e x a m p l e i n m o r a l
p h i l o s o p h y , a r e i n l i n e w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e s A r i s t o t l e r e c o m m e n d s i n
N i c o m a c h e a n E t h i c s i e .
` T h e G o o d h a s n o u n i v e r s a l f o r m , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o r s i t u a t i o n : s o u n d m o r a l j u d g m e n t a l w a y s r e s p e c t s t h e d e t a i l e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f s p e c i f i c k i n d s o f c a s e s . ' ( a s q u o t e d i n T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p p . 3 1 , 3 2 ; s e e A r i s t o t l e 1 9 7 6 , B o o k 1 )
T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f ` t h e G o o d ' h a d i m m e n s e p r a c t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .
A s t h e G o o d h a d t o b e d i s c o v e r e d i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f a c o n c r e t e
s i t u a t i o n , e t h n o g r a p h y , g e o g r a p h y , s c i e n c e , t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e
o f a w i d e v a r i e t y o f p e o p l e - a l l w e r e v a l i d c o m p o n e n t s o f d o i n g
p h i l o s o p h y . T h e r e s o l u t i o n o f m o r a l a n d j u r i d i c a l p r o b l e m s w a s
a c h i e v e d b y a c l o s e a n d d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s o f p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s
( T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p . 3 1 ) . W i t h t h i s f o c u s o n t h e p a r t i c u l a r a n d t h e
c o n c r e t e , R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s m w a s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a
t o l e r a n c e o f , a n d o p e n n e s s t o , t h e c u l t u r a l , p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s
b e l i e f s o f o t h e r s . I t w a s f u r t h e r c o l o u r e d b y a r e a l i s t i c a n d
p r a g m a t i c s c e p t i c i s m - a h u m i l i t y c o n c e r n i n g t h e v a r i e t y a n d
c o m p l e x i t y o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e p r o p e r l i m i t s o f h u m a n
r a t i o n a l i t y t o c l a i m s o f a b s o l u t e c e r t a i n t y a b o u t a n y b e l i e f s .
T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) a s s e r t s t h a t i t w o u l d b e t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e r o o t s o f
D e s c a r t e s ' t h o u g h t s a s o n l y l y i n g i n r e j e c t i n g t h e w a y s o f
R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s m b e c a u s e ` t h e y w e r e t h e r e ' . A p a r a l l e l
c o n t e m p o r a r y s i t u a t i o n m a y m a k e t h e p o s i t i o n c l e a r e r . T h e d r a m a t i c
r i s e i n r u r a l s u i c i d e s h a s b e e n a t t r i b u t e d t o ` t h e d r o u g h t ' - t h e
63
p r o l o n g e d , a n d u n p r e c e d e n t e d c l i m a c t i c c o n d i t i o n s t h a t h a v e
p r e v a i l e d o v e r m u c h o f E a s t e r n A u s t r a l i a i n r e c e n t y e a r s . H o w e v e r ,
t h e d r o u g h t i s o n l y o n e o f n u m b e r o f s i g n i f i c a n t c h a n g e s t h a t h a s
a f f e c t e d r u r a l A u s t r a l i a i n r e c e n t t i m e s - p o l i t i c a l a n d e c o n o m i c
s h i f t s i n f o c u s
( a n d t h e r e f o r e i n p e r c e i v e d v a l u e a n d a p p r e c i a t i o n ) h a v e m e a n t t h a t
r u r a l i n d u s t r i e s a r e n o t l o n g e r r e g a r d e d a s s u p r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t .
R u r a l t o w n s a n d c o m m u n i t i e s a r e t h e n o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d ` u n e c o n o m i c
' a n d s e r v i c e s ` r a t i o n a l i s e d ' i n t e r m s o f a l a r g e r , d i f f e r e n t , n a t i o n a l
e c o n o m i c p e r s p e c t i v e . T h e ` d o w n t u r n ' i n w o o l a n d o t h e r c o m m o d i t y
p r i c e s h a s c o m e a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s w o r s e n i n g c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s (
d r o u g h t ) a n d t h e s o a r i n g i n t e r e s t r a t e s o f r e c e n t y e a r s . I t i s t h e
c o m b i n a t i o n o f a l l t h e s e v a r i o u s f a c t o r s w h i c h h a s l e d t o t h e b r e a k
d o w n a n d c o l l a p s e o f r u r a l c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n t y
s u r r o u n d i n g t h e v i a b i l i t y o f f a m i l y f a r m i n g a n d g r a z i n g e n t e r p r i s e s -
e n t e r p r i s e s t h a t h a v e p r o v i d e d a s u s t a i n a b l e w a y o f l i v i n g f o r m a n y
g e n e r a t i o n s o f p e o p l e - w i t h a c o n s e q u e n t i m p a c t o n t h e h e a l t h o f
r u r a l p e o p l e . I n t h e p s y c h i a t r i c u n i t o f o n e r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l ` t h e
d r o u g h t ' w a s i d e n t i f i e d a s a c o n t r i b u t i n g f a c t o r i n s o m e 6 0 % o f
a d m i s s i o n s . I t w o u l d b e t o m i s u n d e r s t a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g o f t h e s e
p e o p l e - a n d t h e c a r e t h e y o u g h t t o r e c e i v e - i f t h e ` c a u s e s ' a s I h a v e
d e s c r i b e d t h e m w e r e t h o u g h t t o b e r e s o l v e d w h e n i t r a i n s .
I n a s i m i l a r w a y , t h e p a r t i c u l a r c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t m o t i v a t e d t h e
d i r e c t i o n o f D e s c a r t e s ' w o r k c a n n o t b e s i m p l y b e a t t r i b u t e d t o a
s i n g l e ` c a u s e ' . T o u l m i n ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e
T h i r t y Y e a r s r e l i g i o u s w a r , s i m i l a r u n p r e c e d e n t e d c l i m a c t i c
c o n d i t i o n s a f f e c t i n g r u r a l p r o d u c t i o n a n d t h e r e f o r e r u r a l s o c i e t i e s ,
64
t h e e n d o f a t r a d i t i o n a l c o s m o l o g y - a l l t h e s e w e r e s i g n i f i c a n t
f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c i n g D e s c a r t e s ' e n d e a v o u r . I n t h e f a c e o f i n c r e a s i n g
h o s t i l i t y a n d d i v i s i o n b e t w e e n d i f f e r e n t r e l i g i o u s t r a d i t i o n s o f
C h r i s t i a n i t y i t b e c a m e i m p o s s i b l e t o a d v o c a t e a t o l e r a n c e f o r
r e l i g i o u s p l u r a l i s m a s t h e R e n a i s s a n c e h u m a n i s t s h a d d o n e . E a c h
` s i d e ' - C a t h o l i c s a n d P r o t e s t a n t s - f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o c o d i f y r e l i g i o u s
b e l i e f s i n a s e r i e s o f ` d o g m a s ' a n d d o c t r i n e s t h a t w e r e u s e d a s
p o l i t i c a l a n d m o r a l w e a p o n s . T h e d e s i r e t o a v o i d i n f l a m i n g
r e l i g i o u s d i s s e n t w a s o n e o f t h e m o t i v a t i o n s f o r D e s c a r t e s ' ` Q u e s t
f o r C e r t a i n t y ' - t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s y s t e m o f t h o u g h t t h a t w a s
c e r t a i n , g e n e r a l a n d a b s t r a c t - ` a b o v e ' a n d d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e
p a r t i c u l a r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l c i r c u m s t a n c e a n d
r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s y s t e m s .
T h e L e g a c y o f M o d e r n i s t T h o u g h t .
T h e e m e r g e n c e o f C a r t e s i a n t h o u g h t c a n a l s o b e s e e n a s t h e r e -
e m e r g e n c e o f P l a t o n i s m . A t t h e r i s k o f g r o s s g e n e r a l i s a t i o n a n d
s i m p l i f i c a t i o n , D e s c a r t e s ' e n t e r p r i s e s h a r e d m u c h w i t h a P l a t o n i c
w a y o f t h i n k i n g - a l t h o u g h f r o m v e r y d i f f e r e n t m o t i v a t i o n s . B o t h
w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n e m p h a s i s o n t h e r a t i o n a l , t h e g e n e r a l , t h e
a b s t r a c t , t h e t i m e l e s s a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l . P l a t o c o n c e i v e d ` t h e G o o d ' ,
f o r e x a m p l e a s ` I d e a l F o r m ' w h i c h e x i s t e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f h u m a n
e x i g e n c i e s . T h e I d e a l F o r m s h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s e x i s t i n g ` o u t
t h e r e ' d i v o r c e d f r o m h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e . T h e F o r m s , h o w e v e r , c o u l d
b e ` d i s c o v e r e d ' b y c o n t e m p l a t i o n . A s t h e s e F o r m s w e r e t h e s u p r e m e
f o r m o f t h e G o o d , t h e f o r m o f a g o o d l i f e i e . t h e g r e a t e s t p o t e n t i a l
f o r a p e r s o n l a y i n a d e t a c h e d , p u r e l y i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n t e m p l a t i o n o f
65
t h e s e t r a n s c e n d e n t r e a l i t i e s . P l a t o ' s r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e a r t s i n h i s
R e p u b l i c h a s b e e n v a r i o u s l y a t t r i b u t e d . R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 ) s e e s t h e
P l a t o n i c r e s i s t a n c e a s s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e e s s e n t i a l d i s h o n e s t y o f a r t
i e . t h a t a r t i s a h u m a n c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a p e r c e i v e d r e a l i t y - i t i s n o t
N a t u r e . F o r N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) , h o w e v e r , t h e P l a t o n i c o p p o s i t i o n t o
t h e a r t s w a s n o t f o u n d e d u p o n a b e l i e f t h a t t h e a r t s i n v o l v e d f a n t a s y ,
d e l u s i o n o r a n e s c a p e f r o m r e a l i t y ( a l a t e r F r e u d i a n p e r c e p t i o n )
b u t p r e c i s e l y u p o n a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e a r t s c o u l d r e v e a l a
k n o w l e d g e o f r e a l i t y - b u t a h u m a n r e a l i t y - n o t t h e s o u g h t a f t e r
p u r e , a b s t r a c t , t r a n s c e n d e n t f o r m . T h e a r t s h a d t h e c a p a c i t y t o
e n g a g e t h e s e n s e s a n d t h e e m o t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , w e c o u l d f e e l
a n g e r a n d d e s i r e o n b e h a l f o f a c h a r a c t e r , b o t h o f w h i c h e m o t i o n s
d r e w a v i e w e r o r l i s t e n e r i n t o t h e a m b i g u o u s , c o m p l e x ` i m p u r e '
r e a l i t i e s o f a n e m b o d i e d l i v e d h u m a n e x i s t e n c e . T h u s , t h e P l a t o n i c
r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e a r t s w a s f o u n d e d u p o n a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e y c o u l d
c o m m u n i c a t e t r u t h a n d k n o w l e d g e - b u t o f n o t t h e ` r i g h t ' s o r t - a n d
t h u s t h e y c o u l d t e m p t p e o p l e a w a y f r o m t h e p r o p e r e n d o f ` m a n ' ( s e e
N u s s b a u m 1 9 9 0 ) . W h a t w a s l o s t i n C a r t e s i a n a n d P l a t o n i c t h o u g h t
w a s a c o n c e r n f o r t h e c o n c r e t e , t h e p a r t i c u l a r , t h e t e m p o r a l , t h e
h i s t o r i c a l , a n d t h e c u l t u r a l w h i c h h a d s h a p e d R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s m
a n d w h i c h h a d s u s t a i n e d t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n t r a d i t i o n .
T h e R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s t s , t h e n , c o u l d b e s a i d t o h a v e m u c h i n
c o m m o n w i t h t h e t h o u g h t s o f A r i s t o t l e . A s w e h a v e s e e n , A r i s t o t l e ' s
n o t i o n o f t h e G o o d d i f f e r e d s h a r p l y f r o m t h a t o f P l a t o . A r i s t o t l e
a p p e a r e d t o h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t v i e w o f t h e t e l e o l o g i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e a r t s i n w h a t i t m e a n t t o b e h u m a n . W h a t e v e r r o l e
t h e a r t s p l a y e d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e m i n t h e c o n t e x t o f
66
A r i s t o t l e ' s t h o u g h t s r e g a r d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f ` m a n ' . A p e r s o n w a s
c o m p r i s e d o f b o t h b o d y a n d p s y c h e - i n A r i s t o t l e ' s t e r m s ` s o u l ' -
w i t h a n i n b u i l t d e s i r e a n d c a p a c i t y t o m o v e t o w a r d s e u d e m o n i a -
u n d e r s t o o d a s h a p p i n e s s . A p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e t e r m
h a p p i n e s s , h o w e v e r , m u s t i n c l u d e t h e n o t i o n o f b e h a v i n g w e l l a n d
f a r i n g w e l l ( A r i s t o t l e 1 9 7 6 , p . 8 4 ; M a c I n t y r e 1 9 6 6 , p . 5 9 ) H o w e v e r ,
s u c h h a p p i n e s s w a s n o t ` a l o w g r a d e c o n t e n t m e n t ' b u t m o r e a
s u s t a i n e d a n d c a r e f u l c r a f t i n g o f a p e r s o n ' s w i l l a n d a c t i o n s t o w a r d s
a d e s i r e d e n d - a G o o d w h i c h c o u l d b e a f i n a l e n d i n i t s e l f - n o t a s a
g o o d e n d a m o n g m a n y . A r i s t o t l e ( 1 9 7 6 , p p . 7 3 , 7 4 ) s a w t h e s t a t e o f
h a p p i n e s s a s t h e f i n a l e n d o r f l o u r i s h i n g . T h u s , t h e n o t i o n o f
f l o u r i s h i n g o f w h i c h I s p e a k i s t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a f i n a l e n d - i t
w o u l d m a k e n o s e n s e t o s p e a k o f f l o u r i s h i n g i n o r d e r t h a t I c o u l d d o
s o m e t h i n g e l s e . I n f l o u r i s h i n g I a c h i e v e t h e f u l l n e s s o f m y B e i n g (
t h e f u l l e s t p o t e n t i a l o f w h i c h I a m c a p a b l e ) a n d i m p l i c i t i n t h a t
f l o u r i s h i n g i s t h a t I a m l e a d i n g a ` g o o d ' l i f e .
T h e r e i s a f u r t h e r p o i n t t h a t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e t o t h i s
r e s e a r c h , t h a t i s , i n w h a t m a n n e r i s i t p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e s u c h
h a p p i n e s s ? S u c h a n e n d , f o r A r i s t o t l e ( 1 9 7 6 , p . 7 4 ) , c o u l d n o t b e
a c h i e v e d ` i n s o l i t a r y i s o l a t i o n o r c o n t e m p l a t i o n ' ( a s m i g h t b e
s u g g e s t e d b y t h e P l a t o n i c i d e a o f a g o o d l i f e ) b u t c o u l d o n l y b e
d i s c o v e r e d w i t h i n r i g h t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h s e l f , f a m i l y , f r i e n d s a n d
s o c i e t y . T h u s c r i t i c a l n o t i o n s o f o n t o l o g y , a r t , e t h i c s a n d s o o n
a r e i n t r i n s i c a l l y ` s o c i a l ' i e . t h e y r e l a t e t o p e o p l e w h o a r e i n
v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s a n d t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e .
T h u s , f o r e x a m p l e , A r i s t o t l e ' s n o t i o n o f f r i e n d s h i p i s t o b e
u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . I c a n o n l y a c h i e v e
67
t h e f u l l n e s s o f m y B e i n g b y a n d t h r o u g h m y f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r .
I n o t h e r w o r d s I b e c o m e m o r e o f t h e ` I ' t h a t I a m c a p a b l e o f
b e c o m i n g t h r o u g h f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r ( s e e A r i s t o t l e 1 9 7 6 , B o o k
V 1 1 1 ) .
T o r e t u r n t o D e s c a r t e s a n d t h e b i r t h o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d . F o r t h e
v a r i o u s c o m p l e x r e a s o n s p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , D e s c a r t e s s e t o u t t o
e s t a b l i s h a c e r t a i n f o u n d a t i o n f o r k n o w l e d g e g r o u n d e d i n r a t i o n a l i t y .
K n o w l e d g e g a i n e d f r o m s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e , o r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f , c o u l d
n o t b e i n c l u d e d a s w e a r e l i a b l e t o b e d e c e i v e d o r m i s t a k e n a b o u t
r e a l i t y t h u s p e r c e i v e d a n d b e c a u s e t h e i n c r e a s e d e n m i t y a n d
i n t o l e r a n c e s t e m m i n g f r o m t h e v a r i o u s r e l i g i o u s w a r s t h r e a t e n e d t o
d e c i m a t e E u r o p e a n s o c i e t i e s . H o w e v e r , i n r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e
c h a l l e n g e o f d e M o n t a i g n e ' s b e l i e f t h a t ` c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e i s
i m p o s s i b l e ' ( T o u l m i n 1 9 9 0 , p . 6 2 ) a n d b y e l i m i n a t i n g a l l p r e v i o u s
w a y s b y w h i c h p e o p l e h a d g a i n e d a s e n s e o f k n o w l e d g e o r ` k n o w i n g ' ,
D e s c a r t e s e n d e d u p w i t h a p o s i t i o n w h e r e i t w a s f e l t t h a t t h e o n l y
t h i n g t h a t w a s b e y o n d d i s b e l i e f o r m i s t a k e , w a s h i s f a m o u s ` I t h i n k ,
t h e r e f o r e I a m ' . T h a t D e s c a r t e s ' e n d e a v o u r s m a y h a v e b e e n
m i s i n t e r p r e t e d h a s n o t p r e v e n t e d a c e r t a i n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s
p h i l o s o p h y ( n o t a b l y t h e f a m o u s C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m ) i n f l u e n c i n g
m o s t s y s t e m s o f t h o u g h t e v e r s i n c e . T h e t e n s i o n i n W e s t e r n t h o u g h t
b e t w e e n a n A r i s t o t e l i a n a n d C a r t e s i a n m o d e l o f e p i s t e m o l o g y h a s
p e r s i s t e d u n t i l t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a n d c a n b e b r i e f l y d e s c r i b e d a s t h e
t e n s i o n b e t w e e n t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r , t h e l o c a l a n d t h e
g e n e r a l , t h e t e m p o r a l a n d t h e t i m e l e s s . T h e p r e s e n t d o m i n a n c e o f a
P l a t o n i c m o d e o f t h o u g h t h a s e m e r g e d f r o m t h i s s t r u g g l e .
68
T h e M o d e r n : P e r s o n s a n d C o m m u n i t y .
T h e a t t e m p t s t o e s t a b l i s h a n o b j e c t i v e , r a t i o n a l , a b s t r a c t f o u n d a t i o n
o f k n o w l e d g e h a v e p e r m e a t e d m o d e l s o f e p i s t e m o l o g y , o n t o l o g y ,
e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s a t l e a s t u n t i l t h e 1 9 5 0 s . F r o m t h e s e v a r i o u s
i n f l u e n c e s h a v e c o m e v a r i o u s ` i s m s ' - r a t i o n a l i s m , p o s i t i v i s m ,
e m p i r i c i s m , o b j e c t i v i s m a n d s o o n . T h e e m p h a s i s o n p u r e l y
` o b j e c t i v e ' i n t e l l e c t u a l r e a s o n i n g ( i e . e x i s t i n g o u t s i d e o r s e p a r a t e
f r o m t h e s u b j e c t i v e s e l f ) w i t h t h e d i s t r u s t o f t h e b o d y , s e n s e s ,
f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s h a s h a d a l a s t i n g i m p a c t o n h o w t h e
f l o u r i s h i n g ( a n d h e a l t h ) o f h u m a n b e i n g s i s c o n c e i v e d i n m o d e r n
t i m e s - a n d h o w s u c h a s t a t e o f f l o u r i s h i n g m i g h t b e o b t a i n e d . B y
a p p l y i n g a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l a p p r o a c h i t w a s t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e
a n o b j e c t i v e ( i e . u n a m b i g u o u s a n d r e l i a b l e ) k n o w l e d g e o f h u m a n
b e h a v i o u r i n t h e s a m e w a y a s i t w a s t h o u g h t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e a ` t r u e '
s c i e n t i f i c , o r u n b i a s e d v i e w o f t h e n a t u r a l w o r l d v i a t h e m e t h o d s o f
p h y s i c s a n d s o o n .
T h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f M o d e r n r a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t h a v e h a d a p r o f o u n d
i m p a c t o n t h e w a y s i n w h i c h n o t i o n s o f p e r s o n s , t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s -
a n d t h e i r c a r e - i s c o n c e i v e d . T h e d o m i n a n t s o c i a l m e t a p h y s i c s i s
o n e o f a t o m i s m a n d t h e s e n s e o f o u r S e l v e s a s s o c i a l b e i n g s -
i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d w i t h o t h e r s - h a s b e e n l o s t .
K n o w l e d g e h a s b e c o m e c o n f u s e d w i t h o r c o l l a p s e d i n t o ` f a c t s ' - a n d
f a c t s ( b e i n g s c i e n t i f i c a n d u n a m b i g u o u s ) a r e t h o u g h t t o b e t h e
o n l y r e l i a b l e w a y t o ` t r u t h ' . S c i e n t i s m h a s l e d t o a s i t u a t i o n w h e r e
o n l y p h y s i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e v a l u e d a n d s o u g h t . I n h e a l t h c a r e , f o r
e x a m p l e , i f t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f d i s e a s e a r e t h e p r i m e f o c u s o f a
69
` p r o p e r ' m e d i c i n e , i t h a s l e f t n o r o o m f o r t h e u n i q u e p e r s o n a l
e n c o u n t e r w i t h a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
a s p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o e v a l u a t e a n d m e a s u r e b y
t h e m e t h o d s o f s c i e n c e i t h a s , g e n e r a l l y , b e e n l e f t o u t o f a c c o u n t a n d
w h a t e v e r q u e s t i o n s a r o s e f r o m s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s s i m i l a r l y c o u l d n o t
b e a n s w e r e d . M o r a l p h i l o s o p h y a n d t h e o l o g y ( s u b j e c t e d t o t h e s a m e
r a t i o n a l i s t i c t r e a t m e n t ) c o u l d n o t , i n a s i m i l a r w a y , a c c o m m o d a t e t h e
c o n c r e t e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e s o f p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s . T h e p e r s o n a l
t h e n h a d t o b e r e m o v e d f r o m e t h i c s a n d m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y t o
` p a s t o r a l t h e o l o g y ' w h e r e ( s o m e t i m e s ) s o m e w h a t d i f f e r e n t r u l e s
c o u l d b e a p p l i e d .
T h e A r t s a n d T h e M o d e r n .
T h e h u m a n i t i e s ( i n c l u d i n g ` t h e a r t s ' ) w e r e n o t e x e m p t f r o m
R a t i o n a l i s t i n f l u e n c e s . S o m e a r t i s t s a s s e r t e d t h a t a ` h u m a n l i f e
l i v e d b y c a l c u l a t i v e r e a s o n a l o n e i s s c a r c e l y w o r t h l i v i n g ' a n d
e x a l t e d h u m a n p a s s i o n s a n d e m o t i o n s - b u t , a s T o u l m i n c l a i m s
( 1 9 9 0 , p . 1 4 8 ) , s u c h a d i v i s i o n w a s o n l y d u a l i s m i n a d i f f e r e n t f o r m .
D u r i n g t h e m o d e r n p e r i o d , a r t ( w i t h s c i e n c e a n d m e d i c i n e ) l o s t
s i g h t o f i t s h u m a n ` e n d ' , i t s ` p r a c t i c a l i t y ' i e . t o e n a b l e t h e
f l o u r i s h i n g a n d s u r v i v a l o f p e o p l e a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . W h e n a r t
l o s t t h e f r a m e w o r k o f r e l i g i o n t h a t h a d f o r m e r l y p r o v i d e d i t s
m o o r i n g a n d f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e ( i t s l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ) a r t i s t s
h a d t o c o n s t r u c t , n o t o n l y t h e i r o w n p a t t e r n s o f m e a n i n g a n d t r u t h ,
b u t e s t a b l i s h a l l t h e n e c e s s a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p s - i n t e r n a l a n d e x t e r n a l -
t h a t w o u l d e n a b l e o t h e r s t o s e e a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r w o r k a n d d e r i v e
n o u r i s h m e n t f r o m i t ( s e e B a r z u n 1 9 7 4 a n d G a d a m e r 1 9 9 1 ) . T h i s
70
w o u l d s o m e w h a t m i r r o r t h e m o d e r n n e e d t o f i n d a n a d e q u a t e
` l a n g u a g e ' t o e x p r e s s t h e r e l i g i o u s . T h e s e t a s k s w e r e , p e r h a p s , m o r e
d i f f i c u l t t h a n t h e y h a d e v e r b e e n i n t h e p a s t w h e n t h e r e w e r e
r e c o g n i s e d s y m b o l s a n d s y s t e m s o f m e a n i n g , b u t n o t i m p o s s i b l e . A s
t h e p a i n t e r M c C a h o n ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 2 6 ) s a i d ;
I n t h i s p r e s e n t t i m e i t i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p a i n t f o r o t h e r p e o p l e - t o p a i n t b e y o n d y o u r o w n e n d s a n d p o i n t d i r e c t i o n s a s p a i n t e r s o n c e d i d . O n c e t h e p a i n t e r w a s m a k i n g s i g n s a n d s y m b o l s f o r p e o p l e t o l i v e b y ; n o w h e m a k e s t h i n g s t o h a n g o n w a l l s a t e x h i b i t i o n s .
A r t a n d a r t i s t s a r e c r e a t u r e s o f t h e i r o w n t i m e a s m u c h a r e s c i e n t i s t s
a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s . A r t w a s i n f e c t e d b y a s c i e n t i f i c
m e n t a l i t y a s m u c h a s w e r e s c i e n t i s t s t h e m s e l v e s . A s B a r z u n
( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 0 2 ) h a s s a i d , m u c h m o d e r n a r t c a m e t o b e d i s c u s s e d , n o t i n
t e r m s o f i t s ` s o u l ' - t h e s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n s w i t h w h i c h t h e a r t i s t
s o u g h t t o g r a p p l e - b u t p u r e l y i n t e r m s o f ` f o r m a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s ' a n d
a r t i s t s b e g a n t o s p e a k l i k e s c i e n t i s t s . . s p a c e , r h y t h m , a s y m m e t r y , o r
d i m e n s i o n s v a g u e l y u s e d t o s u g g e s t t h e a t m o s p h e r e o f R e l a t i v i t y
t h e o r y . T h e s e w e r e t h e a r t i s t i c e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e c e l l s , a t o m s a n d s o
o n o f s c i e n c e . L i k e s c i e n c e a n d m e d i c i n e , s u c h a r t l o o k e d o n l y
i n w a r d s t o i t s e l f b u t t h e a t t e n t i o n l a v i s h e d o n t h e b u i l d i n g b l o c k s
m a d e i t i m p o s s i b l e t o s e e w h a t t y p e o f b u i l d i n g w a s b e i n g
c o n s t r u c t e d a n d o b l i v i o u s t o t h e f a c t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e d i d n o t r e l i s h
t h e i d e a o f l i v i n g i n t h e b u i l d i n g a t a l l . I n a c e r t a i n s e n s e t h i s t y p e
o f a r t b e c a m e m e a n i n g l e s s .
T h e a r t t h a t w a s p r o d u c e d u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f s u c h a R a t i o n a l i s t
p h i l o s o p h y h a d t w o e f f e c t s . L i k e h i g h l y t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f
s c i e n c e , s u c h f o r m a l a r t ( d e c o n t e x u a l i z e d f r o m l i f e ) d e m a n d e d a n
i n t e r p r e t e r ( c a l l e d a c r i t i c o r g a l l e r y d i r e c t o r ) w h o c o u l d t r a n s l a t e
71
` t h e m e a n i n g ' o f t h e w o r k t o a v i e w e r . T h i s n o t o n l y i n c r e a s e d t h e
` d i s t a n c e ' b e t w e e n a v i e w e r a n d a r t w o r k ( a n d t h e a r t i s t ) b u t
f o s t e r e d a l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e v i e w e r t o b e a b l e t o e x p e r i e n c e
a n d j u d g e a w o r k f o r t h e m s e l v e s . T h e l a c k o f a p r o p e r d i a l e c t i c a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e v i e w e r , t h e w o r k a n d t h e a r t i s t l e d t o a l a c k
o f e n r i c h i n g s o c i a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o n t h e p a r t o f b o t h .
R e s p o n s e s t o a n a r t w o r k f o l l o w e d t h e ` n o r m a l i s i n g ' p a t t e r n o f
F o u c a u l t ' s ( 1 9 7 3 ) b i o - p o w e r w h e r e a l l r e s p o n s e s a r e r e d u c e d t o t h e
o n e f o r m i e . t h e r e w a s o n e w a y t o r e s p o n d t o a w o r k a n d t h a t w a s t h e
w a y ` i n t e r p r e t e d ' e i t h e r b y t h e a r t i s t ( i n a n a r t i s t ' s s t a t e m e n t ) o r b y
t h e a r t e s t a b l i s h m e n t . S e c o n d l y , t h e c a p a c i t y t o e x p e r i e n c e a n a r t
w o r k ( h o w e v e r i n t e r p r e t e d ) r e f l e c t s , t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t , a m o d e r n
u t i l i t a r i a n a t t i t u d e - o r h o w k n o w l e d g e a n d t r u t h a r e c o n c e i v e d .
K n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m c o u l d n o t , i n m o d e r n t h o u g h t , b e g a i n e d f r o m
i n t e l l i g e n t r e f l e c t i o n o n e x p e r i e n c e a s h a d b e e n t h e c a s e p r i o r t o t h e
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . N o w k n o w l e d g e w a s e q u a t e d w i t h n u m b e r s -
a n d n u m b e r s t h a t c a n b e m e a s u r e d . P e r s o n s b e c a m e ` f a c t g a t h e r e r s '
a n d k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m w e r e a s s u m e d t o g r o w i n d i r e c t
p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e a m o u n t o f f a c t s t h a t o n e w a s a b l e t o a c c u m u l a t e
( s e e G i l k e y 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e ` s k i l l s ' t o d o s o m e t h i n g b e c a m e i m p o r t a n t ,
b u t n o t t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t s h o u l d o n e d o ? ' . S o m e t h i n g o f t h i s
a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s ` s k i l l s ' i s r e f l e c t e d , I b e l i e v e , i n t h e c o m m o n
r e q u e s t s I r e c e i v e f r o m h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o t e a c h t h e m
` a b o u t i n t e r p r e t i n g ' a r t . I b e l i e v e i t i s s i g n i f i c a n t t h a t I a m a s k e d t o
t e a c h a s k i l l a b o u t a r t , n o t t h a t I t e a c h t h e m h o w t o d o a r t a n d f o r
t h e m t o l e a r n b y r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e i r o w n p r a c t i c e .
72
W h e n i t b e c a m e n e c e s s a r y f o r a r t i s t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e i r o w n
r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n f o r m a n d c o n t e n t i t w a s o f t e n m a d e d i f f i c u l t
f o r o t h e r s t o a c c e s s t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e i r w o r k . A r t i s t s n o t o n l y h a d
t o d i s c o v e r a w a y o f a d e q u a t e l y s a y i n g w h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o s a y , b u t
m o r e i m p o r t a n t l y d i s c o v e r i n g w h a t i t w a s t h a t t h e y w a n t e d t o s a y .
T h i s n e e d n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e a h a n d i c a p , e x c e p t t h a t w h e n t h e
i m a g i n a t i o n h a s b e e n i m p o v e r i s h e d ( o r k i l l e d ) a r t i s t s ( a l o n g w i t h
m a n y o t h e r s ) f i n d t h a t t h e y d o n ' t h a v e a n y t h i n g w o r t h w h i l e t o s a y -
o r w h a t t h e y d o h a v e t o s a y i s s o t r i v i a l a n d s h a l l o w t h a t i t d o e s n o t
s p e a k o f e s s e n t i a l a n d s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n s n o r o f t h e d e e p e s t
a s p i r a t i o n s o f t h e h u m a n s p i r i t . I t d o e s n o t t h e n s p e a k t o t h e l i v e s
o f t h e v i e w e r s , d o e s n o t n o u r i s h a n d f e e d t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n , n o r
m a n i f e s t a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f ` s e e i n g ' - a n d t h i s , I b e l i e v e , i s t h e
m e a n i n g o f B a r z u n ' s p h r a s e ` p u r e a r t . . . d o e s n o t a p p l y t o t h e r e a l
w o r l d ( a n d t h e r e f o r e ) s t r i c t l y , a r t h a s n o m e a n i n g ' ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 0 3 ) .
A r t i s d e v o i d o f l i f e , t h e r e f o r e ( i n a t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e p h r a s e ) a r t i s
d e a d .
U n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t , r e a s o n , e s p e c i a l l y i t s
a p p l i c a t i o n i n s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y , c a m e t o b e a t t r i b u t e d w i t h t h e
s a m e r e d e m p t i v e p o w e r s a s w e r e f o r m e r l y a s c r i b e d t o a G o d i e . t o
s a v e t h e w o r l d , b r i n g h a p p i n e s s , m e a n i n g , p r o s p e r i t y a n d p e r s o n a l
f u l f i l m e n t . T h i s d e n i e d t h e r e a l e x i g e n c i e s o f l i f e a s c h a n c y ,
a m b i g u o u s a n d u n c e r t a i n a n d f o s t e r e d a b e l i e f i n c e r t a i n t y t h a t w a s
a t o d d s w i t h t h e p r a g m a t i c h u m i l i t y o f t h e R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s t s .
A n a t t i t u d e c a m e t o p r e v a i l t h a t i f s c i e n c e a n d t e c h n o l o g y c a n n o t
p r e s e n t l y p r o v i d e a l l k n o w l e d g e , i t i s o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e a n d
m o n e y b e f o r e s u c h a n s w e r s w i l l b e f o r t h c o m i n g . T h e s e s e v e r a l
73
f a c t o r s h a v e l e d t o a r a d i c a l r e v i s i o n i n g o f ` r i g h t ' e n d s . E c o n o m i c
r a t i o n a l i s m ( o r i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n ) , f o r e x a m p l e , s e e s t h e ` r i g h t '
e n d a s l y i n g i n n o n h u m a n t e r m s i e . i n t e r m s o f e c o n o m i c e f f i c i e n c y
a n d s u c c e s s ( C h a r l e s T a y l o r 1 9 9 1 , p . 5 ) w i t h c o n s e q u e n t l y p r o f o u n d
e f f e c t s o n t h e h e a l t h c a r e o f p e r s o n s .
M o d e r n r a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t a n d t h e d r a m a t i c e x p a n s i o n o f s c i e n c e
a n d t e c h n o l o g y h a s l e d t o a n o t h e r f e a t u r e o f m o d e r n s o c i e t i e s -
s p e c i a l i s a t i o n - w h i c h h a s h a d m o r e o f a d e v a s t a t i n g i m p a c t t h a n i s
c o m m o n l y r e a l i z e d . P a r t l y a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e v a s t a m o u n t o f
k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s n o w a v a i l a b l e f o r e a s y d i s s e m i n a t i o n -
s p e c i a l i s a t i o n h a s b e c o m e t h e n o r m - e n c o u r a g e d a s w e l l a s
h a n d s o m e l y r e w a r d e d . I n f r e q u e n t l y ( a t l e a s t u n t i l r e c e n t t i m e s )
d o e s o n e h e a r c a u t i o n s a g a i n s t s u c h s p e c i a l i s a t i o n n o r c r i t i c a l
r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e d i s a s t r o u s c o n s e q u e n c e s o f s u c h m o v e m e n t s .
M a r i t a i n , h o w e v e r , w r i t i n g i n 1 9 3 0 s a n d 1 9 4 0 s , a r g u e s t h a t s u c h
i n c r e a s e d s p e c i a l i s a t i o n n o t o n l y l e a d s t o t h e d e h u m a n i s a t i o n o f
h u m a n e x i s t e n c e , b u t i s i t s e l f a s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e i d e a l s o f
d e m o c r a c y - a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a j u s t e t h i c ;
H o w c a n a n y p e r s o n m a k e a n y j u d g e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e g o o d o f m e n i f t h e y o n l y k n o w o f t h e i r o w n s m a l l f i e l d o f e n d e a v o u r ? ( M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 , p . 1 9 )
B r o d y , w r i t i n g i n 1 9 9 2 , r e c o g n i s e s s o m e o f t h e p e r i l s i n h e r e n t i n
s p e c i a l i s a t i o n ( a n d f o r e c a s t s t h e n e e d f o r t h e h u m a n i t i e s t o b e a n
i n t e g r a l p a r t o f m e d i c a l e d u c a t i o n ) w h e n h e s a y s ; t h a t t h e s t a n d a r d i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d a n a l y t i c t o o l s o f o n e ' s d i s c i p l i n e t e n d t o e r e c t b a r r i e r s t o l o o k i n g a t t h i n g s i n d i f f e r e n t w a y s , w h e r e a s i m a g i n a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e m a y f o r c e o n e t o r e a l i z e f o r t h e f i r s t t i m e t h a t t h e b a r r i e r s a r e t h e r e , a n d w h a t l i e s o n t h e o t h e r s i d e . ( B r o d y 1 9 9 2 , p . x , x i )
74
F r o m a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , b u t I s u g g e s t r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s a m e
` n a r r o w i n g ' d a n g e r s a s i d e n t i f i e d b y M a r i t a i n ( 1 9 7 2 ) , i s B r i t i s h
d r a m a t h e r a p i s t J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 ) c o m m e n t i n g o n t h e u s e o f d r a m a i n
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . I n a d v o c a t i n g t h e u s e o f g r e a t a r t w o r k s ( i n
t h i s i n s t a n c e S h a k e s p e a r i a n p l a y s ) f o r t h e c l i e n t s o f d r a m a t h e r a p y
J e n n i n g s r e m a r k s ; I f h u m a n b e i n g s o n l y e x p l o r e w i t h i n t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d w i t h t h e i r l i m i t e d a n d d a m a g e d s e l v e s , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a b o u n d a r y o n h o w f a r w e c a n t r a v e l . ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 5 )
A t a l o c a l l e v e l , t h e A u s t r a l i a n A I D S Q u i l t h a s b e c o m e a p o t e n t
f o r c e f o r h e a l i n g a n d r e c o n c i l i a t i o n f o r a n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s - o n e o f
w h i c h i s t h a t i t h a s r e s t o r e d a r t t o i t s s o c i a l f u n c t i o n - i t h a s ` b r o k e n
d o w n s o m e o f t h e o f b o u n d a r i e s ' t h a t f e n c e d a r t o f f f r o m t h e l i v e s o f
o r d i n a r y p e o p l e . I t i s d e m o c r a t i c i n t h e o r i g i n a l s e n s e o f t h e w o r d .
D e a t h a n d i l l n e s s a r e b o t h g r e a t l e v e l l e r s , b u t w i t h t h e Q u i l t t h e
l e v e l l i n g h a s b r o u g h t f o r t h a n e w a p p r e c i a t i o n o f w h a t a d e m o c r a t i c
i d e a l m i g h t l o o k l i k e . T h e a r t f o r m , a n d t h e s e v e r a l r i t u a l s o f t h e
Q u i l t , b o t h p e r m i t a n d e n a b l e p e o p l e t o c a r e a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s
o f t e n e r e c t e d b y i d e o l o g i e s , s t a t u s , g e o g r a p h y a n d g e n d e r - t h e r e b y
r a i s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f s o m e n e w f o r m s o f c o m m u n i t y .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e Q u i l t m a k e s v i s i b l e t h e i n t e r f a c e o f t h e p r i v a t e a n d
t h e c o m m u n a l . I t i s o n e t h i n g t o m a k e a p a n e l f o r t h e Q u i l t t o
r e m e m b e r s o m e o n e w h o h a s d i e d , a n d f o r s o m e p e o p l e t h a t m a y b e
e n o u g h . F o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e o p l e t h e r i t u a l h a n d i n g o v e r o f t h e i r
p a n e l t o b e i n c o r p o r a t e d i n a n a t i o n a l a n d g l o b a l p r o j e c t i s a n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e h e a l i n g p r o c e s s . I n t h e h a n d i n g o v e r o f t h e i r
Q u i l t , t h e i r p r i v a t e g r i e f i s j o i n e d i n a g l o b a l l a n g u a g e o f g r i e f ,
w h i c h a t t h e s a m e t i m e s a n s w e r s t h e i r p e r s o n a l n e e d f o r h e a l i n g .
75
A r t f o r m s l i k e t h e A I D S Q u i l t w o u l d a n s w e r w h a t S l o t e r d i j k
( 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 8 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y p r e s s u r e o n t h e a r t s t o
r e j e c t s o m e o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e i n f l u e n c e s o f M o d e r n i s m a n d t o ;
d e f e n d t h e t r u t h o f l i f e a g a i n s t f l a t e m p i r i c i s m a n d d e a d l y p o s i t i v i s m , w h i c h a r e n o l o n g e r c a p a b l e o f a n a w a r e n e s s o f a n y t h i n g m o r e t h a n f a c t s a n d w h i c h a r e t h e r e f o r e i n c a p a b l e o f c u l l i n g t h e e n e r g y t o c r e a t e n e w i n t e r - r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f v i t a l o r l i v i n g f o r c e s .
S e v e r a l f u r t h e r m o v e m e n t s o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d h a v e h a d a d e c i s i v e
i n f l u e n c e o n h o w t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n s ( a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s )
m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d ; t h e r i s e i n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s ( w i t h c o n s e q u e n t
f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f r u r a l s o c i e t i e s ) ; t h e a d v e n t o f a s e c u l a r a g e , a n d
t h e s p r e a d o f l i t e r a c y w h i c h a g a i n a d d e d t o s o c i a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n -
p e o p l e n o l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t u p o n c e r t a i n m e m b e r s o f t h e g r o u p f o r
t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e a r t i c u l a t i o n o f c o m m o n
m e a n i n g s a n d v a l u e s . I t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 )
s a w o n e o f t h e i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s o f a r t a s l y i n g i n t h e
t r a n s m i s s i o n o f c u l t u r e f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r - a s m i g h t
s t i l l p e r t a i n i n m a n y A b o r i g i n a l c o m m u n i t i e s t o d a y ( M i c h a e l s 1 9 9 4 ) .
A M o d e r n V i e w o f P e r s o n s .
R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t h a s i n f l u e n c e d c o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s o f p e r s o n ,
o f c o m m u n i t y , o f a r t , o f e t h i c s - a n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t w e r e
t h o u g h t t o e x i s t ( o r n o t e x i s t ) b e t w e e n t h e m . T h i s s e c t i o n w i l l
f o c u s o n t h r e e a s p e c t s o f t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n s a s i n t e g r a l t o a r t ,
h e a l t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . F i r s t l y , t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y w i l l
b e e x p l o r e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e r o l e o f n a r r a t i v e i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
s u c h i d e n t i t y w i l l b e e x a m i n e d , a n d t h i r d l y , t h e r o l e o f t h e
76
i m a g i n a t i o n i n w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p e r s o n - p a r t i c u l a r l y a s i t
r e l a t e s t o t h e c a p a c i t y t o s u f f e r a n d t o h e a l - w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d .
T h e N a t u r e o f P e r s o n a l I d e n t i t y .
A s w e h a v e s e e n , C a s s e l l ' s ( 1 9 9 1 ) n o t i o n o f a p e r s o n e n c o m p a s s e s a
c o m p l e x i t y o f S e l v e s - e a c h b e i n g d e r i v e d f r o m o r i n f l u e n c e d b y o u r
e n v i r o n m e n t , o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h o t h e r s , o u r p a r t i c u l a r g o a l s a n d
a s p i r a t i o n s , o u r h i s t o r y , a n d o u r u n i q u e p h y s i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n .
T h i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f p e r s o n s w a s d i f f i c u l t t o i n c o r p o r a t e i n M o d e r n
t h o u g h t w h i c h w a s a t o m i s t i c , d i v o r c e d f r o m c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r i t y ,
a n d a s p i r e d t o t h e g e n e r a l , t h e a b s t r a c t , a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l .
K n o w l e d g e , i e . o u r m o d e s o f k n o w i n g , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g g r o u n d e d i n
a d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n t h e e x i g e n c i e s o f a l i v e d h u m a n r e a l i t y a n d
a b s t r a c t t h e o r y , w a s o n l y t o b e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e g e n e r a l , t h e a b s t r a c t
a n d t h e u n i v e r s a l .
T h e W e s t e r n n o t i o n o f a P e r s o n a s a n a u t h e n t i c , a u t o n o mo u s i n d i v i d u a l
d e s e r v i n g o f d i g n i t y a n d r e s p e c t a n d w i t h ` r i g h t s ' t h a t a r e d e f i n e d
b y t h e v e r y f a c t o f h u ma n e x i s t e n c e i s a p r o d u c t o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d
a n d i s o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t o r i g i n . S u c h a n o t i o n c a m e a b o u t f o r
s e v e r a l r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , t h e c o l l a p s e o f s o c i a l h i e r a r c h i e s w h i c h
h a d d i c t a t e d t h a t h o n o u r , d i g n i t y a n d r e s p e c t w e r e a c c o r d e d t o
p e r s o n s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s t a t u s o f t h e i r b i r t h a n d p o s i t i o n .
S e c o n d l y , t h e r i s e o f d e m o c r a t i c s o c i e t i e s w h e r e i n a l l m e m b e r s w e r e
c o n s i d e r e d e q u a l . A t h i r d d e c i s i v e d e v e l o p m e n t c a m e a t t h e e n d o f
t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i t h t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a n o t i o n o f a n
77
i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a p e r s o n a l s e n s e o f m o r a l w o r t h a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y -
a n ` i n n e r v o i c e ' w h i c h k n e w w h a t w a s r i g h t a n d w r o n g a n d w h i c h
d i r e c t e d a n d i n f o r m e d p e r s o n a l a c t i o n s t o a c c o r d w i t h t h i s ` i n n e r
t r u t h ' . H o w e v e r , t h i s ` i n n e r t r u t h ' w a s n o w u n d e r s t o o d i n a v e r y
d i f f e r e n t w a y , n o t a s a m e a n s b y w h i c h o n e m i g h t a p p r e h e n d t r u t h (
a s u n d e r s t o o d f r o m w i t h i n a r e l i g i o u s f r a m e w o r k , f o r e x a m p l e
u n d e r s t a n d i n g G o d ' s w i l l ) b u t a s t h e v e r y w a y o f b e c o m i n g
a u t h e n t i c , a u t o n o m o u s , a n d i n d i v i d u a l ( s e e C h a r l e s T a y l o r
1 9 9 1 , 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a n ` i n n e r v o i c e ' o r
` i n n e r d e p t h s ' p l a y e d a c r i t i c a l r o l e i n d e t e r m i n i n g n o t o n l y
i n d i v i d u a l g o a l s a n d a s p i r a t i o n s , b u t i t p r o f o u n d l y a f f e c t e d n o t i o n s
o f c o m m u n i t y a n d p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h i s i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
n o t i c e a b l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s w h e r e i t m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s i g n
o f p a t h o l o g y , f o r e x a m p l e , t o a c k n o w l e d g e a r e l a t i o n s h i p o f
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h a n o t h e r . A s w e h a v e s e e n ,
a r t i s i n t r i n s i c a l l y s o c i a l - i t s p r a c t i c e s i n v i t e e n j o y m e n t , i n t i m a c y
a n d c o m m u n i t y . Y e t i n h e a l t h c a r e m i l i e u x d i s p l a y i n g s u c h a
r e s p o n s e t o p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r t p r a c t i c e s o f t e n i n v i t e s t h e j u d g m e n t
b y h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s t h a t a p e r s o n ` i s b e c o m i n g t o o
d e p e n d e n t ' - m e a n i n g l a c k i n g i n i n d e p e n d e n c e a n d a u t o n o m y .
T h e M o d e r n v i e w o f p e r s o n s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d a n d t h e
g r o u n d s f o r i t s r e j e c t i o n a r e w e l l e x e m p l i f i e d b y C h a r l e s T a y l o r
( 1 9 9 1 , p . 4 0 ) w h e n h e s a y s ;
I can define my identity only against the background of things that matter. But to bracket out history, nature, society, the demands of solidarity, everything but what I can find in myself, would be to eliminate all candidates for what matters. Only if I exist in a world in which history, or the demands of nature, or the needs of my fellow human beings, or the duties of citizenship, or the call of god, or something else of this order matters crucially, can I define an identity for myself that is not trivial.
78Authenticity is not the enemy of demands that emanate from beyond the self; it supposes such demands.
T w o b o t a n i c a l i m a g e s m a y s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f
a M o d e r n , a t o m i s t i c n o t i o n o f p e r s o n s . T h e s e i m a g e s a l s o s e r v e t o
i l l u s t r a t e a n o t i o n o f p e r s o n s ` b e c o m i n g ' a n d p r o v i d e a f u r t h e r
b a c k g r o u n d a g a i n s t w h i c h t h e n o t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e - i d e n t i t y ,
i n t e g r i t y , a n d n a r r a t i v e - c a n b e v i e w e d ( s e e D e w e y 1 9 8 0 a n d
M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 ) . T h e i m a g e b y w h i c h I ` i m a g i n e ' t h e n o t i o n o f
f l o u r i s h i n g i s o n e o f t w o t o m a t o b u s h e s . O n e c o u l d b e c a l l e d a
f l o u r i s h i n g t o m a t o b u s h . I t i s u p r i g h t , i t s l e a v e s a n d f r u i t h a v e a
l u s t r e a n d s h e e n , a n d t h e r e i s a q u e s t i n g c e r t a i n t y a b o u t t h e
d i r e c t i o n i n w h i c h i t s l e a v e s a n d b r a n c h e s g r o w . I t i s b l o o m i n g .
T h e o t h e r , t o o , h a s b r a n c h e s , l e a v e s a n d b l o o m s , b u t i t h a s t h e
a p p e a r a n c e o f b e i n g s o m e w h a t ` s l o p e s h o u l d e r e d ' a b o u t t h e b u s i n e s s
o f b e i n g a t o m a t o b u s h . I t a p p e a r s s t r u g g l i n g a n d i t c o u l d b e s a i d t o
b e ` s u b s i s t i n g ' r a t h e r t h a n ` l i v i n g ' a n d ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' .
T h e s e c o n d i m a g e i s o f a b u d d e v e l o p i n g i n t o a f l o w e r . T o b e
h u m a n , t o b e a P e r s o n , i s t o b e e m b o d i e d - t h a t i s w e h a v e a
p h y s i c a l , o r g a n i c , b i o l o g i c a l s t r u c t u r e . I t i s a l s o t r u e t o s a y t h a t o u r
e x i s t e n c e i s n o t m e r e l y a s a n o r g a n i c s t r u c t u r e b u t i s c o n s t i t u t e d b y
a c o m p l e x t e x t i l e o f m a n y i n t e r w o v e n t h r e a d s a n d e l e m e n t s - s e n s e s ,
m i n d , c h a r a c t e r , s p i r i t a n d s o u l . A s A p o s t o l o s - C a p p o d o n a (
1 9 8 4 , p . 2 4 ) r e m a r k s ;
t o b e h u m a n m e a n s m o r e t h a n t o b e a b l e t o t h i n k ; i t e n c o m p a s s e s t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l t h e s e n s e s a n d f a c u l t i e s w e a s s o c i a t e w i t h t h e h u m a n p e r s o n .
A b u d g r o w i n g i n t o a n o p e n f l o w e r i l l u s t r a t e s t h e p r o c e s s b y w h i c h
w e g r o w , b l o s s o m a n d f l o u r i s h . W e a r e b o r n a s a c l o s e d b u d a n d t h e
79
v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f o u r l i v e s e i t h e r e n a b l e u s t o o p e n o u r m a n y
p e t a l s t o t h e i r f u l l e s t e x t e n t a n d b e a u t y ( i e . t o b l o s s o m a n d
f l o u r i s h ) , o r , a l t e r n a t i v e l y , t o h a r m t h e e m e r g i n g p e t a l s t o s u c h a n
e x t e n t t h a t t h e y s h r i v e l a n d p e r h a p s d i e b e f o r e t h e y c a n f u l l y
d e v e l o p a s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e b l o o m . T h e p l a n t a n d f l o w e r l i v e
i n a c o m p l e x r e c i p r o c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h i t s n u t r i e n t s - t h e s o i l , a i r
a n d w a t e r w h i c h e n a b l e s i t t o f l o u r i s h , g r o w a n d b l o o m . I t c o u l d b e
s a i d t h a t t h e f l o u r i s h i n g p l a n t a n d i t s b l o o m s a r e a w o r k o f a r t . I t
m i g h t a l s o b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t s u c h w o r k s o f a r t c a n a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d
a s G o o d - a n d a s B e a u t y . I n t h e s a m e w a y a s i t m i g h t b e s u g g e s t e d
t h a t t h e e m b r y o n i c b u d o r p l a n t h a s a n i n h e r e n t c a p a c i t y t o a c h i e v e
t h i s u n i q u e f l o u r i s h i n g ( o r t h e G o o d o r B e a u t y ) s o i t m i g h t b e s a i d
t h a t t h e h u m a n o r g a n i s m h a s a s i m i l a r i n h e r e n t c a p a c i t y a n d d e s i r e
t o m a k e o f i t s e l f a w o r k o f a r t . T h e h u m a n n u t r i e n t s r e q u i r e d f o r
f l o u r i s h i n g w o u l d i n c l u d e f r i e n d s h i p , a s e n s e o f s u s t a i n i n g
c o m m u n i t y a n d w h a t a r e c o m m o n l y t e r m e d ` t h e a r t s ' - t h e m e a n s b y
w h i c h o u r i m a g i n a t i o n s a r e n u r t u r e d a n d t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h w e
( i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d c o m m u n a l l y ) ` m a k e s e n s e ' o r m e a n i n g o f t h e
v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e l e m e n t s o f o u r l i v e s .
I f a p e r s o n h a s a n i n h e r e n t c a p a c i t y , d e s i r e a n d n e e d f o r t h e g o o d ,
f o r b e a u t y , i t c o u l d b e s a i d t h a t a n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e ( o r s e n s e o f
b e a u t y , o r s e n s e o f ` l i f e ' , o r s e n s e o f ` r i g h t n e s s ' ) h a s t o d o w i t h a
r e c o g n i s i n g d i s c e r n m e n t o f t h o s e t h i n g s o r e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t c a n
c o n t r i b u t e t o o u r l i v e s a s f u l f i l l i n g t h a t o p t i m u m c o n d i t i o n - o u r
l i v e s a s w o r k s o f a r t . A n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e c o u l d t h u s b e d e s c r i b e d a s
a f a c u l t y t h a t d i s c e r n s ( o r a p p r e h e n d s ) t h e p o t e n t i a l i n e x p e r i e n c e s
t h a t c a n l e a d t o a n e x p a n s i o n a n d f l o u r i s h i n g o f o u r s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s
80
- o r w h i c h m a y c a u s e h a r m o r i n j u r y . A f u n d a m e n t a l a s s u m p t i o n
u n d e r l i e s t h i s s e c t i o n t h u s f a r , t h a t i s , t o g r o w , d e v e l o p a n d f l o u r i s h
i s g o o d a n d d e s i r a b l e . A f u r t h e r a s s u m p t i o n i s t h a t a l i f e o f m e a n i n g
a n d p u r p o s e i m p l i c i t i n t h e c o n c e p t o f g r o w t h , d e v e l o p m e n t a n d
f l o u r i s h i n g i s a G o o d a n d d e s i r e d l i f e . A s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r
` g r o w t h ' a n d ` d e v e l o p m e n t ' a r e n o t o n l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l
a s p e c t s o f o u r B e i n g - i t i s p o s s i b l e t o ` g r o w ' a n d ` d e v e l o p ' a s a
p e r s o n e v e n a s o u r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s d e c l i n e a n d d e g e n e r a t e . T h e
v a l i d i t y o f t h i s a s s u m p t i o n m u s t b e c h e c k e d a g a i n s t a c r i t i c a l
r e f l e c t i o n o n o u r l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e a n d a f u r t h e r b o t a n i c a l i m a g e w i l l
i n t r o d u c e a c a u t i o n a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t a l l
f l o u r i s h i n g i s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y G o o d . R a w l s , ( i n h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f
t h e o r i e s o f j u s t i c e , 1 9 7 1 ) , h o l d s t h a t ` G o o d ' i s , i n m a n y r e s p e c t s , a
m o r a l l y n e u t r a l c o n c e p t - t h a t i s , o f i t s o w n i t d o e s n o t s h e d
s u f f i c i e n t l i g h t o n t h e w h o l e n o t i o n o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o l e a d a j u s t ,
g o o d , a n d d e s i r a b l e l i f e . F o r e x a m p l e , r e t u r n i n g t o t h e t o m a t o
b u s h e s , i t i s p r o b a b l y w i t h i n t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f m o s t t o
r e c o g n i s e t h a t a l l f l o u r i s h i n g i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y ` g o o d , ' ` r i g h t ' a n d
d e s i r a b l e . M y n e i g h b o u r h a s , a t p r e s e n t , a t o m a t o b u s h t h a t i s s o
r a m p a n t i n i t s f l o u r i s h i n g t h a t i t h a s s u f f o c a t e d a n d k i l l e d a l l o t h e r
p l a n t s i n t h e v e g e t a b l e p a t c h . S o m e e n t r e p r e n e u r i a l s o u p m a k e r s
m a y r e j o i c e i n t h i s l u x u r i o u s f l o u r i s h i n g . T h e s a m e s e n s e o f j o y a n d
e x c i t e m e n t m a y n o t b e f e l t i f o n e w e r e a c a r r o t s t r u g g l i n g f o r
s u r v i v a l b e n e a t h t h e r a m p a n t t o m a t o . A p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
` f l o u r i s h i n g ' a n d t h e G o o d w o u l d t h u s b e i n f o r m e d b y t h e e t h i c a l
d e m a n d s o f i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f o u r s e l v e s w i t h
O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r . B a r z u n ( 1 9 7 4 , p . 1 4 8 ) e x t e n d s t h i s c a u t i o n t o
a r t w h e n h e s a y s t h a t i t i s w r o n g t o c o n s i d e r a l l a r t u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y
81
g o o d - a ` w e l l m e a n t d i s h o n e s t y ( t h a t ) w i l l r e t a r d b o t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l
a n d s o c i e t y ' .
T h e n o t i o n o f a p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y i s o n e t h a t i s h e l d t o b e c r i t i c a l l y
i m p o r t a n t , a t l e a s t i n c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . H o w e v e r ,
t h i s n o t i o n , a s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s s e c t i o n , i s f r e q u e n t l y
u n d e r s t o o d ( o r m i s u n d e r s t o o d ) a s m e a n i n g i n d e p e n d e n t f r o m a n d
s e p a r a t e d f r o m o t h e r s . I t i s , h o w e v e r , i m p o s s i b l e t o d e f i n e o u r
i d e n t i t y e x c e p t i n r e l a t i o n t o O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r - u n d e r s t o o d i n
t h i s c o n t e x t a s N a t u r e , t h e e n v i r o n m e n t - a s t h e s e s i m p l e e x a m p l e s
s e r v e t o i l l u s t r a t e . T h e c o n c e p t o f m o t h e r , f o r i n s t a n c e , c o u l d b e
s a i d t o h a v e n o m e a n i n g e x c e p t i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a c h i l d
o r c h i l d r e n ; t o s a y t h a t a h u m a n i s ` a l i v i n g , b r e a t h i n g o r g a n i s m '
m e a n s l o g i c a l l y t h a t t h e o r g a n i s m b r e a t h e s s o m e t h i n g O t h e r ( o x y g e n
a n d s o o n ) a n d f u r t h e r t h a t t h e r e i s a n i m p l i c i t a n d e x p l i c i t
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e t w o ( s e e C h a r l e s T a y l o r 1 9 9 2 a n d M a r k
T a y l o r 1 9 9 5 ) . T h u s , i t m u s t b e p o s s i b l e t o s a y t h a t o n e o f t h e
c o n s t i t u t i v e n o t i o n s o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a P e r s o n i s t h a t t h e
i d e n t i t y o f t h a t p e r s o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a n i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d a n
i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r . I t w o u l d a l s o s e e m
r e a s o n a b l e t o s a y t h a t a n y n o t i o n s o f t h e ` G o o d ' o r f l o u r i s h i n g t h a t
a r e u n c o v e r e d d u r i n g t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n ( a s t h e y a r e a p p l i e d t o h u m a n
P e r s o n s a n d h u m a n b e h a v i o u r ) m u s t a l s o e m b r a c e q u a l i t i e s t h a t
e n h a n c e , s u s t a i n a n d e n c o u r a g e t h i s i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d
i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e .
T h e n o t i o n o f p e r s o n a l i d e n t i t y m u s t a l s o e n c o m p a s s a p a r a d o x - a
n o t i o n o f a n o S e l f ( M a r k T a y l o r 1 9 9 2 ) . T h i s s e e m s i m p l i c i t i n
82
s o m e n o t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s - a n d m y s t i c a l e x p e r i e n c e s
w h e r e o n e e x p e r i e n c e s a s t a t e w h e r e o u r s e n s e o f S e l f i s s o m e h o w
s u s p e n d e d , t r a n s f o r m e d o r t r a n s c e n d e d . A s M e r t o n d e s c r i b e s i t ` i n
a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t , w e n o t o n l y l o s e o u r s e l v e s b u t f i n d
o u r s e l v e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e ( M e r t o n i n A p o s t o l o s - C a p p a d o n a
1 9 8 4 , p . 2 4 ) . A g a i n t h e r e i s a s e e m i n g p a r a d o x i n t h e S e l f t h a t i s
f o u n d i n t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s - n o t o n l y d o e s o n e f i n d a ` t r u e ' S e l f (
i n d i c a t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r d e g r e e o f u n i q u e n e s s a n d i n d i v i d u a l i t y ) b u t a
S e l f t h a t c a r r i e s w i t h i n i t a c e r t a i n e l e m e n t o f a n o n y m i t y - o r a S e l f
w i t h n o b o u n d a r i e s .
T h e r o l e o f N a r r a t i v e i n P e r s o n a l I d e n t i t y .
T h e i d e n t i t y o f a p e r s o n m i g h t a l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s n a r r a t i v e l y
c o n s t r u c t e d - a s a w o r k o f a r t i n p r o g r e s s . O u r i d e n t i t y a s P e r s o n s
i s s h a p e d ( l i k e a w o r k o f a r t ) b y t h e c u l t u r a l s t o r y a n d l a n d s c a p e o f
t h e s o c i e t y i n w h i c h w e l i v e a n d i n w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n b r o u g h t u p .
O u r i d e n t i t y i s f u r t h e r s h a p e d b y t h e i n t e r e s t s t h a t w e c h o o s e t o
p u r s u e . F o r e x a m p l e , m y i d e n t i t y , m y s e n s e o f S e l f i s d i f f e r e n t
s i n c e I d e c i d e d s o m e y e a r s a g o t h a t , w h a t e v e r I d i d i n t h e f u t u r e , i t
m u s t s o m e h o w i n v o l v e a r t . T h a t c h o i c e h a s o b v i o u s l y m e a n t t h a t I
c a n ` n o t ' ( w i t h i n t e g r i t y ) c h o o s e o t h e r p a t h s ; t h a t s o m e o p t i o n s a r e
` n o t ' o p e n t o m e . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t I a m n o t f r e e t o d o o t h e r
j o b s , b u t r a t h e r a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t t h e y h a v e b e c o m e i n s t r u m e n t a l i n
t h e p u r s u i t o f m y m a i n d i r e c t i o n .
H o w e v e r , w h i l e i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t I a m ` f r e e ' t o c o n s t r u c t m y
n a r r a t i v e a s I w i s h , t h a t f r e e d o m i s c o l o u r e d b y t h e s a m e c o n s t r a i n t s
83
t h a t a p p l y t o m y a r t m a k i n g - i n n e r t r u t h , a u t h e n t i c i t y a n d a c e r t a i n
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o w a r d s o t h e r s . A s B r u n e r ( 1 9 8 7 , p . 1 4 ) , a s s e r t s ;
not just any autobiography will do - either for its teller or for his listener...one imposes criteria of rightness on the self-report of a life just as one imposes them on the account of a football game or the report of an event in nature.
O u r i d e n t i t y , o u r p e r s o n a l n a r r a t i v e , o u r p e r s o n a l l a n d s c a p e , i s
s h a p e d n o t o n l y b y t h e s t o r i e s t h a t w e t e l l o f o u r s e l v e s , b u t a l s o b y
t h e s t o r i e s t h a t w e a r e p e r m i t t e d ( o r n o t p e r m i t t e d ) t o t e l l o f
o u r s e l v e s ( L e F e v r e , 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 4 ) . W i t h i n m o d e r n m e d i c i n e , f o r
e x a m p l e , t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s w a s d i s m i s s e d , i g n o r e d ,
n o t r e c o r d e d o r r i d i c u l e d a s ` f a n c i f u l ' ( s e e S a c k s 1 9 8 4 ) . I n a n a r t
` m a r k e t ' s i m i l a r f o r c e s m a y d e t e r m i n e t h a t t h e ` d a r k p e r i o d '
p a i n t i n g s o f a p a r t i c u l a r a r t i s t m i g h t n o t f i n d a r e a d y m a r k e t - w i t h
t h e r e s u l t t h a t s u c h w o r k s ( s u c h n a r r a t i v e s ) h a v e e i t h e r t o b e
p e r s o n a l l y c e n s o r e d o r n o t e x h i b i t e d . A g a i n , o u r n a r r a t i v e s a r e
c o n s t r a i n e d b y h o w f r e e d o m i s i n t e r p r e t e d . M u c h s u f f e r i n g ( o r
h a r m t o o u r S e l v e s ) c a n a t t e n d t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t p r e v e n t u s
f r o m r e v e a l i n g o u r i n n e r t r u t h s . S o m e c o m m o n e x a m p l e s w o u l d
i n c l u d e ;
a. the `shutters ' come down when one speaks of grief and bereavement - so
that the grieving Self is not permitted to be spoken and heard and,
b . t h e d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y o f a n i n s t i t u t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e t h e b i o -
m e d i c a l m o d e l i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , e r e c t s b a r r i e r s t o d i f f e r e n t
w a y s o f s e e i n g , t o t h e t e l l i n g o f d i f f e r e n t n a r r a t i v e s t h a t m i g h t
c h a l l e n g e a n d t h r e a t e n t h e s t a t u s q u o .
O n t h e o n e h a n d , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t w e d o h a v e t h e
f r e e d o m - w i t h i n c e r t a i n l e g a l a n d m o r a l c o n s t r a i n t s - t o n a r r a t e
o u r s e l v e s a s w e w o u l d l i k e t o b e p e r c e i v e d . F u r t h e r , a s B r u n e r
84
( 1 9 8 7 , p . 1 4 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t , a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l a c c o u n t s . . . ( a r e )
n o t a b l y u n s t a b l e ( w h i c h m a k e s t h e m ) h i g h l y s u s c e p t i b l e t o c u l t u r a l ,
i n t e r p e r s o n a l , a n d l i n g u i s t i c i n f l u e n c e s . I n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e r e a r e f u r t h e r p a r a d o x i c a l ` b a r r i e r s ' t o h e a r i n g t h e
s t o r i e s o f a n o t h e r . T h e s e a r e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e t h e ` r i g h t ' i n t e g r i t y
o f d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n a n e m p a t h e t i c c o m p a s s i o n f o r a n o t h e r s l i p s o v e r
i n t o a t o t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n - w h i c h n o l o n g e r a l l o w s t h e O t h e r t o b e
s e e n a s O t h e r ( A d a m s i n G r i f f i t h 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 ) . W h a t a p p e a r s t o b e
r e q u i r e d i s t o h o l d t h e t e n s i o n - t o k e e p o p e n a m o r a l s p a c e -
b e t w e e n t h e d e m a n d s o f c o m p a s s i o n ( t h a t w e m i g h t f e e l a s t h o u g h
w e w e r e t h e o t h e r ) a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t w e a r e ` n o t ' t h a t o t h e r . I n
t h e s a m e w a y t h a t A n g l o - S a x o n s a r e ( g e n e r a l l y ) n o t ` a t h o m e ' w i t h
s p e a k i n g o f g r i e f a n d b e r e a v e m e n t , n o r , s i m i l a r l y , a r e w e a t h o m e
w i t h p e o p l e i n d i s t r e s s o r s u f f e r i n g . T h e i n s t i n c t i v e r e s p o n s e t o
c o m f o r t , t o h u g , t o ` s t o p t h e c r y i n g ' a l w a y s h a s a n o t h e r s i d e . A l l
t h e v e r y n a t u r a l i n s t i n c t s t o c o m f o r t m a y b e w e l l m e a n t , b u t m i g h t ,
a t t h e s a m e t i m e , p r e v e n t a n a r r a t i v e f r o m b e i n g t o l d . I m i g h t t h i n k
I k n o w h o w a n o t h e r f e e l s ( a s g r i e f h a s s o m e u n i v e r s a l p a r a l l e l s ) ,
b u t I d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d u n t i l I a l l o w y o u t o t e l l m e h o w y o u p a i n t
y o u r p i c t u r e o f g r i e f o r , t h e w o r d s t h a t y o u c h o o s e f o r y o u r
n a r r a t i v e .
85
S u f f e r i n g
A s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , t h e n o t i o n o f p a i n a n d t h e
n o t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g , w h i l e o f t e n c o n f u s e d o r c o l l a p s e d i n t o o n e
a n o t h e r , a r e n o t t h e s a m e t h i n g . S u f f e r i n g d o e s n o t r e f e r t o a
p h y s i c a l s t a t e b u t t o a n o n t o l o g i c a l r e a l i t y - a s t a t e w h e r e a p e r s o n
i s f e a r f u l t h a t t h e i r s t a t e o f B e i n g , t h e i r S e l f , t h e i r i d e n t i t y , i s i n
d a n g e r o f d e a t h , d e s t r u c t i o n o r i n j u r y . U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n a r r a t i v e
n a t u r e o f o u r i d e n t i t y a s p e r s o n s m i g h t a l s o p r o v i d e a d i f f e r e n t w a y
o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t w h i c h ` l e t s u s
t r a n s f o r m r e a l i t y . . . t o r e s t r u c t u r e r e a l i t y s o t h a t w e c a n l i v e w i t h t h e
s u f f e r i n g ' ( D e S t a e b l e r 1 9 8 4 , p . 2 5 ) . T h e n o t i o n o f s u f f e r i n g m i g h t
t h e n a l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s i n c o r p o r a t i n g a c a p a c i t y t o s e e t h a t t h e
o l d p i c t u r e - t h e o l d r u l e s - o r t h e o l d c o n s t r u c t - o l d f o r m - o r o l d
i d e n t i t y - n o l o n g e r h o l d ` t h e t e r r o r o r f e a r o f t h e f o r m l e s s ' a t b a y .
I n a n A B C p r o g r a m i n 1 9 8 9 e n t i t l e d ` I t ' s o n l y a n i l l n e s s ' a m a n w i t h
A I D S s a i d ;
N o t h i n g l i k e t h i s h a d e v e r h a p p e n e d t o m e b e f o r e a n d I f o u n d I h a d n o l a n g u a g e t o s p e a k a b o u t i t .
S u f f e r i n g , t h e n , m i g h t a l s o b e s e e n a s i n d i c a t i n g a t i m e w h e n t h e
r e d e m p t i v e s p a c e w h i c h c a n o p e n u p b e t w e e n t h e o l d l a n g u a g e a n d
t h e n e w h a s n o t y e t b e e n p a i n t e d i n t h e n e w c o l o u r s o f l i f e - a n d
i n d i c a t i n g , p e r h a p s , a f u r t h e r r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t , w h a t e v e r n e w c o l o u r s
a r e u s e d , t h e y t o o , i n t i m e , w i l l h a v e t o b e r e p a i n t e d , y i e l d t o a n e w
p i c t u r e , a n e w ` d e f e n c e ' a g a i n s t ( o r a c c e p t a n c e o f ) t h e ` v o i d ' , t h e
a m b i g u o u s , t h e ` t e r r o r ' , a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n .
A b i o - m e d i c a l a p p r o a c h e m p h a s i s e s t h e p h y s i c a l a s p e c t s o f i l l n e s s
w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t t h e r e i s m u c h d e n i a l o f s u f f e r i n g i n m o d e r n
86
h e a l t h c a r e w h i c h o f t e n i n t e n s i f i e s s u f f e r i n g b y d e l a y i n g t h e
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e n e e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t , t o r e c r e a t e a n e w p i c t u r e o f
o u r S e l v e s ( s e e C a s s e l l 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e d e n i a l o f s u f f e r i n g m i g h t a l s o b e
e v i d e n c e d b y t h e e n d e m i c a n d p e r v a s i v e u s e o f a n t i d e p r e s s a n t s a n d
t h e a t t i t u d e o f t e n e x p r e s s e d t o w a r d s a r t b y h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s
- a s a d i v e r s i o n ` t o t a k e y o u r m i n d o f f t h i n g s . ' A s w e h a v e s e e n
p r e v i o u s l y , c a t e g o r i s i n g a r t a s a ` d i v e r s i o n ' i s o n e o f t h e w a y s i n
w h i c h t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s i s
m i s u n d e r s t o o d a n d / o r c o n t r o l l e d w i t h i n a m e d i c a l p a r a d i g m . T h e
d e s i r e t o ` d i v e r t ' a t t e n t i o n f r e q u e n t l y m a s k s t h e f a c t t h a t b o r e d o m
a n d d e p r e s s i o n o f t e n s t e m f r o m a l a c k o f s e n s o r y a n d m e n t a l
s t i m u l a t i o n i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s u r r o u n d s - w h i c h w o u l d t h e n m a k e
b o r e d o m a ` n a t u r a l ' a n d d e s i r e d r e s p o n s e . S e c o n d l y , s u c h a
p e r c e p t i o n o f a r t m i s u n d e r s t a n d s w h a t i s i n v o l v e d i n a r t m a k i n g i e .
t h a t t h e p r o c e s s e s o f a r t m a k i n g o f t e n t a k e p e o p l e d e e p e r i n t o t h e i r
p r e d i c a m e n t , n o t a w a y f r o m i t . C a t e g o r i s i n g a r t a s a ` d i v e r s i o n ' ,
h o w e v e r , o f t e n r e s u l t s i n p a t i e n t s b e i n g t o l d b y h e a l t h c a r e
p r o f e s s i o n a l s ;
` Y o u s h o u l d s t o p a l l t h i s p a i n t i n g . I t i s a n a v o i d a n c e t a c t i c . Y o u s h o u l d b e w o r k i n g o n y o u r p r o b l e m s . '
o r s o m e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s b e i n g a s k e d b y o t h e r s ;
` W h e n a r e y o u g o i n g t o s t o p p l a y i n g w i t h p a i n t a n d d o s o m e p r o p e r w o r k ? '
A u t o n o m y a n d P e r s o n a l I d e n t i t y .
S o m e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e n o t i o n s o f a u t o n o m y a n d
a u t h e n t i c i t y c o n t a i n a p a r a d o x . D e w e y ( i n M c D e r m o t t , 1 9 7 3 ) a n d
C h a r l e s T a y l o r ( 1 9 8 9 , 1 9 9 1 ) h a v e s a i d t h a t , w h i l e w e a r e s o c i a l
b e i n g s , w e e a c h h a v e u l t i m a t e p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o u r o w n
87
a u t h e n t i c i t y - t h a t i t i s o u r p e r s o n a l a n d s i n g u l a r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o
g r o w a n d e x p a n d t o o u r f u l l e s t p o t e n t i a l . T h e p a r a d o x l i e s i n t h e
f a c t t h a t t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r B e i n g , o u r i d e n t i t y a s a u t h e n t i c ,
i n d e p e n d e n t a n d a u t o n o m o u s P e r s o n s , c a n o n l y b e a c h i e v e d b y a n d
t h r o u g h o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p a n d d e p e n d e n c e u p o n O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r -
i t i s i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a n d i n t e r r e l a t e d . S u f f e r i n g , t h e n , h a s a
c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n a s w e l l a s a p e r s o n a l o n e . I n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s , o n e i s p a i n f u l l y a w a r e o f t h e s u f f e r i n g t h a t i s a l s o
e x p e r i e n c e d b y f r i e n d s , f a m i l y a n d s t a f f . T h u s , a j u s t c a r e o f
p e r s o n s w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g w o u l d a l s o e n c o m p a s s a c a r e o f
t h o s e w h o s u f f e r w i t h t h e m . T h a t b e i n g t h e c a s e , c a r e , n u r t u r e ,
t o l e r a n c e , a c c e p t a n c e a n d c o m p a s s i o n o u g h t t o b e s e e n a s m u c h p a r t
o f e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s a s a r e t h e m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l n o t i o n s o f
j u s t i c e , r i g h t s a n d s o o n ( s e e G i l l i g a n & A t t a n u c c i 1 9 8 8 ) .
F u r t h e r m o r e , a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a n e t h i c a l c a r e m u s t b e a n
a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a s e n s e o f h e l p l e s s n e s s a n d p o w e r l e s s n e s s - t h a t
o f t e n t h e r e i s l i t t l e w e c a n ` d o ' . T h e c h a l l e n g e , t h e n , b e c o m e s a n
o n t o l o g i c a l o n e i e . w e a r e r e q u i r e d t o B e d i f f e r e n t l y a s M a y
( 1 9 9 1 , p . 4 ) p u t s i t . S o m e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g l e a v e
u s , a s M o d j e s k a ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 9 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d , a s i f a l l o u r n e r v e
e n d i n g s a r e e x p o s e d - l i k e a s k i n n e d r a b b i t i n a b u t c h e r s h o p . A j u s t
a n d c a r i n g h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e m i g h t a l s o b e c o n c e i v e d a s p r o v i d i n g
a ` s a f e ' s p a c e w h e r e i n a s i c k p e r s o n c a n e x p e r i e n c e t h e ` h e a l i n g
b a l m ' o f ` r e s t ' t h a t i s n e e d e d i n o r d e r f o r t h e m t o c o n t i n u e t h e i r
j o u r n e y t o w a r d s w h o l e n e s s a n d ` h e a l t h ' . S u c h a n o t i o n o f h e a l t h
c a r e w o u l d r a d i c a l l y c h a l l e n g e t h e ` C a s e m i x m o d e l ' m e n t i o n e d
p r e v i o u s l y - i f , w i t h i n t h a t m o d e l , e c o n o m i c e n d s o b l i t e r a t e d t h e
i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s o f p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n s .
88
T h e I m a g i n a t i o n .
F r o m a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e i t i s c l e a r t h a t h u m a n s h a v e
e v o l v e d a n d a d a p t e d t o e x h i b i t c e r t a i n e s s e n t i a l l y h u m a n n e e d s .
D a r w i n h a s i d e n t i f i e d t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a s ` t h e h i g h e s t f u n c t i o n o f
m a n ' ( i n A b b s 1 9 8 9 , p . 1 9 1 ) . U n d e r R a t i o n a l i s m , w i t h i t s e m p h a s i s
o n t h e r a t i o n a l , t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e g e n e r a l , a n d t h e ` s c i e n t i f i c ' , t h e
i m a g i n a t i o n h a s s u f f e r e d a n i m p o v e r i s h e d u n d e r s t a n d i n g ( s e e
M a r i t a i n 1 9 4 3 , 1 9 7 2 ; W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 ; M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 a n d R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) .
H o w e v e r , i t s e e m s c l e a r t h a t i t w a s t h e h u m a n c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e
i e . t o c r e a t e a n d c o n s t r u c t d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f r e a l i t y t h a t w a s o f s u c h
e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t ( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 9 2 ) .
W h a t , h o w e v e r , i s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n ? T h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e ( l i k e
t h e c a p a c i t y t o m a k e a n d r e s p o n d t o a r t ) i s n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s
b e l o n g i n g o n l y t o s o m e ` i m a g i n a t i v e o r c r e a t i v e p e o p l e ' . I t i s m o r e
u s e f u l t o u n d e r s t a n d i m a g i n a t i o n a s a c o n t i n u u m e x i s t i n g b e t w e e n
t h e f a m i l i a r a n d t h e n e w . I m a g i n a t i o n i s a w a y o f s t r u c t u r i n g
p e r c e p t i o n - o f i m p o s i n g f o r m o n o u r e x p e r i e n c e s b y t h e c r e a t i o n o f
i m a g e s . A s W a r n o c k ( 1 9 7 5 , p . 2 0 7 , 2 0 8 ) e x p l a i n s ;
B y i m a g i n a t i o n w e r e n d e r t h e w o r l d f a m i l i a r , a n d t h e r e f o r e m a n a g e a b l e . A t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l , a n d s p o r a d i c a l l y , w e m a y a l s o u s e i t t o r e n d e r o u r e x p e r i e n c e u n f a m i l i a r a n d m y s t e r i o u s . O n o n e l e v e l t i d y i n g u p t h e c h a o s o f s e n s e e x p e r i e n c e . . . a n d a t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l u n t i d y i n g i t a g a i n .
M a r c u s e , h o w e v e r , e m p h a s i s e s t h e s u b v e r s i v e a n d p o l i t i c a l n a t u r e o f
t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n h o l d s t h e k e y t o t h e
p o s s i b i l i t y o f h u m a n l i b e r a t i o n - i t s r e g e n e r a t i v e a b i l i t y t o r e m a i n
u n c o l o n i z e d b y a p r e v a i l i n g i d e o l o g y , t o c o n t i n u e t o g e n e r a t e n e w
i d e a s , a n d t o r e c o n f i g u r e t h e f a m i l i a r ( B e c k e r 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 4 ) . T h e
89
p o t e n t i a l o f t h e i m a g i n a t i o n c a n b e l i k e n e d t o t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a r t
w h e r e ;
( i t s t r u t h ) l i e s i n i t s p o w e r t o b r e a k t h e m o n o p o l y o f e s t a b l i s h e d r e a l i t y ( i e . o f t h o s e w h o e s t a b l i s h e d i t ) t o d e f i n e w h a t i s r e a l ( M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 , p . 9 )
T h e i m a g i n a t i o n , t h e n , c a n b e s a i d t o c o n s t r u c t f o r m s a n d p a t t e r n s o f
m e a n i n g - w h i c h c a n b e a l t e r e d o r r e c r e a t e d . F u r t h e r , t h e a b i l i t y t o
i m a g i n e i e . t o d e f i n e w h a t i s r e a l , i s a l s o v i t a l l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e
c a p a c i t y t o h o p e - t o ` s e e ' a r e a l i t y t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h e o n e
p r e s e n t l y e x p e r i e n c e d .
O f c r i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r o u r S e l v e s t o f l o u r i s h , t o c r e a t e o u r l i v e s
a s w o r k s o f a r t , i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i s n o t u s e l e s s - i t
h a s c r i t i c a l m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i e . o u r a c t i o n s a r e d e r i v e d f r o m a n d
a r e i n f o r m e d b y t h e f o r m i n w h i c h w e c o n s t r u c t o u r r e a l i t i e s . I n a
t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y t h e f o r m s i m p o s e d o n r e a l i t y w e r e i n f o r m e d b y
a n d d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s a n ` e n d ' i e . t h e y h a d a t e l e o l o g i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e , i n t h i s c a s e t h e s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r o u p a n d t h e
i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h a t g r o u p . A t r a d i t i o n a l a e s t h e t i c c o u l d t h e n b e
s a i d t o b e h o w w e l l - o r ` f i t t i n g ' - t h e i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m s e r v e d t h e
c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r o u p . R e t u r n i n g t o t h e i n s i g h t s o f
D i s s a n a y a k e ' s b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y a p p r o a c h ( 1 9 9 2 ) , i t m i g h t b e s e e n
t h a t a r e s p o n s e t h a t w a s ` t o o m u c h ' o r ` n o t f i t t i n g ' w o u l d n o t b e o f
e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t b e c a u s e a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t i n a r t m a k i n g
p r a c t i c e i s t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n g a i n e d b y m a s t e r y a n d c o n t r o l - a s e n s e
o f s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . F o r e x a m p l e i n d a n c e , t h e p l e a s u r e e x p e r i e n c e d
b y a n i n d i v i d u a l c o m e s n o t o n l y f r o m t h e m o v e m e n t o f t h e i r o w n
b o d i e s , b u t a l s o r h y t h m i c m o v e m e n t w i t h o t h e r s - t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g
o n e w i t h o t h e r s . H o w e v e r , i f o n e p e r s o n m o v e d u n f i t t i n g l y o r
90
e x c e s s i v e l y o r w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e o t h e r d a n c e r s ( w i t h o u t
r e s p e c t i n g t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e a r t f o r m ) b o t h t h e c o m m u n a l a n d t h e
i n d i v i d u a l r h y t h m o f t h e d a n c e g r o u p w o u l d b e l o s t . S i m i l a r l y , i f a
p e r s o n d i d n o t r e s p o n d e n o u g h , i e . i f t h e y w e r e n o t a c t i v e e n o u g h
n o r i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s , t h e y w o u l d d e r i v e n o
p l e a s u r e a n d s a t i s f a c t i o n f r o m t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d a g a i n t h e
c r i t i c a l , p l e a s u r a b l e r h y t h m o f t h e d a n c e w o u l d b e l o s t a n d t h e y
m i g h t n o t s e e k a r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e r e f o r e , i t w o u l d
a p p e a r t h a t a n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f ` w h a t i s f i t t i n g ' i s o n e o f t h e
r e g u l a t o r s o f m o r a l a c t i o n . I n u s i n g t h e t e r m ` r e g u l a t o r ' I d o n o t
w i s h t o i m p l y t h a t m o r a l a c t i o n m u s t b e i n f o r m e d b y ` r e g u l a t i o n s ' a s
u n d e r s t o o d i n a m o d e r n s e n s e ( s e e J o h n s o n 1 9 9 3 ) .
I m a g i n a t i o n a n d E t h i c s .
C o n t r a r y t o a R a t i o n a l i s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g , e t h i c s i s e s s e n t i a l l y
p r a c t i c a l - i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h d o i n g a n d B e i n g . I t i s c o n c e r n e d
w i t h t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o f l o u r i s h - a n d w i t h n a m i n g
t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s o r p r a c t i c e s w h i c h c a u s e h a r m a n d d e s t r u c t i o n a n d
w h i c h m a y b e t e r m e d e v i l . A s e t h i c s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h w a y s o f
` s e e i n g ' o u r s e l v e s a n d O t h e r s , i t m i g h t a l s o b e s a i d t h a t t h e
i m a g i n a t i o n ( t o s e e i n b o t h f a m i l i a r a n d i n n e w w a y s ) i s a n i n t e g r a l
a n d n e c e s s a r y p a r t o f b o t h a e s t h e t i c s a n d m o r a l p h i l o s o p h y . F u r t h e r ,
t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e i s i n t e g r a l t o t h e n o t i o n o f c o m p a s s i o n - t h e
a b i l i t y t o f e e l a s i f o n e w a s a n o t h e r . T h i s a b i l i t y t o ` f e e l a s t h o u g h
a n o t h e r ' e n a b l e s u s t o c a r e f o r a n d a b o u t a n o t h e r . T h e i m a g i n a t i o n ,
t h e n , h a s b o t h i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n s .
91
W h i l e t h e i m a g i n a t i o n i s a n i n d i v i d u a l c a p a c i t y i t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o
h a v e a c o m m u n a l i m a g i n a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e w h e r e a g r o u p o f p e o p l e
a r e i n s p i r e d b y t h e s a m e v i s i o n o r g o a l . T h e A I D S Q u i l t i s a p r i m e
e x a m p l e o f M a r c u s e ' s b e l i e f t h a t a r t ;
c a n n o t c h a n g e t h e w o r l d , b u t i t c a n c h a n g e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p e o p l e w h o c a n c h a n g e t h e w o r l d . ( M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 , p . 3 2 )
T h e Q u i l t e x e mp l i f i e s h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d c o mmu n a l i ma g i n a t i o n c a n
b e b o u g h t t o g e t h e r t o b r i n g a b o u t a r a d i c a l c h a n g e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s .
T h e i ma g i n a t i o n o f o n e man , C l e v e J o n e s , i n S a n F r a n c i s c o h a s i n s p i r e d
mi l l i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d b y s a y i n g ` s e e o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f A I D S
t h i s w a y - ` s e e o u r g r i e f , l o s s a n d a n g e r t h i s w a y ' . M y c a p a c i t y t o
i ma g i n e a l l o w s me t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s w a y o f ` s e e i n g ' . I t a l l o w s me
t o r e memb e r t h a t w a y o f s e e i n g f r o m t h e p a s t , t o d r a w s u s t e n a n c e f r o m
i t i n t h e p r e s e n t , a n d t o p r e s e n t t h a t v i e w o f r e a l i t y t o o t h e r s . L i k e a n
e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t , t h e c a p a c i t y t o ` s e e ' a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f
B e i n g a l l o w s me t o b e h a v e a n d s e e d i f f e r e n t l y i n t h e f u t u r e - i t h a s a
mo r a l d i men s i o n . R e s e a r c h c a r r i e d o u t b y t h e A me r i c a n Q u i l t , f o r
e x a mp l e , h a s r e v e a l e d t h a t s o me 7 0 % o f p e o p l e w h o h a v e a t t e n d e d a
d i s p l a y o f t h e Q u i l t h a v e b e e n mo v e d t o a p r a c t i c a l r e s p o n s e - c a r i n g
f o r t h e s i c k , t h e i r f a mi l i e s a n d f r i e n d s , f u n d r a i s i n g f o r A I D S c a u s e s -
o r s i mi l a r a c t i v i t i e s f o r o t h e r s w h o a r e i l l o r i n n e e d .
I t i s t h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e - t o c r e a t e , c o n s t r u c t a n d p r e s e n t n e w
o r d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f ` s e e i n g ' - w h i c h i s m a d e m a n i f e s t i n a r t . T h e
i m a g i n a t i o n i s t h e t h r e a d w h i c h d r a w s t o g e t h e r e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s .
B y m e a n s o f a r t ( w h e r e t h e i m a g i n e d r e a l i t y i s m a d e v i s i b l e ) w e a r e
a b l e t o i m a g i n e a m o r e h u m a n w o r l d , a n d i t i s t h a t v e r y c a p a c i t y t o
i m a g i n e , t o ` s e e ' ` s o m e t h i n g a n o t h e r w a y ' w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o w o r k
92
t o w a r d s t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h a t w o r l d . T h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e ( l i k e
n o t i o n s o f ` t h e G o o d ' a n d ` f l o u r i s h i n g ' ) c a n a l s o b e u n d e r s t o o d i n
t h e n e g a t i v e - i n d i c a t i n g a n e g a t i v e i m a g i n i n g o r a r e s t r i c t e d
i m a g i n i n g . I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h i s ` n e g a t i v e i m a g i n i n g ' i s
i l l u s t r a t e d i n s o m e o f t h e p o o r ( a n d u n e t h i c a l ) h e a l t h c a r e
e n v i r o n m e n t s - a n d p r a c t i c e s - t h a t o f t e n o b t a i n t o d a y . A s t h e
r e s u l t o f t h e d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d n a t u r e o f m u c h M o d e r n p r a c t i c e a n d
t h e p e r s o n a l a l i e n a t i o n f r o m a r t p r a c t i c e , t h e c a p a c i t y t o v i s u a l i z e
h a s b e e n b l u n t e d o r d i m m e d s o t h a t m a n y a r e u n a b l e t o i m a g i n e a n y
d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t y t o t h a t b y w h i c h t h e y a r e p r e s e n t l y c o n f r o n t e d . A s
a s i m p l e i l l u s t r a t i o n , t h e g r o s s s e n s o r y d e p r i v a t i o n o f m a n y h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o p r e v i o u s l y - b u t s o m a n y s i m p l y
` d o n o t n o t i c e ' t h e d e p r i v a t i o n a f t e r a w h i l e . N o r d o w e n o t i c e t h a t
m a n y o f t h e w a y s o f c a t e g o r i s i n g t h a t w e e m p l o y d a i l y a r e s i m i l a r l y
d e p r i v e d o f a n a b i l i t y t o i g n i t e a n d i n s p i r e a d i f f e r e n t w a y o f
` s e e i n g ' .
P r i o r t o t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d p e o p l e r e c e i v e d t h e n u t r i e n t s t o n o u r i s h
t h e i r i m a g i n a t i o n f r o m s e v e r a l s o u r c e s - n o t a b l y r e l i g i o n a n d t h e a r t s
- r e c a l l i n g t h a t i t i s o n l y t h i n g s o f s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n t h a t h a v e
t h e n e c e s s a r y v i t a l i t y t o s u s t a i n f l o u r i s h i n g . I t m u s t a l s o b e
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t w e c a n b e m i s t a k e n i n w h a t w e c o n s i d e r m a t t e r s
o f s e r i o u s h u m a n c o n c e r n ( a n d t h e e n d s o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g ) a s
h a s b e e n w i t n e s s e d b y s o m e o f t h e m a t e r i a l i s t i c e x c e s s e s o f t h e
1 9 8 0 s . T h e a r t s i n a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e n o t a t r i v i a l o r
` l e i s u r e a c t i v i t y ' - t h e y a n s w e r e d e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s b e c a u s e t h e y
s p o k e t o c o n c e r n s t h a t w e n t t o t h e h e a r t o f w h a t i t w a s t o s u r v i v e
a n d f l o u r i s h . A s s u c h a r t w a s m o r e l i k e l y t o f e e d a n d n o u r i s h t h e
93
i m a g i n a t i o n b y a n s w e r i n g t h e s e c o n c e r n s , b y m a n i f e s t i n g a d i f f e r e n t
r e a l i t y a n d t h e n c e p r o v i d i n g t h e i m p e t u s f o r p e o p l e t o ` d o
s o m e t h i n g ' t o e n a b l e t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f t h o s e d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f
` s e e i n g ' . A s a r t t h e n d i d n o t d i v o r c e t h e ` d o i n g ' f r o m t h e ` B e i n g '
( o n t o l o g y a n d e t h i c s w e r e o n e ) i t m a y b e m o r e a c c u r a t e t o s a y t h a t
a r t p r o v i d e d t h e n u t r i e n t s f o r o u r ` b e c o m i n g ' ( s e e M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 :
D e w e y 1 9 8 0 ; a n d J u n g i n S t o r r 1 9 8 9 b ) . I d o n o t s e e k t o i d e a l i s e a l l
a r t o f a r e l i g i o u s e r a , n o r d i s p a r a g e a l l a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d i n
m o d e r n t i m e s , n o r d i s p a r a g e a r t a c t i v i t i e s t h a t a r e e n g a g e d i n a s
` l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s ' - b u t t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h e a b i l i t y t o h a v e a n
i m a g i n a t i v e , a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t i e . h a v e s o m e
a c c e s s t o i t s m e a n i n g , m i g h t h a v e b e e n e a s i e r w h e n t h e r e w a s a
` c o m m o n l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ' t h a n i t m i g h t b e w h e n s u c h a
l a n g u a g e i s m o r e f r a g m e n t e d . F u r t h e r , i t i s w e l l t o r e m e m b e r , a s
D u n c u m ( 1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 1 ) m a k e s p l a i n , t h a t c h i l d r e n ( a n d I w o u l d
s u g g e s t a d u l t s a s w e l l ) d r a w a n d p a i n t f o r a n y n u m b e r o f r e a s o n s -
f o r p l a y , t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e m s e l v e s o r i n t h e i r
s u r r o u n d s , t o d e m o n s t r a t e c o m p e t e n c e i n t h e i r d r a w i n g s k i l l s , a s a
m e a n s o f r e l e a s i n g f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s .
T h e I m a g i n a t i o n , S u f f e r i n g a n d H e a l i n g .
T h e c a p a c i t y t o i m a g i n e c a n b e s a i d t o b e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r b o t h o u r
c a p a c i t y t o b o t h s u f f e r - a n d t o h e a l . A d o m i n a n t i d e o l o g y - f o r
e x a m p l e a R a t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a p e r s o n - r e n d e r s
i n v i s i b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l l a n d s c a p e o f s u f f e r i n g . T h e r e i s n o r o o m
n o r a n y l a n g u a g e t o m a k e v i s i b l e t h e p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s .
C o n t r a r y t o D e s c a r t e s ' d e s i r e t o ` r e m a i n m a s k e d ' ( T o u l m i n
94
1 9 9 0 , p . 7 8 , 7 9 ) M a r c u s e ( 1 9 8 6 ) w o u l d s a y t h a t a r t ' s g r e a t e s t
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y i s t o ` u n m a s k ' - t o r e v e a l t h a t w h i c h o f t e n l i e s h i d d e n ,
t o u n c o v e r a n o t h e r r e a l i t y t h a t w e a r e o f t e n t o o p r e o c c u p i e d t o s e e -
o r h a v e n o t l e a r n t t o r e c o g n i s e . A r t i n a n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g c a n
t h e n u n m a s k a n d m a k e v i s i b l e t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o l o u r s o f a n
e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - a n d t h e s u f f e r i n g t h a t m a y b e e n c o u n t e r e d b y
t h e p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k . B u t t h e a r t c a n a l s o m a n i f e s t h o p e - t h e
a b i l i t y t o t r a n s f o r m a n d t r a n s c e n d a p r e s e n t r e a l i t y b y t h e
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n o t h e r w h i c h ` m a k e s s e n s e ' o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e a n d
r e d e e m s i t s s u f f e r i n g . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r t , s u f f e r i n g a n d
h e a l i n g i s p u t b y M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 ) t h u s ;
a r t i s t s s t r u g g l e t o f i g u r e t h e u n f i g u r a b l e t h a t r e l i g i o u s l a n g u a g e c a n n o t a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s . B y d o i n g s o , a r t b e c o m e s a n a e s t h e t i c e d u c a t i o n w h o s e p u r p o s e i s n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n r e d e m p t i o n .
T h e c a p a c i t y t o r e d e e m s u f f e r i n g i s t h e n , p e r h a p s , o n l y a n o t h e r w a y
o f s a y i n g b e i n g h e a l e d ( s e e M a r k T a y l o r 1 9 9 3 ) .
I m a g i n a t i o n a n d p l e a s u r e .
T h e c r e a t i o n a n d i m p o s i t i o n o f f o r m - l i k e a r t m a k i n g - i s i n f o r m e d
a n d s u s t a i n e d b y p l e a s u r e - t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d s e n s e o f c o n t r o l o r
m a s t e r y e n g e n d e r e d i n b o t h i n d i v i d u a l s a n d w i t h i n g r o u p s . A s
p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , i f p e o p l e f e l t g o o d a b o u t t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n
` f o r m m a k i n g ' a c t i v i t i e s t h e y w e r e m o r e l i k e l y t o c o n t i n u e d o i n g
t h e m a n d h e n c e e n h a n c e t h e c h a n c e s o f s u r v i v a l ( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e
1 9 9 2 ) . U n d e r s t o o d i n t h i s w a y , p l e a s u r e a n d f e e l i n g g o o d c o u l d b e
s a i d t o b e a n e s s e n t i a l p r i n c i p l e o f a d a p t a t i o n . I m a g i n a t i o n ,
p l e a s u r e a n d t h e a c t i o n s t h a t a r e i n f o r m e d b y b o t h w o u l d t h e n a p p e a r
95
t o h a v e a n i n t e r n a l d y n a m i c r e l a t i o n s h i p - r e m e m b e r i n g t h e
q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e s a r e n o t a l w a y s ` g l e e f u l '
( s e e D e w e y 1 9 8 0 ) . W h i l e p l e a s u r e a n d h e a l t h c a r e m i g h t a p p e a r t o
b e s t r a n g e b e d - f e l l o w s - a n d t h e n e c e s s i t y f o r p l e a s u r e i s
c o n s p i c u o u s l y m i s s i n g f r o m m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c y a n d p r a c t i c e
- i t i s a n i m p o r t a n t i s s u e w h o s e w h o l e n e g l e c t f r e q u e n t l y l e a d s t o
u n h e a l t h y
( a n d u n e t h i c a l ) p r a c t i c e s - i f o n l y i n n e g l e c t i n g t h e s i m p l e f a c t , a s
C o l e s ( 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 ) o b s e r v e s , p e o p l e h e a l b e t t e r w h e n t h e y f e e l b e t t e r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , a s p r e v i o u s l y a l l u d e d t o , t h e g r o s s s e n s o r y
d e p r i v a t i o n o f m a n y h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n
h u m a n h e a l t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g ( s e e A d a m s o n 1 9 8 4 ; M o s s 1 9 8 7 , 1 9 8 8 ;
A r t s I n j e c t i o n 1 9 9 4 ) . T h e d i r e c t i o n o f s o m e m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e
p r a c t i c e s e e k s t o m i n i m i s e h o s p i t a l i s a t i o n , o r t o r e d u c e t h e p e r i o d
s p e n t i n h o s p i t a l i f a n y i s n e c e s s a r y . T h e i m p u l s e f o r t h e s e c h a n g e s
i n p o l i c y d i r e c t i o n m i g h t s t e m f r o m m a n y f a c t o r s - f o r e x a m p l e ,
f i n a n c i a l c o n s t r a i n t s - a n d f r o m a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t p e o p l e a r e
g e n e r a l l y h a p p i e r i f c a r e d f o r b y t h e i r f a m i l i e s . T h e r e a r e i m p o r t a n t
e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s t h a t u n d e r l i e n o t i o n s o f f a m i l y a n d c o m m u n i t y c a r e
w h e r e , f o r e x a m p l e , i t i s f r e q u e n t l y o n l y t h e f e m a l e m e m b e r s o f a
f a m i l y w h o p r o v i d e t h e ` c o m m u n i t y c a r e . ' H o w e v e r , I w o u l d s u g g e s t
t h e f a c t t h a t h e a l t h c a r e s u r r o u n d s m a y a c t u a l l y p r e v e n t h e a l i n g i s
r a r e l y d e s c r i b e d a s a r e a s o n f o r b r i e f h o s p i t a l i s a t i o n .
W h y d i d t h e M o d e r n p e r s i s t ?
T h e q u e s t i o n t h a t m u s t b e a s k e d i s ` W h y d i d s u c h a n a p p r o a c h t o
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n p e r s i s t ? ' P a r a d o x i c a l l y a n d
96
i r o n i c a l l y , s o m e o f t h e s a m e i m p u l s e s w h i c h g a v e b i r t h t o a r t m a k i n g
g a v e i m p e t u s t o a c o n t i n u i n g r e l i a n c e a n d l a u d i n g o f t h e ` r a t i o n a l ' .
A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t w o , p e o p l e i n a t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y
r e s p o n d e d t o f e e l i n g o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y a r i s i n g f r o m t h e
p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e b y e v o l v i n g c u l t u r a l f o r m s ( t h e a r t s ) w h i c h
e n a b l e d t h e m t o t r a n s f o r m ( a n d t o t r a n s c e n d ) t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f
f e a r - a n d f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y - i n t o o n e s o f m a s t e r y
a n d c o n t r o l t h u s e n h a n c i n g t h e i r s u r v i v a l . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , p e o p l e
c a n a l s o r e s p o n d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e b y t u r n i n g i n w a r d s -
c l i n g i n g w i t h t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a z e a l o t t o o l d f a m i l i a r w a y s o f
` s e e i n g ' . O n s o m e o c c a s i o n d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f M o d e r n i s m , f o r
e x a m p l e d u r i n g t h e l a s t s t a g e s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e f i r s t
y e a r s o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , i t a p p e a r e d t h a t a r e t u r n t o a
H u m a n i s t w a y o f t h o u g h t m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e . T h e n t h e F i r s t W o r l d
W a r , i t s u n c e r t a i n t y a n d r a m i f i c a t i o n s , c a u s e d t h e r e c l a m a t i o n t o b e
a b a n d o n e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e f a m i l i a r ` c e r t a i n t y ' o f r a t i o n a l i s m .
A c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y a n d t h a t w h i c h
c o n f r o n t e d D e s c a r t e s ( a n d o u r p r e s e n t t i m e ) w a s t h e p r e s e n c e i n a
t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t y o f a u n i f i e d c o s m o l o g y i e . t h e r e w a s a s p i r i t u a l o r
r e l i g i o u s w o r l d v i e w w h i c h e n c o m p a s s e d n o t o n l y t h e m s e l v e s , b u t
a l s o t h e i r p h y s i c a l a n d s p i r i t u a l l a n d s c a p e s . E x p e r i e n c e s - w i t h t h e
a t t e n d a n t m y s t e r i e s a n d a m b i g u i t i e s - w e r e s o m e h o w e n a b l e d t o ` f i t
i n t o ' a l a r g e r p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g . T h e w o r l d f o r D e s c a r t e s w a s
d i f f e r e n t . T h e c o s m i c r e l i g i o u s w o r l d v i e w t h a t h a d p r e v i o u s l y
g r o u n d e d b o t h p h i l o s o p h y a n d a r t w a s c h a l l e n g e d d u r i n g t h e
s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d d u r i n g t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d c o n t i n u e d t o b e
s h a t t e r e d a n d w a s e v e n t u a l l y l o s t . A s e n s e o f a u n i f i e d e c o l o g y - o f
97
p e o p l e c o - e x i s t i n g r e s p o n s i b l y w i t h t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ( a n d
e n c o m p a s s i n g a r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l d i m e n s i o n ) h a s o n l y r e -
e m e r g e d i n c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t t i m e s . T h e l o s s o f a r e l i g i o u s
w o r l d v i e w ( s o m e t i m e s a l s o d e s c r i b e d a s t h e D e a t h o f G o d - a p h r a s e
a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a t h e i s t i c p h i l o s o p h e r N i e t z s c h e )
h a s o f t e n b e e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s m e a n i n g t h a t p e o p l e n o l o n g e r h a d t h e
c a p a c i t y o r d e s i r e f o r r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l b e l i e f s . T h e s i t u a t i o n
m i g h t b e b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d a s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e f o r m s ( w h e r e
p r e v i o u s l y t h e f o r m a n d t h e c o n t e n t o f r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f w e r e o n e ) h a d
c e a s e d t o b e a l i v e . H o w e v e r , i t w a s b y a ` u n i f i e d ' f o r m t h a t
k n o w l e d g e w a s t r a n s m i t t e d . N o w , t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t i s r e l i g i o u s
a r t ? ' i n d e e d , ` W h a t i s R e l i g i o u s ? ' c a n n o l o n g e r b e d e t e r m i n e d
s i m p l y b y r e f e r r i n g t o o b s e r v a b l e s y m b o l i c f e a t u r e s - n o r b y
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e ` a u t h o r i t y ' o f t h e C h u r c h . O n t h e o n e h a n d , t h i s
s i t u a t i o n h a s l e d t o a g r e a t e r f r e e d o m - a n d a g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s t h a t
r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l s e n t i m e n t s a n d l o n g i n g s ( l i k e c r e a t i v i t y ) c a n
t a k e m a n y f o r m s - s o m e m o r e f o r m a l a n d r e c o g n i z a b l e t h a n o t h e r s .
O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e s a m e s i t u a t i o n h a s l e d
t o a s e n s e o f c o n f u s i o n , a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y - a n d a f e a r o f t h e
u n k n o w n s i m i l a r t o w h a t H a r t i d e n t i f i e s a s p e r t a i n i n g t o p o e t r y ( H a r t
1 9 9 4 , p . x v i ) .
C o n c l u s i o n .
T h i s c h a p t e r h a s s o u g h t t o u n c o v e r s o m e o f t h e i n f l u e n c e s t h a t h a v e
s h a p e d c o n t e m p o r a r y W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f a r t , p e r s o n s , h e a l t h ,
f l o u r i s h i n g a n d e t h i c s . T h e s e v a r i o u s n o t i o n s h a v e b e e n d e c i s i v e l y
i n f l u e n c e d s i n c e t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y b y M o d e r n t h o u g h t w h i c h i s
98
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y ` r a t i o n a l i s m ' , a b e l i e f i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c e r t a i n
k n o w l e d g e t h a t i s g e n e r a l , a b s t r a c t , t i m e l e s s a n d u n i v e r s a l . T h e
l e g a c y o f t h i s M o d e r n p e r i o d i s a v i e w o f p e r s o n s w h i c h s e e s t h e m a s
d u a l i s t i c - t h e i r p h y s i c a l s e l v e s s e p a r a t e d f r o m a l l o t h e r a s p e c t s o f
t h e m S e l v e s ; a s d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e s o c i a l a n d c o m m u n a l ; a n d a s
e x i s t i n g a p a r t f r o m t h e i r h i s t o r y , t h e i r t i m e a n d t h e i r n a r r a t i v e . T h e
h e a l t h a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f s u c h p e r s o n s i s t h u s c o n c e i v e d a s b e i n g
d e f i n e d o n l y b y t h e s t a t e o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s o v e r w h i c h
m e d i c a l e x p e r t s h a v e p o w e r a n d c o n t r o l . T h e n o t i o n o f h e a l i n g i s
e i t h e r l o s t o r c o l l a p s e d i n t o n o t i o n s o f ` c u r e ' . A r t i s s i m i l a r l y
s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e l i v e s o f o r d i n a r y p e o p l e i n t o t h e d o m a i n o f
t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s c a l l e d ` A r t i s t s ' . T h e i m p o v e r i s h m e n t o f t h i s v i e w
o f a r t l i e s i n s t a r k c o n t r a s t w i t h a n o t i o n o f a r t a s a n e s s e n t i a l
h u m a n n e e d a s e x e m p l i f i e d i n t h e A I D S Q u i l t w h i c h h a s t h e p o w e r t o
e n a b l e t h e h e a l i n g o f i n d i v i d u a l s a n d t h e p o w e r t o c r e a t e n e w f o r m s
o f c o m m u n i t y - l o c a l l y , n a t i o n a l l y a n d g l o b a l l y . I n r e c e n t y e a r s
t h e r e h a s b e e n a g r o w i n g a w a r e n e s s t h a t M o d e r n t h o u g h t i s s e r i o u s l y
i m p o v e r i s h e d a n d h a s c a u s e d m u c h h a r m a n d s u f f e r i n g t o p e r s o n s a n d
t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e . T h e r e h a v e b e e n m o v e s t o r e c l a i m a
w a y o f r e g a r d i n g t h e h u m a n c o n d i t i o n t h a t h a s m o r e i n c o m m o n w i t h
t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y R e n a i s s a n c e H u m a n i s m . T h a t
H u m a n i s m w a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n t h e c o n c r e t e
p a r t i c u l a r s o f p e r s o n a l l i v e d e x p e r i e n c e a n d a b s t r a c t t h e o r y . T h e
c o n t e m p o r a r y t a s k s e e m s t o r e q u i r e , n o t a r e j e c t i o n o f a l l
r a t i o n a l i s m , b u t a h u m a n i z i n g o f i t . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e
p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , t h e a r t s e v o l v e d t o e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o f l o u r i s h i n a
s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n w a y - t o l i v e i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e m s e l v e s , t h e i r
c o m m u n i t i e s a n d t h e i r s u r r o u n d s . T h e a r t s w e r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a
99
c o m m u n i t y l i f e t h a t c o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e s e r i o u s c o n c e r n s o f
p e r s o n s w e r e o f t e n o f a s p i r i t u a l o r r e l i g i o u s n a t u r e . A s e x p e r i e n c e
i s f u n d a m e n t a l t o s u c h a r e c l a m a t i o n a n d r e v i s i o n i n g o f a t r u l y
h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g t h e n e x t c h a p t e r w i l l e x p l o r e w h a t i s t h e n a t u r e o f
t h a t e x p e r i e n c e .
100 C H A P T E R 4 THE NATURE OF EXPERIENCE and THE NATURE OF ARTISTIC EXPERIENCE
M a n y a p e r s o n w h o p r o t e s t s a g a i n s t t h e m u s e u m c o n c e p t i o n o f a r t , s t i l l s h a r e s t h e f a l l a c y f r o m w h i c h t h a t c o n c e p t i o n s p r i n g s . F o r t h e p o p u l a r n o t i o n c o m e s f r o m a s e p a r a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e o b j e c t s a n d s c e n e s o f o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e t h a t m a n y t h e o r i s t s a n d c r i t i c s t a k e p r i d e t h e m s e l v e s u p o n h o l d i n g a n d e v e n e l a b o r a t i n g .
J o h n D e w e y 1 9 8 0 , p . 6 .
T h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a s d e s c r i b e d h o w t h e r a t i o n a l i s m o f t h e M o d e r n
p e r i o d h a s r e d u c e d a n o t i o n o f p e r s o n s t o a n a t o m i s t i c m i n d / b o d y
d u a l i s m . T h e p r e - e m i n e n c e g i v e n t o t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d
t h e g e n e r a l i n s u c h M o d e r n t h o u g h t h a s r e m o v e d t h e r i c h n e s s o f
c o m p l e x p e r s o n a l p a r t i c u l a r i t y f r o m n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h , e t h i c s ,
a e s t h e t i c s a n d a r t . T h e ` l a n g u a g e o f e x p e r i e n c e ' o f p e r s o n s f i n d s n o
p l a c e i n a h e a l t h c a r e s y s t e m c o n c e i v e d w i t h i n a r a t i o n a l i s t b i o -
m e d i c a l m o d e l . S i m i l a r l y , ` t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e o b j e c t s
a n d s c e n e s o f o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e ' r e f e r r e d t o b y D e w e y a b o v e c a n
a l s o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f R a t i o n a l i s t t h o u g h t . T h e
l e g a c y o f a C a r t e s i a n s y s t e m o f e p i s t e m o l o g y a l s o s a w n o t i o n s o f
e t h i c s , t h e a e s t h e t i c , B e a u t y , T h e G o o d , f l o u r i s h i n g , a r t , h e a l t h a n d
h e a l i n g a s s o m e h o w e x i s t i n g ` o u t t h e r e ' , a s s o m e h o w r e v i v i f y i n g t h e
a b s t r a c t e x i s t e n c e o f P l a t o n i c f o r m s . T h e c h a l l e n g e t o ` h u m a n i z e
r a t i o n a l i s m ' d e m a n d s , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e s e v a r i o u s n o t i o n s o u g h t n o t
b e u n d e r s t o o d a s b e i n g d i v o r c e d f r o m ` o r d i n a r y ' e x p e r i e n c e , b u t
r a t h e r a s b e i n g i n t r i n s i c a l l y i n f o r m e d a n d d e s c r i b e d b y t h e l i v e d
r e a l i t y o f P e r s o n s ( s e e N u s s b a u m 1 9 9 0 ) . I t t h e n s e e m s f u n d a m e n t a l
t h a t t h e e x p l o r a t i o n c o n t i n u e s w i t h a n i n q u i r y i n t o t h e n a t u r e o f
e x p e r i e n c e i e . h o w p e r s o n s e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r l i v e d r e a l i t i e s -
101
i n c l u d i n g e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . F u r t h e r , i f k n o w l e d g e
i s p r o p e r l y f o u n d e d o n a d i a l e c t i c b e t w e e n e x p e r i e n c e a n d a b s t r a c t
t h e o r y ( s e e M a r i t a i n 1 9 3 4 ; D e w e y 1 9 8 0 a n d R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) i t s e e m s
e s s e n t i a l t o f u l l y e x p l o r e t h e n a t u r e o f t h o s e f o u n d a t i o n s . A r i s t o t l e
a n d P l a t o w e r e b o t h c o n c e r n e d , a s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , w i t h
t h e q u e s t i o n w h e t h e r a r t c o u l d e m b o d y a n d c o m m u n i c a t e k n o w l e d g e
a n d t r u t h . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) a n d N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a v e s a i d t h a t a n
a e s t h e t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t c a n b e a s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e . I t
c o u l d b e s a i d , t h e n , t h a t t h e k n o w l e d g e g a i n e d f r o m s u c h a e s t h e t i c
a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s h a s e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d (
w e r e a r t t o b e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f h e a l t h c a r e ) w o u l d h a v e p a r t i c u l a r
r e l e v a n c e t o p e r s o n s w h o s e w e l l - b e i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g i s h a m p e r e d b y
s i c k n e s s o r a c c i d e n t .
T h e N a t u r e o f P e r s o n s .
A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g a r e
e x p e r i e n c e d b y p e r s o n s - n o t d e c o n t e x t u a l i z e d p h y s i c a l b o d i e s . T h e
n a t u r e o f p e r s o n s w i l l d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e y e x p e r i e n c e a l a c k o f w e l l -
b e i n g a n d h o w t h e y e x p e r i e n c e s u f f e r i n g - a n d w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , i n f o r m
w h a t c a r e t h e y r e q u i r e w h i l s t s i c k . I s a a c s ( f o r t h c o m i n g , p p . 4 - 1 0 ) h a s
i d e n t i f i e d s e v e n t h e m e s w h i c h g i v e s h a p e a n d t e x t u r e t o t h e
d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f h u m a n b e i n g s a s p e r s o n s . E a c h
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c h a s b o t h a n i n d i v i d u a l a n d a c o m m u n a l o r s o c i a l
d i m e n s i o n a n d d e s c r i b e s t h e w a y s i n w h i c h o u r S e l v e s a s p e r s o n s c a n
b e h a r m e d o r d e s t r o y e d b y a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s . A s e m b o d i e d
b e i n g s w h o p o s s e s s a b i o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n , w e h a v e p h y s i c a l n e e d s
f o r n u t r i e n t s , s u s t e n a n c e , g o o d h e a l t h a n d s h e l t e r - a n d , a s s o c i a l
102
b e i n g s , w e h a v e n e e d s t o b e l o n g w i t h i n s u s t a i n i n g f r i e n d s h i p s , g r o u p s
a n d c o m m u n i t i e s . W e e x p e r i e n c e r e a l i t y a s e m b o d i e d a n d w e a r e
r e c o g n i z e d b y o t h e r s t h r o u g h o u r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s ( p . 4 ) . A s w e h a v e
a l s o g l e a n e d f r o m a b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y v i e w o f a r t , p e r s o n s a l s o h a v e a
p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n i e . h u m a n s h a v e e v o l v e d w i t h a c a p a c i t y t o
s t r u c t u r e t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y , t o i m a g i n e a n d t o h o p e . T h e s e
v a r i o u s a b i l i t i e s h a v e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e - t h e y p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r
o u r b e l i e f s a n d g u i d e o u r a c t i o n s . T h e a b i l i t y t o r e m e m b e r p r o v i d e s a
p e r s o n w i t h a s e n s e o f t h e p a s t , o f h i s t o r y , o f t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g a
c e r t a i n s t r u c t u r e d c o n t i n u i t y . A s w e h a v e s e e n p r e v i o u s l y , t h e a b i l i t y
t o i m a g i n e a n d t o h o p e i s o f g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e i n t h e f l o u r i s h i n g
a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f p e r s o n s - t h e y a r e t h e a b i l i t i e s a n d c a p a c i t i e s
n e c e s s a r y t o c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t f o r m s o f r e a l i t y - a n d i t i s t h e ` c o n c r e t e '
n a t u r e o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t i e s t h a t e n a b l e p e r s o n s t o s u r v i v e a n d
t o f l o u r i s h i n t h e f a c e o f d a n g e r , a n x i e t y , u n c e r t a i n t y a n d
f r a g m e n t a t i o n ( p . 5 ) . P e r s o n s a r e a l s o t e m p o r a l b e i n g s - w e a r e a b l e t o
f o r m ` t e n s e d b e l i e f s a n d t e n s e d i n t e n t i o n s ' ( p . 5 ) . T h i s t e m p o r a l
q u a l i t y m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e , a s p e r s o n s , a s e n s e o f a p a s t , a s e n s e o f
o u r s e l v e s a s p r e s e n t l y e x i s t i n g a n d w e c a n l o o k t o w a r d s a f u t u r e t i m e .
T h i s a l s o m e a n s t h a t w e h a v e t h e a b i l i t y t o s t r u c t u r e a ` l i f e p l a n '
w h i c h c a n b u i l d u p o n - o r c h a n g e - w h a t w e h a v e d o n e i n t h e p a s t , a n d
b y w h i c h w e c a n g i v e s h a p e a n d d i r e c t i o n t o t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s w e
w o u l d l i k e t o o b t a i n i n t h e f u t u r e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s
c h a p t e r o n e o f t h e d e s t r u c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f M o d e r n t h o u g h t i s i t s a -
t e m p o r a l i t y - t h e r i c h n e s s o f h i s t o r y , t h e a m b i g u i t y o f t h e p r e s e n t ,
a n d t h e h o p e s f o r a p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l f u t u r e a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
a c c o m m o d a t e w i t h i n a r a t i o n a l f r a m e w o r k w h i c h i s d i v o r c e d f r o m t h e
103
s o c i a l a n d t h e p a r t i c u l a r a n d w h i c h p r i v i l e g e s t h e a b s t r a c t , t h e
u n i v e r s a l a n d t h e g e n e r a l .
F o l l o w i n g o n f r o m t h i s , a s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d e a r l i e r , p e r s o n s a r e
s o c i a l b e i n g s ( p . 6 ) - t h e y l i v e i n a w o r l d o f c o m p l e x r e l a t i o n s h i p s
w i t h f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , c o l l e a g u e s a n d s o c i e t y a t l a r g e - a n d i t i s b y a n d
t h r o u g h t h e s e v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t o u r s e n s e o f i d e n t i t y a s a
s o c i a l S e l f i s c o n s t r u c t e d a n d m a i n t a i n e d . P e r s o n s a r e a l s o s e l f - a w a r e
b e i n g s ( p p . 6 , 7 ) , t h a t i s , w e a l w a y s e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s b e i n g
p r e s e n t i n t h e w o r l d a n d a s b e i n g t h e ` c e n t r a l p o i n t o f r e f e r e n c e ' f o r
t h e w o r l d w h i c h w e e n c o u n t e r i n o u r v a r i o u s m o d e s o f b e i n g . T h i s
m e a n s t h a t w e c a n e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s ` b e i n g a t h o m e ' i n t h e
w o r l d i e . a s s h a r i n g a r e c i p r o c a l s e n s e o f a c c e p t a n c e a n d v a l u e - o r
w e c a n e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s ` b e i n g l o s t ' o r ` b e i n g a n o u t s i d e r ' .
A g a i n , p e r s o n s a r e a c t i v e b e i n g s ( p . 7 ) - t h e y c a n a c t i n a n d o n t h e i r
w o r l d ' . I t i s b y w a y o f o u r a c t i o n s a n d a c t i v i t i e s t h a t w e c a n
e s t a b l i s h , s h a r e i n a n d s u s t a i n s o c i a l a n d c o m m u n a l p r a c t i c e s .
F i n a l l y , a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , p e r s o n s a r e s e l f -
c r e a t i v e b e i n g s c o n t i n u o u s l y o p e n t o a p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g ( p p . 7 , 8 ) .
T h e e x a m p l e o f m y s e l f a n d t h e w o m a n p a t i e n t p a i n t i n g o u r
` i n t e g r a t i n g i m a g e s ' ( s e e p a g e s 4 8 - 5 0 ) d e m o n s t r a t e s t h a t w e c a n s e e k
t o c r e a t e - a n d r e c r e a t e - o u r s e l v e s i n t h e p r e s e n t i n t h e l i g h t o f b o t h
t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e . A s t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l d e s c r i b e , o u r v a r i o u s
e x p e r i e n c e s c a n l e a d t o a n e x p a n s i o n o r a c o n t r a c t i o n o f o u r S e l v e s -
w e c a n c o m e t o n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f ` s e e i n g ' , n e w a n d e n r i c h i n g
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f o u r S e l v e s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r
- o r t h e y c a n c a u s e o u r S e l v e s t o s h r i v e l u p a n d , p e r h a p s , d i e .
104
A f u l l a n d r i c h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s w a y s i n w h i c h w e
e x p e r i e n c e o u r s e l v e s a s e m b o d i e d p e r s o n s s e r v e s t o r a d i c a l l y
c r i t i q u e m o d e r n n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e s . A
M o d e r n v i e w o f i l l h e a l t h o r a c c i d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , s e e s t h e s i c k
p e r s o n a s ` d i s a b l e d ' o r ` s o m e h o w l e s s ' t h a n ` n o r m a l ' . T h e m e d i c a l
t a s k i s t o ` r e s t o r e ' t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y t o a s t a t e o f ` h e a l t h ' m e a n i n g
t h e b r o k e n p a r t s o r d y s f u n c t i o n s h a v e b e e n r e p a i r e d o r ` f i x e d u p ' .
S u c h a v i e w o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l t h c a r e d o e s n o t , a n d t o a c e r t a i n
e x t e n t w i t h i n s u c h a c o n c e p t i o n , c a n n o t , t a k e a c c o u n t o f a n d h e a l t h e
h u r t a n d i n j u r y o c c a s i o n e d t o t h e m o d a l i t i e s o f b e i n g o f t h e p e r s o n
a s p a t i e n t . A s I m e n t i o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 ) h a s i d e n t i f i e d
s u f f e r i n g a s o c c u r r i n g p r e c i s e l y w h e n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f o n e ' s i d e n t i t y
- o n e ' s m o d e s o f B e i n g - i s t h r e a t e n e d o r h a r m e d . F o r e x a m p l e , a n
e l d e r l y w o m a n i n t h e R e h a b i l i t a t i o n U n i t o f a r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l h a d
s u f f e r e d a n u m b e r o f s t r o k e s . W h i l e t h e s e h a s s e v e r e l y c u r t a i l e d h e r
p h y s i c a l m o v e m e n t s s h e h a d m a i n t a i n e d h e r ` c l a i m t o f a m e ' - h e r
v a l i d i t y a n d s e n s e o f w o r t h w i t h i n h e r e x t e n d e d f a m i l y - b y
c r o c h e t i n g b e d s p r e a d s f o r n u m e r o u s f a m i l y m e m b e r s . T h e s e
c r o c h e t e d b e d s p r e a d s w e r e h e r l i n k s t o h e r s o c i a l w o r l d b e y o n d t h e
d o o r o f ` d i s a b i l i t y ' . H e r l a s t s t r o k e l e f t h e r w i t h t h e u s e o f o n l y o n e
a r m a n d s h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r c r o c h e t . W h i l e h e r b o d i l y i n t e g r i t y h a d
b e e n f u r t h e r d i s r u p t e d b y i l l n e s s i t w a s h e r i n a b i l i t y t o c o n t r i b u t e t o
t h e t e x t u r e o f h e r f a m i l y l i f e i n t h e w a y s t h a t s h e h a d d o n e i n t h e
p a s t t h a t c a u s e d h e r t o e x p e r i e n c e g r e a t s u f f e r i n g . H e r p h y s i c a l
i n j u r i e s w e r e n o t a b l e t o b e ` c u r e d ' b u t w h a t e n a b l e d t h i s w o m a n t o
s u r v i v e h e r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - t o t r a n s c e n d a n d t r a n s f o r m h e r
s u f f e r i n g - t o r e g a i n a s e n s e o f h e r S e l f a s ` w h o l e ' a n d ` h e a l e d ' - w a s
105
d i s c o v e r i n g t h a t s h e c o u l d p a i n t w i t h o n e h a n d . H e r p a i n t i n g s
e n a b l e d h e r t o f l o u r i s h a g a i n .
A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f
r e a l i t y i s a n i n t e r p r e t e d o n e . W e s t r u c t u r e p e r c e p t i o n b y w a y o f a n
i m a g i n a t i v e c a p a c i t y w h i c h a l l o w s u s t o u s e l a n g u a g e i e . w e d e s c r i b e
a n d c l a s s i f y t h i n g s a c c o r d i n g t o w h a t w e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d i n t h e
p a s t , w h a t w e e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e p r e s e n t a n d w h a t w e e x p e c t t o
e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e f u t u r e ( s e e W a r n o c k 1 9 7 6 , p . 2 0 1 ) - a n d w e a r e a b l e
t o s h a r e t h e f r u i t s o f t h e s e c a p a c i t i e s . W e c a n s h a r e c o m m o n w a y s
o f ` s e e i n g ' t h e w o r l d .
T h e i n t e r p r e t e d , c o n s t r u c t e d n a t u r e o f o u r p e r c e p t i o n r a d i c a l l y
c h a l l e n g e s s o m e M o d e r n n o t i o n s o f r e s e a r c h a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t
h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e f o r h e a l t h c a r e . A b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f
h e a l t h c a r e , f o r e x a m p l e , p r i d e s i t s e l f o n b e i n g ` s c i e n t i f i c ' . W h a t
d o e s i t m e a n , h o w e v e r , t o s a y t h a t s o m e m e t h o d o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s
` s c i e n t i f i c ' , r e l i a b l e o r ` t r u t h f u l ' ? N i e l s e n ( 1 9 9 0 , p . 4 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t ,
i n a c k n o w l e d g i n g t h e i n t e r p r e t e d n a t u r e o f p e r c e p t i o n , w h a t
p u r p o r t s t o b e a ` s c i e n t i f i c m e t h o d ' i e . f r e e f r o m t h e b i a s o f
s u b j e c t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , m i g h t n e e d t o b e r e - e x a m i n e d - t o
s e p a r a t e w h a t s c i e n t i s t s ( a n d c l i n i c i a n s ) a c t u a l l y d o ( i e . i n t e r p r e t ) -
a s o p p o s e d t o w h a t t h e y c l a i m t h e y d o . T h e i n t e r p r e t e d n a t u r e o f
o u r e x i s t e n c e a l s o a g a i n r a i s e s t h e p o i n t o f w h a t h a v e b e e n t e r m e d
` p r e j u d i c e s ' o r ` p r e j u d g e m e n t s ' - m e a n i n g t h a t w e d o n o t c o m e t o
e x p e r i e n c e s ( o f l i f e , o f w o r k s o f a r t , o r i l l n e s s a n d a c c i d e n t ) a s
t a b u l a r a s a o r b l a n k s l a t e s . W e c o m e t o e x p e r i e n c e s a s c a n v a s e s
w h i c h a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g . S o m e p h i l o s o p h e r s h a v e
106
a s s e r t e d t h a t w e s h o u l d ` s u s p e n d ' o u r p r e j u d i c e s a n d p r e j u d g m e n t s
w h e n a p p r o a c h i n g a w o r k o f a r t . H o w e v e r , G a d a m e r ( i n N i e l s e n
1 9 9 0 , p . 2 8 ) a r g u e s a c o n t r a r y v i e w - t h a t i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o s t e p
o u t s i d e o u r S e l v e s , t o h a v e a ` b i r d ' s e y e ' o r ` G o d ' s e y e ' v i e w o f
r e a l i t y , a s o u r c e o f k n o w l e d g e o u t s i d e a f r a m e o f r e f e r e n c e .
M o r e o v e r , s u c h a p o s i t i o n i s n o t c o n d u c i v e t o o u r f l o u r i s h i n g , n o r t o
a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e t h i c s , a r t , h e a l t h a n d s o o n . O u r
p r e j u d g m e n t s a n d p r e j u d i c e s a r e , o n t h e c o n t r a r y , o u r o n t o l o g i c a l
r e a l i t y - t h e y a r e o u r o p e n i n g t o t h e w o r l d a n d , i n f a c t , t h e w a y w e
c o m e t o k n o w l e d g e - a n d t o n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y s o f k n o w i n g
( G a d a m e r i n N i e l s e n 1 9 9 0 , p . 2 8 ) .
T h e r e a r e m a n y t h e o r i e s a n d p e r s p e c t i v e s t h a t c a n s h e d l i g h t o n t h e
w a y s i n w h i c h h u m a n s d e v e l o p a n d f l o u r i s h - a n d , a s i m p o r t a n t l y ,
w h a t h a m p e r s , h i n d e r s o r h a r m s t h a t d e v e l o p m e n t . I n t h i s r e g a r d , i n
e x p l o r i n g N u s s b a u m ' s a s s e r t i o n o u t l i n e d a b o v e - t h a t n o t i o n s o f t h e
G o o d a n d f l o u r i s h i n g a r e n o t t o b e f o u n d ` o u t t h e r e ' ( 1 9 9 0 ) - i t
w o u l d t h e n a p p e a r t h a t o u r l i v e d e x i s t e n c e , o u r e x p e r i e n c e s , o u g h t t o
p r o v i d e t h e c l u e s t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n s o f t h e G o o d ,
e t h i c s , a r t , h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g a n d s o o n . A g a i n , i t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d ,
t h a t s o m e o f t h e b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y f e a t u r e s o f h u m a n b e i n g s o u t l i n e d
p r e v i o u s l y s u g g e s t t h a t t o b e h u m a n i s t o b e , i n s o m e s e n s e , a r t i s t i c
a n d c r e a t i v e . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 1 1 ) a r g u e s t h a t a r t a n d a r t i s t i c
e x p e r i e n c e s a r e , i n s o m e w a y s , o n l y q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m
o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e s i e . t h a t a n a r t w o r k i s t h e i d e a l i z a t i o n , a
t a n g i b l e f o r m o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e h a d i n e v e r y f a c e t o f e v e r y d a y
l i f e . A s M a y ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 8 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t e x t r e m e f o r m s o f a n
e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s i l l u m i n a t e t h e q u e s t i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g ,
107
d i s l o c a t i o n a n d t r a u m a t h a t a r e e x p e r i e n c e d i n l e s s e x t r e m e m e d i c a l
c a s e s a n d i n d e e d , i n o t h e r a r e a s o f ` o r d i n a r y ' l i f e , i t m i g h t b e s a i d
t h a t t h e a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e s o f p e r s o n s w h o a r e i l l w i l l r e v e a l ,
i l l u m i n a t e , m a k e v i s i b l e t h e c o m p l e x c o n t o u r s o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f
i l l n e s s a s i t i s l i v e d o u t i n t h e s u b j e c t i v e p a r t i c u l a r i t y o f t h a t
p e r s o n s ' s l i f e . I n t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n , t h e n , e x p e r i e n c e s t r a d i t i o n a l l y
u n d e r s t o o d a s ` a r t i s t i c ' w i l l o v e r l a p w i t h r e f l e c t i o n o n m o r e ` n o r m a l '
e x p e r i e n c e s , a n d e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s . I t m i g h t b e a t r u i s m t o s a y
t h a t s o m e o f t h e m o r e o b v i o u s a s p e c t s o f e v e r y d a y l i v e d e x i s t e n c e a r e
s o ` n a t u r a l ' a n d c o m m o n p l a c e t h a t t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e i s o f t e n
o v e r l o o k e d . I n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , a s I h a v e i n d i c a t e d i n s e t t i n g t h e
p a r a m e t e r s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m i n e t h e
o r d i n a r i n e s s o f t h e e v e r y d a y o c c u r r e n c e s o f h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e t o
u n d e r s t a n d w h y s o m a n y e x p e r i e n c e s u f f e r i n g i n s e t t i n g s d e s i g n e d t o
c a r e f o r t h e s i c k .
I n t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e - a r t i s t i c a n d o r d i n a r y - I w i s h t o
a v o i d a n i m p r e s s i o n t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h i s n a t u r e m i g h t b e
c o n s i d e r e d i n s o m e w a y i n c i d e n t a l t o , o r o p t i o n a l e x t r a s f o r , h e a l t h
a n d f l o u r i s h i n g , g r o w t h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t . I t i s o n e t h i n g t o s a y t h a t
t h e a r t s c a n a s s i s t i n t h e c r e a t i o n a n d r e c r e a t i o n o f a n i d e n t i t y , a
S e l f t o t a k e a c c o u n t , f o r i n s t a n c e , o f h a r m o c c a s i o n e d t o t h e S e l f b y
d i s l o c a t i o n , l o s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . H o w e v e r , I b e l i e v e , i t i s n e c e s s a r y
t o t h i n k o f s u c h i d e n t i t y i n a m o r e r a d i c a l w a y . A n i d e n t i t y , o r
s e n s e o f S e l f , i s n o t j u s t a m e t a p h y s i c a l o r a p s y c h o l o g i c a l
` c o n s t r u c t ' , b u t i t r e f e r s a l s o t o t h e d e p t h s o f o u r B e i n g - t h e w a y
o u r b o d i e s a r e o r g a n i c a l l y a n d b i o l o g i c a l l y c o n f i g u r e d . F u r t h e r ,
t h e s e c o n f i g u r a t i o n s r a d i c a l l y d e t e r m i n e o u r w a y o f B e i n g i n t h e
108
w o r l d a n d t h e w a y s i n w h i c h o u r p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e S e l v e s c a n
g r o w , h e a l a n d f l o u r i s h . H e a l t h c a r e t h e n , a s S a c k s ( 1 9 9 5 , p . x i v )
s u g g e s t s , w o u l d d e m a n d , n o t o n l y ` t h e s t u d y o f i d e n t i t y , t h e i n n e r
w o r l d t h a t p a t i e n t s , u n d e r t h e s p u r o f i l l n e s s , c r e a t e ' b u t f u r t h e r ,
t h a t ` i t m a y . . . b e n e c e s s a r y t o r e d e f i n e t h e v e r y c o n c e p t s o f
` h e a l t h ' a n d ` d i s e a s e ' , t o s e e t h e m i n t e r m s o f t h e o r g a n i s m n e e d t o
r e c r e a t e a n e w o r g a n i z a t i o n a n d o r d e r , o n e t h a t f i t s i t s s p e c i a l ,
a l t e r e d d i s p o s i t i o n a n d n e e d s . ' I n c h a p t e r o n e a n d c h a p t e r t w o a n
e s s e n t i a l r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s r e s i d i n g i n
i t s a b i l i t y t o p r o v i d e a s p a c e w h e r e i n a p e r s o n i s a b l e t o c r e a t e , a n d
r e c r e a t e a s e n s e o f t h e i r i d e n t i t y t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e s o f s u f f e r i n g , l o s s a n d u n c e r t a i n t y . I t w o u l d t h u s a p p e a r
t h a t a c c e s s t o t h e f o r m s o f a r t m a k i n g i s a n i m p e r a t i v e o f a n e t h i c a l
s y s t e m o f h e a l t h c a r e - p a r t i c u l a r l y i n i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s .
T h e N a t u r e o f E x p e r i e n c e .
T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f a r t i s t i c a n d ` o r d i n a r y ' e x p e r i e n c e
w i l l f a l l i n t o t h r e e s t a g e s . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t m a y s e e m , t h e f i r s t s t a g e
w i l l b e t o i g n o r e t h e ` d i s t r a c t i o n ' o f c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k s o f a r t t o
f o c u s o n t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e i t s e l f . T h u s , t h e s e c o n d s t a g e w i l l
e x p l o r e h o w t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e i n f o r m s a n d i l l u m i n a t e s a r t i s t i c
e x p e r i e n c e . T h e t h i r d s t a g e w i l l e x a m i n e t h e m o r a l a n d e t h i c a l
i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e p a r t i c u l a r l y a s t h e y r e l a t e t o
n o t i o n s o f f l o u r i s h i n g , h e a l t h c a r e a n d c o m m u n i t y .
109
T h e v e x e d q u e s t i o n o f ` d e f i n i t i o n s ' h a s a r i s e n m a n y t i m e s b e f o r e i n
t h i s r e s e a r c h . M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 5 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t w h a t i s
d e m a n d e d i s t o t h i n k ` b e y o n d ' t r a d i t i o n a l c a t e g o r i c a l d e f i n i t i o n s .
D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) a s s e r t s f u r t h e r t h a t m a n y o f t h e p r o b l e m s t h a t a t t e n d
a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e x p e r i e n c e , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y e x p e r i e n c e s o f a r t ,
c o m e f r o m t h e c o m p a r t m e n t a l i z i n g , s e p a r a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i n g t h a t i s
e n d e m i c i n M o d e r n m o d e s o f t h o u g h t . T h e r e a r e , h o w e v e r , s o m e
i n t r i n s i c f e a t u r e s o f b o t h a r t , a n d i n d e e d e x p e r i e n c e , w h i c h a s s u m e a
p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s w h e r e s o m e e l e m e n t s o f
m e d i c a l c a r e , d i a g n o s i s a n d t r e a t m e n t a r e i m b u e d w i t h a s e n s e o f
c e r t a i n t y a n d a u t h o r i t y . E x p e r i e n c e , i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , w a s
d e s c r i b e d a s ` n e v e r f i n i s h e d ' , a s a c o l l e c t i o n o f ` s i l k e n t h r e a d s ' , a s
` t e e m i n g w i t h r e l a t i o n a l t h r e a d s ' - i n f a c t a s f l u i d a n d f e c u n d . A r t ,
s t e m m i n g f r o m e x p e r i e n c e , i s s i m i l a r l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d - i n f a c t ,
` a m b i g u i t y i s t h e h a l l m a r k o f g r e a t a r t ' . M i c h a e l s ( 1 9 9 4 ) , s p e a k i n g
o f t h e p a i n t i n g s o f t h e W a r l p i r i p e o p l e , d e s c r i b e s s o m e o f t h e
d i f f i c u l t i e s a n d d a n g e r s t h a t a t t e n d a t t e m p t s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
m e a n i n g o f t h e s e w o r k s . T h e W a r l p i r i p a i n t i n g s a r e , i n a s e n s e ,
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a l . . . a n d ` t h e " t r u e " a n d " p r o p e r " W a r l p i r i v i s i o n o f
t h e l a n d s c a p e i s c o n v e y e d g r a p h i c a l l y t o t h e i n i t i a t e d v i e w e r ' ( p . 5 1 ) .
H o w e v e r , t h e l e a r n i n g o r t h e k n o w l e d g e w h i c h e n a b l e s o n e t o b e
` i n i t i a t e d ' i n t o t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p a i n t i n g , c o m e s , n o t f r o m t h e
p a i n t i n g , b u t f r o m a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n , a n d a n a p p r e c i a t i o n o f , t h e
v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f W a r l p i r i c o m m u n i t y l i f e . C o n f r o n t e d b y t h e
` m y s t e r y a n d t e r r o r o f t h e a m b i g u o u s ' m a n y E u r o p e a n o b s e r v e r s
o v e r c o m e t h e s e f e e l i n g s b y ` s e l e c t i n g o u t a f e w f i g u r e s t o s e r v e a s
h a n d l e s i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m e a n i n g s a t i s f y i n g t o ( t h e m a s )
u n i n i t i a t e d v i e w e r ( s ) ' ( p . 5 1 ) . T h i s p r o c e s s , M i c h a e l s s u g g e s t s , m a y
110
r e s u l t i n ` s o m e t h i n g f a l s e a n d d a m a g i n g ' a n d c o m e s a t ` t h e e x p e n s e
o f a r t a n d o f m e a n i n g ' ( p . 5 1 ) . T h i s ` p r e j u d i c e ' a g a i n s t ( o r f e a r o f )
m y s t e r y a n d t h e a m b i g u o u s c o u l d b e s e e n a s a d e n i a l o f t h e
o n t o l o g i c a l v a l u e w h i c h G a d a m e r ( 1 9 9 1 ) a t t r i b u t e s t o o u r ` p r e -
j u d g m e n t s ' - t h a t i s , t h e y a r e o u r o p e n i n g t o t h e w o r l d a n d t h e w a y
w e ` c o m e t o k n o w ' .
S o m e r e f e r e n c e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m a d e t o t h e m o d e r n m a l a i s e s w h i c h
h a v e a r i s e n d u r i n g t h e M o d e r n P e r i o d - t h e s e n s e o f s o c i a l
i s o l a t i o n , p o w e r l e s s n e s s , a n d l a c k o f m e a n i n g a n d p u r p o s e . I t m i g h t
b e w e l l h e r e t o i d e n t i f y a d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n e x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e a n d
m e n t a l i l l n e s s - t w o n o t i o n s t h a t I s u g g e s t a r e o f t e n c o n f u s e d i n
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . E x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e , a s d e f i n e d b y S m i t h
( 1 9 8 3 , p . 1 0 5 ) , i s n o t a m e n t a l i l l n e s s - i t i s t h e a w a r e n e s s o f
u n c e r t a i n t y . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m c h a p t e r t w o , f e e l i n g s o f
u n c e r t a i n t y c a n e i t h e r c r i p p l e u s w i t h f e a r a n d a n x i e t y o r t h e y c a n
p r o p e l u s i n t o t h e a c t i o n n e c e s s a r y t o e n h a n c e t h e c h a n c e s o f
s u r v i v a l . E x i s t e n t i a l h e a l t h i s t h e a b i l i t y t o a c c e p t t h e f a c t t h a t
u n c e r t a i n t y i s a n i n e v i t a b l e p a r t o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e - t h a t w e d o n o t
n e e d t o d e n y i t n o r s e e k t o r e s o l v e i t .
T o r e f l e c t o n o u r o w n i n d i v i d u a l e x p e r i e n c e s i m m e d i a t e l y c o l l i d e s
w i t h t h e M o d e r n n o t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y w h i c h , a s I h a v e s u g g e s t e d i n
t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , n e e d s r e - e x a m i n a t i o n . O n t h e o n e h a n d , I a m i n
s o m e a g r e e m e n t w i t h m a n y c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t e r s w h o h a v e a r t i c u l a t e d
a n e e d f o r l e s s i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c n o t i o n s o f a r t ( a n d a r t i s t s ) - a m o v e
t o w a r d s s o m e m o r e c o m m u n a l a n d s o c i a l l y r e s p o n s i b l e n o t i o n s
111
( s e e D i s s a n a y a k e 1 9 8 8 ; S a r a s o n 1 9 9 0 ; S a r a s o n 1 9 9 0 ; G a b l i k 1 9 9 1
a n d K a p r o w 1 9 9 3 ) . H o w e v e r , w h i l e i t m a y b e t r u e t o s a y t h a t a
M o d e r n n o t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e a k s o f s e p a r a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n
f r o m o t h e r s , f r o m a n o t h e r p e r s p e c t i v e a d i f f e r e n t u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
r o l e a n d n a t u r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l e m e r g e s - t h a t i t i s o n l y b y a n d
t h r o u g h t h e f u l l u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e l f t h a t m e a n i n g f u l
n o t i o n s o f t h e u n i v e r s a l a n d c o m m u n a l a r e p o s s i b l e . A s M e r t o n
( 1 9 8 9 , p . 3 8 7 ) h a s i t ;
A r t e n a b l e s u s t o f i n d o u r s e l v e s a n d l o s e o u r s e l v e s a t t h e s a m e t i m e . T h e m i n d t h a t r e s p o n d s t o t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d s p i r i t u a l v a l u e s t h a t l i e h i d d e n i n a p o e m , a p a i n t i n g , o r a p i e c e o f m u s i c , d i s c o v e r s a s p i r i t u a l v i t a l i t y t h a t l i f t s i t a b o v e i t s e l f , t a k e s i t o u t o f i t s e l f , a n d m a k e s i t p r e s e n t t o i t s e l f o n a l e v e l o f b e i n g t h a t i t d i d n o t k n o w i t c o u l d e v e r a c h i e v e .
S i g n i f i c a n t l y , i n r e t h i n k i n g n o t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , o f h e a l t h , a n d o f
a r t , m u c h a s s i s t a n c e c a n b e g a i n e d f r o m w r i t e r s f r o m a n u m b e r o f
s p i r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n s . L a m a A n a g a r i k a G o v i n d a ( 1 9 7 0 , p . 1 2 4 ) , a
B u d d h i s t m o n k , s h a r e s w i t h M e r t o n a d i f f e r e n t a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e
n a t u r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l :
I n d i v i d u a l i t y i s n o t o n l y t h e n e c e s s a r y a n d c o m p l e m e n t a r y o p p o s i t e o f u n i v e r s a l i t y b u t t h e f o c a l p o i n t t h r o u g h w h i c h a l o n e u n i v e r s a l i t y c a n b e e x p e r i e n c e d . T h e s u p p r e s s i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y , t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s d e n i a l o f i t s v a l u e o r i m p o r t a n c e , c a n o n l y l e a d t o a s t a t e o f c o m p l e t e i n d i f f e r e n c e a n d d i s s o l u t i o n , w h i c h m a y b e a l i b e r a t i o n f r o m s u f f e r i n g , b u t a p u r e l y n e g a t i v e o n e , a s i t d e p r i v e s u s o f t h e h i g h e s t e x p e r i e n c e t o w a r d s w h i c h t h e p r o c e s s o f i n d i v i d u a t i o n s e e m s t o a i m : t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e r f e c t e n l i g h t e n m e n t o r B u d d a h o o d i n w h i c h t h e u n i v e r s a l i t y o f o u r t r u e b e i n g i s r e a l i s e d .
S o w h a t h a p p e n s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l w h e n t h e y ` h a v e a n e x p e r i e n c e ' ?
D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 1 1 ) h a s p o s i t e d t h a t w h a t i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r t o
u n d e r s t a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e i s t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t a n a r t w o r k i s
t h e i d e a l i z a t i o n - a t a n g i b l e f o r m o f e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e h a d i n
112
e v e r y f a c e t o f e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e - i n c l u d i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f
i l l n e s s . A n e x p e r i e n c e i n D e w e y ' s t e r m s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t i s
r e c o g n i z e d a s q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m ` o r d i n a r y ' c o n s c i o u s n e s s -
s o m e t h i n g w h i c h e n a b l e s u s t o s a y t h a t w e h a v e h a d a n e x p e r i e n c e .
E x p e r i e n c i n g i n t h i s s e n s e i s n o t p a s s i v e . O n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t i s v e r y
a c t i v e i n t h a t a l l t h e s e n s e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m a r e u t i l i z e d a n d b o u g h t
i n t o h a r m o n i o u s a n d v i t a l u n i t y ;
T h e e s t h e t i c o r u n d e r g o i n g p h a s e o f e x p e r i e n c e i s r e c e p t i v e . I t i n v o l v e s s u r r e n d e r . B u t a n a d e q u a t e y i e l d i n g o f t h e s e l f i s o n l y p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a c o n t r o l l e d a c t i v i t y t h a t m a y w e l l b e i n t e n s e . I n m u c h o f o u r i n t e r c o u r s e w i t h o u r s u r r o u n d i n g s w e w i t h d r a w ; m u c h f r o m f e a r , i f o n l y o f e x p e n d i n g u n d u l y o u r s t o r e o f e n e r g y ; s o m e t i m e s f r o m p r e o c c u p a t i o n w i t h o t h e r m a t t e r s , a s i s t h e c a s e o f r e c o g n i t i o n . P e r c e p t i o n i s a n a c t o f g o i n g - o u t o f e n e r g y i n o r d e r t o r e c e i v e , n o t a w i t h h o l d i n g o f e n e r g y . T o s t e e p o u r s e l v e s i n a s u b j e c t - m a t t e r w e h a v e f i r s t t o p l u n g e i n t o i t . W h e n w e a r e o n l y p a s s i v e t o a s c e n e , i t o v e r w h e l m s u s a n d , f o r l a c k o f a n s w e r i n g a c t i v i t y , w e d o n o t p e r c e i v e t h a t w h i c h b e a r s u s d o w n . W e m u s t s u m m o n e n e r g y a n d p i t c h i t a t a r e s p o n s i v e k e y i n o r d e r t o t a k e i t i n . ( D e w e y 1 9 8 0 , p . 5 3 )
P a r a d o x i c a l l y , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t , a s s u c h e x p e r i e n c e s c a n n o t
b e ` w i l l e d ' , t h e y a l s o s p e a k o f m y s t e r y , o f g i f t , o f g r a c e , a n d t h e
u n k n o w a b l e . S u c h a n o t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e , h o w e v e r , a l s o s p e a k s o f t h e
c r i t i c a l n e e d f o r a p e r s o n a l s e n s e o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d p o w e r t o
a v o i d b e i n g o v e r w h e l m e d b y a n e x p e r i e n c e . H o w e v e r , a s h a s a l r e a d y
b e e n d e s c r i b e d , p e r s o n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y a n d a s e n s e o f p e r s o n a l p o w e r
a r e t h e v e r y t h i n g s t h a t a r e l i a b l e t o b e u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d t h e d e m a n d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d s e t t i n g s .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e a b i l i t y t o c r e a t i v e l y r e s p o n d t o t h e d e m a n d s o f
e x p e r i e n c e - p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - t a k e s o n
a p r o f o u n d l y e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s .
I n D e w e y ' s t e r m s p e r c e p t i o n a n d r e c o g n i t i o n a r e d i f f e r e n t p h e n o m e n a .
113
R e c o g n i t i o n s t o p s s h o r t o f p e r c e p t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , I r e c o g n i z e
s o m e o n e i n t h e s t r e e t a n d d o n o t s e e t h e m ` a s t h e y a r e ' b u t I s e e t h e m
( r e c o g n i z e t h e m ) i n o r d e r t o d o s o m e t h i n g e l s e - i n t h i s c a s e t o g r e e t
t h e m ( D e w e y 1 9 3 4 , p . 5 2 ) . T h i s m i g h t b e l i k e n e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n i n
w h i c h p e o p l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e o f t e n ` r e c o g n i z e d ' i n m e d i c a l
a n d b u r e a u c r a t i c t e r m s - a s ` t h e t h e a t r e c a s e f o r T h u r s d a y ' , ` l a s t
n i g h t ' s a d m i s s i o n ' o r b y t h e c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t h e i r s y m p t o m s a s ` a
d i s e a s e ' - ` t h e r h e u m a t o i d a r t h r i t i s i n B e d 3 ' . I n t h e p r o c e s s t h a t i s
p e r c e p t i o n , h o w e v e r , w h a t i s i n v o l v e d i s a c r e a t i v e a n d q u a l i t a t i v e l y
d i f f e r e n t ` s e e i n g ' - a s e e i n g t h a t , u l t i m a t e l y , h a s a d o m i n o e f f e c t o r a
p a r t i c u l a r f e c u n d i t y .
F o r e x a m p l e , t h e w e e k b e f o r e m y f a t h e r d i e d I f l e w t o B r i s b a n e t o s e e
h i m . M y m o t h e r h a d s a i d h e w a s ` d e t e r i o r a t i n g ' , a w o r d s h e h a d n e v e r
b e f o r e u s e d i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e h e a l t h o f m y f a t h e r . O n e o f m y
s i s t e r s h a d b e e n a d v i s i n g m y f a t h e r t o t a k e a w a l k a f t e r h i s V e n t o l i n -
t h a t i t w o u l d h a v e g r e a t e r e f f e c t . O n e d a y m y f a t h e r d i d g o f o r a
w a l k . I t t o o k u s a n h o u r t o w a l k a r o u n d t h e b l o c k . A t o n e s t a g e I
l o o k e d a t m y f a t h e r a n d ` s a w ' h i m , n o t a s m y f a t h e r , b u t a s t h e m a n ,
t h e h u m a n b e i n g t h a t h e w a s - o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l i a r r o l e s o f h u s b a n d
a n d f a t h e r . A n d I s a w t h a t h i s e y e s w e r e o l d a n d t i r e d . M u c h l a t e r I
w r o t e t h i s p o e m a b o u t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , t h a t m o m e n t o f ` s e e i n g ' .
O l d t i r e d e y e s - y e t s t i l l a l i v e a n d k n o w i n g T h e w a l k a r o u n d t h e b l o c k - i t w a s a k i n d o f p i l g r i m a g e f o r a d a u g h t e r w h o w a s a f r a i d y e t b r a v e P e r h a p s t h e o l d k i n d e y e s c o u l d s e e t h e p a r a d o x a n d l o v e d a n d k n e w t h e s a m e W a s h e l o n e l y - t h i s o l d t i r e d f a t h e r o f m i n e ? D i d h e f e a r a p p r o a c h i n g d e a t h ? O r w a s i t o n l y t h e a f r a i d a n d t h e b r a v e t h a t f e a r e d t h e u n k n o w n
114t h e a n t i c i p a t i o n t h a t w a i t e d f o r t h e r e a l i t y n o t k n o w i n g i f i t w a s a l l t o b e p r o v e d t r u e o r f a l s e .
What I am t ry ing to descr ibe i s the layered repercuss ions , the domino
ef fec t , o r , as Mer ton ( in Gr i f f in 1979) may descr ibe i t , the fecundi ty of
percept ion , of th i s ` see ing ' . In the case of my see ing my fa ther `as i f for
the f i r s t t ime ' there were a number of repercuss ions - no t the leas t o f
which was the prec ip i ta t ion of the `prepara tory gr ie f ' fo r h i s dea th . More
impor tan t ly , f rom his perspec t ive and mine , I was more ab le to a l low h im
to `be ' , to accept h im for what he was a t tha t t ime, a t i red , s ick , o ld man.
I was ab le to somehow put myse l f as ide and see as though I were my
fa ther . I was ab le to accept , as I was la te r in my exper iences of people
dy ing of AIDS, tha t people in the process of dy ing have the i r own
agendas , the i r own needs . Somet imes they may coinc ide wi th ours .
Somet imes they may be d i f fe ren t and our d isappoin ted expec ta t ions a re
of ten the resu l t o f our `not see ing ' . La ter tha t moment of percept ion
made a grea t d i f fe rence to how I reac ted to the dea th of my fa ther . I was
ab le to comprehend - o r accept - tha t i t would have been wrong and
somehow ungrac ious to wish tha t my fa ther could have l ived - he was o ld ,
t i red and s ick and the t ime for h i s dea th had come.
T h e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i v e e x p e r i e n c e w o u l d t h u s h a v e m o r a l a n d
e t h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t i n v o l v e t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d t h e i r i n n e r
w o r l d b e i n g b r o u g h t i n t o d i a l o g u e w i t h t h e o u t e r - t h e c o m m u n a l
a n d t h e i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e . I t s e e m s t h a t t h e t w o ( t h e i n d i v i d u a l
e x p e r i e n c e a n d t h e m o r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s ) a r e i n t e r t w i n e d i n a
r e f l e x i v i t y - n o t a t t h e p r e c i s e m o m e n t s o f p e r c e p t i o n - a s t h a t
w o u l d , i n a s e n s e , n e g a t e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f p e r c e p t i o n , b u t t h e
e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e c o m e s f r o m c o n t e m p l a t i o n a n d r e f l e c t i o n o n t h a t
115
e x p e r i e n c e . A s N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s i t , a v i t a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n
t h e a b s t r a c t a n d t h e p r a c t i c a l h a s b e e n e s t a b l i s h e d . T h e n , a s a r e s u l t
o f a p r o c e s s t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l e n g a g e d i n a d i a l e c t i c a l
r e f l e x i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e O t h e r , t h e e x p e r i e n c e - m y s e e i n g a s
i f I w e r e t h e O t h e r - b e c o m e s p a r t o f m y i d e n t i t y , m y s e l f . H o w e v e r ,
i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h e e x p e r i e n c e a s i t b e c o m e s p a r t o f m y o r g a n i s m
d o e s s o l i k e l i g h t t h a t i s r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h a p r i s m - i t i s n o t a s i n g l e
b e a m o f M e l i g h t t h a t i s r e i n c o r p o r a t e d , b u t s o m e h o w t h e c o l o u r s o f
t h e O t h e r h a v e b e c o m e p a r t o f t h a t l i g h t a n d s o b e c o m e p a r t o f m y
S e l f . A s i m p l e e x a m p l e o f t h i s i s t h e i m p o r t a n t p a r t m e m o r y p l a y s i n
t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a n i d e n t i t y . M y e x p e r i e n c e s , o r m y m e m o r i e s o f
m y e x p e r i e n c e s , a r e s o m u c h p a r t o f a l l f a c e t s o f m y S e l f - m y s k i n ,
m y s o u l , m y s p i r i t , m y c h a r a c t e r - t h a t I c a n n o t s e p a r a t e t h e m o u t
f r o m m y B e i n g . T h i s m a y b e l i k e n e d t o t h e b e n e f i t s A r i s t o t l e
( 1 9 7 6 , p . 3 1 0 ) a s c r i b e s t o t h e G o o d o f f r i e n d s h i p i e . I a m e n a b l e d t o
b e c o m e m o r e o f t h e M e b y a n d t h r o u g h m y f r i e n d s h i p w i t h a n o t h e r .
M e r t o n ( 1 9 8 9 , p . 3 2 8 ) d e s c r i b e s t h e m o r a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p r o c e s s
o f e x p e r i e n c e i n t h i s w a y ;
T h e n h e r e s t s i n t h i s i n t u i t i o n ( w h e n h i s m i n d c a n g r a s p t h e w h o l e c o n t e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t i n o n e d e e p a n d p e n e t r a t i n g g a z e ) , l e t t i n g t h e t r u t h s i n k i n a n d b e c o m e a p a r t o f h i m s e l f . A b o v e a l l , i n t u i t i o n , s e t t i n g t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e t e m p o r a r i l y a t r e s t , s h o u l d l e a v e t h e w i l l f r e e t o a d a p t i t s e l f t o t h e p r a c t i c a l c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e t r u t h t h u s s e e n a n d t o d i r e c t o u r w h o l e l i f e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h i t .
I f p e r c e p t i o n a s e m b o d i e d i n a n e x p e r i e n c e i s s e e n a s p a r t o f a
c o n t i n u u m o f b e c o m i n g o r a n u n f o l d i n g o r a p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g a n d
f l o u r i s h i n g , t h e d i l e m m a t h a t m i g h t b e s e e n t o e x i s t b e t w e e n s e e i n g
t h e i n d i v i d u a l a n d / o r t h e c o m m u n a l d i s a p p e a r s ( s e e R a n k 1 9 8 9 ) .
E v e r y i n d i v i d u a l b r i n g s t h e t o t a l i t y o f t h e m s e l v e s t o a n e x p e r i e n c e
116
a n d p e r h a p s i n t h e m o v e m e n t o f c o n t e m p l a t i v e r e f l e x i v i t y t h e
e x p e r i e n c e i n t u r n i l l u m i n a t e s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f t h e u n f o l d i n g
i n d i v i d u a l S e l f - e x i s t i n g i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r .
T h a t r e f l e x i v i t y - b o t h o u t t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e - t h e o b j e c t o f t h e
e x p e r i e n c e - a n d b a c k t o t h e s e l f , i s a n i n t e g r a l , a n d d e f i n i t i v e
e l e m e n t i n e x p l a i n i n g h o w o u r S e l v e s , o u r i d e n t i t i e s a r e c o n s t r u c t e d
a n d w e f l o u r i s h , o r b l o s s o m , a n d g r o w . R e c e n t l y a s m a l l g i r l a s k e d
m e t o h e l p h e r d r a w a r u b b i s h b i n . W h e n I w e n t t o d r a w t h e r u b b i s h
b i n , I d r e w i t f r o m w h e r e I w a s s i t t i n g a n d I f o r g o t t o s a y t h a t t h e
p e r s p e c t i v e f r o m w h e r e s h e w a s s i t t i n g w o u l d b e d i f f e r e n t - s h e w o u l d
s e e i t d i f f e r e n t l y . S i m i l a r l y , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s a r e s u l t o f
t h e i n c o r p o r a t i o n o f o u r e x p e r i e n c e s w e s e e a d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e ,
n o t o n l y o f o u r s e l v e s , b u t o n t h e m y r i a d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , w e b s a n d n e t s
t h a t a r e t h e l a n d s c a p e o f o u r s e n s e o f m e a n i n g . T h e r o l e a n d
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e x p e r i e n c e t h u s u n d e r s t o o d w o u l d a c c o r d w i t h
G a d a m e r ' s r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e e f f e c t o f e x p e r i e n c i n g a w o r k o f a r t - t h a t
i t c h a n g e s n o t o n l y t h e w a y I s e e t h i n g s n o w , b u t h o w I h a v e s e e n
t h e m i n t h e p a s t , a n d w i l l s e e t h e m i n t h e f u t u r e ( G a d a m e r 1 9 9 1 ) .
A s I e m p h a s i z e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c h a p t e r , i n s a y i n g t h i s , i t i s
n o t t o s a y t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s a n d o u r r e f l e c t i o n o n t h e m a r e m e r e l y
i n s t r u m e n t a l o r i n c i d e n t a l t o o u r g r o w t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g , b u t t h a t t h e y
p r o v i d e t h e v e r y s t r u c t u r e a n d t h e v e r y m e c h a n i s m s b y w h i c h w e d o
g r o w a n d f l o u r i s h .
H o w D o E x p e r i e n c e s H a p p e n ?
117
I t m i g h t b e t r u e t o s a y t h a t v e r y f e w p e o p l e h a v e e x p e r i e n c e s i n t h e
s e n s e t h a t I h a v e d e s c r i b e d - o r , p e r h a p s , b e c a u s e o f a n a l i e n a t i o n
f r o m t h e i r ` a r t i s t i c a n d s p i r i t u a l S e l v e s ' , a n d t h e d o m i n a n c e o f
M o d e r n i s t r a t i o n a l i s m , d o n o t h a v e t h e ` t o o l s ' , t h e l a n g u a g e , o r t h e
p a r a d i g m s t o r e c o g n i z e a n d d e s c r i b e t h e c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
o n e s t h e y d o h a v e . I n a d d i t i o n , D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 2 1 ) a t t r i b u t e s t h i s
a l i e n a t i o n a n d s t e r i l i t y t o t h e f a c t t h a t p r e s t i g e ( c o m m o n l y ) g o e s t o
t h o s e w h o u s e t h e i r m i n d s w i t h o u t p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e i r b o d i e s a n d
w h o a c t v i c a r i o u s l y t h r o u g h c o n t r o l o f t h e b o d i e s a n d l a b o u r o f
o t h e r s .
H o w e v e r , t o c o n t i n u e w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n ` H o w d o e x p e r i e n c e s h a p p e n ? '
M e r l e a u - P o n t y ( i n C r o w t h e r 1 9 9 3 , p . 1 0 4 ) d e s c r i b e s p e r c e p t i o n i n
t e r m s o f ` p r i m a r y ' a n d ` s e c o n d a r y ' e x p r e s s i o n . S e c o n d a r y e x p r e s s i o n
i s w h e n w e a r t i c u l a t e t h e w o r l d i n t e r m s o f p e r c e p t i o n s o r c o n c e p t s
t h a t a r e r o u t i n e o r f a m i l i a r t o u s . P r i m a r y e x p r e s s i o n i s w h e n w e t a k e
u p a n u n o r t h o d o x o r i n n o v a t o r y p o s i t i o n i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w o r l d -
w h e n w e o r g a n i z e i t i n a n e w w a y , f o r e x a m p l e , a s a p o e t d o e s i n h i s
o r h e r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f l a n g u a g e . H o w e v e r w e c l a s s i f y o r d e s c r i b e
o c c a s i o n s o f p e r c e p t i o n , t h e q u e s t i o n s t i l l r e m a i n s - W h a t c a u s e s o r
a l l o w s t h e s e p r i m a r y e x p r e s s i o n s t o a r i s e a n d s u r f a c e ? T h e r e a r e
s e v e r a l w a y s i n w h i c h t h e a n s w e r t o t h i s q u e s t i o n c a n b e a p p r o a c h e d .
D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) , C r o s b y ( c . 1 9 9 0 ) a n d B e r r y ( 1 9 9 5 ) , e a c h i n t h e i r
s e v e r a l w a y s , s h e d s o m e l i g h t o n t h e s o m e w h a t m y s t e r i o u s p r o c e s s o f
g r o w i n g , l i v i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . I q u o t e s o m e l e n g t h y p a s s a g e s h e r e
a s w h a t e a c h o f t h e s e w r i t e r s a p p e a r t o b e d e s c r i b i n g a r e s o m e o f t h e
i n e v i t a b l e l u m p s , b u m p s , p e a k s a n d t r o u g h s o f e v e r y d a y l i v e d
e x i s t e n c e . O n e o f t h e m o r e d e s t r u c t i v e f e a t u r e s o f t h e w a y i n w h i c h
118
m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e i s c o n c e i v e d i s t h a t i t o f t e n s e e k s t o a n a e s t h e t i z e ,
t o i r o n o u t t h e p a i n f u l b u m p s w h i c h a r e n o t o n l y a n a t u r a l p a r t o f
l i v e d e x i s t e n c e b u t w h i c h a r e n e c e s s a r y a n d c r i t i c a l f o r o u r g r o w t h ,
f l o u r i s h i n g a n d s u r v i v a l a s a r t i s t i c a n d c r e a t i v e P e r s o n s . A s D e w e y
( i n M c d e r m o t t 1 9 7 3 , p . x x i x ) p u t s t h e p r o c e s s o f l i v i n g ;
L i f e i t s e l f c o n s i s t s o f p h a s e s i n w h i c h t h e o r g a n i s m f a l l s o u t o f s t e p w i t h t h e m a r c h o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g t h i n g s a n d t h e n r e c o v e r s u n i s o n w i t h i t - e i t h e r t h r o u g h e f f o r t o r b y s o m e h a p p y c h a n c e . A n d , i n a g r o w i n g l i f e , t h e r e c o v e r y i s n e v e r m e r e r e t u r n t o a p r i o r s t a t e , f o r i t i s e n r i c h e d b y t h e s t a t e o f d i s p a r i t y a n d r e s i s t a n c e t h r o u g h w h i c h i t h a s s u c c e s s f u l l y p a s s e d . I f t h e g a p b e t w e e n o r g a n i s m a n d e n v i r o n m e n t i s t o o w i d e , t h e c r e a t u r e d i e s . I f i t s a c t i v i t y i s n o t e n h a n c e d b y t h e t e m p o r a r y a l i e n a t i o n , i t m e r e l y s u b s i s t s . L i f e g r o w s w h e n a t e m p o r a r y f a l l i n g o u t i s a t r a n s i t i o n t o a m o r e e x t e n s i v e b a l a n c e o f t h e e n e r g i e s o f t h e o r g a n i s m w i t h t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h i t l i v e s .
F r o m a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e , C r o s b y ( c . 1 9 9 0 ) o b s e r v e s ;
S o m e t i m e s w h e n t h e b o t t o m f a l l s o u t o f o u r l i f e , w e a r e s e t f r e e . W e a t t a i n e n l i g h t e n m e n t , o r a n e n l i g h t e n m e n t o f s o r t s ; s o m e p e r s p e c t i v e , s o m e c l a r i t y , s o m e s e n s e o f r e a l i t y , s o m e s e n s e o f d e a l i n g w i t h t h i n g s a s t h e y a r e , s o m e r e l i e f f r o m a n x i e t y a n d p e r p l e x i t y b e c a u s e s o m e t h i n g p r o f o u n d h a s h a p p e n e d .
W h e n e v e r t h a t p r o f o u n d t h i n g h a p p e n s , w e c a n e x p e c t t o g o t h r o u g h a p r o c e s s , s o m e t i m e s a l o n g p r o c e s s , a p a i n f u l o r a t l e a s t a n u n c o m f o r t a b l e p r o c e s s , i n w h i c h w e l e t g o o f s o m e t h i n g a n d s l o w l y l e a r n h o w t o l i v e a g a i n . T h i s i s t r u e n o m a t t e r w e l o s e a l o v e d o n e , a w o r k , a h o p e , a v i s i o n , a n i m a g e o f o u r s e l v e s , a p a r t o f o u r s e l v e s . L o s s m a k e s a r t i s t s o f u s a l l a s w e w e a v e n e w p a t t e r n s i n t h e f a b r i c o f o u r l i v e s .
F i n a l l y , i n a r e c e n t i s s u e o f T a l k a b o u t m a g a z i n e , a m a g a z i n e f o r
p e o p l e l i v i n g w i t h A I D S , B e r r y ( 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 0 ) , a p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t
w o r k i n g w i t h p e o p l e n e w l y d i a g n o s e d w i t h A I D S , s p e a k s o f ` a p s y c h i c
s h a k e - u p . . ( a n d ) s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e i n i t i a l r e s p o n s e t o d i a g n o s i s c a n b e
l i k e n e d i n s o m e c a s e s t o a p s y c h i c e x p l o s i o n . I n t h i s e x p l o s i o n o n e ' s
i d e n t i t y , w h a t w e c a l l o u r " s e l f " , f e e l s a s i f i t i s d e s t r o y e d . T h e o l d
119
m a p i s i n e f f e c t i v e a n d p s y c h i c " r e o r g a n i z a t i o n " c a n o n l y o c c u r
t h r o u g h c h a n g i n g t h a t m a p a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t r a n s f o r m i n g t h e n o t i o n o f
s e l f . '
I t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t m a n y e x p e r i e n c e s o f h e a l t h a n d i l l n e s s
( i n d e e d m a n y o f t h e e v e n t s o f o u r e v e r y d a y l i v e s ) w o u l d h a v e
s i m i l a r r e p e r c u s s i o n s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , B e r r y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e
f e e l i n g s - o f ` b e i n g t r a n s p o r t e d t o a n e w w o r l d w h e r e a l l t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g s a r e d i f f e r e n t . . ( w h e r e ) f a m i l i a r p e o p l e , e v e n t s , a n d
s i t u a t i o n s b e c o m e u n f a m i l i a r a n d s t r a n g e ' - t h e s e f e e l i n g s a r e t h e
s a m e a s t h o s e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e b e r e a v e d a n d b y t h o s e e x p e r i e n c i n g
w h a t i s n o w d e s c r i b e d a s m i d l i f e c r i s i s ( B e r r y 1 9 9 5 , p . 2 1 ) .
P e r c e p t i o n i n t h e s e n s e t h a t D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 ) s p e a k s o f i t c o u l d b e
l i k e n e d t o t h e s e s a m e p s y c h i c s h a k e - u p s . W h i l e s o m e c o u l d b e
d e s c r i b e d a s s h a k e - u p s , s o m e c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s p s y c h i c n u d g e s -
o r p e r h a p s a s e v i d e n c e o f t h e o r g a n i s m s d e s i r e t o l i v e d i f f e r e n t l y o r
m o r e f u l l y .
L i s t e n i n g .
A n e s s e n t i a l i n g r e d i e n t i n t h e t y p e o f e x p e r i e n c e s o f w h i c h I a m
s p e a k i n g i s l i s t e n i n g . L i s t e n i n g i s m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l - i t c a n u t i l i z e
a l l s e n s e s s o t h a t w e c a n l i s t e n w i t h o u r w h o l e b o d i e s a s w e l l a s o u r
e a r s , m i n d s a n d e y e s . A s M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 2 7 0 ) q u o t e s J a k e s ;
` Y o u d o n o t g o i n t o t h e d e s e r t t o f i n d i d e n t i t y b u t t o l o s e i t , t o l o s e y o u r p e r s o n a l i t y , t o m a k e y o u r s e l f a n o n y m o u s . Y o u m a k e y o u r s e l f t h e v o i d . Y o u b e c o m e s i l e n c e . I t i s v e r y h a r d t o l i v e w i t h s i l e n c e . T h e r e a l s i l e n c e i s d e a t h a n d t h i s i s t e r r i b l e . I t i s v e r y h a r d i n t h e d e s e r t . Y o u m u s t b e c o m e m o r e s i l e n t t h a n t h e s i l e n c e a r o u n d y o u . A n d t h e n s o m e t h i n g e x t r a o r d i n a r y h a p p e n s : y o u h e a r
120s i l e n c e s p e a k . ' H o w c a n o n e b e c o m e m o r e s i l e n t t h a n s i l e n c e ? H o w c a n o n e h e a r t h e s i l e n c e s p e a k a n d s e e t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e d e s e r t ?
I h a v e e x p e r i e n c e d t h e s i l e n c e o f t h e d e s e r t ` s p e a k i n g ' . H o w e v e r , o n
a m o r e m u n d a n e l e v e l , I r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s i s w h a t I a d v i s e p e o p l e t o d o
w h e n I a m t e a c h i n g t h e m t o p a i n t . I f r e q u e n t l y s a y ` p u t y o u r h e a d o u t
o f g e a r a n d t r u s t y o u r h a n d s a n d e y e s b e c a u s e t h e y k n o w h o w t o
p a i n t . ' I a m c e r t a i n l y n o t a d v i s i n g t h e m t o p u t t h e i r i n t e l l i g e n c e o u t
o f g e a r , b u t t o r e c o g n i z e a s M a r k T a y l o r ( 1 9 9 5 ) p o s i t s t h a t
i n t e l l i g e n c e h a s m a n y f o r m s a n d i s s p r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h e b o d y - i t i s
n o t o n l y l o c a t e d i n s o m e s p a c e b e t w e e n o u r e a r s . T h u s a n
e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y a r t i s t i c
e x p e r i e n c e w i l l a l s o b e a r e v i s i o n i n g o f t h e n a t u r e a n d r o l e o f
i n t e l l i g e n c e . D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 5 ) a n a l y z e s t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l e f f o r t t h a t
i s r e q u i r e d i n a r t i n t h e s e t e r m s ;
B e c a u s e p e r c e p t i o n o f r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n w h a t i s d o n e a n d w h a t i s u n d o n e c o n s t i t u t e s t h e w o r k o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a n d b e c a u s e t h e a r t i s t i s c o n t r o l l e d i n t h e p r o c e s s o f h i s w o r k b y h i s g r a s p o f t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n w h a t h e h a s a l r e a d y d o n e a n d w h a t h e i s t o d o n e x t , t h e i d e a t h a t t h e a r t i s t d o e s n o t t h i n k a s i n t e n t l y a n d p e n e t r a t i n g l y a s a s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r e r i s a b s u r d . A p a i n t e r m u s t c o n s c i o u s l y u n d e r g o t h e e f f e c t o f h i s e v e r y b r u s h s t r o k e o r h e w i l l n o t b e a w a r e o f w h a t h e i s d o i n g a n d w h e r e h i s w o r k i s g o i n g . M o r e o v e r , h e h a s t o s e e e a c h p a r t i c u l a r c o n n e c t i o n o f d o i n g a n d u n d e r g o i n g i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e w h o l e t h a t h e i s d e s i r i n g t o p r o d u c e . T o a p p r e h e n d s u c h r e l a t i o n s i s t o t h i n k , a n d i s o n e o f t h e m o s t e x a c t i n g m o d e s o f t h o u g h t .
T h i s i s n o t h o w a r t m a k i n g i s c o m m o n l y u n d e r s t o o d i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s , n o r , i t m u s t b e a d m i t t e d , b y m a n y p e o p l e i n m o d e r n W e s t e r n
s o c i e t i e s . A r t m a k i n g i s g e n e r a l l y r e g a r d e d a s , e i t h e r a s o m e w h a t s e l f
i n d u l g e n t ` h o b b y ' ; a m e a n s o f c a t h a r t i c e x p r e s s i o n o r , a s s o m e t h i n g
t h a t t a l e n t e d p e o p l e c a l l e d A r t i s t s d o .
121
T h e c a p a c i t y t o l i s t e n - s o i n t e g r a l t o b o t h a r t a n d h e a l t h c a r e
p r a c t i c e - c o u l d b e s a i d , t h e r e f o r e , t o h a v e m o r a l , e t h i c a l a n d
a e s t h e t i c d i m e n s i o n s . L e v i n ( i n G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 1 ) a s s e r t s t h a t
l i s t e n i n g i s a q u e s t i o n o f c h a r a c t e r . . ( a n d ) i t s d e v e l o p m e n t i s a
p r a c t i c e o f t h e s e l f . I n t h i s s e n s e i t c o u l d b e l i k e n e d t o a r t
p r a c t i c e w h i c h r e q u i r e s a c o n t i n u a l p r a c t i c e o f ` s e e i n g ' . H o w e v e r ,
i t t a k e s l i t t l e r e f l e c t i o n o n e v e r y d a y e x p e r i e n c e t o r e a l i z e h o w
i n f r e q u e n t l y l i s t e n i n g i n t h i s s e n s e h a p p e n s . I n p a r t t h i s m a y b e a
s a n i t y s a v i n g r e s p o n s e t o t h e c o n t i n u a l b a r r a g e o f n o i s e t h a t i s p a r t
o f m o d e r n l i v i n g a s C o r k ( 1 9 7 9 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d . I t m i g h t a l s o b e s e e n
a s a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a R a t i o n a l i s t e p i s t e m o l o g y w h e r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n k n o w l e d g e , e x p e r i e n c e a n d c r i t i c a l r e f l e c t i o n i s e i t h e r
b l u r r e d o r n o n e x i s t e n t . O t h e r s , h o w e v e r , s e e i t a s a r e f l e c t i o n o f
m u c h c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n w h e r e f a c t s , ` h a r d d a t a ' a n d p h y s i c a l
e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e e q u a t e d w i t h k n o w l e d g e a n d w i s d o m ( s e e B a r z u n 1 9 7 4
a n d G i l k e y i n A p o s t o l o s - C a p p a d o n a 1 9 8 4 ) . A p a r a l l e l i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s w o u l d b e t h e a t t e n t i o n a n d v a l u e t h a t i s a c c o r d e d t h e
` m a c h i n e s ' a n d a p p a r a t u s o f t e c h n o l o g y - o f t e n t o t h e d e t r i m e n t o f
t h e p e r s o n a s p a t i e n t w h o s e p a r t i c u l a r ` s y m p t o m s ' a r e f r e q u e n t l y
r e g a r d e d a s ` u n r e l i a b l e d a t a ' . M o o r e ( 1 9 9 2 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t l i t t l e
v a l u e i s p l a c e d o n t h e a b i l i t y t o ` l i s t e n ' o r t o c o n t e m p l a t e a s c a n
b e e v i d e n c e d b y t h e s i m p l e e x p e r i m e n t o f w a t c h i n g c h i l d r e n d u r i n g a
v i s i t t o a n a r t g a l l e r y w h e r e i t a p p e a r s o b l i g a t o r y t h a t t h e y h a v e t o
b e b u s y a l l t h e t i m e . T h e y h a v e t o f i l l i n f o r m s , w r i t e d o w n t h e i r
r e s p o n s e s - w i t h o u t h a v i n g t i m e t o l i s t e n t o o r h a v e a n i m a g i n a t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a n y w o r k o f a r t . A s C o r k ( 1 9 7 9 ) f u r t h e r r e m a r k s ,
t h e f a s t f a c t s a p p r o a c h t o a r t w o r k s ( a n d e x p e r i e n c e ) i s o f t e n
r e f l e c t e d i n g a l l e r y d e s i g n w h e r e s p a c e s a r e d e s i g n e d f o r m a x i m u m
122
e f f i c i e n t f l o w t h r o u g h w i t h l i t t l e p r o v i s i o n f o r s e a t i n g t h a t i n v i t e
a n d e n a b l e p e o p l e t o s i t a n d ` l i s t e n ' . F u r t h e r m o r e , a m o d e r n
i n t o l e r a n c e o f a m b i g u i t y , m y s t e r y a n d t h e u n c e r t a i n o f t e n m e a n s ,
a s D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p . 4 4 ) r e m a r k s , t h a t r e s i s t a n c e ( t o a n e x p e r i e n c e ,
t o a n a r t w o r k o r t o a n i l l n e s s ) i s n o t u n d e r s t o o d a s a n i n v i t a t i o n
i n t o r e f l e c t i o n ( a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a r t p r a c t i c e ) b u t a s a n
o b s t r u c t i o n t o b e b e a t e n d o w n - s o m e t h i n g t o b e g o t r i d o f ( s e e
a l s o G o m b r i c h 1 9 8 5 ) .
O n e o f t h e l e g a c i e s o f t h e M o d e r n p e r i o d h a s b e e n t h e m o v e f r o m
a n o r a l t o a w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e p r e v i o u s
c h a p t e r , t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l i t e r a c y a d d e d t o s o c i a l
f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n s o c i e t y - p e o p l e
w e r e n o l o n g e r d e p e n d e n t u p o n o r a l s o u r c e s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e
o f k n o w l e d g e a n d c u l t u r e f r o m o n e g e n e r a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . A s a
r e s u l t m a n y h a v e l o s t t h e a b i l i t y t o l i s t e n t o t h e s p o k e n
n a r r a t i v e . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s m u c h m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e i s
i n c r e a s i n g l y d e p e n d e n t u p o n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e i s l i t t l e t i m e
a l l o w e d f o r t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l o r t h e p a t i e n t t o s p e a k
a n d t o l i s t e n . A r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s h o w e v e r c h a l l e n g e s t h i s
t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p r e m a c y - a r t n o t o n l y a l l o w s t h e p a t i e n t a s
p e r s o n t o s p e a k , b u t c h a l l e n g e s t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l t o
l i s t e n i n a n e w a n d d i f f e r e n t w a y .
U n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n o t i o n o f l i s t e n i n g a s i n t e g r a l t o e x p e r i e n c e
a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e ( a n d a n e t h i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e ) , i t
w o u l d s e e m t h a t l i s t e n i n g i s e s s e n t i a l l y a m a t t e r o f ` s e e i n g ' t h e
l a n d s c a p e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f w h a t i s b e i n g
123
e x p e r i e n c e d - b e i t a w o r k o f a r t , t h e O t h e r o r a n o t h e r h u m a n b e i n g .
I n a w o r k o f a r t C e z a n n e ( i n B a r n e s 1 9 9 0 , p . 3 4 ) s p e a k s o f c o l o u r s
l i s t e n i n g t o e a c h o t h e r - ` f o l l o w i n g e a c h o t h e r a c c o r d i n g t o a l a w o f
h a r m o n y ' w h i l e D e w e y ( 1 9 8 0 , p p . 3 6 , 3 7 ) d r a w s a p e n e t r a t i n g p a r a l l e l
b e t w e e n a w o r k o f a r t a n d a c o n v e r s a t i o n ;
I n a w o r k o f a r t , d i f f e r e n t a c t s , e p i s o d e s , o c c u r r e n c e s m e l t a n d f u s e i n t o u n i t y , a n d y e t d o n o t d i s a p p e a r a n d l o s e t h e i r o w n c h a r a c t e r a s t h e y d o s o - j u s t a s i n a g e n i a l c o n v e r s a t i o n t h e r e i s a c o n t i n u o u s i n t e r c h a n g e a n d b l e n d i n g , a n d y e t e a c h s p e a k e r n o t o n l y r e t a i n s h i s o w n c h a r a c t e r b u t m a n i f e s t s i t m o r e c l e a r l y t h a n h i s w o n t .
A s I m e n t i o n e d i n t h e I n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r , s o m e a s p e c t s o f
A b o r i g i n a l p h i l o s o p h y a r e c o n s t a n t t h r e a d s r u n n i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h i s
r e s e a r c h . T h i s i s n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e
i d e n t i f i e d d e f i c i e n c i e s o f m o d e r n A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y c a n b e r e m e d i e d
b y t h e s i m p l e e x p e d i e n t o f b e c o m i n g ` A b o r i g i n a l ' n o r b y r e t u r n i n g t o
s o m e g o l d e n a g e o f t r a d i t i o n a l w a y s t h a t c a n n o t n o w b e r e c r e a t e d .
H o w e v e r , A b o r i g i n a l p e o p l e ( a l o n g w i t h m a n y o t h e r s f r o m d i f f e r e n t
c u l t u r e s ) a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n A u s t r a l i a n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a n d t h e
p a r t i c u l a r c a r e t h a t t h e y r e q u i r e m a y s h e d l i g h t o n s o m e n e w w a y s i n
w h i c h a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e f o r a l l m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d . F o r e x a m p l e ,
d u r i n g a p a i n t i n g t r i p I u n d e r t o o k t h r o u g h t h e N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y l a s t
y e a r , a c o m m u n i t y w o r k e r a t H e r m a n n s b u r g s a i d t h a t ` f o r A b o r i g i n a l
p e o p l e i t i s f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o h e a l t h e m i n d b e f o r e t h e b o d y ' . T h e
r e v e r s e c o u l d b e s a i d t o a p p l y i n W e s t e r n n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h c a r e w h e r e
t h e ` m i n d ' ( e n c o m p a s s i n g a l s o n o t i o n s o f t h e s p i r i t u a l , t h e r e l i g i o u s ,
t h e i m a g i n a t i v e - t h e s o u r c e o f b o t h h e a l i n g a n d s u f f e r i n g ) i s e i t h e r
l e f t o u t o f a c c o u n t , o r , m a y c o m e a f t e r a n i n t e n s e f o c u s o n t h e
p h y s i c a l b o d y .
124
C a r r y i n g f o r w a r d t h e e s s e n t i a l i m p o r t a n c e o f ` l i s t e n i n g ' , t h e n , B r a d y
( 1 9 9 5 , p . 1 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t A b o r i g i n a l c u l t u r e . . . i s e s s e n t i a l l y
c o n t e m p l a t i v e , b a s e d o n l i s t e n i n g d a d e r i , a s t a t e o f w o r d l e s s
c o n t e m p l a t i o n , a n d t h u s a n o b e d i e n c e . T h e r o o t m e a n i n g o f
o b e d i e n c e i s l i s t e n i n g . I t i s a l s o e s s e n t i a l l y c o m m u n a l , t h e s e l f i s
p a r t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y o f a l l l i v i n g t h i n g s . U n d e r s t o o d t h u s , o n e c a n
r e c o g n i z e , w i t h G a b l i k ( 1 9 9 1 ) , t h a t t h i s l a c k o f l i s t e n i n g o r
e m p a t h e t i c a t t e n t i o n c a n b e i d e n t i f i e d a s t h e c a u s e o f s o m u c h
l o n e l i n e s s , i s o l a t i o n a n d i l l h e a l t h . A s G a b l i k q u o t e s a n u r s i n g
h o m e r e s i d e n t :
` I t h i n k a l o t o f s e n i l i t y c o m e s f r o m t h e f a c t t h a t n o b o d y a s k s y o u a n y t h i n g . N o b o d y a s k s y o u t o s p e a k . P r e t t y s o o n y o u l o s e y o u r m e m o r y . I s u f f e r a l o t f r o m p e o p l e n o t l i s t e n i n g t o m e ' . ( M e r i d e l L e S u e u r i n G a b l i k 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 1 1 )
T h e ` c l i n i c a l , n o r m a l i z i n g ' g a z e o f m a n y h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s
t o g e t h e r w i t h a m o d e r n a p p r o a c h t o w a r d s t h e s i c k ( i f t h e y c a n n o t
b e ` c u r e d ' t h e y a r e a v o i d e d o r i g n o r e d ) m e a n s t h a t m a n y p e o p l e w h o
m a k e u p t h e c l i e n t g r o u p s o f h e a l t h c a r e s u f f e r f r o m b e i n g r e n d e r e d
` i n v i s i b l e ' . L i t t l e i s e x p e c t e d o f t h e s i c k b e y o n d t h e i r c o m p l i a n c e
w i t h m e d i c a l t r e a t m e n t s a n d r e g i m e s . I t i s t h e n o f t e n u n i m a g i n a b l e ,
e i t h e r b y t h e p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k , o r b y t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l ,
t h a t t h o s e w h o a r e i l l c a n b e v a l u a b l e , c o n t r i b u t i n g m e m b e r s o f
s o c i e t y - a s c a p a b l e o f g i v i n g g e n e r o u s l y a s t h e y a r e o f r e c e i v i n g .
A r t m a k i n g e n a b l e s t w o t h i n g s t o h a p p e n . F i r s t l y , i t e n a b l e s t h e
s i c k p e r s o n t o b e c o m e v i s i b l e - t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v i n g t h e
c a p a c i t y f o r c r e a t i o n , c o n t r i b u t i o n a n d g i f t - e v e n i f t h e i r g i f t i s a s
h u m b l e a s o v e r l o c k i n g p a i n t e d t a b l e n a p k i n s , o r a s p o i g n a n t a s t h e
g i f t o f s i l k g i v e n t o h i s m o t h e r b y t h e m a n w i t h A I D S . S e c o n d l y ,
125
t h e w o r k s o f a r t b y t h o s e w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s g i v e a v i s i b l e ,
t a c t i l e f o r m t o t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f r e c r e a t i o n a n d b e c o m i n g - t h e y
m a k e m a n i f e s t t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e i r l i v e s a s w o r k s o f a r t . T h e i r a r t
w o r k s a n d p r a c t i c e c a n o p e n u p t h e g i f t o f t h e m S e l v e s t o b e ` s e e n '
b y t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s w h o s e v o c a t i o n i t i s t o c a r e . I n
m a k i n g ` v i s i b l e ' t h e i r u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e s o f s i c k n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g
t h e y o p e n u p t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e c a n t h e r e b y
c h a n g e .
M a n y p a i n t e r s ( s e e F r a n c k 1 9 7 3 ; M c C a h o n 1 9 8 8 ; C e z a n n e i n B a r n e s
1 9 9 0 ) - a n d t h e s a m e a p p l i e s t o o t h e r a r t i s t s - h a v e s a i d t h a t
p a i n t i n g i s a m a t t e r o f ` s e e i n g ' . S e e i n g i n t h i s s e n s e i s
q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t f r o m ` l o o k i n g ' . I t m e a n s s e e i n g t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p s a n d t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e a n d t h e i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f
t o n e s o f c o l o u r s , s p a c e s , s h a p e s , t e x t u r e s , a n d t h e ` s i l e n c e s ' o f
m o v e m e n t s t h a t ` s p e a k ' . M c C a h o n ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 4 9 ) r e f e r r i n g t o a
M o n d r i a n p a i n t i n g s a i d ;
A l t h o u g h h e ( M o n d r i a n ) p u t u p h i s g r i d , i f y o u h a v e t h e r i g h t s o r t o f e y e s f o r l o o k i n g a t t h e m , i t s o r t o f s p l i t s . . . a n d i t p a s s e s u n d e r t h i s o n e o r o v e r t h e t o p o f i t . . . t h e r e a r e w a y s t h r o u g h .
W h a t m i g h t b e r e q u i r e d i n h e a l t h c a r e i s t o a c q u i r e s o m e n e w w a y s
o f ` s e e i n g ' a s e a c h p e r s o n i n t h e i r e m b o d i e d ` i n s e r t i o n i n t h e w o r l d '
s e e s t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f t h e s e i n t e r r e l a t e d s t r u c t u r e s i n t h e i r o w n
u n i q u e w a y . T h e e v i d e n c e o f t h i s i s s e e n i n t h e f a c t t h a t e a c h
p e r s o n p a i n t s d i f f e r e n t l y - e v e n i f t h e y a r e p a i n t i n g t h e s a m e
` s c e n e ' . A r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e - f r o m t h e b e h o l d e r s p o i n t o f v i e w -
c a n t h e n b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g a b l e t o ` s e e ' i n m y p a i n t i n g h o w I
p e r c e i v e t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s o f i n t e r r e l a t e d m o d e s o f b e i n g - h o w I
c o n s t r u c t m y s e n s e o f S e l f - a s i f t h e y w e r e s e e i n g i t w i t h m y S e l f .
126
T h i s a s p e c t o f a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e , t h e n , h a s b o t h a c o m m u n a l a n d
e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . H o w e v e r , a c o n s e q u e n c e o f a f a i l u r e t o ` s e e ' t h e
i n t e r p l a y s , i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d t h e i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e l i g h t s a n d
t h e s h a d o w s o f t h e w o r l d a n d o u r s e l v e s e m b o d i e d i n i t m a y b e s e e n i n
t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e e x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e p r e v i o u s l y r e f e r r e d t o . S m i t h
( 1 9 8 3 , p p . 1 0 0 , 1 0 1 ) s a y s a n e x i s t e n t i a l a w a r e n e s s n a t u r a l l y a n d o f t e n
i n c l u d e s a d e e p f e e l i n g o f a l o n e n e s s . . . o f b e i n g a m i n u t e p a r t i c l e i n a
v a s t w h o l e - r a t h e r t h a n o f b e i n g t h a t w h o l e . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s a
g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f a l o n e n e s s a n d t h e
f e e l i n g s o f l o n e l i n e s s , a l i e n a t i o n a n d d e s p a i r t h a t a c c o m p a n y
e x i s t e n t i a l m a l a i s e .
A n a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e o f a p a i n t i n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , c a n b e s a i d t o
h a v e p h e n o m e n o l o g i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A s M e r l e a u -
P o n t y s a y s o f C e z a n n e ( h e ) m a k e s v i s i b l e h o w t h e w o r l d t o u c h e s u s ;
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h i s w o r k c o n s i s t s i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t r e t u r n s u s t o ( t h e ) l e v e l o f p r i m o r d i a l p e r c e p t i o n . . . ( h i s ) p e r s p e c t i v a l i n c o n s i s t e n c i e s e v o k e t h e w a y t h i n g s t a k e f o r m t h r o u g h o u r b o d y ' s o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d s t h e w o r l d . . h i s h a r m o n i z i n g o f l i n e a n d c o l o u r e v o k e s t h e i n s e p a r a p a b i l i t y o f t h e v i s u a l a n d t h e t a c t i l e i n p r e - r e f l e c t i v e p e r c e p t i o n . ( i n C r o w t h e r 1 9 9 3 , p p . 1 0 6 , 1 0 7 )
T h e U s e s o f A r t i s t i c E x p e r i e n c e .
I t w o u l d s e e m t h a t w h a t h a s b e e n r ev e a l e d i n t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e
n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e i s a n i n v e r s i o n o f t h e ` p r o b l e m ' - t h a t t h e u s e s o f
a r t ( a n d e x p e r i e n c e ) w i l l d e t e r mi n e , a n d i n f o r m, t h e n a t u r e o f w h a t a r t
i s a n d t h u s t h e e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i s t i c
e x p e r i e n c e . T h i s w o u l d s e e m t o su p p o r t t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y b e n e f i t s o f
a r t t h a t h a v e b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) i n t h e s e c o n d
c h a p t e r . H o w e v e r , t h e r e i s w i d e s p r e a d l a c k o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e o f
127
a r t f o r m s . A l l e n ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 7 ) a s s e r t s t h a t t h e v i s u a l l i t e r a c y o f t h e
a v e r a g e a d u l t h a s r e g r e s s e d t o t h a t o f a t w o y e a r o l d , w h i l e A r n h e i m
( 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t m a n y p e o p l e a r e h a n d i c a p p e d b y t h e s a d
s t a t e o f a r t e d u c a t i o n w h i c h p r e v e n t s t h e a v e r a g e c i t i z e n f r o m
d e v e l o p i n g t h e i r n a t u r a l g i f t s f o r a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
p e r h a p s b e c a u s e a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e h a s , g e n e r a l l y , b e e n s e e n a s f o r
c h i l d r e n , t h e m e n t a l l y i l l a n d t h e h a n d i c a p p e d , t h e r e i s n o t a n
a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d p e r c e p t u a l r i g o u r t h a t i s o f t e n
i n v o l v e d i n a r t m a k i n g , n o r t h e s t o i c s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e n e e d e d t o s u s t a i n
t h e c o n t i n u a l d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s o f f a l l i n g s h o r t i n a n a b i l i t y t o
a d e q u a t e l y r e n d e r w h a t i s ` s e e n ' a n d d e s i r e d t o b e e x p r e s s e d . A s
B e c k e r ( 1 9 9 4 , p . x i i i ) f u r t h e r p o i n t s o u t ;
A r t r e f u s e s t o b e e a s y . B u t a s i t p o s i t s t h e o f t e n c o n t r a d i c t o r y n a t u r e o f w h a t e x i s t s a r o u n d u s , i t a p p e a r s l e s s a n d l e s s f a m i l i a r t o t h o s e u n t r a i n e d t o r e a d t h e c o m p l e x i t y t h e y i n f a c t l i v e .
However , I be l i eve tha t i f a r t works were seen in t e rms o f ev idence o f a
pe r son ' s s t rugg le t o hea l and to l i ve - a s t he i r ab i l i t y t o s t r i ve fo r a v i t a l
and mean ing fu l cohe rence be tween the i r i nne r wor ld and the Othe r - a r t
p rog rams in hea l th ca re s e t t i ngs migh t be r ega rded ve ry d i f f e ren t ly .
Modern Wes te rn soc i e t i e s p r iv i l ege ve rba l modes o f exp res s ion - a f ac t
t ha t i n i t s e l f i s a cause fo r much su f f e r ing in hea l th ca re s e t t i ngs where
the capac i ty fo r ve rba l a r t i cu l a t ion i s compromised by seve ra l f ac to r s
a l r eady desc r ibed - t he e f f ec t s o f med ica t ions , f ea r , anx ie ty ,
power l e s sness , l ack o f s e l f - e s t eem and so on . The re i s a d i s t i nc t ion to
be d rawn , however , be tween a ve rba l exchange o f ` f ac t s ' and l i s t en ing
and speak ing an o ra l na r r a t ive a s I have men t ioned ea r l i e r i n t h i s
chap te r . We need to r ec l a im an ab i l i t y t o l i s t en and speak a s be f i t t i ng
ou r i den t i t y a s works o f a r t i n t he p rocess o f c r ea t ion . The re fo re , i t
128
cou ld be s a i d w i t h M e r l e a u - P o n t y ( i n C r o w t h e r 1 9 9 3 , p . 1 1 4 ) t h a t t h e
` m u t e n e s s ' o f p a i n t i n g s i s a p o s i t i v e v i r t u e . I t i s a b l e t o r e t u r n u s t o
o u r p r i m o r d i a l h i s t o r i c i t y w i t h a ` f u l l i n n o c e n c e ' t h a t w r i t i n g - w i t h
i t s p r o f f e r i n g o f i d e a s , o p i n i o n s , a n d a d v i c e - c a n n o t p r o v i d e . T h e
a b i l i t y t o l i s t e n t o ( a n d l e a r n f r o m ) t h e s i l e n t m u t e n e s s o f a n a r t
w o r k m a y b r i n g a b o u t s o m e r a d i c a l c h a n g e s , n o t o n l y i n h e a l t h c a r e ,
b u t , a s S a c k s ( 1 9 9 5 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d , i n t h e v e r y w a y i n w h i c h h e a l t h
a n d d i s e a s e i s c o n c e i v e d .
T h i s e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e
h a s d e s c r i b e d h o w a n a r t w o r k ( a n d o u r e x p e r i e n c e o f a n a r t w o r k ) i n
a s e n s e , m a k e s v i s i b l e o u r i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s w i t h t h e O t h e r . A n a r t
w o r k i s a g r a p h i c e x a m p l e o f t h e a b s t r a c t n o t i o n t h a t m y i d e n t i t y , m y
S e l f , m y m o d e o f b e i n g , c a n o n l y b e d e s c r i b e d i n r e l a t i o n t o a n O t h e r
o r t o O t h e r n e s s . F u r t h e r , i t c o u l d b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e c o m m u n a l
c a n v a s e s c r e a t e d i n s o m e h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m a k e v i s i b l e t h e
e s s e n t i a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e u n i q u e i n d i v i d u a l w i t h t h e c o m m u n a l
- a n d m i g h t s u g g e s t s o m e n e w p e r s p e c t i v e s o n w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a n
a r t i s t - a n d a P e r s o n .
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r t h e n o t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e h a s d o m i n a t e d t h e
d i s c u s s i o n s . I m p l i c i t i n t h e n o t i o n o f f l o u r i s h i n g a r e n o t i o n s o f
g r o w t h , d e v e l o p m e n t a n d r e c r e a t i o n . O n e o f t h e w a y s i n w h i c h
P e r s o n s g r o w , d e v e l o p , h e a l a n d f l o u r i s h i s b y a n d t h r o u g h t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e s . T h u s , a n e x p l o r a t i o n o f t h e n o t i o n o f e x p e r i e n c e h a s l e d
t o a n a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f ` o r d i n a r y ' e x p e r i e n c e h a s s i m i l a r
f u n c t i o n s a n d q u a l i t i e s a s a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e - a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a
w o r k o f a r t - t h e y e n a b l e u s t o ` s e e ' d i f f e r e n t l y . A g a i n t h e
129
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e h a s l e d t o a f u r t h e r
a r e a t h a t r e q u i r e s e x p l o r a t i o n - t h e n o t i o n o f t h e a e s t h e t i c .
I t m a y s e e m t h a t e x p e r i e n c e , a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e a n d a e s t h e t i c s a r e a
l o n g w a y f r o m t h e p r e s s i n g q u e s t i o n s o f t h e e t h i c s o f a r t a n d h e a l t h
c a r e p r a c t i c e . H o w e v e r , a s N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) h a s p o s i t e d , i t w i l l b e
f r o m a c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n , c h e c k i n g , w e i g h i n g a n d r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e s e
v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e s t r u c t u r e , c o l o u r s a n d t e x t u r e s
o f t h e G o o d , e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s w i l l e m e r g e . T h e n i t m a y b e
p o s s i b l e t o h a v e a s o u n d f o u n d a t i o n f o r a n a p p r a i s a l a n d c r i t i q u e o f
h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c i e s a n d p r a c t i c e s , o f w h i c h a r t a c t i v i t i e s f o r m a p a r t -
o r o u g h t f o r m a p a r t . T o p u t i t i n a n o t h e r w a y , h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e s
a r e c h a l l e n g e d b y a n a r t i s t i c g a z e a s w e l l a s a m e d i c a l o n e . B r o d y
( 1 9 9 2 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t i t m i g h t b e t h r o u g h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
a r t i s t i c d i m e n s i o n s o f P e r s o n s - a n d t h e i r a r t - t h a t t h e s t e r i l i t y a n d
d e s t r u c t i v e n a t u r e o f s o m e h e a l t h c a r e e n v i r o n m e n t s a n d h e a l t h c a r e
p r a c t i c e s c a n b e s e e n m o r e s t a r k l y a n d c l e a r l y . C o n v e r s e l y , i t c o u l d
b e s u g g e s t e d t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e c o m p l e x l a n d s c a p e o f e x p e r i e n c e
c a n l e a d t o a r i c h e r a p p r e c i a t i o n o f t h e v i t a l l i n k s b e t w e e n m e d i c i n e ,
a r t , h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g .
130
C H A P T E R 5
M E D I C I N E , A R T , H E A L T H A N D H E A L I N G .
I k n o w n o w t h a t p s y c h o a n a l y s i s w o u l d m a k e s e n s e f o r m e o n l y i f I w e r e r e a l l y s e r i o u s a b o u t t h e s t r a n g e p o s s i b i l i t y o f n o l o n g e r w r i t i n g , w h i c h d u r i n g t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f M a l t e I o f t e n d a n g l e d i n f r o n t o f m y n o s e a s a k i n d o f r e l i e f . T h e n o n e m i g h t l e t o n e ' s d e v i l s b e e x o r c i s e d , s i n c e i n d a i l y l i f e t h e y a r e t r u l y d i s t u r b i n g a n d p a i n f u l . A n d i f i t h a p p e n e d t h a t t h e a n g e l s l e f t t o o , o n e w o u l d h a v e t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s a s a f u r t h e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n a n d t e l l o n e s e l f t h a t i n t h e n e w p r o f e s s i o n ( w h i c h ? ) t h e r e w o u l d c e r t a i n l y b e n o u s e f o r t h e m .
R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e . 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 1 2 .
T h i s i s t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g : t h e e s c a p e f r o m e m o t i o n a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n t o t h e c r e a t i v e a c t o f w h o l e n e s s .
D a v i d A l d r i d g e a n d o t h e r s ` W o r k i n g t o g e t h e r ' 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 7 .
B u t t h e e n e r g y a n d e n t h u s i a s m f o r p h y s i c a l r e h a b i l i t a t i o n m a y o b s c u r e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e l o s s i s n o t j u s t a p h y s i c a l o n e , i t m a y p r e v e n t u s f r o m s e e i n g o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s , m a y b e m o r e i m p o r t a n t d i m e n s i o n s i n t h e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n o f p e o p l e w i t h b o d i l y l o s s e s . S u c h e m p i r i c a l r i g o u r h i d e s t h e f a c t t h a t a p e r s o n i s a s u b j e c t , n o t a n o b j e c t , a n d t h a t g e n u i n e r e h a b i l i t a t i o n m a y b e i m p o s s i b l e w i t h i n a n i n s t i t u t i o n a l s e t t i n g a n d m a y b e b e y o n d t h e a m b i t o f m e d i c i n e . . . . A n d t h e r e a l c o n c e r n o f t h e p a r a l y s e d p e r s o n . . . i s n o t t h a t h e o r s h e w i l l d i e b u t t h a t t h e y m a y h a v e t o l i v e .
W e n d y S e y m o u r . B o d i l y A l t e r a t i o n s 1 9 8 9 , p p . 6 4 - 6 5 .
I f e e l b e t t e r n o w .
A n a d v e r t i s e m e n t f o r a h e a l t h i n s u r a n c e c o m p a n y .
T h e l o c a t i n g o f t h e s i c k w i t h i n h o s p i t a l s a n d i n s t i t u t i o n s i s a
M o d e r n n o t i o n a n d t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l t r a c e s o m e o f t h e h i s t o r i c a l
b e g i n n i n g s o f t h a t p r a c t i c e . T h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r h a s e x a m i n e d t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n t h e w e l l - b e i n g
a n d f l o u r i s h i n g o f p e r s o n s . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l s e e k a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g
o f h o w t h o s e v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s a r e u n d e r s t o o d i n t h e l o c u s o f a n
i l l n e s s e x p e r i e n c e e s p e c i a l l y a s t h e y a r e s t r u c t u r e d w i t h i n h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g s s u c h a s h o s p i t a l s , h o s p i c e s , n u r s i n g h o m e s a n d s o
131
f o r t h . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r t a n d t h a t s p e c i f i c h u m a n
e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h w e c a l l t h e i l l n e s s e x p e r i e n c e h a s l a r g e l y b e e n
a r t i c u l a t e d b y t h e t r a d i t i o n o f a r t t h e r a p y . T h i s c h a p t e r w i l l t h u s
b e g i n w i t h a c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s t o a r t
t h e r a p y . W h i l e i t c o u l d b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s b e e n e n a b l e d b y t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a r t t h e r a p y ,
t h e v i e w o f a r t a n d i l l n e s s t h a t a r t t h e r a p y a d v o c a t e s n e e d s t o b e
c r i t i c a l l y e x a m i n e d a n d i t s l i m i t a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d . I w i l l t h e n a r g u e
t h a t w e n e e d t o m o v e b e y o n d a n i d e a o f a r t a s a r t t h e r a p y t o a v i e w
w h i c h h o n o u r s t h e v a l i d i t y o f ` a r t a s a r t ' i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s .
A n O v e r v i e w o f A r t T h e r a p y .
A r t t h e r a p y , o r t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s a s t h e y a r e k n o w n i n
A m e r i c a , a r e p r o l i f e r a t i n g a n d g r o w i n g a t a g r e a t ( a n d s o m e w o u l d
s a y a n a l a r m i n g ) r a t e . T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n a n d g r o w t h c a n b e
a t t r i b u t e d t o s e v e r a l f a c t o r s . F i r s t l y , t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n
t h a t ` a r t i s a g o o d t h i n g ' - i t i s a ` m e a n s o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d
c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' . F r o m t h i s p o s i t i o n i t a p p e a r s a l o g i c a l e x t e n s i o n
t h a t i f a r t i s a d d e d t o a p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y t h a t t h e r e s u l t i n g ` a r t
t h e r a p y ' w i l l b e a g o o d o r b e t t e r t h i n g a s w e l l . S e c o n d l y , a n d
s t e m m i n g i n p a r t f r o m t h e f i r s t p e r c e p t i o n , t h e r e i s a g r o w i n g
a w a r e n e s s t h a t s o m e t r a d i t i o n a l m o d e l s o f h e a l t h c a r e a r e
i m p o v e r i s h e d , i n m a n y r e s p e c t s , a n d i f a r t t h e r a p y i s e m p l o y e d s o m e
` m o r e c r e a t i v e a n d h o l i s t i c ' f o r m s o f t r e a t m e n t m i g h t b e p o s s i b l e .
T h i r d l y , a n d i r o n i c a l l y , t h e g r o w t h o f t h e a r t s t h e r a p i e s h a s b e e n
a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e M o d e r n s e p a r a t i o n o f a r t f r o m t h e l i v e s o f o r d i n a r y
p e o p l e . A s d r a m a t h e r a p i s t J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 ) r e m a r k s ` i f d r a m a
a n d t h e a t r e w e r e a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f o u r l i v e s t h e r e w o u l d b e l e s s
132
n e e d f o r d r a m a t h e r a p i s t s ' . I c e r t a i n l y w o u l d n o t d i s a g r e e w i t h t h e
p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a r t i s a m o d e o f e x p r e s s i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
H o w e v e r , w h a t i s o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e ( a n d i s o f t e n l e f t o u t o f
a c c o u n t ) a r e t h e r e a s o n s w h y p e o p l e h a v e t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d m o r a l
n e e d s t o e x p r e s s t h e m s e l v e s - a n d w h y e x p r e s s i n g t h e m s e l v e s b y
w a y o f a r t m a k i n g h a s s u c h e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e a n d e v o l u t i o n a r y
b e n e f i t . I n o t h e r w o r d s t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t i s t h e o n t o l o g i c a l a n d
e t h i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e o f ` c r e a t i v i t y ' a n d ` a r t m a k i n g ' ? i s o n e t h a t i s
r a r e l y , i f e v e r , a s k e d . S i m i l a r l y , w h i l e t h e r e i s m u c h d i s c u s s i o n
c o n c e r n i n g t h e n a t u r e a n d f u t u r e d i r e c t i o n s o f a r t t h e r a p y , t h e n e e d
f o r a r t a s a t h e r a p y w a s n e v e r q u e s t i o n e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e
r e v i e w e d . T h e s e o m i s s i o n s a r e i n d i c a t i v e o f o u r t e c h n i c a l c u l t u r e
w h e r e t h e m a i n q u e s t i o n i s ` H o w d o w e d o s o m e t h i n g ? ' n o t ` S h o u l d
w e d o s o m e t h i n g ? ' ( s e e G i l k e y 1 9 8 4 ) .
T h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s i n c l u d e n o t o n l y v i s u a l a r t s t h e r a p y b u t
a l s o p o e t r y t h e r a p y , m u s i c t h e r a p y , d a n c e t h e r a p y , d r a m a t h e r a p y ,
b i b l i o t h e r a p y ( w r i t i n g ) a n d , l a t t e r l y , p s y c h o d r a m a . T h e s a m e
g r o w t h a n d p r o l i f e r a t i o n a p p e a r s t o p r e v a i l i n E u r o p e a n d B r i t a i n ,
a n d h a s a l r e a d y b e g u n i n A u s t r a l i a . F o r e x a m p l e , t h e r e a r e n o w a r t
t h e r a p y d e g r e e s a v a i l a b l e a t s e v e r a l A u s t r a l i a n u n i v e r s i t i e s - E d i t h
C o w a n U n i v e r s i t y i n P e r t h b e i n g o n e o f t h e f i r s t t o o f f e r p o s t -
g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g i n t h i s a r e a .
O r i g i n s o f A r t T h e r a p y .
A r t t h e r a p y a s a s e p a r a t e d i s c i p l i n e a n d l a t e r a s a p r o f e s s i o n , b e g a n
i n t h e U S A i n t h e 1 9 4 0 s ( s e e D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 ) . I t h a d i t s i n i t i a l r o o t s
133
i n a n u m b e r o f a l l i e d d i s c i p l i n e s - n a m e l y a r t e d u c a t i o n , p s y c h o l o g y
a n d p s y c h i a t r y , w i t h t h e m a i n i n f l u e n c e c o m i n g f r o m t h e
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a d i t i o n s b e g u n b y J u n g a n d F r e u d . I n t h e U n i t e d
K i n g d o m a r t t h e r a p y d e v e l o p e d l a r g e l y f r o m a r t e d u c a t i o n a n d i t s
g r e a t e s t s t i m u l u s c a m e w i t h t h e a d v e n t o f t h e W e l f a r e S t a t e a n d t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l H e a l t h S e r v i c e . S i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e
e a r l i e s t u s e s o f a r t i n t h e r a p y w e r e w i t h p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s , a n d
t h e s e w o u l d h a v e b e e n f r o m t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y . A r t T h e r a p y
r e c e i v e d i t s g r e a t e s t i m p e t u s w h e n , i n U S A , ` p s y c h o a n a l y s t s
d i s c o v e r e d a r t ' . W h a t n o t i o n o f a r t w a s d i s c o v e r e d h a d c r i t i c a l
s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r s h a p i n g t h e m o d e l s o f a r t t h e r a p y t h a t e m e r g e d
f r o m t h i s d i s c o v e r y . A r g u a b l y t h e t w o m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l
p s y c h o a n a l y s t s o f m o d e r n t i m e s a r e F r e u d a n d J u n g . B o t h F r e u d
a n d J u n g d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e ` s e c o n d a r y p r o c e s s e s ' ( v e r b a l ,
r a t i o n a l , a n d a n a l y t i c m o d e s o f t h o u g h t ) a n d t h e ` p r i m a r y p r o c e s s e s '
( i m a g i n a t i v e , s y m b o l i c , n o n - v e r b a l , n o n - d i s c u r s i v e m o d e s ) ( s e e
D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 ) . H o w e v e r , t h e s e t w o p s y c h o a n a l y t i c g i a n t s d i f f e r e d
s h a r p l y i n h o w t h e s e p r o c e s s e s w e r e t o b e v i e w e d . F r e u d , f o r
e x a m p l e , t e n d e d t o a s s o c i a t e t h e ` p r i m a r y s o u r c e s ' ( a t l e a s t a s t h e y
m a n i f e s t e d t h e m s e l v e s i n a d u l t s ) w i t h r e g r e s s i o n , n e u r o s i s , a n d i l l -
h e a l t h . H e w a s , t h e r e f o r e , n e v e r e n t i r e l y a b l e t o f r e e h i m s e l f f r o m
t h e v i e w t h a t a r t w a s o n t h e s i d e o f i l l n e s s - o r , a t b e s t , a n u n e a s y
d e f e n c e a g a i n s t i t ( F u l l e r i n D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x ) . T h u s F r e u d i s
r e p u t e d t o h a v e c o n s i d e r e d a r t i s t i c a c t i v i t i e s ` a s a s u b l i m e f o r m o f
p l a y i n g i n o n e ' s o w n e x c r e m e n t ' ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 3 2 ) . A n a r t i s t ,
t h e n , w a s ;
a n i n t r o v e r t , n o t f a r r e m o v e d f r o m n e u r o s i s . H e d e s i r e s t o w i n h o n o u r , p o w e r , w e a l t h , f a me a n d t h e l o v e o f w o men ; b u t h e l a c k s t h e m e a n s f o r a c h i e v i n g t h e s e s a t i s f a c t i o n s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , l i k e a n y o t h e r u n s a t i s f i e d m a n , h e t u r n s a w a y f r o m r e a l i t y a n d t r a n s f e r s a l l h i s i n t e r e s t a n d h i s l i b i d o t o o , t o t h e w i s h f u l
134 c o n s t r u c t i o n o f h i s l i f e i n p h a n t a s y , w h e n c e t h e p a t h m i g h t l e a d t o n e u r o s i s ( i n W a l l e r 1 9 8 4 , p . 5 ) .
F r e u d ( a n d a F r e u d i a n a p p r o a c h ) w o u l d t e n d t o v i e w a r t i n t e r m s o f
a p a t h o l o g y a n d w o u l d s e e k t o d r a w p e o p l e a w a y f r o m t h e i r a r t
w o r k s t o e x p l o r e a n d e x p o s e t h e r e a l s o u r c e s o f c o n f l i c t s a n d
n e u r o s i s ( s e e R o b i n s o n 1 9 8 4 , p . 8 4 ) .
J u n g , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , d i v e r g e d s h a r p l y f r o m F r e u d i n h o w t h e
` p r i m a r y p r o c e s s e s ' w e r e t o b e v i e w e d . I n s t e a d o f d r a w i n g t h e
i n d i v i d u a l a w a y f r o m t h e c o n t e n t o f t h e i r d r e a m s ( a n d s o m e w o u l d
e x t e n d t h i s t o t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d ) J u n g b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
c o n t e n t o f t h e s e d r e a m s h e l d i m p o r t a n t a n d s p e c i f i c r e l e v a n c e f o r
t h e i n d i v i d u a l - t h a t t h e y h a d t h e f u n c t i o n o f t e a c h i n g o r r e v e a l i n g
s o m e t h i n g o f i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e w e l l b e i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . I n
t h i s r e s p e c t t h e a r t w o r k ( o r d r e a m ) i s r e s p e c t e d a s a v i t a l r e s o u r c e
- a s a t e a c h e r ( R o b i n s o n 1 9 8 4 , p . 8 4 ) .
F r o m t h o s e b e g i n n i n g s i n t h e p s y c h o a n a l y t i c t r a d i t i o n a n d w i t h i n
a r t e d u c a t i o n , t w o b r o a d , a n d s o m e w o u l d s a y p o l a r i z e d , a p p r o a c h e s
h a v e e m e r g e d ( H e s s e r i n F o u r i n a s h 1 9 9 3 , p . 6 9 ) . I t m a y , h o w e v e r , b e
m o r e h e l p f u l t o v i s u a l i z e a c o n t i n u u m w i t h t h o s e a r t t h e r a p i s t s w h o
s e e t h e m s e l v e s p r i m a r i l y a s p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t s w h o u s e a r t a t t h e
` c l i n i c a l ' e n d , m o v i n g t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y a n d m i x t u r e o f a p p r o a c h e s
t o t h o s e w h o h a v e c h a l l e n g e d a t r a d i t i o n a l b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f
t h e r a p y a n d w h o s e e t h e m s e l v e s e s s e n t i a l l y a s a r t i s t s w h o u s e a r t
t h e r a p e u t i c a l l y , o r a r t i s t s w h o d o t h e r a p y - t h e ` a r t i s t i c ' e n d .
I n w h a t I h a v e t e r m e d t h e ` c l i n i c a l ' e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m t h e p r o c e s s
o r a c t i v i t y o f t h e r a p y i s m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d .
135
I n t h i s c a s e t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t i s s e e n a s c r i t i c a l t o t h e
h e a l i n g p r o c e s s . A t t h e ` a r t i s t i c ' e n d , t h e a r t f o r m i s s e e n a s t h e
m o s t i m p o r t a n t , a n d t h e a r t f o r m a n d a r t i s t i c p r o c e s s o r a c t i v i t y i s
s e e n a s t h e v e h i c l e b y w h i c h h e a l i n g c a n t a k e p l a c e . T h e r e i s ,
h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r a b l e o v e r l a p b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p o s i t i o n s .
D i f f e r e n t A p p r o a c h e s t o A r t T h e r a p y .
T h e s e s e v e r a l a p p r o a c h e s t o a r t t h e r a p y d i f f e r i n h o w t h e y e a c h s e e
t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s o f a n a r t t h e r a p y , n a m e l y ;
1 . W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t ?
2 . H o w d o t h e y v i e w t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d a n d t h e p r o c e s s o f
i t s c r e a t i o n ?
3 . H o w d o t h e y v i e w t h e p e r s o n a s ` c l i e n t ' o r ` p a t i e n t ' ? a n d
H o w d o t h e y v i e w t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t ?
A s w e h a v e s e e n F r e u d a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t s w h o p r a c t i c e a F r e u d i a n
p s y c h o a n a l y t i c a p p r o a c h w o u l d f a l l w i t h i n t h e c l i n i c a l e n d o f t h e
s p e c t r u m i e . t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e r a p y a n d t h e r o l e o f t h e t h e r a p i s t a s
t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t s . W h i l e B i r t c h n e l l , a B r i t i s h
p s y c h o t h e r a p i s t a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t , m a y n o t b e a s e x t r e m e a s F r e u d i n
h i s v i e w o f a r t , h e d o e s c a l l a g o o d d e a l o f a r t ` t h e h a r n e s s e d m e s s '
( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 3 2 ) ` a n a e s t h e t i c s t a t e m e n t t h a t i s a s f a r a s t h e
c r e a t o r i s p r e p a r e d t o g o i n m a k i n g e x p l i c i t h i s i n n e r c o n f l i c t s
' ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 1 ) . I n t h i s c o n t e x t h e s e e s h i s r o l e o f
t h e r a p i s t , a n d p a r t o f t h e j o b o f a r t t h e r a p y , t o m o v e i n a n d
d i s e n t a n g l e t h e n e a t a n d e l e g a n t s t a t e m e n t o f t h e a e s t h e t i c c r e a t i o n ,
b r e a k d o w n t h e v e n e e r o f o r d e r l i n e s s a n d g e t b a c k t o t h e u n d e r l y i n g
t u r m o i l b e f o r e i t i s t i d i e d u p a n d m a d e a c c e p t a b l e ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 ,
136
p . 3 7 ) . T h e a r t w o r k i s t h e f o c u s f o r t h e ` r e a l ' t h e r a p y w h i c h
i n v o l v e s t a l k i n g a b o u t a n d t a l k i n g t o t h e p i c t o r i a l c o n t e n t . T h e
t h e r a p y i s a c h i e v e d b y t h e e m o t i o n r e l e a s e d a n d t h e i n s i g h t g a i n e d b y
t a l k i n g ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 1 ) . B i r t c h n e l l v i e w s t h e a r t c o m p o n e n t
a s v e r y m u c h s u b s i d i a r y t o t h e t h e r a p y o n e ( B i r t c h n e l l 1 9 8 4 , p . 3 0 ) .
D a l l e y ( 1 9 8 4 , p . x i i ) a l e a d i n g B r i t i s h a r t t h e r a p i s t a n d
p s y c h o a n a l y s t , s h a r e s m a n y o f B i r t c h n e l l ' s v i e w s . D a l l e y a s s e r t s
t h a t ` a t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w o f a r t - a s a m e a n s o f p e r s o n a l e x p r e s s i o n
w i t h i t s m a i n a i m t h e c r e a t i o n o f a ` g o o d p a i n t i n g ' - i s v e r y
d i f f e r e n t t o t h e c o n c e p t o f a r t w h e n u s e d i n a t h e r a p e u t i c s e t t i n g ' . I
w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t D a l l e y i s r e s p o n d i n g t o a M o d e r n i s t v i e w o f a r t
n o t a t r a d i t i o n a l a r t a s d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e i n c h a p t e r t w o .
D a l l e y d e f i n e s t h e r a p y ` a s t h e a i m o r d e s i r e t o b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e
i n h u m a n d i s o r d e r s ' ( 1 9 8 4 , p . x i i ) a n d q u o t e s p i o n e e r a r t t h e r a p i s t ,
N a m b u r g , i n p r o v i d i n g a d e f i n i t i o n o f a r t w h e n u s e d i n t h e r a p y ;
a r t i s a f o r m o f ` s y m b o l i c s p e e c h ' a n d ` n o n - v e r b a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' . I t i s a w a y o f s t a t i n g m i x e d , p o o r l y u n d e r s t o o d f e e l i n g s i n a n a t t e m p t t o b r i n g t h e m i n t o c l a r i t y a n d o r d e r ( i n D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x i i i ) .
F o r D a l l e y ( a n d p e r h a p s f o r m a n y w h o f o l l o w a p s y c h o a n a l y t i c
a p p r o a c h ) ` a r t h a s l i t t l e t h e r a p e u t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h o u t t h e
i n t e r v e n t i o n o r p r e s e n c e o f a t h e r a p i s t ' ( 1 9 8 4 , p . x i x ) . T h e a r t
a c t i v i t i e s c a n c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e f f e c t i n t h a t t h e y a r e
a c t i v e l y a n d p h y s i c a l l y e n g a g i n g a n d a n i n d i v i d u a l m a y e x p e r i e n c e
a c a t h a r t i c r e a c t i o n w h i c h c a n e r o d e d e f e n c e s a n d b a r r i e r s a n d t h u s
a l l o w p o w e r f u l e m o t i o n s t o b e e x p r e s s e d , b u t t h e a r t f o r m , i n
D a l l e y ' s v i e w , i s e s s e n t i a l l y r e g a r d e d a s a ` t h e r a p e u t i c t o o l ' . I t
p r o v i d e s a f o c u s f o r d i s c u s s i o n , a n a l y s i s a n d s e l f e v a l u a t i o n . T h u s
a p e r s o n c a n b e h e l p e d t o g a i n i n s i g h t , b o t h i n t e l l e c t u a l l y a n d
137
e m o t i o n a l l y , b y c o n n e c t i n g t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e p i c t u r e t o h i s o r h e r
l i f e s i t u a t i o n ( D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x i v ) . T h i s n o t i o n o f a t h e r a p e u t i c a c t
m i g h t b e s e e n a s i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o t h a t e s p o u s e d b y F o u c a u l t -
w h e r e t h e f u n c t i o n o f a t h e r a p e u t i c a c t i s t o b r i n g a b o u t a c h a n g e i n
t h e ( n o r m a l i z i n g ) s t r u c t u r e , t o g i v e t h e l i f e o f t h e p a t i e n t t h e
s t a b i l i t y a n d u n i q u e n e s s o f a w o r k o f a r t ( F o u c a u l t i n A l d r i d g e
1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 9 5 ) . I w o u l d a d o p t t h e v i e w o f F o u c a u l t .
I n t h e m i d d l e , a n d o f t e n I w o u l d s u g g e s t , w i t h a f o o t p l a n t e d f i r m l y
a t b o t h e n d s o f t h e c o n t i n u u m , i s M c N i f f , a n A m e r i c a n a r t i s t a n d a r t
t h e r a p i s t , w h o h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t
o f v a r i o u s a r t t h e r a p y t r a i n i n g p r o g r a m s i n U S A , E u r o p e a n d I s r a e l .
M c N i f f h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s c o n s i s t e n t l y a l i g n i n g h i m s e l f w i t h t h e
` a n t i ' p o s i t i o n - a n t i - E s t a b l i s h m e n t , a n t i - p s y c h o l o g y , a n t i - F r e u d a n d
s o f o r t h ( K a p i t a n 1 9 9 3 , p . 4 3 6 ) . I n c o n t r a s t w i t h s o m e o f t h e F r e u d i a n
a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e a r t w o r k a s t y p i f i e d b y B i r t c h n e l l , M c N i f f b e l i e v e s
t h a t t h e i m a g e p r o d u c e d ` s h o u l d b e e x t e n d e d t h e s a m e c o u r t e s y t h a t
w o u l d b e g i v e n a n o t h e r p e r s o n ' w h i c h h e l p s p r e v e n t t h e ` r u d e n e s s ' o f
d i a g n o s t i c i a n s w h o a p p r o a c h a r t w o r k s a s t h o u g h t h e y a r e d i r e c t
p r i n t o u t s r e v e a l i n g t h e m i n d o f t h e a r t i s t . T h i s i s l i k e n e d t o
h a v i n g a m a n e n t e r t h e r o o m a n d w i t h o u t g r e e t i n g h i m p r o c e e d t o
d i a g n o s e a n d i n t e r p r e t h i m - h i s r e d j u m p e r m u s t m e a n h e i s a n g r y a n d
t h o s e w i d e e y e s s p e a k o f p a r a n o i a a n d s o o n ( M c N i f f 1 9 9 3 . p p . 6 , 7 ) .
I n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h i s , M c N i f f ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 ) c o n c u r s w i t h A r n h e i m
( 1 9 8 6 , p . 5 5 ) i n s a y i n g t h e e s s e n c e o f e n g a g e m e n t ( w i t h t h e i m a g e ) i s
n o t w h a t w e d o t o t h e i m a g e b u t w h a t i t d o e s f o r u s . T h u s ` t h e b a s i s
o f t h e r a p y i s a n " i m a g i n a l d i a l o g u e " ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 8 ) w i t h t h e i m a g e - a n
a n i m a t e d t h i n g t h a t i s c a p a b l e o f o f f e r i n g s u p p o r t a n d g u i d a n c e .
138
T h e i n t i m a t e f u n c t i o n o f t a l k i n g a n d d i a l o g u e h e l p s u s a c c e s s a n d
b e c o m e m o r e a w a r e o f w h a t t h e i m a g e i s s a y i n g v i s u a l l y ' ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 7 ) .
T h e t r a n s f o r m a t i v e t h e r a p e u t i c e n g a g e m e n t o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e
p r i m a r y l a n g u a g e o f t h e i m a g e , t h e b o d y a n d p h y s i c a l e n a c t m e n t .
A n a l y s i s a n d d i s c u s s i o n , a s w e l l a s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , a r e o f t e n
e s s e n t i a l p a r t s o f t h e t h e r a p e u t i c e x p e r i e n c e e s p e c i a l l y w i t h i n t h e
c o n t e x t o f s h a r i n g a n d c l a r i f y i n g f e e l i n g s a n d t h o u g h t s - t h u s ,
r e a s o n a n d a r t a r e b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 0 ) .
M c N i f f ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 4 ) p l a c e s t h e u t m o s t i m p o r t a n c e o n t h e p e r s o n a l
a r t i s t i c q u a l i t i e s o f t h e t h e r a p i s t . T h i s n o t o n l y e n a b l e s t h e m t o
m a s t e r t h e s k i l l s o f r e l a t i n g t o i m a g e s , b u t t h e ` o n - g o i n g f i r s t h a n d
e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h p e r s o n a l a r t i s t i c e x p r e s s i o n w i l l a l s o k e e p t h e
c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s c l o s e t o t h e p r i m a r y p r o c e s s o f t h e
p r o f e s s i o n ' . M c N i f f ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 0 ) f u r t h e r w a r n s t h a t ` w h e n w e l e a v e
t h e l a n g u a g e o f a r t , w e d i s t a n c e o u r s e l v e s f r o m f e e l i n g a n d s e p a r a t e
o u r s o u l s f r o m t h e e x p e r i e n c e . T h e p r i n c i p a l v a l u e o f t h e c r e a t i v e
a r t s t h e r a p i e s i s t h e i r a b i l i t y t o b r i n g a b o u t d i s c i p l i n e d a n d
p r o f o u n d t h e r a p e u t i c t r a n s f o r m a t i o n a t t h e p r i m a r y l e v e l o f t h e
s e n s e s ' .
` A r t i s t i c ' M o d e l s o f A r t T h e r a p y .
T h e ` a r t i s t i c ' m o d e l o f a r t t h e r a p y a n d t h e a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t i t i s
t h e a r t f o r m i t s e l f w h i c h i s t h e v e h i c l e o f h e a l i n g d i r e c t l y
c h a l l e n g e s t h e ` c l i n i c a l ' m o d e l w e h a v e e x a m i n e d t h u s f a r . A n
e x p o n e n t o f t h e ` a r t i s t i c ' m o d e l i s J e n n i n g s , a p r o f e s s i o n a l t h e a t r e
p e r s o n a n d d r a m a t h e r a p i s t w h o h a s b e e n i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e
139
d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e o f d r a m a t h e r a p y i n G r e a t
B r i t a i n f o r 3 0 y e a r s . F o r J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 ) ` t h e o v e r r i d i n g
p r i n c i p l e b e h i n d a r t s t h e r a p i e s g e n e r a l l y , a n d d r a m a t h e r a p y i n
p a r t i c u l a r , i s t h a t t h e a r t s h a v e a l w a y s e x i s t e d t o c o m m u n i c a t e t h o s e
t h i n g s w h i c h o t h e r w i s e c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d ' . T h e r e f o r e , ` t h e a r t s
t h e r a p i e s f u n c t i o n i n t h e s a m e w a y f o r t h o s e p e o p l e w h e r e t h e a r t s
i n t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t p r o v i d e e n o u g h p o s s i b i l i t y f o r c h a n g e ' .
A l i e n a t i o n f r o m t h e A r t s - i t s e f f e c t s .
J e n n i n g s ' s l a s t c o m m e n t r a i s e s a g a i n t h e a l i e n a t i o n f r o m p e r s o n a l
p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a r t m a k i n g t h a t a p p l i e s t o s o m a n y p e o p l e i n m o d e r n
W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f a
p r o p e r c a r e o f t h e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w i t h i n
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ) m a n y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t f o r m t h e c l i e n t
g r o u p s o f a r t t h e r a p y a r e s o m e o f t h e m o s t d i s a d v a n t a g e d i n o u r
s o c i e t y . T h e y a r e t h o s e w h o a r e r e s i d e n t s o f p s y c h i a t r i c
i n s t i t u t i o n s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s , h o m e l e s s a n d d i s t u r b e d c h i l d r e n ,
a d o l e s c e n t s a n d a d u l t s , t h e c h r o n i c a l l y i l l , a n d t h e d y i n g . I n
W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s t h a t h a v e r e g a r d e d t h e a r t s a s e i t h e r a l u x u r y o r
t h e p r o v i n c e o f a n e l i t e g r o u p o f e x p e r t s ( a r t i s t s a n d a r t c o l l e c t o r s )
t h e s e p e o p l e s u f f e r a f u r t h e r d i s a d v a n t a g e a n d a l i e n a t i o n f r o m
e x p o s u r e t o a n d p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a l l a r t f o r m s . W h i l e i t i s g e n e r a l l y
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t a r t i s ` a g o o d t h i n g ' - s o m e , l i k e F u l l e r , w o u l d
s a y e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e h e a l t h a n d h a p p i n e s s o f p e r s o n s - i t i s
b e c o m i n g h a r d e r a n d h a r d e r f o r o r d i n a r y m e n a n d w o m e n t o h a v e
a c c e s s t o i t ( F u l l e r i n D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x ) .
140
T o r e t u r n t o J e n n i n g ' s a p p r o a c h t o d r a m a t h e r a p y . D r a m a t h e r a p y i s
a m e a n s o f b r i n g i n g a b o u t c h a n g e i n i n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s t h r o u g h
d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a t r e a r t . A l t h o u g h t h e t e c h n i q u e s o f d r a m a
a r e t h e m e a n s w h e r e b y t h i s h a p p e n s , i t i s t h e p r o c e s s o f t h e t h e a t r e
a r t f o r m t h a t i s a t t h e c o r e o f t h i s e x p e r i e n c e ( e m p h a s i s i n o r i g i n a l )
( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p . 5 ) . J e n n i n g s p o i n t s o u t t h e e s s e n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n ` w a t c h i n g ' a r t a n d p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a r t . T h i s , I b e l i e v e , i s
t h e c r i t i c a l e l e m e n t w h i c h m i g h t t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e m o d e r n m a l a i s e s
a n d a r i d i t y o f m a n y p e o p l e ' s l i v e s w h e n t h e y a r e d e n i e d a c c e s s t o ,
o r a r e a l i e n a t e d f r o m p e r s o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e a r t s . I t i s n o t
a l w a y s e n o u g h , J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 3 ) a s s e r t s , f o r u s t o r e a d o r
w a t c h a p l a y o r m y t h - h o w e v e r m u c h t h i s m i g h t e n g a g e o r a b s o r b
u s .
I t i s t h e a c t u a l e m b o d i m e n t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r a n d s c e n a r i o w h i c h i n v o l v e s u s p h y s i c a l l y i n a l l o u r s e n s e s a n d t h o u g h t s . I t a l l o w s b o t h a n i n n e r e x p a n s i o n a n d a n o u t e r c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n . I t a l l o w s p a r t i c i p a n t s . . . t o s t e p i n t o d r a m a t i c r e a l i t y f r o m e v e r y d a y r e a l i t y , t h r o u g h w h i c h c r e a t i o n a n d r e -c r e a t i o n i s e n g e n d e r e d i n n e w a n d u n e x p e c t e d w a y s .
T h e r e a r e m a n y a s p e c t s o f J e n n i n g s ' a p p r o a c h t o a r t i n t h e r a p y
w h i c h r e c a l l s o m e o f t h e b i o - e v o l u t i o n a r y a s p e c t s o f a r t m a k i n g a s
d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r t w o a n d w h i c h m i g h t b e r e g a r d e d a s c r u c i a l f o r
a n e t h i c a l a n d ` h e a l t h y ' a p p r o a c h t o a r t t h e r a p y . F i r s t l y , t h e r e i s a
g r e a t r e s p e c t f o r t h e p o w e r o f t h e a r t f o r m a n d t h i s n e c e s s i t a t e s a
r i g o r o u s p r e p a r a t i o n o n t h e p a r t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l f o r t h e ` j o u r n e y '
o r ` q u e s t ' f o r h e a l i n g a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . P r e p a r a t i o n i n v o l v e s
t r a i n i n g t h e b o d y - ` t h e i n s t r u m e n t o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n '
b y m e a n s o f s u c h t e c h n i q u e s a s d r a m a g a m e s . D r a m a g a m e s t e a c h
c o n t r o l , d e v e l o p t h e i m a g i n a t i o n a n d t e a c h u s a b o u t r i t u a l - t h e
r e p e t i t i o n t h a t p r o v i d e s s e c u r i t y a n d t h e k n o w n b a s e , a n d a l s o t h e
r i s k ( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p . 6 ) .
141
O n e o f t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f J e n n i n g s ' a p p r o a c h ( a n d w h i c h
I f o u n d l a c k i n g i n m o s t o f t h e a r t t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d ) i s
t h a t a n i n t e r s u b j e c t i v e , ` t r a n s c e n d e n t ' a n d ` u n i v e r s a l ' d i m e n s i o n i s
a s i m p o r t a n t a s t h e i n t i m a c y o f p e r s o n a l e x p e r i e n c e . P e o p l e a r e
e n c o u r a g e d t o m o v e a w a y f r o m t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e i n t o a l a r g e r
h o r i z o n b e c a u s e ;
i f h u m a n b e i n g s o n l y e x p l o r e w i t h i n t h e i r o w n e x p e r i e n c e a n d w i t h t h e i r l i m i t e d a n d d a m a g e d s e l v e s , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a b o u n d a r y o n h o w f a r w e c a n j o u r n e y ( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 . p . 5 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , i n u s i n g , f o r e x a m p l e , S h a k e s p e a r i a n p l a y s s u c h a s K i n g
L e a r , ` t h e c h a r a c t e r s t h e m s e l v e s g i v e u s i n s i g h t i n t o h u m a n b e i n g s
t h e m s e l v e s , a n d t h e v e r y l a n g u a g e t r a n s p o r t s u s i n t o r e a l m s o f
c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t w e o t h e r w i s e w o u l d n o t a c h i e v e ' . ` T h e s e p l a y s
p r o v i d e a m e a n s o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g h u m a n b e i n g s a n d t h e i r w o r l d s
a n d t h e w o r l d i n a w a y t h a t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t h r o u g h a n y o t h e r
m e a n s ' ( J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p p . 1 6 , 1 7 ) .
J e n n i n g s ' a p p r o a c h a l s o p r o v i d e s a c r i t i q u e o f s o m e f o r m s o f t h e r a p y
a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e ( p e r h a p s l i k e B i r t c h n e l l ' s ) t h a t b e l i e v e i t
i s a l w a y s r i g h t a n d n e c e s s a r y t o p r o b e d e e p l y i n t o p e o p l e ' s w o u n d s .
` O r e a s o n n o t t h e n e e d ' q u o t e s J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 2 ) a n d s a y s t h a t ,
` w h i l e t h e p l a y o f K i n g L e a r a l l o w s u s t o s p e a k w h a t i s o t h e r w i s e
u n s p e a k a b l e - i t a l s o a l l o w s u s t o s t r u g g l e w i t h o u r i n a b i l i t y t o
s p e a k a s o t h e r s w i s h a n d b e i n g f o r c e d t o s a y s o m e t h i n g ' - a r e c u r r i n g
t h e m e i n h e r w o r k w i t h c l i e n t s . I t i s e x a c t l y t h i s b e i n g f o r c e d t o
s p e a k - a n d t h e e m p h a s i s o n v e r b a l m o d e s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n - t h a t
C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 4 2 ) a s s e r t s m a y b e a c a u s e o f h a r m t o o u r ` s e c r e t
S e l f ' - t h a t s e c r e t p a r t o f o u r s e l v e s t h a t w e s h o u l d n o t b e f o r c e d t o
r e v e a l t o a n y o n e . S u c h d e m a n d s f o r d i s c l o s u r e c a n t h e r e f o r e b e a
142
c a u s e o f f u r t h e r s u f f e r i n g n o t a n a l l e v i a t i o n o f i t . T h e s e s e v e r a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e i n f o r c e m y b e l i e f t h a t a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s
s h o u l d b e n o n - c l i n i c a l - t h a t t h e s a f e s p a c e w h i c h a r t p r o v i d e s
( w h e r e p r o c e s s e s , r e s p o n s e s a n d i n s i g h t s a r e n o t g o i n g t o b e w r i t t e n
i n c l i n i c a l n o t e s , a n a l y z e d , i n t e r p r e t e d a n d d i s s e c t e d ) - o u g h t t o b e
p r e s e r v e d a s s a c r o s a n c t .
O f t h e h e a l i n g p o t e n t i a l o f d r a m a , J e n n i n g s 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 6 ) s a y s ;
h e a l i n g o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e d r a m a a n d i n d e e d d r a m a t h e r a p y ( w h e n ) o u r c l i e n t s , w e h o p e , m a y s a f e l y g o t o t h e e d g e o r c o m e b a c k f r o m i t . L e a r , l i k e a l l o f u s , f i n d s s o m e h e a l i n g f o r h i s w o u n d s a f t e r h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n f r o m t h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r s t o r m .
` G o i n g t o t h e e d g e ' a n d s a f e l y r e t u r n i n g i s , I b e l i e v e , p r e c i s e l y t h e
a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f ` f i t t i n g ' o r a n i n t e g r i t y o f d i s t a n c e t h a t i s
i m p l i c i t i n a t r a d i t i o n a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a r t m a k i n g . T h i s a e s t h e t i c
s e n s e ( w h i c h a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m c h a p t e r t w o e n c o m p a s s e s a l l
a s p e c t s o f o u r S e l v e s - c o g n i t i v e , e m o t i o n a l , p h y s i c a l a n d s e n s u a l ) i s
a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a n o t i o n o f a r t w h i c h d e r i v e s i t s t r u t h f r o m i t s
c a p a c i t y t o e n a b l e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , r e d e m p t i o n a n d , t h u s , h e a l i n g . I t
i s t h e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m a c a t h a r t i c e x p r e s s i o n w h i c h i s w i t h o u t
f o r m , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e a n d o f t e n w i t h o u t a d u e r e c o g n i t i o n o f , a n d
r e s p e c t f o r , t h e O t h e r . F u r t h e r , a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e
e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e n a t u r e o f e x p e r i e n c e a n d a r t i s t i c e x p e r i e n c e i n
c h a p t e r f o u r , w h a t i s r e q u i r e d i n a n e x p e r i e n c e i s b o t h a p r o p e r
d e g r e e o f i m m e r s i o n a n d ` l e t t i n g g o ' a n d a r e c o g n i t i o n o f w h e r e
` t h e e d g e ' i s . H o w e v e r , a s D e w e y ( i n M c D e r m o t t 1 9 7 3 , p . x x i x ) h a s
s o c h i l l i n g l y p o i n t e d o u t , i f t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e h a r m o n y o f t h e
o r g a n i s m a n d i t s s u r r o u n d s b e c o m e s t o o w i d e a n d i s u n a b l e t o b e
c l o s e d - t h e o r g a n i s m d i e s . T h i s ` b e i n g o u t o f h a r m o n y ' ( w i t h o n e s
s e n s e o f S e l f a n d w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r ) i s p r e c i s e l y w h a t i s
143
i n v o l v e d w i t h a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g . W h a t b e c o m e s
o f p a r t i c u l a r i m p o r t a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - a n d i n a r t a n d i n
a r t t h e r a p y - i s a f u r t h e r r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t ` t h e e d g e ' i s n e v e r f i x e d ,
n o r s t a t i c . A s t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s i s n e v e r t h e s a m e f o r t w o
p e o p l e , n e i t h e r w i l l ` t h e e d g e ' b e t h e s a m e f o r a l l o n a l l o c c a s i o n s .
I t i s ` t h i s g a p ' - a n d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n o f i t , w h i c h i s m a d e v i s i b l e i n
a r t . W h a t i s t h e n a l s o m a d e v i s i b l e i s t h e d e a t h o f t h e p e r s o n -
a n d / o r t h e i r s t r u g g l e t o s u r v i v e . S u f f e r i n g c o u l d t h e n a l s o b e
d e s c r i b e d a s t h e a p p r e h e n s i o n o f ` t h e g a p ' b e t w e e n ` l i f e ' a n d ` d e a t h '
w h i c h m a y b e u n d e r s t o o d t o r e f e r t o a m e t a p h o r i c a l a n d
m e t a p h y s i c a l d e a t h - t h e d e a t h o f t h o s e i n t a n g i b l e p a r t s o f
o u r S e l v e s - o u r s p i r i t , o u r c h a r a c t e r , o u r m i n d , o u r h o p e a n d o u r
w i l l t o f l o u r i s h . I n t h i s c a s e t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y m a y c o n t i n u e t o
l i v e , b u t t h e p e r s o n a s S e l f h a s d i e d . I t c a n a l s o l e a d t o p h y s i c a l
d e a t h - o f t h e t y p e w h i c h i s o f t e n e n c o u n t e r e d i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s w h e r e a p e r s o n c a n ` s h r i v e l u p ' a n d d i e a l m o s t b e f o r e o u r
e y e s . T h e i r d e a t h i s n o t a l w a y s t o b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r d i s e a s e o r
d y s f u n c t i o n b u t t o t h e f a c t t h a t ` t h e g a p ' h a s b e c o m e t o o w i d e a n d
t h e h o p e f o r a d i f f e r e n t r e a l i t y h a s b e c o m e u n i m a g i n a b l e . I t m i g h t
b e t h a t t h e t i m e f o r t h e i r d e a t h h a s c o m e . I t m i g h t a l s o b e t h a t
t h e i r S e l f a s P e r s o n h a s b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y a n u n r e d e e m e d s u f f e r i n g .
F o r t h e s e s e v e r a l r e a s o n s i t i s c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e
t h e r a p i s t ( a n d a n a r t i s t w h o w i s h e s t o w o r k i n h e a l t h c a r e ) h a s a n
i n t i m a t e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e a r t f o r m , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s p o w e r , a n d t h e
t e c h n i q u e s o f i t s p r o d u c t i o n .
A t t h e a r t i s t i c e n d o f t h e s p e c t r u m i s a n o t h e r v e r y d i f f e r e n t v i e w o f
t h e r o l e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t t h e r a p y a n d o n e w h i c h c h a l l e n g e s n o t
144
o n l y t h e b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l s o f a r t t h e r a p y e x a m i n e d s o f a r i n t h i s
c h a p t e r , b u t s i g n i f i c a n t l y c h a l l e n g e s h o w t h e n o t i o n o f ` t h e c l i n i c a l '
a n d ` c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ' m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d . T h i s i s t h e r o l e o f a r t
t h e r a p y i n t h e c a r e o f t h o s e w i t h c h r o n i c , o r t e r m i n a l i l l n e s s e s o r
w h o m a y b e d y i n g . T h i s a p p r o a c h c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s s i m i l a r t o
t h a t w h i c h i s e x t e n d e d t o t h o s e ` l o n g t e r m i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d ' a n d
t h o s e w i t h c h r o n i c c o n d i t i o n s w h o ` h a v e n o r e a l i s t i c h o p e o f
" g e t t i n g b e t t e r " ' ( D a l l e y 1 9 8 4 , p . x v i i ) . T h e s e v a r i o u s g r o u p s o f
p e o p l e n o t o n l y c h a l l e n g e t h e g r o u n d s a n d c l a i m s o f t h e r a p y , b u t
t h e y c h a l l e n g e h o w a c i v i l i z e d s o c i e t y ` c a r e s f o r t h e s i c k , t h e p o o r
a n d t h o s e w e l a b e l a s d e v i a n t ' ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 8 ) .
T h i s a p p r o a c h t o a r t t h e r a p y i s e x e m p l i f i e d b y A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a ) i n
a n e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s i n t h e
t r e a t m e n t o f p e o p l e l i v i n g w i t h A I D S . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , h e s a y s ,
t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s o f f e r a n e x i s t e n t i a l f o r m o f t h e r a p y t h a t a c c e p t s p a t i e n t s a s t h e y a r e a n d a f f o r d s t h e m o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e y w i s h t o b e . T h e y a r e p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e a e s t h e t i c n o t i o n s o f f o r m a n d e x i s t e n t i a l n o t i o n s o f p o t e n t i a l r a t h e r t h a n c o n c e p t s o f p a t h o l o g y ( p . 2 8 5 ) .
A l d r i d g e b e l i e v e s a l o n g w i t h F o u c a u l t ( a s q u o t e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g
o f t h i s r e s e a r c h ) t h a t t h e a r t s e x i s t t o e n a b l e p e o p l e t o m a k e t h e i r
l i v e s a w o r k o f a r t - t o c r e a t e l i v e s t h a t a r e f u l l o f h o p e , m e a n i n g ,
p u r p o s e a n d v a l u e . H o p e , a s w e h a v e n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , i s d e f i n e d
a s ` a n i n n e r p o w e r d i r e c t e d t o w a r d t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f " b e i n g " '
( H e r t h i n A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) . F u r t h e r , ` t h e m e a n i n g o f l i f e '
( i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r a s a c o n t i n u i n g t h r e a d t h r o u g h o u t
t h i s r e s e a r c h ) ` i s d i s c o v e r e d i n c o n c r e t e a c t s o f c r e a t i o n t h a t a r e
a e s t h e t i c .
W h a t i s i n t e r n a l i s e x p r e s s e d e x t e r n a l l y a s f o r m . B y b r i n g i n g o n t o p a p e r , o r f o r m i n g a s s o u n d , b y m o v i n g t h e b o d y i n a
145 s e q u e n c e o f d a n c e , o r c r e a t i n g a n a r r a t i v e w i t h d r a m a t i c i n t e n t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l t a k e s r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s l i f e a s k s . T o d o s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e , t o c r e a t e , t o p l a y , i s t o t a k e l i f e s e r i o u s l y . T h e c r e a t i v e a c t i s t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l i v e ' ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) .
R a r e i n t h e a r t t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d , a n d r a r e i n m y
e x p e r i e n c e o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , i s A l d r i d g e ' s a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f
t h e r o l e o f s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s i n c r e a t i n g t h e ` p r o b l e m s ' t h a t
v a r i o u s c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s a i m t o t r e a t o r c u r e . A s A l d r i d g e
( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h e r e i s a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o d y o f w o r k o n
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i f e e v e n t s a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l d i s o r d e r .
S t i g m a t i z a t i o n , i s o l a t i o n , l o n e l i n e s s , p o v e r t y , c h r o n i c i l l n e s s ,
h o s p i t a l i z a t i o n , p r e j u d i c e - a l l t h e s e m a n y f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e n o t
o n l y t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y a n d i t s p h y s i c a l i n t e g r i t y ( e g . t h e i m m u n e
s y s t e m ) b u t s e r i o u s l y i m p a c t o n t h e s o c i a l , s p i r i t u a l a n d
p s y c h o l o g i c a l i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p e r s o n . P a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h d i s e a s e s
l i k e A I D S ( a n d o n e m i g h t a l s o i n c l u d e n o t i o n s o f m e n t a l i l l n e s s a n d
s o f o r t h ) t h e s e f a c t o r s c h a l l e n g e t h e m o r a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e a r t
t h e r a p i s t t o o f f e r u n c o n d i t i o n a l c a r e a n d t o e n t e r i n t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p
o f c r e a t i v e i n t i m a c y w i t h t h e i n d i v i d u a l t h a t i s b o t h n o n - j u d g m e n t a l
a n d e q u a l ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p p . 2 8 7 , 2 8 9 ) . T h i s a p p r o a c h r a d i c a l l y
c h a l l e n g e s m a n y n o t i o n s o f a t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i c a l c a r e , n o t t h e l e a s t
o f w h i c h i s t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s h o u l d
r e m a i n a t a s a f e , c l i n i c a l d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e i r c l i e n t s ( s e e C a s s e l l
1 9 9 1 ) .
W i t h i n a n a r t i s t i c a p p r o a c h t o a r t t h e r a p y t h e r e i s m o r e l i k e l y t o b e
a g r e a t e r e m p h a s i s o n t h e a e s t h e t i c s o f t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d a n d
i t s i n t e g r i t y . A r n h e i m ( 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 6 ) a s s e r t s t h a t ( a r t t h e r a p i s t s )
m u s t n o t b e l i e v e t h a t , f o r t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r p u r p o s e s , t h e q u a l i t y o f
t h e p a t i e n t ' s w o r k i s i r r e l e v a n t . ` A e s t h e t i c q u a l i t y i s n o t h i n g b u t
146
t h e m e a n s b y w h i c h a r t i s t i c s t a t e m e n t s ( o f r e a l i t y ) r e a c h t h e i r g o a l .
N o t o n l y s h o u l d t h e c o n c e p t i o n b e g e n u i n e , i t s h o u l d b e c a r r i e d o u t
t o t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e r e a l i z a t i o n , b e c a u s e t h r o u g h i t s c l a r i t y a n d
s t r e n g t h t h e w o r k o f a r t e x e r t s i t s p o w e r , e v e n o n i t s o w n m a k e r ' .
W h i l e t h i s e m p h a s i s o n t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d w o u l d s e e m t o b e a
d e p a r t u r e f r o m t h e s t a t u s o f a n a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d i n a ` t r a d i t i o n a l '
m a n n e r a s e x p o u n d e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 9 2 ) e a r l i e r , I b e l i e v e t h a t
t h e y s h a r e a s i m i l a r v i e w o f t h e a e s t h e t i c d e m a n d i e . a r t m a k i n g i n
t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s w a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h ` m a k i n g s o m e t h i n g
s p e c i a l ' a n d i m p l i c i t i n t h i s i s t h e f a c t t h a t g r e a t c a r e i s t a k e n i n i t s
p r o d u c t i o n - i t i s m a d e t o t h e b e s t o f o n e ' s a b i l i t y .
T h e H e a l t h C a r e S e t t i n g i n M o d e r n M e d i c i n e .
T h e v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s t o a r t t h e r a p y j u s t r e v i e w e d a r e a l l l o c a t e d
w i t h i n a ` c l i n i c a l ' p a r a d i g m a n d o f t e n c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n t r a d i t i o n a l
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . H o w e v e r , t h e d o m i n a n c e o f h o s p i t a l b a s e d c a r e
i s i n c r e a s i n g l y b e i n g c h a l l e n g e d b y m o v e m e n t s t o w a r d s a ` p r i m a r y
h e a l t h c a r e ' d e l i v e r e d w i t h i n ` n o n - c l i n i c a l ' c o m m u n i t y s t r u c t u r e s .
T h e s e m o v e m e n t s c o u l d p e r h a p s b e r e g a r d e d a s p a r t o f a g r o w i n g
a p p r e c i a t i o n t h a t t h e M o d e r n r a t i o n a l i s t a p p r o a c h t o m e d i c i n e ,
h e a l t h c a r e , a r t , p h i l o s o p h y a n d s o o n m i g h t b e t t e r b e r e g a r d e d a s a
` m i x e d b l e s s i n g ' f o r h u m a n d e v e l o p m e n t r a t h e r t h a n t h e u n q u a l i f i e d
a d v a n c e i t h a s p r e v i o u s l y b e e n t h o u g h t t o b e ( s e e T o u l m i n
1 9 9 0 , p . 1 7 4 ) .
T h e B i r t h o f H e a l t h C a r e S e t t i n g s .
147
T h e b i r t h o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f l o c a t i n g t h e
s i c k i n s e p a r a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s , f o r e x a m p l e h o s p i t a l s a n d n u r s i n g
h o m e s , i s o f c o m p a r a t i v e l y r e c e n t o r i g i n ( s e e F o u c a u l t 1 9 7 3 ) . T h e
p r a c t i c e c a n , i n m a n y r e s p e c t s , b e r e g a r d e d a s t h e m e d i c a l
e q u i v a l e n t o f t h e M o d e r n p r a c t i c e o f l o c a t i n g a r t w i t h i n g a l l e r i e s
a n d m u s e u m s - s e p a r a t e f r o m ` o r d i n a r y ' c o m m u n i t y l i f e a n d w h e r e
t h e d i s p l a y a n d r e s p o n s e s t o w o r k s i s n o r m a l i z e d t o c o n f o r m w i t h a
p r e v a i l i n g i d e o l o g y o f a n a r t e s t a b l i s h m e n t . T h e l o c a t i o n o f a r t
w o r k s w i t h i n s u c h d e f i n e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d s p a c e s r e i n f o r c e s a
M o d e r n p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a r t h a s n o s i g n i f i c a n t r e l e v a n c e f o r t h e
f l o u r i s h i n g a n d w e l l b e i n g o f ` o r d i n a r y ' p e o p l e - i t i s r a t h e r t o b e
c o n c e i v e d a s c o n c e r n e d w i t h ` o b j e c t s ' , t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w h i c h i s
t h e p r o v i n c e o f a n e l i t e g r o u p o f e x p e r t s c a l l e d A r t i s t s .
I n t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i e t i e s t h e h e a l t h a n d w e l l b e i n g o f m e m b e r s o f t h e
g r o u p w o u l d h a v e b e e n m a t t e r s o f s e r i o u s c o n c e r n i e . t h e y w e n t t o
t h e e n d s o f t h e g r o u p - i t s s u r v i v a l - a n d , a s s u c h , a s D i s s a n a y a k e
( 1 9 8 8 , 1 9 9 2 ) h a s a r g u e d , w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f g r o u p
c e r e m o n i e s a n d r i t u a l s i n v o l v i n g a r t m a k i n g f o r m s a n d p r a c t i c e s .
M o d e r n m e d i c i n e a s w e k n o w i t o n l y b e g a n i n t h e l a s t c e n t u r y .
P r i o r t o t h a t t h e c a r e o f t h e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g w a s s h a r e d b y
v a r i o u s p e o p l e w i t h i n a c o m m u n i t y - f a m i l y m e m b e r s , m i d w i v e s ,
p r i e s t s a n d t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y e q u i v a l e n t o f c h e m i s t s o r
a p o t h e c a r i e s .
148
T h e O r i g i n s o f H e a l t h C a r e I n s t i t u t i o n s .
T h e m o d e r n c o n c e p t o f l o c a t i n g t h e s i c k w i t h i n i n s t i t u t i o n s
d e v e l o p e d f r o m t h e m e d i e v a l n o t i o n o f a h o s p i c e - a l t h o u g h
h o s p i c e s w e r e o r i g i n a l l y c o n c e i v e d a s p e r f o r m i n g v e r y d i f f e r e n t
f u n c t i o n s w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r s o c i e t y . H o s p i c e s i n t h e i r o r i g i n a l
u n d e r s t a n d i n g w e r e p l a c e s o f r e f u g e - p l a c e s w h e r e p i l g r i m s ,
t r a v e l l e r s a n d t h e s i c k c o u l d l o d g e a n d r e c e i v e c a r e - m o s t
f r e q u e n t l y f r o m m e m b e r s o f r e l i g i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s . F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 7 3 )
h a s t r a c e d t h e t r a n s i t i o n f r o m h o s p i c e t o h o s p i t a l ( e s p e c i a l l y i n
F r a n c e a n d E u r o p e ) - a t r a n s i t i o n t h a t s a w h o s p i t a l s b e c o m e , n o t
p l a c e s o f r e f u g e , b u t a l s o p l a c e s o f r e g u l a t i o n a n d i n c a r c e r a t i o n i e .
t h e y s e r v e d p o l i t i c a l e n d s . A t v a r i o u s t i m e s i t w a s f e l t b y s o c i a l
a n d p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s t h a t t h e u n e m p l o y e d ( o r l a z y ) w e r e n o t v i s u a l
a s s e t s i n a w e l l o r d e r e d s o c i e t y a n d w e r e i n c a r c e r a t e d w i t h i n
h o s p i t a l s ( h o s p i c e s a s t h e y w e r e k n o w n i n F r a n c e ) w h e r e t h e y
` w o r k e d ' . W h e n t h e i r ` w o r k ' t h r e a t e n e d t h e e c o n o m i c v i a b i l i t y o f
` o r d i n a r y ' b u s i n e s s , t h e ` i n m a t e s ' w e r e r e l e a s e d - a n d e v e n t u a l l y
a n o t h e r g r o u p t o o k t h e i r p l a c e w i t h i n t h e h o s p i c e s y s t e m - t h e
d e r a n g e d , a n d d i s o r d e r l y w h o c a m e t o b e d e s c r i b e d a s t h e m e n t a l l y
i l l ( s e e F o u c a u l t 1 9 7 3 ) .
M e d i c i n e ' s i n c r e a s i n g r e l i a n c e o n t e c h n o l o g y h a s a l s o d e t e r m i n e d t h a t
t h e e f f i c i e n t c a r e a n d t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s i c k e n t a i l s t h a t t h e p e o p l e
a r e b r o u g h t t o t h e m a c h i n e s - t o t h e c e n t e r s w h e r e t h e e x p e r t s a n d
t e c h n o l o g i c a l a p p a r a t u s a r e l o c a t e d . I n s o m e w a y s t h i s i s a n
i n e v i t a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e o f t h e m a n y d i a g n o s t i c a n d t r e a t m e n t a d v a n c e s
o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e . W h i l e s u c h a d v a n c e s h a v e m a n y b e n e f i c i a l
e f f e c t s , a t t h e s a m e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e r e m o v a l o f t h e s i c k i n t o
149
h e a l t h c a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s r e i n f o r c e s t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e s i c k a r e
n o t p a r t o f a g e n e r a l c o m m u n i t y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ; i t r e i n f o r c e s t h e
s e n s e o f a l i e n a t i o n , a b a n d o n m e n t a n d i s o l a t i o n o f t e n a s i g n i f i c a n t
f a c t o r i n t h e s u f f e r i n g w h i c h c a n a c c o m p a n y a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s ;
a n d i t f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e s a n e n c o u r a g e d p e r c e p t i o n t h a t h e a l t h c a r e
p r o f e s s i o n a l s ( l i k e s o m e p e r c e p t i o n s o f a r t ) ` c a n d o i t a l l f o r u s ' -
t h a t w e c a n a b r o g a t e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r o u r f l o u r i s h i n g t o
` s o m e t h i n g o t h e r ' o r s o m e o n e e l s e ( s e e M u r d o c h 1 9 9 2 , p . 1 9 ) .
T h e o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y i n m o d e r n s y s t e m s o f h e a l t h
c a r e h a s r e s u l t e d i n p e r s o n s w h o a r e s i c k b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d a s p a s s i v e
r e c i p i e n t s o f a c a r e p r o v i d e d b y m e d i c a l e x p e r t s . T h e s i c k , b e i n g
d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l t o d e f i n e t h e i r
` w e l l n e s s ' , a r e n o t g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d a s h a v i n g a c a p a c i t y t o b e
v a l u a b l e c o n t r i b u t i n g m e m b e r s o f s o c i e t y . T h i s h a s r e s u l t e d i n s o m e
p a r a d o x i c a l a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s w o r k e v i d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , i n m o d e r n
p s y c h i a t r y . W a r n e r ( 1 9 9 4 ) , i n a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e c o v e r y r a t e s
f r o m s c h i z o p h r e n i a i n p e r s o n s f r o m F i r s t W o r l d c o u n t r i e s a n d T h i r d
w o r l d c o u n t r i e s , f o u n d t h a t t h e r e c o v e r y r a t e w a s h i g h e r i n T h i r d
w o r l d s o c i e t i e s . T h e h i g h e r r e c o v e r y r a t e w a s , i n p a r t , a t t r i b u t e d
t o t h e r o l e o f w o r k i n a i d i n g r e c o v e r y i e . i n m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l
s o c i e t i e s p e o p l e r e c o v e r i n g f r o m s c h i z o p h r e n i a w e r e i n c l u d e d i n s o m e
f o r m o f me a n i n g f u l w o r k w i t h i n t h e c o mmu n i t y - t h u s f o s t e r i n g a s e n s e
o f b e l o n g i n g , o f p e r s o n a l v a l u e a n d s e l f e s t e e m . I n F i r s t W o r l d
s o c i e t i e s , h o w e v e r , i t w a s m o r e l i k e l y t h a t s u c h p e o p l e w o u l d b e
e x c l u d e d f r o m ` n o r m a l ' s o c i e t y i e . t h e y w o u l d s u f f e r s t i g m a t i z a t i o n
a n d l a c k o f s e l f c o n f i d e n c e a n d e s t e e m ; t h e y w o u l d r e c e i v e s o c i a l
s e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s b u t w o u l d n o t h a v e t h e s e n s e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d
150
v a l u e d e r i v e d f r o m p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n w o r k ( s e e W a r n e r 1 9 9 4 ) . W h i l e
m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p u r p o r t s t o a i m t o w a r d s t h e e n d o f r e t u r n i n g
p e o p l e t o a s e n s e o f n o r m a l c y ( h o w e v e r t h a t i s d e f i n e d ) , o f w h i c h
n o r m a l c y w o r k m i g h t p l a y a n i n t e g r a l p a r t , a p a r a d o x i c a l t e n s i o n
w o u l d s e e m t o o b t a i n i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . F o r e x a m p l e , i n a
p s y c h i a t r y u n i t w h i c h h a d a n e x t e n s i v e a r t p r o g r a m o p e r a t i n g , i f
p a t i e n t s w e r e s e e n t o b e e n j o y i n g t h e m s e l v e s b y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e
` a r t i s t i c w o r k ' o f t h e U n i t - h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s w o u l d o f t e n
i n t e r p r e t s u c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n a s i n d i c a t i n g e i t h e r a ) t h e p e o p l e w e r e
n o t s i c k i n t h e f i r s t p l a c e i e . t h e y w e r e h y p o c h o n d r i a c s o r
m a l i n g e r e r s - a n d t h e y w o u l d b e d i s c h a r g e d o r b ) i f t h e y h a d b e e n
s i c k , t h e c a p a c i t y t o f e e l p l e a s u r e a n d b e c o m e a b s o r b e d i n c r e a t i v e
a c t i v i t y m e a n t t h a t t h e y w e r e n o l o n g e r s i c k - a n d t h e y , t o o , w o u l d
b e d i s c h a r g e d .
I a m n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t e i t h e r o p t i o n m a y n o t h a v e s o m e e l e m e n t s
o f t r u t h , b u t t h e m e d i c a l a t t i t u d e m i g h t a l s o r e f l e c t a d e e p l y
i n g r a i n e d n o t i o n o f w h a t r o l e a s i c k p e r s o n s h o u l d p l a y - t h a t t h e y
s h o u l d b e w e a k , p o w e r l e s s , d e p e n d e n t , i s o l a t e d a n d s h o u l d b e
r e c i p i e n t s n o t c o n t r i b u t o r s o r g i v e r s . I t i s t h e s e v e r y f a c t o r s ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t h a r m a p e r s o n ' s s e n s e o f t h e m S e l v e s a s a u t o n o m o u s
s o c i a l b e i n g s w i t h c e r t a i n r i g h t s , r o l e s a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a n d
w h i c h , t h e r e f o r e , c a n b e a c a u s e o f f u r t h e r s u f f e r i n g ( s e e C a s s e l l
1 9 9 1 ; A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a ) . T h i s m o d e l o f s i c k p e r s o n i s , h o w e v e r ,
b e i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y c h a l l e n g e d b y v a r i o u s g r o u p s , n o t a b l y b y p e o p l e
l i v i n g w i t h A I D S a n d t h o s e l i v i n g w i t h a m e n t a l i l l n e s s .
151
T h e M o d e r n V i e w o f M e d i c i n e .
A c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f m e d i c i n e i s s h a p e d
b y t h e s a m e M o d e r n n o t i o n s o f o b j e c t i v e r a t i o n a l i t y t h a t h a d b e e n
d e s c r i b e d i n c h a p t e r t h r e e a s a l s o a p p l y i n g t o s c i e n c e , p h i l o s o p h y
a n d t h e a r t s . I n f a c t , s i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h i s c e n t u r y , s c i e n c e
h a s b e e n t h e d o m i n a n t p a r a d i g m o f m e d i c i n e - a n d t h e a l l i e d f i e l d s
o f n u r s i n g a n d p s y c h o l o g y . I n d e e d , m o s t a l l i e d h e a l t h f i e l d s t h a t
h a v e s o u g h t t h e s t a t u s o f ` a p r o f e s s i o n ' h a v e g e n e r a l l y r e s o r t e d t o
a m e d i c a l , s c i e n t i f i c m o d e l t o e n s u r e t h e i r a c c e p t a n c e w i t h i n t h e
d o m i n a n t b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f t h e m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n . T h e
s c i e n t i f i c w o r l d v i e w w h i c h h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d i n a p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r
i n v i t e s t h e b e l i e f t h a t a l l k n o w l e d g e i s o b t a i n a b l e b y m e a n s o f
o b j e c t i v e e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n a n d a n a l y s i s . T h u s , k n o w l e d g e , f o r
e x a m p l e , a b o u t t h e w o r k i n g s o f t h e b o d y c o u l d b e d i s c o v e r e d b y
d i s s e c t i o n , a n a l y s i s o f p a r t s a n d e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n . W h i l e i t c a n n o t
b e d e n i e d t h a t s o m e o f t h e m a r v e l l o u s d i s c o v e r i e s o f m o d e r n
m e d i c i n e h a v e c o m e f r o m c l o s e o b s e r v a t i o n a n d d i s s e c t i o n o f
v a r i o u s p a r t s , t h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a v a s t d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n k n o w i n g
t h e m o l e c u l a r s t r u c t u r e o f t h e h e a r t , f o r i n s t a n c e , a n d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v a r i o u s o t h e r o r g a n s a n d
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g t h a t a p e r s o n m a y
e x p e r i e n c e w h e n t h e i r h e a r t i s d i s e a s e d o r m a l f u n c t i o n i n g - a n d ,
t h e r e f o r e , w h a t c a r e a n d t r e a t m e n t t h e y p a r t i c u l a r l y a n d s p e c i f i c a l l y
r e q u i r e .
C a t e g o r i e s a n d D e f i n i t i o n s .
I n d i s c u s s i n g a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
h e a l t h , f l o u r i s h i n g a n d w e l l b e i n g , m u c h c o n f u s i o n r e s u l t s f r o m a
152
m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e w o r d ` t h e r a p e u t i c ' a n d i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h
t h e n o t i o n o f ` t h e r a p y ' . F r o m t h e C o n c i s e O x f o r d D i c t i o n a r y o f
E n g l i s h E t y m o l o g y ( H o a d 1 9 8 6 , p . 4 9 0 ) I t a k e t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s ;
` t h e r a p e u t i c ' i s a s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y t e r m a n d m e a n s t h e a r t o f
h e a l i n g , ` t h e r a p y ' i s a n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w o r d m e a n i n g m e d i c a l
t r e a t m e n t .
T h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s a w t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f t h e M o d e r n S t a t e a n d
t h e ` c l i n i c a l g a z e ' d e s c r i b e d b y F o u c a u l t ( 1 9 7 3 ) w h i c h h a s a p o l i t i c a l
f u n c t i o n a s w e l l a s a ` m e d i c a l ' o n e . P o l i t i c a l a n d s o c i a l
o r g a n i s a t i o n s ( n o t a b l y m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s a n d l a w y e r s ) w e r e
a c c o r d e d t h e r i g h t s - o r t o o k t h o s e r i g h t s u p o n t h e m s e l v e s - t o
d e f i n e w h a t b e h a v i o u r w a s ` n o r m a l ' , w h a t s t a t e s w e r e t o b e c o n s i d e r e d
` h e a l t h y ' a n d t h e r e f o r e w h i c h p e r s o n s w e r e s i c k , a n d w h a t f o r m t h a t
s i c k n e s s s h o u l d t a k e . T h e ` b i o - m e d i c a l g a z e ' i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e
c o n t r o l l i n g g a z e o f t h e M o d e r n S t a t e a n d r e l i e s f o r i t s p o w e r o n
e m p t y i n g ` t h e O t h e r ' ( i n t h i s c a s e t h e s i c k p e r s o n ) o f a n y s e n s e o f
S e l f , o f p e r s o n a l f r e e d o m o r a u t o n o m y . I t c a n n o t b e s a i d , h o w e v e r ,
t h a t a l l o r g a n i s a t i o n a l i n i t i a t i v e s o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e h a v e b e e n
u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y b a d . T h e s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n o f m e d i c a l d e s c r i p t i o n s f o r
v a r i o u s d i s e a s e s a n d t h e i r s y mp t o ms h a s n o t o n l y mad e t h e t e a c h i n g o f
m e d i c i n e p o s s i b l e , b u t h a s a l s o m a d e p o s s i b l e t h e e x c h a n g e o f
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d k n o w l e d g e b o t h n a t i o n a l l y a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y ( s e e
C a s s e l l 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e i n h e r e n t d a n g e r i n t h e s y s t e m i z a t i o n a n d
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f m e d i c a l k n o w l e d g e i s t h e s a m e a s h a s b e e n
i d e n t i f i e d a s c o n c e r n i n g p o e t r y a n d t h e a r t s i e . a r e l i a n c e o n
c e r t a i n m o d e s o f c a t e g o r i z a t i o n o f t e n p r e v e n t s o t h e r w a y s o f s e e i n g
b e i n g p o s s i b l e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , t h e b i o -
153
m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e h a s l e d t o t h e s i t u a t i o n w h e r e d i s e a s e
d i a g n o s i s , t r e a t m e n t a n d p r o g n o s i s c a n a l l b e d e t e r m i n e d w i t h o u t
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k .
M e d i c i n e - a n d t h e a l l i e d p r o f e s s i o n s o f n u r s i n g a n d s o o n - h a s
s o m e t i m e s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a s a n ` a r t ' : t h e a r t o f m e d i c i n e . S o m e
m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s a r e s o m e w h a t s c e p t i c a l a b o u t a r e m e d y f o r t h e
m a l a i s e s o f m o d e r n m e d i c i n e ( t h e d i v o r c e o f t h e b o d y f r o m t h e S e l f
o f t h e P e r s o n ) l y i n g o n l y i n r e d e f i n i n g m e d i c i n e a s a n a r t ( s e e
C a s s e l l 1 9 9 1 ) . W h i l e c o n s i d e r i n g t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f h e a l t h c a r e
a s ` a n a r t ' m i g h t b e a l a u d a b l e a i m , h o w t h a t ` a r t ' i s c o n c e i v e d w i l l
b e o f c r u c i a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s
` a r t ' c a n b e r e g a r d e d i n m a n y d i f f e r e n t w a y s - a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n
n e e d d e r i v i n g i t s t r u t h a n d v a l i d i t y f r o m b e i n g d i r e c t e d t o w a r d s t h e
e n d o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g - o r i t c a n b e r e g a r d e d i n s t r u m e n t a l l y a s
a n o p t i o n a l e x t r a w i t h i n a b i o - m e d i c a l s y s t e m o f t r e a t m e n t a n d
c u r e .
T h e R o l e a n d S i g n i f i c a n c e o f A r t i n H e a l t h C a r e S e t t i n g s .
W h a t , t h e n , i s t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e ? W h a t
c a n a r t ` d o ' f o r p e o p l e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g o r , w h o , l i k e t h e
m a n w i t h A I D S , m a y b e d y i n g ? A n e t h i c a l c a r e o f s i c k p e r s o n s
w o u l d r e q u i r e t h a t ` a t t e n t i o n b e p a i d ' t o t h e c h a n g e s t h a t h a v e b e e n
w r o u g h t i n a p e r s o n ' s l i f e a n d i n t h e i r c h a n g e d s e n s e o f w e l l - b e i n g
a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . E a c h p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s i l l h e a l t h i n t h e i r o w n
p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e w a y a n d t h e c h a n g e s w r o u g h t b y i l l n e s s w i l l
p r o d u c e c h a n g e s i n h o w t h e y p e r c e i v e t h e m s e l v e s a s b e i n g i n h a r m o n y
w i t h t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r s u r r o u n d s . T h e s e i n d i v i d u a l p e r c e p t i o n s
154
w i l l c o l o u r t h e i r o w n u n i q u e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g .
F o r a s i c k p e r s o n t o r e c e i v e a n a p p r o p r i a t e ( a n d e t h i c a l ) c a r e i t
w o u l d s e e m n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n d s c a p e o f t h e i r i l l n e s s
e x p e r i e n c e a n d s u f f e r i n g b e f o r e a t t e n t i o n c a n p r o p e r l y b e g i v e n t o
i t . T h e q u e s t i o n t o b e p o s e d a n d a n s w e r e d i s ` H o w c a n w e c o m e t o
k n o w t h e t e x t u r e s o f a p a r t i c u l a r l a n d s c a p e o f i l l n e s s a n d
s u f f e r i n g ? '
A r t h a s e v o l v e d , i n p a r t , t o a c c o u n t f o r ` t h e s p e c i a l ' - t h o s e
e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t a r e o u t s i d e t h e o r d i n a r y - t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h
a r e o f s u f f i c i e n t s e r i o u s n e s s a n d c o n c e r n t h a t t h e y a r e f e l t t o
t h r e a t e n s u r v i v a l . T h u s a r t c o u l d b e s a i d t o h a v e e v o l v e d t o g i v e
a c c o u n t o f t h o s e ` s p e c i a l ' e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h c a n n o t b e e x p r e s s e d i n
t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e o r d i n a r y a n d t h e e v e r y d a y - t h a t d e m a n d e d a
f o r m a n d ` l a n g u a g e ' t h a t w a s c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y ` s p e c i a l ' a n d ` o u t s i d e '
t h e m u n d a n e . S o m e e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g a r e
l i k e w i s e s o ` s p e c i a l ' a n d ` s e r i o u s ' i n t h a t o u r c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e ,
w e l l - b e i n g a n d f l o u r i s h i n g i s t h r e a t e n e d - o u r i n t e g r i t y a s p e r s o n i s
t h r e a t e n e d - a n d l i k e w i s e d e m a n d a f o r m a n d a l a n g u a g e t h a t c a n
a d e q u a t e l y c o n v e y a n d e x p r e s s t h e i m p o r t o f t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s .
A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s , t h e d e m a n d s o f a h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g a s a t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n - i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f
i l l n e s s i t s e l f - o f t e n r e n d e r v e r b a l m o d e s o f e x p r e s s i o n i n a d e q u a t e
a n d u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f o r a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h
c a r e p r a c t i c e l i e s i n t h e f a c t t h a t i t ` m a k e s v i s i b l e ' o r g i v e s f o r m t o
t h o s e f e e l i n g s a n d e m o t i o n s w h i c h c a n n o t b e a d e q u a t e l y e x p r e s s e d
i n a n y o t h e r w a y . I n f a c t , a r t a l l o w s f o r , a n d d e r i v e s i t s s t r e n g t h ,
155
t r u t h a n d v i t a l i t y f r o m , f o r m s w h i c h i n v i t e , n o t d e n y , t h e
a m b i g u o u s , t h e t e n u o u s , t h e m y s t e r i o u s , t h e s a c r e d a n d t h e d e m o n i c .
T h e f o r m s o f a r t m a k e v i s i b l e i n t e g r a t i o n , h a r m o n y a n d a t o n e n e s s
w i t h s e l f a n d O t h e r - n o t a l w a y s i n a ` g l e e f u l ' w a y - b u t i n a w a y
w h i c h h o n o u r s t h e r e a l e x i g e n c i e s o f h u m a n e x p e r i e n c e a n d h u m a n
r e l a t i o n s h i p w h i c h a l w a y s h a v e a n e l e m e n t o f i n c o m p l e t e n e s s , a
q u a l i t y o f ` n o t y e t ' , o f f u l l n e s s b u t n o t a c o m p l e t e a n d f i n a l
f u l l n e s s .
A r t p r a c t i c e c o n t a i n s m a n y p a r a d o x e s . O n t h e o n e h a n d t h e s h e e r
c o n c e n t r a t i o n n e e d e d i n t h e c r e a t i o n o f a n a r t w o r k p r o v i d e s a s e n s e
o f s t a b i l i t y a n d i n t e g r a t i o n t h a t r e s i s t s a n d t r a n s f o r m s t h e c h a o s a n d
f r a g m e n t a t i o n t h a t s u r r o u n d m a n y i n t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h a t s a m e e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t
m a k i n g m a n i f e s t s t h e r e a l i t y t h a t h e a l i n g a n d i n t e g r a t i o n , m a s t e r y
a n d c o n t r o l i s o n l y ` f o r t h i s t i m e ' , t h i s m o m e n t . T h e n e x t t i m e w e
p a i n t i t w i l l b e a d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e . T h e ` u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l o g i c o f
a r t ' h a s b e e n r e v e a l e d i n t h e e x p e r i e n c e s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r t w o
w h e r e I a n d a w o m a n p a t i e n t ` h a d ' t o p a i n t c e r t a i n t h i n g s u n t i l t h e
i m p o r t o f a n e x p e r i e n c e h a d b e e n f i t t e d i n t o a p a t t e r n o f m e a n i n g
( s e e A r n h e i m 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 5 6 ) . A s A r n h e i m ( 1 9 8 6 ) f u r t h e r d e s c r i b e s t h e
l o g i c o f a r t , b o t h o f u s ` h a d ' t o s h a p e o u r a r t f o r m s t o c o n f o r m t o
s o m e ` i n n e r i n t e g r i t y ' r e g a r d l e s s o f w h a t o u r p e r s o n a l d e s i r e s o r
f e a r s m i g h t h a v e b e e n . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e u n c o m p r o m i s i n g l o g i c o f
a r t w o u l d s e e m t o p a r a l l e l t h e i n t e g r a t i n g f o r c e o f h e a l i n g w h i c h
J u n g ( i n S t o r r 1 9 8 9 b ) d e s c r i b e s a s h a v i n g a f o r c e a n d d i r e c t i o n o f i t s
o w n .
156
A r t c a n m a k e m a n i f e s t t h a t w e a r e n o t s t a t i c i n o u r g r o w t h a n d
d e v e l o p m e n t b u t a r e i n a c o n t i n u a l s t a t e o f b e c o m i n g . I n e a c h
e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t m a k i n g , a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s w e c a n e x p e r i e n c e
s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d d e l i g h t , t h e r e i s a l w a y s a s e n s e t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g i s
n o t t h e l a s t o n e t o b e p a i n t e d . T h e n e x t o n e m a y g e t c l o s e r t o
c l o s i n g t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e r e a l i t y t h a t w e p e r c e i v e a n d t h e r e a l i t y
t h a t w e c a n r e n d e r i n p a i n t , c l o t h , s t o n e , s o u n d o r w o r d . E a c h
e x p e r i e n c e o f p a i n t i n g o r c r e a t i n g c a n c a r r y t h e s a m e s a t i s f a c t i o n ,
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , h o p e a n d e x p e c t a t i o n . B y e n c o m p a s s i n g a n o t i o n o f
` a n o t h e r t i m e ' , ` a n o t h e r c h a n c e ' , ` a f u t u r e ' , t h e a c t o f c r e a t i o n c a n
a l l e v i a t e t h e s u f f e r i n g o c c a s i o n e d w h e n a p e r s o n ' s s e n s e o f f u t u r e
h a s b e e n h a r m e d .
T h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s h a s s e v e r a l
d i m e n s i o n s . F i r s t l y , a r t c a n g i v e f o r m t o t h e c o m p l e x t e x t u r e s o f a
p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g a n d t h e r e b y m a k e s
p o s s i b l e a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e w h i c h c a n t a k e a c c o u n t o f t h e
u n i q u e n e s s o f t h e p e r s o n a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e y e x p e r i e n c e t h e i r
l a c k o f w e l l - b e i n g . A r t c a n , t h e r e f o r e , m a k e v i s i b l e h o w a
p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n i s e n d e a v o u r i n g t o c o m p e n s a t e , t o r e s t o r e , o r t o
p r e s e r v e ( o r r e c r e a t e ) t h e i r i d e n t i t y a n d i n t e g r i t y a s a p e r s o n . A r t
c a n t h e n m a k e p l a i n w h a t a t t e n t i o n a n d c a r e t h e y n e e d - a n d w h a t
t h e y m a y n o t n e e d a n d w h a t , t h e r e f o r e , m a y i n c r e a s e t h e i r s u f f e r i n g
o r h e l p a l l e v i a t e i t .
S u c h a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t r a d i c a l l y
c h a l l e n g e s t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m u s t b e
c o n c e i v e d ` i n s t r u m e n t a l l y ' - a s a ` t h e r a p y ' , o r , a s ` a d i v e r s i o n -
157
s o m e t h i n g t o t a k e o u r m i n d s o f f t h i n g s ' . A d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f
a r t h a s e m e r g e d f r o m t h i s r e s e a r c h i e . t h a t a r t i s m o r e p r o p e r l y t o
b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d - a s e s s e n t i a l a s f o o d ,
s h e l t e r , f r i e n d s h i p , t h e b e l o n g i n g w i t h i n a n u r t u r i n g c o m m u n i t y , a s
a n e v o l u t i o n a r y a d a p t a t i o n w h i c h e n a b l e s t h e s u r v i v a l , f l o u r i s h i n g
a n d w e l l b e i n g o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ( a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s ) t h r o u g h
p e r i o d s o f d a n g e r , a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y . T h a t i s , a r t i s t o b e
c o n c e i v e d a s h a v i n g a n e t h i c a l a n d o n t o l o g i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . T h e
n e e d f o r a r t c o u l d a c c o r d i n g l y b e s a i d t o e s c a l a t e i n t i m e s o f c r i s i s
s u c h a s t h o s e o c c a s i o n e d b y i l l h e a l t h o r a c c i d e n t .
A r t e n c o m p a s s e s t h e n o t i o n o f a s p a c e w h i c h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d i n
t w o w a y s - a s a m e a n s o f e n h a n c i n g a n d e n a b l i n g l i f e o r , a s
s i g n i f y i n g a n d m a n i f e s t i n g s u f f e r i n g a n d d e a t h . A g a i n , l i f e a n d
d e a t h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d b o t h l i t e r a l l y a n d m e t a p h o r i c a l l y . T h u s ,
a r t c a n b e a s p a c e w h e r e i n h e a l i n g , w h o l e n e s s a n d l i b e r a t i o n c a n b e
e x p e r i e n c e d . O r , i t c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s d e s c r i b i n g a s t a t e w h e r e
t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e i n t e g r a l h a r m o n y o f t h e p e r s o n a n d i t s
s u r r o u n d s h a s b e c o m e t o o w i d e - i n w h i c h c a s e t h e p e r s o n s u f f e r s
a n d m a y d i e .
T h e n o t i o n o f a ` s p a c e ' o p e n i n g u p h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o o n m a n y
o c c a s i o n s d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h i s e x p l o r a t i o n - t h e a u t h o r s o f A r t s
I n j e c t i o n ( 1 9 9 4 ) s p e a k o f a ` s p a c e ' o p e n i n g u p i n t h e u n e a s e o f a r t
c r e a t i n g a s e n s e o f ` n o t b e i n g a t h o m e ' i n m e d i c a l s e t t i n g s - a s p a c e
w h i c h m i g h t p r o v i d e f o r a r e v a l u a t i o n a n d r e a p p r a i s a l o f n o t i o n s o f
e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s a n d h o w t h e s e m i g h t i n f o r m h e a l t h c a r e
p r a c t i c e a n d a r t p r a c t i c e w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s .
158
I d o n o t u s e t h e t e r m ` h e a l t h ' o r ` h e a l i n g ' t o i n d i c a t e a n a b s e n c e o f
s i g n s a n d s y m p t o m s o f d i s e a s e , n o r t o i n d i c a t e a ` c u r e ' f o r d i s e a s e s
a n d d y s f u n c t i o n . I a d o p t t h e v i e w o f h e a l i n g a s o u t l i n e d b y
A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 1 7 ) : ` t h e e s c a p e f r o m e m o t i o n a l f r a g m e n t a t i o n t o
t h e c r e a t i v e a c t o f w h o l e n e s s ' a n d o n e t h a t s e e s ` m e d i c i n e a s a
r e s t r i c t e d s e t o f p r a c t i c e s f r o m t h e r e p e r t o i r e o f o u r p o s s i b l e
h e a l i n g s t r a t e g i e s . . . w h a t w e a l s o n e e d a r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g s g a i n e d
f r o m e x i s t e n t i a l p s y c h o l o g y a n d t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e m s e l v e s '
( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 5 ) . I n a d o p t i n g t h e s e v i e w s I d o n o t d i s a g r e e
w i t h t h e n e e d f o r m e d i c a l s c i e n c e t o e x p a n d i t s a b i l i t y t o ` c u r e '
d i s e a s e a n d d y s f u n c t i o n - b u t w h a t n e e d s t o i n f o r m r e s e a r c h , p o l i c y
a n d p r a c t i c e i s t h e f a c t t h a t d i s e a s e s a n d i l l n e s s e s o c c u r i n
p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e P e r s o n s ( s e e C a s s e l l 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e r e f o r e , h e a l t h
c a r e - l i k e a r t - o u g h t p r o p e r l y b e c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s a n e t h i c a l
e n d e a v o u r i n f o r m e d b y t h e e n d o f f l o u r i s h i n g a n d b e c o m i n g h e a l e d -
o f w h i c h e n d e a v o u r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f s i g n s a n d s y m p t o m s o f d i s e a s e
f o r m s a n i m p o r t a n t - b u t n o t t h e o n l y - p a r t .
H e a l i n g a n d H e a l t h C a r e .
H e a l i n g i s a p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e - p h y s i c a l l y a n d
p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y . . . ( a n d ) h e a l i n g t a k e s p l a c e e v e n a s t h e b o d y
w e a k e n s ( G r a h a m i n M a l c h i o d i 1 9 9 3 ) . O r a s A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 1 7 )
p o i n t s o u t ` i t i s o u r c o n t e n t i o n t h a t w h e n t h e d e e p e s t l o n g i n g s o f
t h e h u m a n s p i r i t c a n b e m a n i f e s t e d t h e n w e a r e h e a l e d . T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e t h e r a p e u t i c t a s k i s t o ;
c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f h o p e , a c c o m m o d a t i n g f e e l i n g s o f l o s s , i s o l a t i o n a n d a b a n d o n m e n t , u n d e r s t a n d i n g s u f f e r i n g , f o r g i v i n g o t h e r s , a c c e p t i n g d e p e n d e n c y w h i l e r e m a i n i n g i n d e p e n d e n t a n d m a k i n g s e n s e o f d y i n g ( A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 9 5 )
159
W h e n t h e c r i t i c a l d i s t i n c t i o n i s l o s t ( b e t w e e n h e a l i n g a n d c u r e ,
b e t w e e n t h e r a p y a n d t h e r a p e u t i c ) i t e n c o u r a g e s a C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m
w h i c h r e s u l t s i n t h e n e g l e c t o f p e r s o n s a s p a t i e n t f o r w h o m t h e
c r i t i c a l q u e s t i o n i s n o t t h a t t h e y m i g h t d i e , b u t t h a t t h e y m a y h a v e
t o l i v e i n a w o r l d w h i c h h a s n o p l a c e f o r t h e m ( s e e S e y m o u r 1 9 8 9 ) .
T h e n o t i o n o f b e c o m i n g ( o r t h e p r o c e s s o f i n t e g r a t i o n , o r
i n d i v i d u a t i o n ) h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r s ( s e e
M a r i t a i n 1 9 7 2 ; A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a ; F r i e d a n 1 9 9 3 ) . I f o u r i n t e g r a t i o n a s
a p e r s o n , o u r i n d i v i d u a t i o n , o u r h e a l i n g i s a c o n t i n u o u s p r o c e s s o f
` B e c o m i n g ' w h i c h i s n e v e r f u l l y c o m p l e t e , t h e n e e d f o r a r t - t h e
n u t r i e n t s t o n o u r i s h o u r i m a g i n a t i o n - m i g h t i n f a c t i n c r e a s e w i t h
a g e - n o t d e c r e a s e . T h i s w o u l d c h a l l e n g e s o m e c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n s
t h a t s e e , f o r e x a m p l e , o l d e r p e o p l e a n d t h e d y i n g a s n o t i n n e e d o f
g r o w t h a n d a s , i n f a c t , t h e l e a s t c r e a t i v e ( s e e A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a ;
B i n n s 1 9 9 4 ) . F u r t h e r i t m i g h t b e s a i d t h a t t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r
b e c o m i n g S e l v e s m a y o c c u r a t t h e v e r y t i m e t h a t o u r p h y s i c a l b o d i e s
t e n d t o w e a k e n a n d s u f f e r i n c r e a s i n g d i s e a s e a n d i l l n e s s . T h e s e
v a r i o u s a s s u m p t i o n s m a y a l s o a c c o u n t f o r t h e s o c i e t a l a n d
i n s t i t u t i o n a l s a n c t i o n s w h i c h i n h i b i t r e s e a r c h d e s i g n e d t o
d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t m a i n t a i n i n g i n t e r e s t s a n d n e w i n i t i a t i v e s i n o l d a g e
m a y , i n f a c t , r e v e r s e s o m e o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l d y s f u n c t i o n s t h o u g h t t o
b e c a u s e d b y o l d a g e i t s e l f ( s e e F r i e d a n 1 9 9 3 ; R o w e 1 9 9 4 ) . A s w e
h a v e s e e n i n c h a p t e r t w o , a r t e v o l v e d t o e n a b l e p e o p l e t o c o p e i n a
s p e c i f i c a l l y h u m a n w a y w i t h f e e l i n g s o f a n x i e t y a n d u n c e r t a i n t y
e v o k e d b y t h e p r e s e n c e o f c h a n g e - a r t e n a b l e d p e o p l e t o s u r v i v e .
T h e c h a n g e s f a c e d b y p e o p l e a s t h e y a g e - a n d i n e x p e r i e n c e s o f
i l l n e s s - a r e a s o n e r o u s a s c h a n g e s t h a t t a k e p l a c e a t o t h e r t i m e s o f
160
m a j o r t r a n s i t i o n - c h i l d h o o d t o a d u l t h o o d , t o p a r e n t h o o d a n d s o o n .
T h e r e f o r e , a s I h a v e s a i d p r e v i o u s l y , a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s
b e c o m e s a n e t h i c a l i m p e r a t i v e - n o t a d i v e r s i o n , n o r a l u x u r y , n o r a
` t h e r a p y ' .
C o n c l u s i o n .
W h e r e t o f r o m h e r e ? T h e v a r i o u s c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s a r e ` a
g r o w t h i n d u s t r y ' o f t h e 1 9 9 0 s - i n A u s t r a l i a a s w e l l . R a r e l y ,
h o w e v e r , h a s t h e n e e d f o r a r t a s a t h e r a p y b e e n q u e s t i o n e d - n o r
h a v e t h e i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s t o e f f e c t i v e t h e r a p y o f a n y k i n d .
A l i g n e d w i t h t h e ` c l i n i c a l g a z e ' i s a l s o w h a t h a s b e e n t e r m e d t h e
` c l i n i f i c a t i o n s y n d r o m e ' w h i c h s o m e a r t s t h e r a p i s t s , s u c h a s M c N i f f
( 1 9 9 3 , p . 3 ) , b e l i e v e i s i n f e c t i n g t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f c r e a t i v e a r t s
t h e r a p i e s . C e r t a i n l y i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w e d t h e r e i s a c o n s t a n t
c a l l o n t h e p a r t o f m o s t a r t t h e r a p i s t s t o h a v e t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n
v a l i d a t e d a n d a c c e p t e d - o f t e n w i t h i n t h e d o m i n a n t m e d i c a l
f r a m e w o r k . T h o s e ( l i k e M c N i f f ) t h a t r a i l a g a i n s t t h e ` c l i n i f i c a t i o n
s y n d r o m e ' o f t e n , I b e l i e v e , h a v e a f o o t f i r m l y p l a n t e d i n b o t h
c a m p s . I n a m a j o r w o r k i n 1 9 8 6 ` E d u c a t i n g t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s
t h e r a p i s t : A P r o f i l e o f t h e P r o f e s s i o n ' M c N i f f u r g e d t h a t t h e
t r a i n i n g o f c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i s t s s h o u l d b e s u c h t h a t t h e y c o u l d
t a k e t h e i r p l a c e , a s p r i m a r y t h e r a p i s t s , i n a c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g a n d i n
t h e c l i n i c a l c a r e o f p a t i e n t s - i n c l u d i n g a s s e s s m e n t a n d d i a g n o s i s .
M c N i f f r e g a r d e d t h e c l i n i c a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e o f t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s
t h e r a p i s t w i t h o t h e r m e m b e r s o f a m e d i c a l m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y t e a m a s
o n e o f t h e g r e a t s t r e n g t h s o f t h e c r e a t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s . H o w e v e r ,
n e i t h e r M c N i f f , n o r a n y o t h e r c o m m e n t a t o r r e v i e w e d , ( w i t h o n e
e x c e p t i o n ) h a s r a i s e d t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t t h e d i f f i c u l t y ( o r
161
i m p o s s i b i l i t y ) o f a r t t h e r a p y a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t s e s t a b l i s h i n g o r
r e t a i n i n g t h e i r h e a l i n g c r e a t i v i t y w i t h i n a m e d i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n a l
s e t t i n g - n o r t h e i r c l i e n t s r e g a i n i n g a n d r e t a i n i n g t h e i r a r t i s t i c
i n t e g r i t y a n d a u t o n o m y .
R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , a B r i t i s h a r t t e a c h e r a n d a r t t h e r a p i s t , i s o n e o f
t h e f e w v o i c e s r a i s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l b a r r i e r s t o
e f f e c t i v e a r t s t h e r a p i e s . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r ,
h e a l t h c a r e i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h e r e , a s R o b i n s o n
s a y s ;
t h e p r o b l e m s t o b e o v e r c o m e . . . a r e n o t s o m u c h a c o l l e c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s p e r s o n a l p r o b l e m s b u t t h e s t e r e o t y p e d r e s i s t a n c e s t o i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i f e t h a t r e q u i r e s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l n o l e s s t h a n e v e r y t h i n g ( p . 8 9 ) .
M o r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y R o b i n s o n s a y s ` w h e n a n i n s t i t u t i o n a s a w h o l e
a l l o w s t h e f e m i n i n e t o b e d e v a l u e d ( c r e a t i v i t y , i n t u i t i o n , c a r i n g a n d
c o m p a s s i o n ) t h e n , h o w e v e r n a t u r a l a n d n o u r i s h i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ,
t h e f a c i l i t i e s , t h e f o o d , t h e a c t i v i t i e s , s o m e h o w o n e s e n s e s a l a c k o f
o v e r a l l , a t o p h e a v i n e s s , a n a r t i f i c i a l i t y w h i c h n e v e r q u i t e m e e t s t h e
b e d r o c k n e e d s o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' ( p . 9 0 ) . T h i s l a s t p o i n t i s
p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e , a s t h e p o e t R a i n e r M a r i a R i l k e ( i n
M i t c h e l l 1 9 8 7 , p . 3 3 7 ) r e m i n d s u s ` t h e d e e p e s t e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e
c r e a t i v e a r t i s t i s f e m i n i n e , f o r i t i s a n e x p e r i e n c e o f c o n c e i v i n g a n d
g i v i n g b i r t h ' .
I t w o u l d t h e n s e e m t h a t t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f a r t a s t h e r a p y c a n n o t
t r a n s c e n d t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f t h e c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s a s i d e n t i f i e d b y
R o b i n s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) , J e n n i n g s ( 1 9 9 2 ) a n d A l d r i d g e ( 1 9 9 3 a ) f o r t h r e e
r e a s o n s . F i r s t l y , a r t a s t h e r a p y t a k e s a s g i v e n t h e c l i n i c a l a n d t h a t
162
t h e l o c u s o f a r t i s t h e c l i n i c . H o w e v e r , a s I h a v e a l r e a d y i d e n t i f i e d ,
t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e c l i n i c a l h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g a s t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n
i s p a r t o f t h e t r a u m a a n d t h e a l i e n a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s
w h e r e t h e s i c k p e r s o n i s t a k e n o u t o f t h e c o m m u n i t y t o a p l a c e
w h e r e t h e y a r e ` n o t a t h o m e ' . A r t a s a r t - a s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n
n e e d - h a s t h e p o w e r , h o w e v e r , t o t r a n s c e n d t h e c o n s t r u c t e d
c o n s t r a i n t s o f t h e c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g . A s a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f
a r t e x t e n d s ` b e y o n d t h e c a n v a s ' s o , t o o , c a n a r t p r o v i d e a v o i c e
w h i c h c a n r e a c h b e y o n d t h e c l i n i c a n d t h e c l i n i c a l . S e c o n d l y ,
b e c a u s e a r t t h e r a p y w o r k s w i t h i n a b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e
i t f i n d s i t s e l f s i t u a t e d w i t h i n a R a t i o n a l i s t v i e w o f h e a l i n g i e . t h e
r e p a i r o f b r o k e n o r d y s f u n c t i o n a l b o d i e s . A g a i n , h o w e v e r , s u c h a
v i e w m u s t b e r e j e c t e d a n d a m o r e h o l i s t i c v i e w o f h e a l t h a n d
h e a l i n g r e c l a i m e d . I n t h i s v i e w a r t h a s a n i n t e g r a l p l a c e i n t h e
h e a l i n g o f s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g p e r s o n s . I t c a n e n a b l e u s t o r e - c r e a t e
o u r S e l v e s t o t a k e a c c o u n t o f l o s s a n d c h a n g e ; i t c a n e n a b l e t h e r e -
i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e f r a c t u r e d p a r t s o f o u r s e n s e o f S e l f a n d i t c a n
e n a b l e u s t o s p e a k w i t h a n d l i s t e n t o O t h e r s . T h i r d l y , t h e r e i s a
c r i t i c a l n e e d f o r a r t i n t h o s e s i t u a t i o n s w h e r e a b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l
o f h e a l t h s a y s ` t h e r e i s n o t h i n g t h a t w e c a n d o ' - f o r e x a m p l e i n
s i t u a t i o n s o f c h r o n i c i l l n e s s a n d u n t r e a t a b l e t e r m i n a l i l l n e s s . A s
t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e A I D S Q u i l t h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d , a r t a l l o w s u s t o
d e a l w i t h t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f f r a c t u r e , l o s s a n d g r i e f w h i c h a r e p a r t
o f t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s - f o r o u r s e l v e s i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d a s p a r t
o f a c o m m u n i t y .
T h e p r e s e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s r a i s e s m a n y q u e s t i o n s -
` W h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a p r o p e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h ,
163
h e a l i n g , a n d w e l l b e i n g ? ' a n d , t h e r e f o r e , ` W h a t i s a p r o p e r c a r e o f
s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g p e r s o n s ? ' T h e a n s w e r s t o t h e s e v a r i o u s q u e s t i o n s
w i l l a c c o r d i n g l y r a i s e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e v e r y n a t u r e o f ` t h e
c l i n i c a l ' a n d ` c l i n i c a l p r a c t i c e ' w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m i g h t
n e e d t o b e r a d i c a l l y r e v i s i o n e d . F u r t h e r , t h e p o w e r a n d n e c e s s i t y o f
a d i f f e r e n t a p p r e c i a t i o n o f a r t c a n b e g a i n e d f r o m t h e s t o r y o f a
s u r v i v o r o f a G e r m a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p w h o w r o t e t h a t h e w o u l d
t r a d e h i s m e a g r e b r e a d r a t i o n f o r a r t l e s s o n s ;
` B r e a d i s n e e d e d t o a n e x t e n t b u t i t w a s t h e a r t l e s s o n s t h a t r e a l l y h e l p e d u s t o s u r v i v e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a m p s . T h e y h e l p e d t o s a l v a g e m y s o u l , m y d i g n i t y a s a h u m a n b e i n g ' ( i n C o l e s 1 9 8 3 , p . 4 ) .
M y o w n p o s i t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e n a t u r e a n d f u n c t i o n o f a r t w o u l d
a c c o r d w i t h t h i s a p p r e c i a t i o n , t h a t i s , a r t i s a n e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d
t h a t e n a b l e s u s t o s u r v i v e - a s p e r s o n s - e x p e r i e n c e s o f c r i s i s ,
s u f f e r i n g a n d d e p r i v a t i o n . H e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e p l a c e s w h e r e
p e o p l e a r e o f t e n i n c r i s i s , s e p a r a t e d f r o m f a m i l i e s , r e m o v e d f r o m
h o m e s , a n d l i m i t e d i n f r e e d o m . W h i l e s o m e m a y e x p e r i e n c e h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g s a s a ` w e l c o m e ' r e s p i t e , f o r m a n y t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f
i l l n e s s i s n o t o n l y a r u p t u r e w i t h i n t h e m s e l v e s , i t i s a r u p t u r e o f
t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h O t h e r s a n d i t i s a r u p t u r e i n t h e i r p r o c e s s o f
f l o u r i s h i n g . T h e r e i s a n u r g e n t n e e d , t h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e a r t s i n
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s , b u t I w o u l d a r g u e , f o r t h e v a r i o u s r e a s o n s t h a t
I h a v e h i g h l i g h t e d b e f o r e , t h a t t h e g r e a t e s t n e e d i s f o r t h e a r t s t o b e
n o n - c l i n i c a l . T h e c r i t i c a l r o l e t h a t a r t c a n p l a y i n t h e c a r e o f t h o s e
w h o a r e i l l o r s u f f e r i n g i s t h a t t h e y c a n a c c e p t ` p a t i e n t s ' a s t h e y
a r e a n d ( c a n a f f o r d ) t h e m a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e f i n e t h e m s e l v e s a s
t h e y w i s h t o b e ' ( s e e A l d r i d g e 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 5 ) . I t c a n r e s u r r e c t ,
r e v i v i f y a n d k e e p a l i v e t h e h u m a n n e e d s t h a t w e a l l h a v e t o k e e p
f l o u r i s h i n g . A r t a n d a r t p r a c t i c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s m u s t t h e n
164
b e c o n c e i v e d a s a n e t h i c a l e n g a g e m e n t w h i c h r e q u i r e s u s t o
r e c o g n i z e i t s e t h i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s .
I a m , h o w e v e r , c o n c e r n e d t h a t t h e g r o w t h a n d s p r e a d o f t h e v a r i o u s
a r t s t h e r a p i e s r e f l e c t s a g e n e r a l t r e n d t o r e m o v e r o l e s t h a t s h o u l d b e
p a r t o f a n y c a r i n g c o m m u n i t y ( i n c l u d i n g i t s a r t i s t s ) i n t o t h e h a n d s
o f ` m e d i c a l i z e d e x p e r t s ' . I b e l i e v e t h a t a s i t u a t i o n m a y b e
d e v e l o p i n g w h e r e , i f a c c e s s t o a r t i s p r o v i d e d w i t h i n a h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g t h a t i t i s s e e n a s a l o g i c a l a n d n e c e s s a r y e x t e n s i o n t h a t t h e
a r t s h o u l d b e ` t h e r a p y ' o r i e n t a t e d a n d i n f o r m e d . T h e r e i s a f u r t h e r
p o i n t t h a t i s p a i d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n i n a r t t h e r a p y l i t e r a t u r e . I f
p e r s o n s w h o a r e t h e c l i e n t s o f a r t t h e r a p i s t s a r e e n c o u r a g e d t o
r e g a i n t h e i n t e g r i t y , p o w e r a n d a u t o n o m y o f t h e i r a r t i s t i c s e l v e s
( w h i c h I b e l i e v e i s t h e r o l e a n d t h e f u n c t i o n o f a r t - i n c l u d i n g a r t
t h e r a p y ) , t h e n t h e y a n d t h e i r a r t m a y n o t b e c o m f o r t a b l e . A s G i l k e y
( 1 9 8 4 , p . 1 9 0 ) p o i n t s o u t ;
a r t e n h a n c e s d i r e c t e x p e r i e n c e ; i t a l s o t e a r s o f f t h e m a s k c o v e r i n g o r d i n a r y e x p e r i e n c e t o e x p o s e i t s d i s a r r a y , i t s d i s a s t r o u s w a y w a r d n e s s , i t s b e t r a y a l s ( a n d ) i t s s u f f e r i n g .
I n t h i s s e n s e , t h e n , t h e a r t t h e r a p i s t m a y b e i n a n e q u a l l y
u n c o m f o r t a b l e p o s i t i o n . M a n y h a v e r e m a r k e d u p o n t h e s u s p i c i o n
w h i c h s o o f t e n a t t e n d s t h e a r t i s t , o r a r t t h e r a p i s t , i n o u r s o c i e t i e s -
t h e ` b a s t a r d s ' f o r w h o m t h e g o d s w e r e a s k e d t o s t a n d . I r o n i c a l l y , i t
m a y w e l l b e t h a t t h e d y i n g , d i s t r e s s e d a n d d i s o r d e r e d w i l l s h o w t h e
w a y t o b r i n g i n g a r t ( a n d s o m e o f t h e a r t s t h e r a p i e s ) b a c k t o a m o r e
e t h i c a l a n d c o m p a s s i o n a t e r o l e i n c a r i n g f o r a l l m e m b e r s o f o u r
c o m m u n i t i e s - n o t o n l y t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e n w e
m a y b e a b l e t o s a y , w i t h F o u c a u l t , t h a t t h e a r t s e x i s t s o t h a t o u r
l i v e s m a y b e w o r k s o f a r t .
165
C H A P T E R 6
A R T , H E A L T H A N D T H E G O O D - F L O U R I S H I N G .
. . . t h e s e i l l n e s s e s s h o w y o u a s i t u a t i o n , m o r e i n t e n s e t h a n n o r m a l , w h e r e t h e q u e s t i o n ` W h a t i s F a t e ? ' i s n o l o n g e r a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s u b j e c t f o r d e b a t e . A n d t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y t h i n g i s t h a t , w i t h t h i s m y s t e r i o u s c a t h a r t i c e f f e c t , y o u c a n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y f a c e t h e t e r r o r s o f h u m a n e x i s t e n c e a n d i t s a m a z i n g l y p o s i t i v e s i d e .
Peter Brook in Benedict Nightingale `Peter Brook Voyages to Inner Space'. The New York Times.1995,pp.2,4.
A d i s e a s e i s n e v e r a m e r e l o s s . . . t h e r e i s a l w a y s a r e a c t i o n , o n t h e p a r t o f t h e a f f e c t e d o r g a n i s m o r i n d i v i d u a l t o r e s t o r e , t o r e p l a c e , t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r a n d t o p r e s e r v e i t s i d e n t i t y h o w e v e r s t r a n g e t h e m e a n s m a y b e : a n d t o s t u d y o r i n f l u e n c e t h e s e m e a n s , n o l e s s t h a n t h e p r i m a r y i n s u l t t o t h e n e r v o u s s y s t e m , i s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f o u r r o l e a s p h y s i c i a n s .
Oliver Sacks 1985, The Man Who Mistook His Wife For a Hat p.4.
D e f i n i t i o n s p l a c e b o u n d a r i e s l e a v i n g u s w i t h i d e n t i t i e s w e d o n o t a l w a y s k n o w t h e s h a p e o f . E x p l o r i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s b r i n g s u s i n t o u n f a m i l i a r t e r r i t o r y , n o l o n g e r ` b e i n g ' a n u r s e , o r a n a r t i s t , o r a u n i o n i s t .
M e g a n E v a n s i n T h e A r t o f N u r s i n g 1 9 9 4 , p . 2 .
` W h a t i s t h e G o o d ? ' ` W h a t d o e s i t m e a n t o s a y w e a r e " h e a l t h y " a n d
f l o u r i s h i n g ? ' ` W h a t i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a r t , h e a l t h a n d t h e
G o o d ? ' F o r s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y h u m a n i s t s ( a s i t w a s f o r t h o s e l i k e
A r i s t o t l e i n t h e C l a s s i c a l p e r i o d ) t h e G o o d w a s n o t t o b e f o u n d ` o u t
t h e r e ' a s s o me s e p a r a t e l y e x i s t i n g P l a t o n i c F o r m. T h e G o o d h a d t o b e
d i s c o v e r e d o r a p p r e h e n d e d i n t h e c o n c r e t e p a r t i c u l a r s o f e a c h
p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . T h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t r a t i o n a l i t y a n d
a b s t r a c t t h e o r y p l a y e d n o p a r t i n t h e e n t e r p r i s e b u t r a t h e r t h a t
t h e o r y a n d p r a c t i c e w e r e b o t h i n f o r m e d a n d c r i t i q u e d i n a c o m p l e x
d i a l e c t i c .
166
E t h i c s i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h n o t i o n s o f t h e G o o d - o f f l o u r i s h i n g - b o t h
o f w h i c h h a v e a p e r s o n a l a n d c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n . C o n t r a r y t o
M o d e r n u n d e r s t a n d i n g s w h i c h w o u l d s e e e t h i c s a s i n v o l v e d w i t h a
p u r e l y r a t i o n a l f o r m u l a t i o n o f m o r a l l a w s a n d g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s ,
e t h i c s i s e s s e n t i a l l y p r a c t i c a l - i t i s a p e r f o r m a n c e o f p r a c t i c a l
w i s d o m . T h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f g e n e r a l m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s , a l t h o u g h
n e c e s s a r y a n d , a t m a n y t i m e s , u s e f u l , a r e a s c o n s t r u c t e d a s a w o r k o f
a r t i s c o n s t r u c t e d a n d h a v e t h e s a m e r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h ` r e a l i t y ' a s a
w o r k o f a r t h a s . P r o b l e m s a r i s e w h e n m o r a l p r i n c i p l e s a n d r u l e s a r e
i n v e s t e d w i t h a c e r t a i n t y o f a u t h o r i t y ( o r g u a r a n t e e o f s u c c e s s ) t h a t
t h e y d o n o t p o s s e s s - a n d , i n a v e r y r e a l s e n s e , c a n n o t p o s s e s s . I n
s u c h a n e l e v a t i o n o f r u l e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s , t h e e x i s t e n t i a l p a r t i c u l a r s
o f p e r s o n s a r e o f t e n o b l i t e r a t e d o r n e g l e c t e d .
E t h i c s a l s o h a s a c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n . I t i s a l s o c o n c e r n e d w i t h
n a m i n g t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s o f l i f e w h i c h e n a b l e t h e f l o u r i s h i n g a n d
w e l l b e i n g o f p e r s o n s i n r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r - a n d
w i t h n a m i n g - a n d c h a l l e n g i n g - t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s a n d p r a c t i c e s
w h i c h h a r m t h e w e l l - b e i n g o f p e r s o n s i n t h e i r v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
I n l i n e w i t h a n A r i s t o t e l i a n / H u m a n i s t u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n e t h i c a l
e n d e a v o u r c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g c o n c e r n e d t h a t a l l p e r s o n s a r e
a f f o r d e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h e n a b l e t h e m t o B e w e l l a n d d o w e l l -
t h a t t h e r e b e n o s e p a r a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g a n d t h e i r
l e a d i n g a g o o d l i f e - e s p e c i a l l y w h i l s t s i c k , p o w e r l e s s a n d
v u l n e r a b l e . T h i s a p p r o a c h w o u l d b e i n d i r e c t c o n t r a s t t o t h e M o d e r n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f e t h i c s b u t , a s J o h n s o n ( 1 9 9 3 , p . 5 ) w a r n s ;
a n e x c l u s i v e f o c u s o n m o r a l l a w s a n d r a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s i s a t h r e a t t o h u m a n w e l l - b e i n g b e c a u s e i t b l i n d s u s t o t h e c u l t i v a t i o n o f m o r a l i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t i s n e c e s s a r y i f w e a r e t o b e m o r a l l y s e n s i t i v e a n d f u l l y r e s p o n s i b l e t o o t h e r p e o p l e .
167
T h e d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l f o c u s o n t h e t w o d i f f e r e n t
d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e G o o d a n d f l o u r i s h i n g . F i r s t l y , t h e G o o d a s
r e f e r r i n g t o t h e f l o u r i s h i n g o f S e l f w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d . S e c o n d l y , t h e
c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n o f f l o u r i s h i n g w i l l b e e x a m i n e d - t h e G o o d a s
l i v e d w i t h O t h e r s . T h i r d l y , w h i l e a r t o u g h t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d a n
e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r i n ` o r d i n a r y ' l i f e - i n t h a t i t e n a b l e s u s t o s u r v i v e ,
f l o u r i s h a n d l i v e i n c o m m u n i t y w i t h o t h e r s - t h e r e a r e s o m e e t h i c a l
c o n c e r n s w h i c h h a v e p a r t i c u l a r r e l e v a n c e a n d i m p o r t a n c e w h e n a r t i s
c a r r i e d o u t w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . T h e c h a p t e r w i l l c o n c l u d e
w i t h s o m e f i n a l r e f l e c t i o n s o n t h e r o l e a n d s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f o r t h e
h e a l t h a n d w e l l - b e i n g o f p e r s o n s i n c o m m u n i t y .
A r t a s a n E t h i c a l E n d e a v o u r .
A s I h a v e p r e v i o u s l y men t i o n e d , t h e G o o d c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d a s h a v i n g
t w o d i m e n s i o n s . T h e G o o d a s i t r e f e r s t o t h e f l o u r i s h i n g o f o u r s e l f
a s a P e r s o n i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h o s e e l e m e n t s w h i c h e n a b l e u s t o
l i v e i n h a r m o n y w i t h o u r S e l f - a f e l t s e n s e o f h a r m o n y , p e a c e ,
a u t h e n t i c i t y - a n d a f e l t s e n s e o f l i v i n g a l i f e o f m e a n i n g a n d
p u r p o s e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t w o , w e h a v e e v o l v e d t o l i v e
t o g e t h e r i n s o c i a l g r o u p s - o u r e s s e n t i a l h u m a n i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
b y a n i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s a n d i n d e p e n d e n c e w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r .
T h e c o mmu n a l d i men s i o n o f o u r f l o u r i sh i n g r e f e r s t o t h e w a y i n w h i c h
w e a r e a b l e t o l i v e a G o o d l i f e w i t h O t h e r s . I n r e l a t i o n t o t h e s e
n o t i o n s o f t h e G o o d , w h a t i s i t t h a t c a n h a p p e n i n a r t p r a c t i c e i n
h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s t h a t c a n b e o f s u c h b e n e f i t t o t h o s e w h o a r e
s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g a n d w h i c h d e m a n d s a r t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a n e t h i c a l
168
e n d e a v o u r ? I t m i g h t b e s a i d t h a t m o s t t y p e s o f i l l n e s s c o u l d b e
t e r m e d b o u n d a r y e x p e r i e n c e s w h e r e , a s M o d j e s k a ( 1 9 9 4 , p p . 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 )
s a y s , ` a g r e a t d e a l a b o u t h o w y o u l i v e c h a n g e s : y o u r v a l u e s , y o u r
s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n s , e v e n y o u r l o v e s a n d f r i e n d s h i p s ' . A s M o d j e s k a
g o e s o n t o s a y o f a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s ;
I c a m e t o s e e t h a t w h a t I f e a r e d , t h o u g h I c a l l e d i t b l i n d n e s s . . . w a s n o t t h e b l i n d n e s s i n i t s e l f , b u t o f s o l i t u d e . . . I t i s t h e e m p t i n e s s t h a t b r i n g s y o u s l a p u p a g a i n s t t h a t n a k e d r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e m i r r o r ( 1 9 9 4 , p p . 1 1 7 , 1 1 8 ) .
E x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g o f t e n u n c o v e r t h e t a b o o s t h a t
m o d e r n W e s t e r n s o c i e t i e s t r y s o h a r d t o p r e v e n t e n t e r i n g ` o r d i n a r y
e v e r y d a y ' c o n s c i o u s n e s s - d e a t h , s e x u a l i t y , m o r t a l i t y , i m m o r t a l i t y ,
f a t e , c h a n c e , s a n i t y a n d i n s a n i t y . I a m f o r c i b l y r e m i n d e d b y t h e
p o e t W e b b t h a t m a n y o f t h e ` h i d d e n ' f e a r s i n h e a l t h c a r e m i g h t l i e i n
a n u n s p o k e n r e c o g n i t i o n o f h o w f i n e t h e l i n e c a n b e b e t w e e n
h e a l t h / s i c k n e s s , l i f e / d e a t h / , s a n i t y / i n s a n i t y ;
T o w a t c h m a y b e d e a d l y . T h e r e i s n o j u d g m e n t , c o m p u l s i o n , A n d t h e o b j e c t b e c o m e s o u r s e l v e s . T h a t i s t h e t e r r o r . F r a n c i s W e b b . W a r d T w o ( 1 9 9 1 , p . 2 2 0 ) .
M u c h o f t h e s u f f e r i n g - t h e d i s l o c a t i o n a n d f r a g m e n t a t i o n o f S e l f -
t h a t o f t e n a t t e n d s a n e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s c o u l d b e s a i d t o d e r i v e
f r o m t h e t e r r o r o f ` s l i p p i n g o v e r ' , t h e f e a r o f f a c i n g t h e ` n a k e d
r e f l e c t i o n i n t h e m i r r o r ' , t h e f e a r o f s o l i t u d e , a n d t h e t e r r o r o f
d i s i n t e g r a t i o n . A s I h a v e d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r , a n
A b o r i g i n a l n o t i o n o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g w o u l d s e e t h e f i r s t d u t y o f
h e a l t h c a r e a s l y i n g i n h e a l i n g t h e m i n d o f a p e r s o n b e f o r e t h e i r
b o d y . I s h o u l d l i k e t o d r a w a p a r a l l e l b e t w e e n t h e ` m i n d ' a n d o u r
i m a g i n a t i o n - o u r a b i l i t y t o r e a c t i v a t e M a r c u s e ' s ( 1 9 7 8 ) n o t i o n o f a
s p a c e - w h e r e i n t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f o u r l i b e r a t i o n m a y l i e . I s h o u l d
a l s o l i k e t o s u g g e s t t h a t t h e l i b e r a t i o n t h a t i s s o d e s p e r a t e l y s o u g h t
169
b y m a n y i n m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - l i b e r a t i o n f r o m s o c i a l
i s o l a t i o n , f r o m f r a c t u r e d a n d f r a g m e n t e d S e l v e s ( s e e R D L a i n g
1 9 6 9 ) , f r o m t h e s e p a r a t i o n f r o m o t h e r s , f r o m t h e f e a r o f s o l i t u d e ,
f r o m t h e i n c e s s a n t r e q u i r e m e n t t o s e p a r a t e ` d o i n g ' f r o m ` b e i n g ' - a l l
t h e s e s e v e r a l t h i n g s t h a t f i g u r e s o p r o m i n e n t l y i n h e a l t h c a r e - t h a t
t h e l i b e r a t i o n m a y c o m e f r o m a n d w i t h i n o u r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e
l a n d , t h e l a n d s c a p e , t h e D e s e r t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y , h o w e v e r , t o s e e t h a t
t h e p h y s i c a l l a n d s c a p e h a s a s p i r i t u a l r e a l i t y a s w e l l a n d t h a t o u r
S e l v e s , a s p e r s o n s - a s w o r k s o f a r t - a l s o h a v e a l a n d s c a p e - a n d a
D e s e r t a s w e l l . T h e N e w Z e a l a n d p a i n t e r M c C a h o n ( 1 9 8 8 ) r e m a r k s ;
Y o u b u r y y o u r h e a r t a n d i t g o e s d e e p e r i n t o t h e l a n d ; y o u c a n o n l y f o l l o w . I t ' s a p a i n f u l l o v e - l o v i n g a l a n d . I t t a k e s a l o n g t i m e .
a n d a s M e r t o n ( i n S i m s i c 1 9 8 8 , p . 3 4 ) s a y s ;
O n e h a s t o b e a l o n e , u n d e r t h e s k y , b e f o r e e v e r y t h i n g f a l l s i n t o p l a c e a n d o n e f i n d s o n e s o w n p l a c e i n t h e m i d s t o f i t a l l .
a n d f r o m R a i n e r R i l k e ( i n S i m s i c 1 9 8 8 , p . 3 9 ) ;
. . . o u t o f a l l t h i s s h o u l d b e u n d e r s t o o d t h a t I h a v e r e m a i n e d b o u n d i n a s p e c i a l w a y t o t h i s l a n d s c a p e i n w h i c h I h a v e m e t w i t h t h e f u l l n e s s o f g r a c e .
S o l i t u d e , p a i n f u l l o v e , t h e f u l l n e s s o f g r a c e - a l l t h e s e m i g h t s e e m ,
l i k e a r t i n t h e a d o l e s c e n t m e d i c a l u n i t , s o m e w h a t u n s e e m l y , n o t ` a t
h o m e ' i n a d i s c u s s i o n o f e t h i c s i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . H o w e v e r , a s
C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 ) r e m a r k s , a r e t i c e n c e a b o u t t h e b o d y h a m p e r e d m e d i c a l
p r o g r e s s i n t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a n d a r e t i c e n c e a b o u t t h e
i n t i ma c y i n v o l v e d w i t h k n o w i n g a p e r s o n mi g h t s i mi l a r l y b e h a mp e r i n g
t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s i n m e d i c a l c a r e i n t h e
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s I h a v e r e m a r k e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s
170
t h e s i s , I b e l i e v e w i t h B r a d y ( 1 9 9 5 ) t h a t s o m e e l e m e n t s o f A b o r i g i n a l
s p i r i t u a l i t y m i g h t e n a b l e a r e v i s i o n i n g o f n o t i o n s o f a r t , h e a l t h ,
h e a l i n g a n d t h e p l a c e a n d n a t u r e o f p e r s o n i n c o m m u n i t y .
A c c o r d i n g l y , a s I h a v e s a i d i n C h a p t e r o n e , m y p r a c t i c e i n h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g s d i f f e r s s o m e w h a t t o t h a t w h i c h m i g h t b e a p p r o p r i a t e i n
a n ` o r d i n a r y ' w o r k s h o p . W h i l e I g e n e r a l l y r e f u s e t o d r a w f o r s o m e o n e
e l s e - o r t o t e l l t h e m w h a t t o d o - o r w h e n t h e i r w o r k i s f i n i s h e d ,
t h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t I g i v e n o d i r e c t i o n . S u c h a p o s i t i o n w o u l d
b e b o t h u n c a r i n g a n d u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e . I n s t e a d I s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
` t o o l s ' o f a r t m a k i n g m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a n a l o g o u s t o t h e ` t o o l s '
t h a t m i g h t b e r e q u i r e d i n d i s c e r n i n g s o m e o f t h e e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t s
t h a t a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r u s t o f l o u r i s h a n d c r e a t e o u r l i v e s a s w o r k s
o f a r t i e . l i v e a m o r a l l y g o o d l i f e - w h i c h m u s t a l s o i n c l u d e h o w w e
` m o r a l l y ' l i v e o u r e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l h e a l t h , a c c i d e n t a n d s u f f e r i n g .
I n t h e f i r s t p l a c e I t e a c h t h e u s e o f v a r i o u s ` t o o l s ' - t h e p r o p e r t i e s o f
v a r i o u s p a i n t s , b r u s h e s , p e n c i l s , d y e s a n d s o o n - h o w t h e y g e n e r a l l y
a n d u s u a l l y ` b e h a v e ' - w h a t t h e y c a n d o a n d w h a t o u g h t n o t b e
r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t e d o f t h e m . T h i s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s a t y p e o f
p s y c h o l o g y o f a r t m a t e r i a l s . T h e c o m p a r a b l e ` t o o l s ' o f m o r a l
r e a s o n i n g m i g h t b e r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h w e
i m a g i n a t i v e l y a n d c r e a t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t n o t i o n s o f w e l l - b e i n g a n d
h o w w e a r e a b l e t o i m a g i n e a p o s s i b l e r a n g e o f s c e n a r i o s ; t o b e a b l e
t o i d e n t i f y w i t h i n o u r v a r i o u s n a r r a t i v e s a n d l a n d s c a p e s ( p a i n t e d ,
s p o k e n a n d w r i t t e n ) r e c u r r i n g m o t i f s t h a t m i g h t s h e d l i g h t o n t h e
c o n t o u r s o f o u r v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s ; t o b e a b l e t o ` s t a n d b a c k ' f r o m
t h e w o r k b e i n g c r e a t e d ( a n d o u r l i v e s a s a w o r k o f a r t ) a n d t o ` s e e '
171
w h e r e t h e ` r i g h t n e s s ' i s - o r m a y n o t b e - a n d w h a t m i g h t b e d o n e t o
c o r r e c t t h e m i s t a k e s i n s e e i n g ; o r t o , p e r h a p s , g o i n t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f a n ` i n s p i r a t i o n ' a n d t a k e t h e r i s k o f f a i l u r e - o r , m o r e
i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r i s k o f s u c c e s s t h a t m i g h t c o m e f r o m s e e i n g
s o m e t h i n g ` d i f f e r e n t l y ' . T h i s l a s t a s p e c t i s o f p a r t i c u l a r
r e l e v a n c e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s w h e r e t h e ` n o r m a l ' w o r l d h a s b e e n
d i s r u p t e d a n d d i s l o c a t e d a n d t h e s i c k p e r s o n e x p e r i e n c e s t h e m s e l v e s
a s v u l n e r a b l e a n d p o w e r l e s s . T h e t o o l s o f a r t m a k i n g a r e a b o u t
d i s c e r n i n g t h e t o n e s a n d t e x t u r e s o f c o l o u r s a n d s o o n ; t h e t o o l s o f
m o r a l i t y m i g h t a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e i n g a b o u t d i s c e r n i n g t h e t o n e s
a n d t e x t u r e s o f t h e v a r i o u s l a n d s c a p e s w e i n h a b i t w i t h o u r s e l v e s a n d
w i t h o t h e r s .
T h e t o o l s ( o f a r t m a k i n g a n d o f e t h i c s ) a l s o l i e i n r e c o g n i z i n g t h e
i n e v i t a b i l i t y ( a n d a m b i g u i t y ) o f t h e ` g a p ' t h a t a l w a y s e x i s t s
b e t w e e n w h a t i s s o u g h t t o b e d o n e - a n d w h a t c a n b e e n d o n e . I t a l s o
m e a n s r e c o g n i z i n g - a n d h o n o u r i n g - o u r o w n p a r t i c u l a r a n d u n i q u e
s t y l e - o u r i n n e r t r u t h a n d i n t e g r i t y a s N u s s b a u m ( 1 9 9 0 ) t e r m s t h e
s t y l e o f o u r a r t . T h e s t y l e o f o u r a r t ( a n d o u r l i v e s a s w o r k s o f
a r t ) m u s t a l s o r e c o g n i z e l i m i t a t i o n s - w h a t w e c a n n o t a u t h e n t i c a l l y
B e . A t r i v i a l e x a m p l e w h i c h a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e m o r e p r o f o u n d
a s p e c t s o f t h i s q u e s t i o n i s t h e f a c t t h a t I h a v e a l w a y s l o n g e d t o b e
a b l e t o p a i n t w i t h t h e r e a l i s t i c p r e c i s i o n o f f i f t e e n t h c e n t u r y D u t c h
s t i l l l i f e m a s t e r s . I c o u l d p o s s i b l y ` c o p y ' a r e a s o n a b l e i m i t a t i o n -
b u t I h a v e h a d t o a c c e p t t h a t m y s t y l e ( m y i n n e r i n t e g r i t y a n d
t r u t h ) d o e s n o t p e r m i t m e t o p a i n t n a t u r a l l y i n t h a t D u t c h M a s t e r s
s t y l e .
172
T h e A b u s e o f A r t .
A r t a s a n e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r m u s t a l s o t a k e c o g n i z a n c e o f a n a r t t h a t
m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d u n e t h i c a l . I h a v e e a r l i e r r e f e r r e d t o B a r z u n ' s
( 1 9 7 4 ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f ` a n a b u s e o f a r t ' - t h a t i s , t o a w a y o f
t h i n k i n g w h i c h s e e s a l l a r t a s u n c o n d i t i o n a l l y g o o d . T h e a b u s e o f
a r t o r a n u n e t h i c a l a r t i s s e l d o m r a i s e d i n M o d e r n t h o u g h t w h i c h
s e e s ` a r t i s t i c f r e e d o m o f e x p r e s s i o n ' a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f
` a u t h e n t i c i t y ' . W h i l e I a m n o t a d v o c a t i n g c e n s o r s h i p o f e i t h e r
t h o u g h t s o r a r t w o r k s , I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t t h e r e a r e s o m e ` h u m a n '
s u b j e c t s w h i c h m i g h t b e v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o p a i n t ` e t h i c a l l y ' - a n d , i n
t e r m s o f ` a e s t h e t i c a l l y ' r e s p e c t i n g t h e a u t o n o m o u s b e a u t y o f t h e
O t h e r , p e r h a p s , o u g h t n o t b e p a i n t e d a t a l l . F o r e x a m p l e , w h i l s t I
w a s t e a c h i n g a t t h e H o s p i c e , a f r i e n d w a s d y i n g o f A I D S . H e h a d a
h u g e a n d t e r r i b l e K a p o s i o n h i s l e g t h a t w a s v e r y p a i n f u l a n d u g l y .
H o w e v e r , I w a s l o o k i n g a t i t o n e d a y a n d I s u d d e n l y r e a l i z e d t h a t I
w a s t h i n k i n g h o w b e a u t i f u l i t w a s . T h e r i p p l e s o f t h e K a p o s i
r e m i n d e d m e o f t h e l i n e s l e f t o n a b e a c h a f t e r t h e w a v e s h a v e
r e c e d e d . I t r i e d t o p a i n t t h e K a p o s i a n d I m a d e a n a p p l i q u e d f a b r i c
w o r k o f i t - n e i t h e r I c o n s i d e r e d s u c c e s s f u l . S e v e r a l r e a s o n s m a y
e x p l a i n t h e s e ` f a i l u r e s ' . F i r s t l y , I f o u n d i t d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t e x i s t s b e t w e e n e v i l a n d b e a u t y . A I D S m i g h t b e
c o n s i d e r e d a n e v i l a s i t u n d o u b t e d l y h a r m e d m y f r i e n d . H o w e v e r , I
w a s t h e n c o n f r o n t e d b y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t s o m e t h i n g t h a t m i g h t b e
c o n s i d e r e d e v i l w a s a l s o a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f m y
f r i e n d . I c o u l d n o t s a y I l o v e d h i m b u t I h a t e d h i s K a p o s i - t h a t
w o u l d h a v e b e e n a n o b s c e n e f o r m o f s a y i n g I w o u l d l i k e y o u i f i t
w e r e n o t f o r y o u r n o s e o r w h a t e v e r . S e c o n d l y , I f e l t s o m e h o w g u i l t y
173
( o r a s h a m e d ) t h a t I c o u l d f i n d t h e p a i n f u l K a p o s i b e a u t i f u l . M a r c u s e
( 1 9 7 8 ) h o w e v e r , r e f e r r i n g t o t h e s t a t u s o f a r t a f t e r A u s c h w i t z ,
p r o v i d e d a g l i m p s e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g . A r t , h e s a y s ;
d r a w s a w a y f r o m t h i s ( u n i m a g i n a b l e ) r e a l i t y , b e c a u s e i t c a n n o t r e p r e s e n t t h i s s u f f e r i n g w i t h o u t s u b j e c t i n g i t t o a e s t h e t i c f o r m , a n d t h e r e b y t o t h e m i t i g a t i n g c a t h a r s i s , t o e n j o y m e n t . . . . A r t i s i n e x o r a b l y i n f e s t e d w i t h t h i s g u i l t . Y e t t h i s d o e s n o t r e l e a s e a r t f r o m t h e n e c e s s i t y o f r e c a l l i n g a g a i n a n d a g a i n t h a t w h i c h c a n s u r v i v e e v e n A u s c h w i t z a n d p e r h a p s o n e d a y m a k e i t i m p o s s i b l e - t h a t i s , e v e r y a r t w o r k m u s t c o n t a i n h o p e . ( p . 5 5 )
I s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s m i g h t b e t h e c o n n e c t i o n b e t w e e n a r t a n d t h e a b u s e
o f a r t . M i l l e r ( i n H j e r t e r , 1 9 8 6 , p . 1 0 3 ) s a y s t h a t p a i n t e r s m a k e i t
s e e m a s i f t h e r e i s n o t h i n g v i l e o r h i d e o u s i n t h i s w o r l d . B u t t h a t i s
n o t t r u e . A r t m a y m a k e u s t h i n k t h a t a K a p o s i i s b e a u t i f u l - a n d
i n d e e d t h e p a i n t i n g m a y b e d e s c r i b e d a s b e a u t i f u l , b u t t h e b e a u t y o f
t h e p a i n t i n g h a s n o t t r a n s f o r m e d o r t a k e n a w a y t h e p a i n t h a t m y
f r i e n d f e l t i n h a v i n g t h e K a p o s i o n h i s l e g . F u r t h e r , t h e p a i n - o r
A I D S - c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s e v i l i n t h e s e n s e t h a t i t h a r m e d a n d
t h r e a t e n e d h i s s e n s e o f i n t e g r i t y a n d w e l l b e i n g . M u r d o c h
( 1 9 7 0 , p . 8 7 ) s a y s t h e a r t i s t ' s g r e a t e s t a n d m o s t s u b t l e e n e m y i s
m a s o c h i s m . P e r h a p s , t o b e b o t h e t h i c a l a n d a e s t h e t i c , t h e r e a l i t y
( t h e K a p o s i ) s h o u l d n o t b e p a i n t e d e x c e p t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h r o u g h t h e
l e n s o f t h e l a n d s c a p e .
M a r c u s e ( 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 ) h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t ;
` u n d e r t h e l a w o f a e s t h e t i c f o r m , t h e g i v e n r e a l i t y i s n e c e s s a r i l y s u b l i m a t e d : t h e i m m e d i a t e c o n t e x t i s s t y l i z e d , t h e ` d a t a ' a r e r e s h a p e d a n d r e o r d e r e d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e a r t f o r m , w h i c h r e q u i r e s t h a t e v e n t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d e a t h a n d d e s t r u c t i o n i n v o k e t h e n e e d f o r h o p e - a n e e d r o o t e d i n t h e n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s e m b o d i e d i n t h e w o r k o f a r t ' .
A s I h a v e m e n t i o n e d i n t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r , a n d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f
M e d i c i n e , A r t a n d H e a l i n g , p e o p l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e o f t e n
174
` n a k e d l y ' v u l n e r a b l e a n d p o w e r l e s s . B o t h t h e s i c k p e r s o n a n d t h e
h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l o f t e n e x p e r i e n c e t h e m s e l v e s a s l i v i n g a t a n
u n u s u a l l e v e l o f i n t e n s i t y . I n r e f l e c t i n g o n t h e e x p e r i e n c e s a b o v e ,
a n d t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e f a c t o r s j u s t d e s c r i b e d , I w o u l d s u g g e s t
t h a t t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o ` s l i p o v e r ' i n t o a n u n e t h i c a l a r t m i g h t b e
m o r e c o m m o n i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s t h a n i n o t h e r s .
A r t , H e a l t h a n d t h e G o o d .
A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r f i v e , a l e g a c y o f t h e M o d e r n i s a
n o t i o n o f m e d i c i n e s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d b y C a r t e s i a n d u a l i s m - t h e
b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e . T h i s m o d e l h a s o b j e c t i f i e d a n d
d e - c o n t e x t u a l i z e d t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y f r o m t h e P e r s o n w h o i s s i c k .
T h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h t h i s o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e p h y s i c a l b o d y t o
t h e n e g l e c t o f t h e m a n y o t h e r d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e S e l f h a s e m e r g e d a s
t h e c a u s e o f s o m u c h s u f f e r i n g i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . T h e m a n y
m i s c o n c e p t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e e n d s o f m e d i c i n e a r e a m p l y
d e m o n s t r a t e d b y F l e w ( 1 9 7 9 , p . 1 1 3 ) i n a D i c t i o n a r y o f P h i l o s o p h y h e
e d i t e d w h e r e i t i s a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e e n d o f m e d i c i n e a s a n ` a p p l i e d
f i e l d o f e t h i c s ' i s ` t h e p r e v e n t i o n a n d c u r e o f d i s e a s e ' . H o w e v e r , a s
T o o m b s ( 1 9 8 8 , p . 2 2 1 ) h a s p o i n t e d o u t ;
T h e g o a l o f m e d i c i n e i s p r i m a r i l y t h e r e l i e f o f ( a ) p e r c e i v e d l i v e d b o d i l y d i s r u p t i o n - t h e r e s t o r a t i o n t o a f o r m e r o r b e t t e r s t a t e o f p e r c e i v e d h e a l t h o r w e l l - b e i n g . T h i s m a y i n c l u d e , b u t i s n o t l i m i t e d t o , c u r e o f o r g a n i c d y s f u n c t i o n . I n d e e d , i n o r d e r t o a d d r e s s t h e p a t i e n t ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f d i s o r d e r , a t t e n t i o n m u s t b e p a i d n o t o n l y t o t h e p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f a d i s e a s e s t a t e b u t a l s o t o t h e c h a n g i n g r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n b o d y , s e l f a n d w o r l d a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c h a n g e i n l i v e d s p a t i a l i t y a n d l i v e d t e m p o r a l i t y .
C a s s e l l ( 1 9 9 1 ) a s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t h r e e , s e e s t h e e n d o r
g o a l o f m e d i c i n e a s t h e c a r e o f s i c k p e r s o n s a n d t h e a l l e v i a t i o n o f
175
t h e i r s u f f e r i n g - o f w h i c h c a r e t h e t r e a t m e n t o f p h y s i c a l
d y s f u n c t i o n s i s b u t a p a r t . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t h r e e ,
p e r s o n s h a v e a n u m b e r o f s e l v e s w h i c h a r e l i v e d o u t i n v a r i o u s
m o d a l i t i e s - m o d e s o f b e i n g . F o r e x a m p l e , o u r s o c i a l S e l f h a s a
m o d a l i t y w h i c h i s m a d e m a n i f e s t i n t h e v a r i o u s r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h i c h
w e m a k e a n d s u s t a i n w i t h o t h e r s - f r i e n d s , c o l l e a g u e s , f a m i l y a n d s o
o n . S u f f e r i n g , t h e r e f o r e , c a n b e e x p e r i e n c e d w h e n t h o s e s o c i a l
c o n n e c t i o n s a r e f r a c t u r e d , f o r e x a m p l e w h e n , t h r o u g h a c c i d e n t ,
i l l n e s s o r c h a n c e w e a r e u n a b l e t o a d e q u a t e l y p a r t i c i p a t e i n
a c t i v i t i e s w h i c h c r e a t e , a n d n u r t u r e t h o s e l i f e s u s t a i n i n g
r e l a t i o n s h i p s . T h e m a n w i t h A I D S p a i n t i n g a g i f t f o r h i s m o t h e r -
t h e e l d e r l y w o m a n t a k i n g u p p a i n t i n g w h e n s h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r
c r o c h e t - t h e s e p e o p l e a n d t h e i r a r t h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e p o w e r o f
a r t t o s u s t a i n t h e i n t e g r i t y o f t h e s i c k p e r s o n ( i n t h e i r v a r i o u s
m o d a l i t i e s ) d u r i n g t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e o f i l l n e s s .
T o l i v e , t o e m b r a c e t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g - e s p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s o f s i c k n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g - i s a t a s k t h a t r e q u i r e s a c t s o f
h i g h c o u r a g e . I n a s e n s e i t i s l i k e a d i f f e r e n t v e r s i o n o f t h e d e m a n d s
t h a t G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) a s s e r t s t h e t o t a l i n s t i t u t i o n i m p o s e s o n p e r s o n s
- i e . i t d e m a n d s t h e i r a l l . T h e t a s k o f b e c o m i n g o u r S e l f a l s o
d e m a n d s o u r a l l . S e e n f r o m t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e p r i m a r y a n d
s e c o n d a r y r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e d e m a n d s o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l l i f e ( a s
i d e n t i f i e d b y G o f f m a n 1 9 6 1 ) f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r r y i n g a r o u n d o f
t h i n g s m a d e s p e c i a l , m i g h t b e s e e n a s c o u r a g e o u s a c t s t o p r e s e r v e a
s e n s e o f a u t o n o m y i n t h e f a c e o f i n s t i t u t i o n a l d e m a n d s . T h e i n s i g h t s
o f G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) r e g a r d i n g t h i n g s ` m a d e s p e c i a l ' c a n b e l i n k e d
w i t h t h e i m p o r t a n c e D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) a t t r i b u t e s t o t h e p r a c t i c e s o f
176
a r t a s ` m a k i n g s p e c i a l ' i e . t h e y g o t o t h e e n d s o f h u m a n f l o u r i s h i n g
a n d l i v i n g . T h u s , t h e s i m p l e a n d p r e v a l e n t e x a m p l e o f w o m e n p a t i e n t s
c a r r y i n g a r o u n d b u l g i n g h a n d b a g s a n d p l a s t i c s h o p p i n g b a g s c o n t a i n i n g
t h e i r t r e a s u r e d p o s s e s s i o n s m i g h t b e s e e n , n o t o n l y a s e v i d e n c e o f
l a c k o f c a r e i n t h e i r h o s p i t a l e n v i r o n m e n t ( i e . l a c k o f a c c e s s t o a
p r i v a t e a n d s a f e s p a c e ) b u t a l s o a s e v i d e n c e o f a d e t e r m i n e d d e s i r e
t o L i v e a n d r e g a i n a s e n s e o f a u t o n o m y a n d w e l l - b e i n g .
I n a s i m i l a r f a s h i o n , a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s e n a b l e s t h e s i c k
p e r s o n t o m a k e t h e m S e l v e s a n d t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s o f i l l n e s s a n d
s u f f e r i n g ` s p e c i a l ' - t o p r o p e r l y r e c o g n i z e t h e s e r i o u s i m p a c t t h a t
t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s h a v e o n t h e i r w e l l - b e i n g . I n t h i s s e n s e , a r t c a n
c r e a t e a s a f e s p a c e w h e r e i n t h e n e c e s s a r y r i s k s t o l i v e - a n d t o ` m a k e
s e n s e ' o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s - c a n b e t a k e n . I t w o u l d a p p e a r ,
h o w e v e r , t h a t a s r i s k s i n c r e a s e s o d o e s t h e n e e d f o r c o u r a g e a n d a s
w e i n t r o d u c e m o r e a n d m o r e r i s k s w e g e t c l o s e r a n d c l o s e r t o
c o u r a g e ( s e e N u s s b a u m 1 9 9 0 , p . 3 7 5 ) . T h e u n s e l f i n g o c c a s i o n s ( o f
w h i c h i l l n e s s c o u l d b e d e s c r i b e d a s o n e ) a r e e x p e r i e n c e s o f r i s k -
a n d a r e t h e r e f o r e r e q u i r i n g o f i n c r e a s e d c o u r a g e . S e e n i n t h i s
c o n t e x t , t h e a r t w o r k s t h a t a r e p r o d u c e d i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s i n
r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s o f r i s k , a n x i e t y , a n d u n c e r t a i n t y o u g h t
p r o p e r l y b e c o n s i d e r e d a s m a n i f e s t i n g c o u r a g e a n d h o p e - n o t a s
e v i d e n c e o f a p a t h o l o g y . I f t h e s e a r t w o r k s a r e t h e n m a d e p u b l i c i t
m i g h t a l s o b e p o s s i b l e t o s e e t h e i r e x h i b i t i o n a s d e m o n s t r a t i n g a
f u r t h e r a c c e p t a n c e o f r i s k - a n d a n a c t t h a t i s a l s o r e q u i r i n g o f g r e a t
c o u r a g e . T h e n , h o w e v e r , o u r s e l v e s a s v i e w e r s a r e a l s o i n a p o s i t i o n
w h i c h r e q u i r e s a c o u r a g e o u s s t a n c e . A n a r t w o r k m a k e s v i s i b l e a
p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f p a i n , s u f f e r i n g - o r j o y . A s v i e w e r s w e c a n
177
e n t e r i n t o t h e i n t i m a c y o f t h a t e x p e r i e n c e a n d b e c h a n g e d t h e r e b y .
O r w e c a n d i s t a n c e o u r s e l v e s f r o m i t b y c a t e g o r i z i n g t h e w o r k a s
e v i d e n c e o f a p a t h o l o g y o r b y b e c o m i n g a v o y e u r r a t h e r t h a n a
p a r t n e r i n a r e f l e x i v e d i a l o g u e . T h e c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n o f w h a t i t
m e a n s t o b e h u m a n - a n d t h e r e f o r e t h e c o m m u n a l d i m e n s i o n o f a r t -
w o u l d d e m a n d t h e f o r m e r r e s p o n s e . I t c o u l d t h e n b e s a i d t h a t t h e
f o r m a t i o n o f n u r t u r i n g a n d s u s t a i n i n g c o m m u n i t i e s m u s t a l s o
e n c o m p a s s n o t i o n s o f r i s k a n d o f c o u r a g e - t h a t t o f o r m c o m m u n i t y
- e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e c o n t e x t o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - i s , i n f a c t , n o t
o n l y a n a c t o f t r u s t , b u t o n e r e q u i r i n g o f c o u r a g e - a n d m i g h t b e
c o n s i d e r e d a n e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r a s w e l l .
` T o f o r m c o m m u n i t y ' , ` t o t a k e r i s k s ' , ` t o c r e a t e a s a f e s p a c e ' - a l l
t h e s e v a r i o u s d i m e n s i o n s o f a r t e n a b l e t h e s i c k p e r s o n t o t r a n s c e n d
t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e b i o - m e d i c a l m o d e l o f h e a l t h c a r e a s c o n c e i v e d
u n d e r t h e l e g a c y o f a R a t i o n a l i s t n o t i o n o f m e d i c i n e . A r t i n a h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g e n a b l e s t h e s i c k p e r s o n t o t r a n s c e n d t h e ` n o S e l f ' o f
o b j e c t i f i c a t i o n a n d t o ` m a k e v i s i b l e ' t h e c o l o u r s a n d t e x t u r e s o f t h e i r
u n i q u e v o i c e . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r t w o , a r t e v o l v e d t o
e n a b l e u s t o s u r v i v e p r e c i s e l y t h o s e e x p e r i e n c e s w h i c h t h r e a t e n t o
s h r i v e l u p o u r S e l v e s a n d s i l e n c e o u r h o p e s f o r s u r v i v a l .
A r t a l s o e n a b l e s a p e r s o n w h o i s s i c k t o t r a n s c e n d t h e l i m i t a t i o n s o f
t h e h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s i t s e l f . A s w e h a v e s e e n f r o m C h a p t e r o n e ,
G o f f m a n ( 1 9 6 1 ) h a s t e r m e d m a n y h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ` t o t a l
i n s t i t u t i o n s ' w i t h a l l t h e a t t e n d a n t l i m i t a t i o n s a n d p o t e n t i a l t o c a u s e
h a r m t o t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . T h e c a p a c i t y o f a r t t o
178
e n a b l e t h e s i c k t o t r a n s c e n d t h e s e i n s t i t u t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s i s w e l l
i l l u s t r a t e d a s t o r y t o l d b y A d a m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) . T h e f o l l o w i n g a n e c d o t e
a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h e w a y i n w h i c h t h e M o d e r n d o c t r i n e o f
i n s t r u m e n t a l r e a s o n c a n s e r i o u s l y a f f e c t m o d e r n h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c y
a n d p r a c t i c e . T h e m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e t e n s i o n t h a t i s c o m m o n l y
p e r c e i v e d t o e x i s t b e t w e e n c o m p a s s i o n a t e a n d h u m a n e c a r e a n d t h e
d e m a n d s o f e f f i c i e n c y i s h i g h l i g h t e d i n a n e x p e r i e n c e r e c o u n t e d b y
A d a m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) w h i c h a r o s e i n t h e c o u r s e o f h i s w o r k a s a n a r t i s t i n
p s y c h i a t r i c h o s p i t a l s i n t h e 1 9 4 0 s a n d 1 9 5 0 s . A d a m s o n b e g i n s b y
s a y i n g t h a t w h e n p e o p l e w o r k t o g e t h e r o n a p a i n t i n g t h e r e s u l t s a r e
o f t e n s u r p r i s i n g - a n o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t I c o u l d a t t e s t t o f r o m
c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s d o n e i n a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s . A d a m s o n
d e t e r m i n e d t o t r y s o m e g r o u p p a i n t i n g s w i t h p a t i e n t s i n a ` c l o s e d
w a r d w h e r e t h e r e s i d e n t s w e r e r e g a r d e d a s v e r y a n t i - s o c i a l ' - s o m e
h a d r e g r e s s e d a n d w o u l d n o t c o m m u n i c a t e . T h e p a i n t i n g s e s s i o n s
w e r e v e r y s u c c e s s f u l r e s u l t i n g i n a n ` u n u s u a l l y i n t e g r a t e d p i c t u r e ' .
T h e r e a f t e r , A d a m s o n w a s h a r d p u t t o k e e p t h e s u p p l y o f c a n v a s e s u p
t o t h e r e s i d e n t s . T h e s t a f f r e m a r k e d t h a t t h e y h a d n e v e r s e e n t h e
o c c u p a n t s o f t h a t w a r d w o r k t o g e t h e r i n s u c h h a r m o n y ( e v e n t h o u g h
t h e h a r m o n y b r o k e d o w n a f t e r a t i m e ) . A d a m s o n b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
h a r m o n i o u s b e n e f i t s m i g h t b e a b l e t o b e s u s t a i n e d f o r l o n g e r a n d
l o n g e r p e r i o d s h a d t h e p e o p l e b e e n a b l e t o k e e p o n w i t h t h e i r
c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s . T h e h o s p i t a l a u t h o r i t i e s , h o w e v e r , w o u l d n o t
a l l o w t h e p a i n t i n g s e s s i o n s t o c o n t i n u e b e c a u s e t h e l a r g e c a n v a s e s
w e r e t o o e x p e n s i v e ( A d a m s o n 1 9 8 4 , p . 4 4 ) . T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l f e a t u r e s
o f t h i s s t o r y t h a t I w o u l d l i k e t o h i g h l i g h t a s I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t
m u c h t h e s a m e a t t i t u d e s t i l l a p p l i e s t o d a y - i n n u r s i n g h o m e s , i n
p s y c h i a t r i c i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n h o s p i t a l s f o r t h e c h r o n i c a l l y i l l a n d
179
d i s a b l e d a n d s o o n . A d a m s o n ' s s t o r y f i r s t l y r a i s e s t h e t y p e o f c a r e
t h a t i s d e e m e d a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h o s e c o n s i d e r e d ` t o o f a r g o n e ' f o r
c o n v e n t i o n a l f o r m s o f t h e r a p y a n d t r e a t m e n t ( a l t h o u g h I v e n t u r e t o
s a y t h a t t h e r e s i d e n t s o f t h e c l o s e d w a r d w o u l d b e r e c e i v i n g l a r g e
d o s e s o f s e d a t i n g m e d i c a t i o n ) . S e c o n d l y , i n m a n y h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g l i t t l e t h o u g h t o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s g i v e n t o w h a t t y p e o f
t r e a t m e n t i s g i v e n - o t h e r t h a n t h e c h o i c e b e t w e e n v a r i o u s t y p e s o f
m e d i c a l i n t e r v e n t i o n s o r w h e t h e r o n e t y p e o f m e d i c a t i o n i s b e t t e r
t h a n a n o t h e r . T h e c o s t o f m e d i c a t i o n i s s o m e t i m e s a c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
b u t n o t t h e r e a s o n n o t t o h a v e i t - a s w a s t h e c a s e w i t h t h e p a i n t i n g
c a n v a s e s . T h i r d l y , t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e p a i n t i n g c a n v a s e s m i g h t
b e a c h e a p e r o p t i o n ( t o s a y n o t h i n g o f m o r e e n j o y a b l e ) i s n o t
c o n s i d e r e d i e . i f p e o p l e a r e h a p p i e r , t h e r e i s o f t e n l e s s n e e d f o r
h e a v y d o s e s o f m e d i c a t i o n a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c a r e i s m o r e h u m a n e
a n d m o r e e c o n o m i c a l .
I n t h e l i g h t o f a l l t h e a b o v e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f a r t i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s r e q u i r e s u s t o r e t h i n k a n d t o c h a l l e n g e M o d e r n p e r c e p t i o n s
o f a r t - a s w e l l a s M o d e r n n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h c a r e p o l i c y a n d p r a c t i c e .
C o n t e m p o r a r y n o t i o n s o f a r t h a v e t e n d e d t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n t h e
d i s p l a y o f s k i l l s a n d t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e a n d ` b e a u t y ' h a s o f t e n b e e n
d e r o g a t o r i l y d e s c r i b e d a s a ` R o m a n t i c ' i m p u l s e . W h i l e I d o b e l i e v e
t h a t p e o p l e d e s e r v e t o b e t a u g h t t h e ` t o o l s ' o r ` s k i l l s ' o f a r t m a k i n g ,
t h e a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f ` r i g h t n e s s ' a n d o f ` b e a u t y ' i s n o t d e p e n d e n t
u p o n a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e . R i l k e ' s a p p r e c i a t i o n o f
t h e n o t i o n o f b e a u t y i s p a r t i c u l a r l y p e r t i n e n t w h e n c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t a n d t h e n a t u r e o f b e a u t y i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s ;
180I t i s n o t o n l y t h e h e a r a b l e i n m u s i c t h a t i s i m p o r t a n t ( s o m e t h i n g c a n b e p l e a s a n t t o h e a r w i t h o u t b e i n g t r u e ) W h a t i s d e c i s i v e f o r m e , i n a l l t h e a r t s , i s n o t t h e i r o u t w a r d a p p e a r a n c e , n o t w h a t i s c a l l e d " t h e b e a u t i f u l " , b u t r a t h e r t h e i r d e e p e s t m o s t i n n e r o r i g i n , t h e b u r i e d r e a l i t y t h a t c a l l s f o r t h t h i s e x p e r i e n c e ( R i l k e 1 9 8 6 , p . 3 3 7 ) .
C h a g a l l ' s ( c . 1 9 9 1 ) u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f a r t a l s o d i r e c t l y
c h a l l e n g e s t h e M o d e r n c o n c e p t i o n o f a r t w h i c h w o u l d s e e i t a s t h e
p r o v i n c e o f ` t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t s ' . F o r C h a g a l l , i t i s ` c o l o u r n o t
t e c h n i q u e t h a t c o n v e y s a p a i n t e r ' s c h a r a c t e r a n d m e s s a g e . . . a n d w h a t
i n s p i r e s p a i n t i n g s , a s w e l l a s c o l o u r , i s a f t e r a l l , L o v e ' .
I n v i e w o f a l l t h e a b o v e , i t w i l l a l s o b e n e c e s s a r y t o r e t h i n k t h e w a y
i n w h i c h t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d b y p e o p l e i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s a r e
p r o p e r l y t o b e r e g a r d e d . T h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h t h e n e e d t o
r e s p e c t t h e a u t o n o m y a n d i n t e g r i t y o f t h e p e r s o n s v a r i o u s S e l v e s h a s
e m e r g e d a s o n e o f t h e g r e a t e s t d e m a n d s o f a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e .
T h i s w o u l d i n v o l v e r e s p e c t i n g t h e a r t w o r k p r o d u c e d a s a n
e x t e n s i o n o f t h e m S e l v e s - a n d a s s u c h , d e s e r v i n g o f r e s p e c t - a n d
r e v e r e n c e . T h e c l i n i f i c a t i o n s y n d r o m e h a s a l r e a d y b e e n r e f e r r e d t o
i e . a l l a s p e c t s o f t h e p e r s o n i s b r o u g h t u n d e r a c l i n i c a l g a z e a n d
i n t e r p r e t e d i n a c c o r d w i t h m e d i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . A s A l l e n ( 1 9 9 2 )
h a s p o i n t e d o u t , t h i s m e a n s t h a t t h e a r t i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o a c c o r d w i t h
a m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s , f o r e x a m p l e , t h i s p a i n t i n g i s e v i d e n c e o f
d e p r e s s i o n . F u r t h e r m o r e , ( a n d m o r e i n s i d i o u s l y ) i f t h e p e r s o n p a i n t s
a ` d i f f e r e n t ' p i c t u r e - f o r e x a m p l e , p a i n t i n g a s u n w i t h a s m i l i n g f a c e
- t h a t p a i n t i n g i s i n t e r p r e t e d a s e v i d e n c e o f a ` d e n i a l ' o f d e p r e s s i o n .
T h e d i a g n o s i s o f d e n i a l m i g h t t h e n b e u s e d t o s u p p o r t f u r t h e r o r
d i f f e r e n t t r e a t m e n t p l a n s ( s e e A l l e n 1 9 9 2 ) .
181
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s , s u c h a s I h a v e o u t l i n e d a b o v e , a r e a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e
o f t h e e f f e c t t h a t a b i o m e d i c a l a p p r o a c h h a s i n t h e c a r e o f p e r s o n s .
T h e p e r s o n ` d r o p s o u t ' a n d w h a t r e m a i n s i s a c l i n i c a l d i a g n o s i s o f
` s o m e t h i n g l e s s t h a n n o r m a l ' . A n i n s t a n c e o f t h i s w a s t h e d i s p l a y o f
s o m e p a i n t i n g s i n a h o s p i t a l e x h i b i t i o n b y t h e e l d e r l y w o m a n I
d e s c r i b e d i n a p r e v i o u s c h a p t e r w h o h a d s u f f e r e d a n u m b e r o f
s t r o k e s a n d h a d t a k e n u p p a i n t i n g w h e n s h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r c r o c h e t .
S h e s a i d o n c e ` I d o n ' t h a v e t o t a k e s o m a n y s l e e p i n g p i l l s n o w . I
d r e a m a b o u t w h a t I a m g o i n g t o p a i n t t o m o r r o w ' . T h i s w o m a n w a s
t i n y . S h e c o u l d o n l y u s e o n e a r m a n d h a d t o p a i n t s i t t i n g d o w n . S h e
w a s w o r k i n g o n s o m e v e r y l a r g e c a n v a s e s - s o s h e ` c o u l d g e t i t a l l
i n ' w h i c h r e q u i r e d t h a t , e i t h e r t h e c a n v a s h a d t o b e m o v e d a l o n g
w h e n n e c e s s a r y , o r s h e , i n h e r c h a i r , m o v e d s o s h e c o u l d r e a c h o t h e r
p a r t s o f t h e c a n v a s . T h e s t a f f i n t h e w a r d w e r e n o t a l w a y s a t t e n t i v e
t o t h e s e n e e d s w i t h t h e r e s u l t t h a t s o m e c a n v a s e s h a d b l a n k s p a c e s
w h e r e s h e c o u l d n o t r e a c h . A t t h e e x h i b i t i o n , h o w e v e r , t w o
c l i n i c i a n s w e r e i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e s e b l a n k s p a c e s a s e v i d e n c e o f
n e u r o l o g i c a l d a m a g e r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e s t r o k e s t h i s w o m a n h a d
s u f f e r e d . I a m n o t s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a r t w o r k s c a n n o t r e v e a l t h e
p r e s e n c e o f n e u r o l o g i c a l d a m a g e - o f t e n t h e w o r k o f p e o p l e w h o
h a v e h a d s t r o k e s a n d b r a i n t u m o u r s d o h a v e b l a n k s p o t s o n t h e
o p p o s i t e s i d e t o t h e i n j u r y . I n t h i s w o m a n ' s c a s e , I d o n o t b e l i e v e
t h a t t h i s w a s s o a n d t h e c l i n i c i a n s m i s i n t e r p r e t e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e ,
m i s u n d e r s t o o d t h e w o m a n a n d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f h e r w o r k f o r h e r
f l o u r i s h i n g a n d w e l l - b e i n g .
S o m e P a r t i c u l a r E t h i c a l Q u e s t i o n s .
182
A r t m a k i n g i s t o b e c o n c e i v e d a s a n e t h i c a l e n d e a v o u r a n d c e r t a i n
s p e c i f i c e t h i c a l c o n c e r n s e m e r g e f r o m i t s p r a c t i c e i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s . A r t m a k i n g p r o v i d e s a s p a c e w h e r e i n t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r
B e i n g m a y b e a s s e r t e d a n d , w h e n i t h a s b e e n r u p t u r e d o r h a r m e d ,
r e c l a i m e d a n d w h e r e i n w e m a y b e e n a b l e d t o f l o u r i s h . S o m e f u r t h e r
e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s d e s e r v e a f u l l e r , b u t b r i e f , d i s c u s s i o n . F i r s t l y , t h e
q u e s t i o n o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t w o r k s t a k e s o n a p a r t i c u l a r
s i g n i f i c a n c e w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s . S e c o n d l y , t h e e t h i c a l
c o n c e r n s w h i c h a r i s e f r o m a r t p r a c t i c e a s c o m m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s w i l l
b e d i s c u s s e d .
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n .
T h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t w o r k s i s a v e x e d q u e s t i o n . I t m u s t b e
a c k n o w l e d g e d t h a t a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a n a r t w o r k i s n o d i f f e r e n t t o
a n y o t h e r e x p e r i e n c e w e h a v e i n o u r d a i l y l i v e s i e . t h a t o u r e s s e n t i a l
h u m a n i t y e n t a i l s t h a t w e l i v e a n i n t e r p r e t i v e e x i s t e n c e . S o , i t c o u l d
b e s a i d , t o ` i n t e r p r e t ' i s a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e a
p e r s o n . H o w e v e r , t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t h a t a r e p l a c e d u p o n e v e n t s
( a n d a r t w o r k s ) i n c l i n i c a l s e t t i n g s c a n c a r r y v e r y d i f f e r e n t
i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e h e a l t h a n d f l o u r i s h i n g o f ` t h e a r t i s t ' t h a n t h e y
m i g h t i n n o n - c l i n i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t s . A s h a s b e e n p r e v i o u s l y d e t a i l e d
i n t h e c h a p t e r e x p l o r i n g t h e f i e l d o f a r t t h e r a p y , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a r t
w o r k s c a n b e u s e d b y m e d i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s - a n d t h e j u d i c i a r y - t o
n o t o n l y d e t e r m i n e ` t h e s a n i t y ' o f a p e r s o n , b u t w h a t f o r m o f
` i n s a n i t y ' t h e y m i g h t h a v e a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y w h a t f o r m o f t r e a t m e n t
i s d e e m e d a p p r o p r i a t e - i n c l u d i n g b e i n g ` c o m m i t t e d ' t o a m e n t a l
i n s t i t u t i o n .
183
A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s e e n f r o m p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h i s c h a p t e r ,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f a r t w o r k s i n h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s c a n a l s o b e u s e d
a s ` w e a p o n s ' - a s r e i n f o r c i n g a p a r t i c u l a r m e d i c a l d i a g n o s i s a n d
l e g i t m i z i n g t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s . A d a m s o n ( 1 9 8 4 ) r e f u s e d t o
` i n t e r p r e t ' t h e a r t w o r k s p r o d u c e d b y t h e p e o p l e w i t h w h o m h e
w o r k e d . I b e l i e v e t h a t t o b e t h e p r o p e r a n d e t h i c a l p o s i t i o n .
A r t a s a C o m m u n a l A c t i v i t y .
D u r i n g t h e t i m e t h a t I w a s A r t i s t i n R e s i d e n c e a t a r e g i o n a l h o s p i t a l ,
t h e p a t i e n t s a n d s t a f f d i d a n u m b e r o f c o m m u n a l p a i n t i n g s o n
c a n v a s . T h e c a n v a s w a s p l a c e d o n a n e a s e l i n t h e a r t r o o m . A
n u m b e r o f p e o p l e w e r e i n v o l v e d i n d r a w i n g a n d p a i n t i n g t h e c a n v a s -
s o m e t i m e s b r o a d l y s t i c k i n g t o t h e d r a w n o u t l i n e s - s o m e t i m e s
r a d i c a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e o r i g i n a l d r a w i n g . T h e r e w a s , h o w e v e r , n o
d e f i n e d a n d l i m i t e d g r o u p i n v o l v e d i n m a k i n g t h e w o r k o f a r t .
T h i s c o m b i n e d p r o c e s s i s d i f f e r e n t f r o m a c o - a u t h o r s h i p w h e r e t h e
c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f b o t h a r t i s t s o r a u t h o r s a r e m o r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d i n
t h e i r a r t i c u l a t i o n a n d a t t r i b u t i o n . A n u m b e r o f q u e s t i o n s a r i s e f r o m
t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s w i t h f a r r e a c h i n g r a m i f i c a t i o n s . F o r e x a m p l e , w h o
h a s t h e p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y t o s e t p a r a m e t e r s a n d d i r e c t i o n d u r i n g
c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e w o r k ? W h o i s e n t i t l e d t o c l a i m o w n e r s h i p ? W h o
i s e n t i t l e d t o ` T i t l e ' , t o s i g n a n d p r i c e t h e w o r k ? - p r i c i n g a n d t i t l i n g
b e i n g n a m i n g a n d e v a l u a t i v e a c t s w h i c h a r e p o l i t i c a l . W h o h a s t h e
a u t h o r i t y t o s e l l t h e w o r k a n d d e r i v e p r o f i t f r o m i t s s a l e ? W h o
a t t r a c t s t h e p r e s t i g e o f a u t h o r s h i p a n d / o r t h e d i s - a p p r o b a t i o n t h a t
m a y a t t e n d e x h i b i t i o n o r p u b l i c a t i o n ? F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e c o m m u n a l
a r t a c t i v i t i e s c h a l l e n g e c o n t e m p o r a r y u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e n a t u r e
184
- a n d t h e v a l u e t h a t i s a s c r i b e d t o - i n d i v i d u a l c r e a t i v i t y , p e r s o n a l
i d e n t i t y , a n d h o w t h e s e r e l a t e t o n o t i o n s o f a u t o n o my a n d c o mmu n i t y .
W h e n I s o u g h t t o d i s c u s s w i t h t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e U n i t t h e e t h i c a l
i s s u e s t h a t I s a w a r i s i n g f r o m t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h e s e c o m m u n a l w o r k s ,
I w a s g r e e t e d w i t h a b l a n k s t a r e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n . T h e p r a c t i c e
o f s o m e h o s p i t a l s i s t o s e e a p a t i e n t ' s w o r k - c o m p l e t e d w h i l e t h e
p e r s o n i s i n h o s p i t a l - a s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e h o s p i t a l . I j u d g e t h i s t o
b e a n u n e t h i c a l p r a c t i c e b u t f r o m t h e o v e r v i e w o f a r t t h e r a p y t h a t I
h a v e c o n d u c t e d i t w o u l d a p p e a r t h a t t h i s ( r e t a i n i n g o f a r t w o r k s ) h a s
b e e n a n a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p s y c h i a t r i c s e t t i n g s . T h e
a r t w o r k s a r e a v a i l a b l e t o b e a p p r o p r i a t e d b y h e a l t h c a r e
p r o f e s s i o n a l s o r b e c o m e p a r t o f t h e c l i n i c a l c a s e n o t e s o f t h e
p a r t i c u l a r p a t i e n t .
T h e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e U n i t w a s r e s o l v e d ( n o t e n t i r e l y t o m y
s a t i s f a c t i o n ) o n t h e b a s i s o f p r a g m a t i s m i e . t h e r e w e r e t o o m a n y
c a n v a s e s t o k e e p w i t h i n t h e U n i t . I t m a i n l y f e l l t o m e t o m a k e s o m e
d e c i s i o n s a b o u t t h e i r f a t e a n d I w o u l d t a k e a g r o u p o f p a t i e n t s a s
` r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ' o f t h e p e o p l e w h o p a i n t e d t h e c a n v a s a n d a s k t h e m
t o ` t i t l e ' a n d p r i c e t h e c a n v a s t a k i n g a c c o u n t o f t h e c o s t o f t h e r a w
m a t e r i a l s . T h e s a l e p r i c e o f a c a n v a s w a s a n a t t e m p t t o f i n d a n
a c c e p t a b l e m a r k e t f i g u r e t h a t w o u l d n o t b e t o o l o w ( s u g g e s t i n g t h a t
t h e w o r k o f ` a m a t e u r ' p s y c h i a t r i c p a t i e n t s w a s n o t w o r t h v e r y m u c h )
n o r t o o h i g h a n d t h u s p r i c i n g t h e w o r k s o u t o f t h e m a r k e t . T h e
p r o c e e d s f r o m t h e s a l e o f t h e c a n v a s e s w e r e c h a n n e l l e d b a c k i n t o t h e
g e n e r a l h o s p i t a l f u n d ( t o p a y f o r t h e r a w m a t e r i a l s ) a n d i n t o a
s p e c i a l A r t F u n d t h a t h a d b e e n s e t u p t o f i n a n c e f u r t h e r a r t
185
i n i t i a t i v e s w i t h i n t h e U n i t . O t h e r c a n v a s e s w e r e h u n g i n d i f f e r e n t
a r e a s a r o u n d t h e h o s p i t a l w i t h s o m e o n l o a n t o o t h e r h o s p i t a l s a n d
m e d i c a l s e t t i n g s .
T h e c o m m u n a l c a n v a s e s m i g h t , h o w e v e r , s u g g e s t s o m e d i f f e r e n t w a y s
o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t c o m m u n i t y - p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s . I n o n e s e n s e , a s t h e y a r e p a i n t e d b y b o t h p a t i e n t s a n d
s t a f f , t h e y c o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s ` m a k i n g v i s i b l e ' a d i f f e r e n t
a p p r o a c h t o c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w h e r e t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n
` p a t i e n t ' a n d ` s t a f f ' a r e c h a n g e d o r , i n d e e d , s o m e t i m e s d i s a p p e a r .
T h e c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p c o u l d t h e n b e d e s c r i b e d a s a c o l l a b o r a t i o n
w i t h t h e e n d w o r k - t h e e n h a n c e d f l o u r i s h i n g o f p a t i e n t a n d t h e
c l i n i c i a n - t h e ` h e a l t h ' o f t h e p a t i e n t a n d t h e e n r i c h m e n t o f t h e
c l i n i c i a n - b e i n g s e e n a s t h e r e s u l t o f t h a t c o l l a b o r a t i v e p r o c e s s b u t
n o t ` o w n e d ' e x c l u s i v e l y b y o n e o r t h e o t h e r .
H o w a n a r t w o r k a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y s e e m s t o ` c o m e t o g e t h e r ' w i t h a
l a r g e n u m b e r o f p e o p l e h a v i n g a h a n d i n i t s c o n s t r u c t i o n - w i t h l i t t l e
o r n o ` e x p e r t ' s u p e r v i s i o n , d i r e c t i o n o r c o n t r o l - i s a q u e s t i o n t h a t
h a s a l w a y s f a s c i n a t e d m e , a n d , h a s o f t e n f i l l e d m e w i t h a w e . O f t e n
d u r i n g s u c h p a i n t i n g s e s s i o n s t h e r e i s a l m o s t c o m p l e t e s i l e n c e i n t h e
a r t r o o m . A t t h e s a m e t i m e t h e r e w e r e s o m e t i m e s s i x p e o p l e s h a r i n g
a s p a c e o n a c a n v a s t h a t w a s o n l y 6 f t b y 4 f t . S o m e w o u l d b e
s t a n d i n g o n s t o o l s o r c h a i r s t o p a i n t t h e t o p p a r t s o f t h e c a n v a s ,
s o m e w o u l d b e w e a v i n g a r o u n d p o s i t i o n s a t t h e b o t t o m . I t w a s a s
t h o u g h , t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s o f ` d r o p p i n g d o w n ' i n t o a l e v e l o f
c r e a t i v i t y a n d c o n c e n t r a t i o n , t h e p a i n t e r s h a d d e v e l o p e d a n t e n n a e a l l
o v e r t h e i r b o d i e s w h i c h s o u g h t o u t a n d i d e n t i f i e d t h e l i m i t s o f t h e i r
186
` r i g h t ' s p a c e i n r e l a t i o n t o o t h e r s - p e r s o n i f y i n g t h e c o m m u n a l
h a r m o n y o f a r t m a k i n g a s d e s c r i b e d b y D i s s a n a y a k e ( 1 9 8 8 ) i n
c h a p t e r t w o . T h i s s a m e a c c o m m o d a t i o n o c c u r r e d e v e n w h e n s o m e o f
t h e p a t i e n t s w e r e ` p s y c h o t i c ' a n d t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e a r t w o r k
w e r e ` i n a p p r o p r i a t e ' i n a f o r m a l p a i n t i n g s e n s e . F o r e x a m p l e , o n o n e
c a n v a s a ` p s y c h o t i c ' p a t i e n t w a n t e d t o p a i n t b o t h c l o u d s , s u n , r a i n
a n d g r e e n g r a s s o n t h e t o p o f a b u i l d i n g - w h i c h h e d i d . S o m e h o w
t h e m o t l e y c r e w o n t h e r o o f w e r e a b s o r b e d i n t o i t s u n i q u e t e x t u r e -
t h e p a i n t i n g ` c a m e t o g e t h e r ' - a n d t h e c a n v a s m a y p r o v i d e a
m e t a p h o r f o r c o m m u n i t i e s t h a t c a n a c c e p t t h e e c c e n t r i c a n d t h e
` d i f f e r e n t ' .
I t w o u l d b e n a i v e t o s u g g e s t t h a t b e c a u s e s u c h a c c o m m o d a t i o n a n d
c o - o p e r a t i o n w a s a c h i e v e d d u r i n g t h e p a i n t i n g o f a c o m m u n a l c a n v a s
t h a t i t w o u l d a l w a y s a t t e n d t h e m a k i n g o f a r t w o r k s o r w o u l d a l w a y s
b e p r e s e n t i n c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s . I t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , h o w e v e r , t h a t
i n a l l m y y e a r s o f w o r k i n g w i t h a r t i n a v a r i e t y o f s e t t i n g s , d i s c o r d
i s e x t r e m e l y r a r e w h i l s t p e o p l e a r e i n t h e p r o c e s s o f c r e a t i n g -
i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d c o m m u n a l l y - a l t h o u g h , a s A d a m s o n o b s e r v e d o f t h e
` b a c k w a r d ' p a t i e n t s , t h e h a r m o n y a n d c o - o p e r a t i o n c a n , a n d d o e s ,
b r e a k d o w n . I t m i g h t b e t h a t s u c h c o l l a b o r a t i o n w a s p o s s i b l e w a s
b e c a u s e o f t h e i n t r i n s i c n a t u r e o f a r t i t s e l f - a n d b e c a u s e t h e
p a i n t e r s k n e w t h a t t h i s m e t h o d o f a r t m a k i n g w a s n o t t h e o n l y
m e t h o d - i t w a s n o t s e e n a s a c h o i c e b e t w e e n c o m m u n a l w o r k a n d a n
i n d i v i d u a l w o r k . P e r h a p s h a v i n g t h e o p t i o n s a f f o r d e d b y a n
e x t e n d e d h o r i z o n o f a p p r o a c h e s e n a b l e d t h e ` s u s p e n s i o n ' o f
i n d i v i d u a l n e e d s a n d d e s i r e s - a t t h e s a m e t i m e a s t h e i r i n d i v i d u a l i t y
w a s m a d e p a r t o f a l a r g e r c o m m u n a l w h o l e .
187
F i n a l R e f l e c t i o n s .
A s w e h a v e s e e n o u r e x p e r i e n c e s o f w o r k s o f a r t c a n b e l i k e n e d t o
e x p e r i e n c e s o f f r i e n d s h i p . T h e y c a n a l s o b e d e s c r i b e d a s
e x p e r i e n c e s o f c o m p a s s i o n , t h a t i s , t h e y e n a b l e u s t o s e e a n d f e e l a s
s o m e o n e e l s e s e e s a n d f e e l s . I n t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s O u r S e l v e s a r e
e n l a r g e d a n d e x p a n d e d - w e c o m e t o B e d i f f e r e n t l y . T h i s
c o m p a s s i o n a t e e m p a t h y a n d r e c i p r o c i t y i s a n e s s e n t i a l e l e m e n t o f
f r i e n d s h i p a n d o f c o m m u n i t y m e m b e r s h i p a n d o f a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h
c a r e p r a c t i c e - w h i c h a s w e h a v e p r e v i o u s l y n o t e d , d i r e c t l y
c h a l l e n g e s a p e r c e p t i o n t h a t a p r o p e r c l i n i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p m u s t
r e m a i n a l o o f a n d r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p e r s o n o f t h e p a t i e n t .
T h e r o l e o f t h e a r t i s t o a f f o r d p e o p l e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e f i n e
t h e m s e l v e s a s t h e y w i s h t o b e . I t i s n o t c o n c e r n e d w i t h n o t i o n s o f
p a t h o l o g y b u t r a t h e r w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f b e c o m i n g ( s e e A l d r i d g e
1 9 9 3 a ) . A s F o u c a u l t h a s f o r e c a s t t h e a r t s e x i s t t o e n a b l e p e o p l e t o
m a k e t h e i r l i v e s a w o r k o f a r t - t o c r e a t e l i v e s t h a t a r e f u l l o f h o p e ,
m e a n i n g , p u r p o s e a n d v a l u e . T h e ` m e a n i n g o f l i f e ' - t h e r e d e m p t i o n
f r o m a l i e n a t i o n , m e a n i n g l e s s n e s s , f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d i s o l a t i o n - i s
d i s c o v e r e d i n c o n c r e t e a c t s o f c r e a t i o n w h e r e w e t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
f o r a n s w e r i n g t h e q u e s t i o n s l i f e a s k s o f u s . A s A l d r i d g e
( 1 9 9 3 a , p . 2 8 9 ) h a s i t , t h e c r e a t i v e a c t i s t o t a k e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o
l i v e .
A r t , h o w e v e r , i s n o t g o i n g t o d o i t a l l f o r u s . A r t i s n o t g o i n g t o
c h a n g e h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e i f i t i s m e r e l y a d d e d o n t o e x i s t i n g
s t r u c t u r e s . A r t p r a c t i c e m u s t e n t e r i n t o a r e f l e x i v e d i a l o g u e w i t h
188
h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e a n d b e e s s e n t i a l l y i n f o r m e d a n d c r i t i q u e d b y t h e
v a r i o u s e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . A r t a l o n e
i s n o t g o i n g t o s o l v e t h e s o c i a l a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t a r e
p r e s e n t l y c a u s i n g s o m u c h h a r m , d e s t r u c t i o n a n d s u f f e r i n g . W h a t i t
c a n d o i s l a y b a r e t h e h a r s h r e a l i t i e s o f a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f
i l l n e s s a n d b y s o d o i n g a r t s u b v e r t s t h e c u r r e n t i d e o l o g y t h a t w o u l d
h a v e i t , f o r e x a m p l e , t h a t t h e e f f e c t s o f p o v e r t y , o f u n e m p l o y m e n t ,
o f i l l n e s s a n d d i s e a s e h a p p e n t o n u m b e r s a n d s t a t i s t i c s - n o t t o
p e r s o n s . A r t , t h e r e f o r e , i s n o t t o b e u n d e r s t o o d a s a c o n t e m p o r a r y
` L e t t h e m e a t c a k e ' - ` L e t t h e m d o a r t ' . N o r i s i t e n o u g h t o g o t o t h e
l a t e s t b l o c k b u s t e r e x h i b i t i o n a n d t h i n k t h a t w e h a v e ` d o n e a r t ' .
W h a t i s r e q u i r e d i s t h a t w e h a v e a n e x p e r i e n c e o f a w o r k o f a r t - w e
c a n c o m e t o s e e a s t h a t o t h e r p e r s o n h a s s e e n - a n d w e , a n d o u r
p r a c t i c e s a s a r t i s t s a n d h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l s , a r e c h a n g e d
t h e r e b y . T o f l o u r i s h w e a l s o h a v e t o ` d o a r t ' o u r s e l v e s . B y
w h a t e v e r m e d i u m w e m a k e v i s i b l e o u r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r e a l i t y - w e
t a k e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r s a y i n g ` S e e m y e x p e r i e n c e o f s u f f e r i n g , o f
p o v e r t y , o f j o y , t h i s w a y ' . T h e a r t o f t h e A I D S Q u i l t , f o r e x a m p l e ,
m a k e s p l a i n t h a t t h e t r a g e d y o f A I D S i s n o t r e v e a l e d i n s t a t i s t i c s - i t
i s r e v e a l e d i n t h e s u f f e r i n g a n d g r i e f o f t h o s e w h o a r e l i v i n g w i t h
A I D S a n d t h o s e w h o m o u r n t h e l o s s o f t h e i r f r i e n d s , f a m i l i e s a n d
c o l l e a g u e s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e v a r i o u s f o r m s o f a r t e n a b l e s u s t o
s u r v i v e , i n d i v i d u a l l y a n d a s a c o m m u n i t y .
A N o t i o n o f C o m m u n i t y F o u n d e d o n B e a u t y .
T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f a r t f o r t h e c r e a t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y l i e s i n s e v e r a l
d i r e c t i o n s . A s h a s a l r e a d y b e e n m e n t i o n e d , a r t c a n o p e n u p a s p a c e
189
a ` n o t - a t - h o m e - s p a c e ' w h e r e r e a p p r a i s a l a n d r e v a l u a t i o n m i g h t b e
p o s s i b l e - o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s c o m m u n i t y , o f w h a t c o n s t i t u t e s a n
e t h i c a l c a r e o f s i c k p e r s o n s a n d t h e r e f o r e w h a t d o e s i t m e a n t o b e a
h e a l t h c a r e p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d a n a r t i s t . I n m a k i n g u s t a k e a c c o u n t
a n d ` p a y a t t e n t i o n ' t o t h e p a r t i c u l a r s o f a p e r s o n ' s e x p e r i e n c e o f
i l l n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g , a r t c a n m a k e p l a i n t h e i m m o r a l i t y o f a n
e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i s m w h i c h a r g u e s a b o u t m o r a l v a l u e s b y w a y o f
n u m b e r s - a s t h o u g h o n e p e r s o n ' s s u f f e r i n g i s a f r a c t i o n o f a n o t h e r
( s e e B e c k e r 1 9 9 4 ) . A r t m u s t b e p r a c t i c a l b e c a u s e i t m u s t s e r v e
e s s e n t i a l h u m a n n e e d s w h i c h e n a b l e p e r s o n s a n d t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s
t o s u r v i v e e x p e r i e n c e s t h a t t h r e a t e n t h e s u r v i v a l o f b o t h .
A r t c a n n o t c h a n g e t h e w o r l d b u t i t c a n c h a n g e t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f
p e o p l e w h o m a y b e a b l e t o b r i n g a b o u t n e e d e d c h a n g e s ( M a r c u s e
1 9 7 8 ) . I d o n o t t h i n k t h a t s u c h c h a n g e s w i l l c o m e a b o u t e a s i l y - b u t
a s I h a v e a l r e a d y a r g u e d , t h e A I D S Q u i l t m i g h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s a
m o d e l o f p r a x i s - e x e m p l i f y i n g t h a t a r t c a n b e a c a t a l y s t f o r h e a l i n g
a n d c a n i n v i t e p e o p l e t o r a d i c a l l y c h a n g e t h e i r w a y s o f ` t h i n k i n g '
a n d B e i n g . I w o u l d a l s o a d o p t t h e h o p e o f C h a g a l l ( c 1 9 9 1 ) - t h a t i n
A r t a s w e l l a s l i f e , a n y t h i n g i s p o s s i b l e , p r o v i d e d t h e r e i s L o v e .
H o w e v e r , c h a n g e s i n c o n s c i o u s n e s s d o n o t h a p p e n ` o u t t h e r e ' - o r
o n l y t o ` o t h e r p e o p l e ' . A s I h a v e a r g u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h ,
t h e r a d i c a l n a t u r e o f a r t i s t o b e f o u n d i n e a c h o f o u r e v e r y d a y
e x p e r i e n c e s - a n d I d o n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a n y ` t h e o r y o f q u a l i t y
a s s u r a n c e ' o r a n y a d o p t i o n o f a p o s i t i o n t h a t ` o u r p r o f e s s i o n i s a n
a r t ' c a n r e l i e v e u s f r o m t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r e f l e c t i n g c r i t i c a l l y o n
o u r o w n e x p e r i e n c e s .
190
I t i s i n t h i s ` n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s ' a n d i n t h e s h a r i n g o f t h e
m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f s u f f e r i n g - a n d o f h o p e - t h a t I b e l i e v e a
r e l a t i o n s h i p c a n b e f o u n d b e t w e e n a r t , h e a l i n g , e t h i c s a n d a e s t h e t i c s
t h a t w i l l s u s t a i n s o m e d i f f e r e n t n o t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y a n d h e a l t h
c a r e p r a c t i c e . T h e n e w c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s t o b a l a n c e t h e ` i s l a n d s o f
g o o d ' , a n d t h e ` b e a u t i f u l m o m e n t s ' - a n d t h u s n u r t u r e t h e ` m o r a l
s p a c e s ' o f p o s s i b i l i t i e s t h a t o p e n u p a n d r e s i s t t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t
m u c h o f m o d e r n s o c i e t y i s f e a r f u l o f b e i n g c a u g h t i n a n y s o r t o f
b e l i e f t h a t s p e a k s o f a c o s m o s o f h o p e t h a t c a n c o m e a b o u t f r o m
i n d i v i d u a l e f f o r t ( s e e B a r z u n 1 9 7 4 ; a n d M a r c u s e 1 9 8 6 ) . I t i s ,
p e r h a p s , p r e c i s e l y , i n t h o s e m o m e n t s o f b e a u t y w h e r e a r t m i g h t
s p e a k o f r e d e m p t i o n .
A n o t i o n o f c o m m u n i t y a n d a n e t h i c a l h e a l t h c a r e b a s e d o n s u c h
m o m e n t s o f b e a u t y i s n o t , I b e l i e v e , p u r e l y u t o p i a n . I t w i l l r e q u i r e
a r e t h i n k i n g o f n o t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y , n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h a n d h e a l i n g ,
w h a t i t m e a n s t o b e h u m a n a n d a r e t h i n k i n g o f t h e v a l u e o f w o r k s o f
a r t . R e t h i n k i n g t h e v a l u e o f w o r k s o f a r t m e a n s r e v e r s i n g s o m e
p r e v i o u s n o t i o n s o f a e s t h e t i c o b j e c t s . F u r t h e r m o r e , a s M e r t o n ( i n
M c D o n n e l l e d . 1 9 8 9 , p . 3 8 9 ) h a s i t , a r t c a n o n l y b e a p p r e h e n d e d i n a
c o m p a r a b l e e x p e r i e n c e i e . p o e t r y c a n o n l y b e a p p r e h e n d e d b y a
f u r t h e r p o e t i c e x p e r i e n c e . A r t , t h e n , i n v i t e s - o r d e m a n d s - t h a t w e
d e v e l o p a n a e s t h e t i c , c o n t e m p l a t i v e a n d r e f l e c t i v e a t t i t u d e ( s e e a l s o
A r t s I n j e c t i o n 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 ) . S u c h a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d s a r t i n a h e a l t h
c a r e s e t t i n g w o u l d d i r e c t l y c h a l l e n g e t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e w o r k o f
a p a t i e n t c a n b e ` r e a d ' a n d i n t e r p r e t e d i n t h e s a m e w a y a s a b l o o d
t e s t o r X - r a y . T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y p l a c e d u p o n t h e v i e w e r w i l l a l s o
r e q u i r e t h a t t h e r o l e o f i n t e r p r e t e r ( m a d e n e c e s s a r y b y t h e a d v e n t
191
o f a M o d e r n a r t d i v o r c e d f r o m l i f e ) m u s t g i v e w a y t o a n e w
r e s p o n s i v e a n d r e s p o n s i b l e c o n s c i o u s n e s s b r o u g h t t o b i r t h i n t h e
i n d i v i d u a l .
I t h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t w e h a v e a s p i r i t u a l l o n g i n g f o r c o m m u n i t y
a n d r e l a t e d n e s s a n d f o r a c o s m i c v i s i o n ( M o o r e 1 9 9 2 , p . 2 0 8 ) . T o
a c h i e v e t h e s e t h i n g s a n e w a e s t h e t i c i s r e q u i r e d - o n e t h a t i s m o r e
e c o l o g i c a l l y b a s e d b e c a u s e , a s B a t e s o n ( i n F u l l e r 1 9 8 6 , p . 2 8 ) h a s
s u g g e s t e d , m o s t o f u s h a v e l o s t t h a t s e n s e o f u n i t y o f b i o s p h e r e a n d
h u m a n i t y w h i c h w o u l d b i n d a n d r e a s s u r e u s a l l w i t h a n a f f i r m a t i o n
o f b e a u t y .
W h e r e d o e s a l l t h e a b o v e l e a v e u s w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s e n s e o f
c o m m u n i t y f o u n d e d o n a n a e s t h e t i c s e n s e o f t h e b e a u t y o f h u m a n
i n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s ? I t m e a n s a p r o f o u n d r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t n o t o n l y d o
w e c r e a t e a r t a n d p o e t r y , b u t t h a t w e a r e a l s o c r e a t e d a n d r e - c r e a t e d
b y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s o f t h e a r t a n d p o e t r y o f e a c h o t h e r . B a r z u n
( 1 9 7 4 ) h a s d e s c r i b e d t h i s p r e s e n t a g e a s b e i n g c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a
` v a c u u m o f b e l i e f ' - a f e a r o f b e i n g c a u g h t o u t i n a b e l i e f . T h e n e w
c o n s c i o u s n e s s d e m a n d s , h o w e v e r , t h a t w e d o b e l i e v e , i n a r t a n d t h e
` b e a u t i f u l m o m e n t ' w h i c h c a n e n a b l e a p r o p e r c a r e f o r a l l p e r s o n s -
p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e w h o a r e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g . I f t h e s e n s e o f
i s o l a t i o n a n d l a c k o f c o n n e c t i o n f e l t b y s o m a n y i n h e a l t h c a r e
s e t t i n g s i s t o b e h e a l e d i t r e q u i r e s a b e l i e f t h a t , n o t o n l y c a n o u r
l i v e s b e w o r k s o f a r t , b u t t h a t o u r a e s t h e t i c e n c o u n t e r s w i t h t h e
b e a u t y o f a n o t h e r c a n s h a r e m a n y o f t h e s a m e q u a l i t i e s a s o u r
e n c o u n t e r s w i t h c o n v e n t i o n a l w o r k s o f a r t . P e r h a p s , t h e n , i t w i l l b e
p o s s i b l e t o c a r r y f o r w a r d t h e h o p e p r o m i s e d b y t h o s e ` i s l a n d s ' o f
192
g o o d n e s s a n d b e a u t y , t h o s e ` e n c o u n t e r s . . w h i c h m a k e p e r c e p t i b l e ,
v i s i b l e a n d a u d i b l e t h a t w h i c h i s n o l o n g e r , o r n o t y e t , p e r c e i v e d ,
s a i d a n d h e a r d i n e v e r y d a y l i f e ' ( M a r c u s e 1 9 7 8 , p . 7 2 ) .
T h i s r e s e a r c h b e g a n w i t h t h e l a n d s c a p e o f m y e x p e r i e n c e s w o r k i n g i n
a v a r i e t y o f h e a l t h c a r e s e t t i n g s - n o t a b l y t h o s e w h e r e I w o r k e d w i t h
p e o p l e l i v i n g w i t h A I D S a n d w i t h t h o s e l i v i n g w i t h a m e n t a l i l l n e s s .
A c o n s t a n t t h r e a d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n t h e n e e d t o
` s e e ' m a n y n o t i o n s d i f f e r e n t l y . W h a t m i g h t b e a l s o r e q u i r e d i n t h i s
t i m e i s t o t h i n k o f k n o w l e d g e i n t e r m s o f l o v e - a l o n g t h e l i n e s o f
M a r i t a i n ' s ( 1 9 7 2 ) t h o u g h t s w h e n h e s a y s w i s d o m a n d k n o w l e d g e m u s t
c o m e f r o m a d e l i g h t a n d l o v i n g - t h a t w i t h o u t d e l i g h t a n d l o v e
( a n d B e a u t y ) i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o m o v e f r o m t h e a n a l y s i s o f
i n f o r m a t i o n a n d f a c t s i n t o t h e p l e a s u r e , d e l i g h t , a n d h u m i l i t y o f a
k n o w i n g w i s d o m ( s e e a l s o H a r t 1 9 9 4 ) . T h i s w o u l d b r i n g u s ` s l a p u p
a g a i n s t ' s o m e m o d e r n p e r c e p t i o n s t h a t k n o w l e d g e ( w i s d o m ) c a n b e
l e a r n e d . A s I h a v e a r g u e d p r e v i o u s l y t h e w i s d o m t h a t w e n e e d t o
e n a b l e o u r S e l v e s t o f l o u r i s h i n t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r B e i n g s c a n n o t b e
l e a r n e d - i t m u s t b e g a i n e d ( a p p r e h e n d e d ) b y r e f l e c t i o n a n d
c o n t e m p l a t i o n . T h e l a n d s c a p e o f o u r B e c o m i n g i s l i k e M c C a h o n ' s
l a n d - k n o w i n g i t a n d l o v i n g i t i s p a i n f u l a n d t a k e s a l o n g t i m e .
T h a t k n o w i n g a n d l o v i n g m a y b e e q u a t e d w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f h e a l i n g
w h i c h i s t h e p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e a n d i n t e g r a t e d b u t w h i c h
d o e s n o t a l w a y s p a r a l l e l t h e p h y s i c a l w h o l e n e s s o f o u r b o d i e s .
T h e r e i s , h o w e v e r , a f u r t h e r p o i n t t h a t M o d j e s k a ( 1 9 9 4 , p . 1 1 8 )
i l l u s t r a t e s ;
a n d I ' v e h e a r d i t s a i d b y o t h e r s s i m i l a r l y a f f l i c t e d w i t h i l l n e s s , o r g r i e f , o r l o s s e s o f o t h e r k i n d s , t h a t b y b e i n g f o r c e d t o l i v e w i t h a c u r t a i l m e n t n o t o f o n e c h o o s i n g , t h e r e c a n b e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g e x p a n s i o n i n t h e h e a r t ' s c a p a c i t y .
193
I f t h i s p r o c e s s o f b e c o m i n g w h o l e - e x p a n d i n g o u r h e a r t s - m u s t , t o a
c e r t a i n e x t e n t , t a k e p l a c e ` a l o n e u n d e r t h e s k y ' , w i t h i n o u r o w n
l a n d s c a p e , w h a t i s t o b e e x p e c t e d i n o u r o w n D e s e r t ? N o t h i n g l e s s
t h a n c a n b e e x p e c t e d i n o u r S e l v e s . T h e d i men s i o n s t h a t may b e f o u n d
i n t h a t S e l f m a y c o n f r o n t a n d c h a l l e n g e s o m e m o d e r n n o t i o n s o f S e l f
a s i s o l a t e d , a u t o n o m o u s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t a n d c a n l a y t h e f o u n d a t i o n s
f o r s o m e n e w u n d e r s t a n d i n g s o f t h e n a t u r e o f p e r s o n i n c o m m u n i t y .
H o w c a n h e a l t h c a r e p r a c t i c e a n d a r t p r a c t i c e c o m e t o g e t h e r t o b e t t e r
c a r e f o r t h e s i c k a n d s u f f e r i n g a n d h o w d o w e d e f i n e - o r a t l e a s t
c o n c e p t u a l i z e - n o t i o n s o f c o m m u n i t y f r o m w h i c h b o t h t h e s e
p r a c t i c e s s h o u l d s p r i n g - a n d b e c r i t i q u e d ? A l o n g w i t h a l l t h e o t h e r
n o t i o n s a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d - n o t i o n s o f h e a l t h , h e a l i n g , a r t , e t h i c s ,
a e s t h e t i c s , m o r a l i t y - I w o u l d s u g g e s t t h a t i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o h a v e
o n e s i n g l e n o t i o n o f w h a t m i g h t c o n s t i t u t e a c o m m u n i t y . I w o u l d
a r g u e , h o w e v e r , t h a t t h e j u s t i c e o f c a r e w o u l d p l a c e e q u a l d e m a n d s
u p o n e a c h n o t i o n - t h a t t h e y n u r t u r e , c a r e f o r a n d s u s t a i n t h o s e
p e o p l e w h o m i g h t c o m e w i t h i n t h e m - r e c o g n i z i n g t h a t i t i s o u r
c o m m o n h u m a n i t y t h a t u n i t e s u s - n o t g e n d e r o r g e o g r a p h y .
O n e o f t h e t h e m e s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n t h e n o t i o n o f a ` t e a c h e r '
- o u r e x p e r i e n c e s t e a c h u s , n u d g e u s t o w a r d s a f u l l n e s s o f B e i n g .
O u r d i a l o g i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h O t h e r s a n d t h e O t h e r n o t o n l y
e n a b l e u s t o l e a r n o f t h e i r t r u t h s b u t t o e x p a n d o u r s a s w e l l . O u r
e x p e r i e n c e s o f a r t t e a c h u s n o t o n l y w h o w e a r e - a n d w h o w e m a y
b e c o m e , b u t i n v i t e u s i n t o a c o m m u n i t y o f s o u l s w h o , a s M a r c u s e
( 1 9 7 8 ) s a y s , i f w e a l l o w o u r c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o b e c o m e c h a n g e d , c a n
b r i n g a b o u t c h a n g e s i n t h e w o r l d . O u r e x p e r i e n c e s - o f a r t , o f e a c h
194
o t h e r , o f s i c k n e s s a n d s u f f e r i n g - h a v e o p e n e d u p a s p a c e w h e r e i t i s
p o s s i b l e t o c o m p r e h e n d t h a t ` B e a u t y ' a n d t h e l o v i n g t h a t i s n e e d e d
f o r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e f u l l n e s s o f o u r B e i n g i s r a r e l y ` g l e e f u l '
a n d c a n a t t i m e s b e t e r r i f y i n g a n d b r i n g u s t o t h e b r i n k o f d e a t h , s o
t h a t g r e a t c o u r a g e i s r e q u i r e d s o t h a t w e c a n t a k e t h e r i s k s t h a t l i f e
a s k s o f u s ( s e e D e w e y 1 9 8 0 ; M c C a h o n 1 9 8 8 ) .
M a n y w r i t e r s h a v e s a i d t h a t t h i s p r e s e n t p e r i o d i s a t i m e w h i c h i s
u n p r e c e d e n t e d i n h u m a n h i s t o r y . T h e o l d w a y s h a v e n o t p r o v e d u p
t o t h e t a s k t h a t p r e s e n t l y c o n f r o n t s u s - a s R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 ) h a s s a i d ( a n d
I w o u l d n o t p u t i t a n y l e s s o n e r o u s l y ) - w e s t i l l h a v e n o t r e a l l y c o m e
t o c o m p r e h e n d a n e w w a y o f b e i n g h u m a n t h a t i s d e m a n d e d b y t h e
p r e s e n t t i m e a n d b y t h e p r e s e n t c a p a c i t i e s t h a t w e n o w h a v e - n o t
o n l y f o r d e s t r u c t i o n b u t f o r t h e e n a b l i n g o f a n e w h u m a n i t y . W h a t i s
d e m a n d e d i s a n e w r e l i g i o u s a n d s p i r i t u a l a t t i t u d e a l t h o u g h I d o n o t
t h i n k t h i s m i g h t n e c e s s a r i l y c o m e f r o m s o m e o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
f o r m u l a s ( i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h e s i t u a t i o n m a y b e a k i n t o t h e o l d s t y l e
m e n t a l i n s t i t u t i o n s w h e r e t h e c u l t u r e o f o n e m i n d s e t i s s o e n t r e n c h e d
- a n d h a s b e e n f o r a n u m b e r o f g e n e r a t i o n s ) t h a t i t m i g h t p r o v e
i m p o s s i b l e t o r e t h i n k w i t h i n t h e p r e s e n t a r c h i t e c t u r e a n d c u l t u r e .
B r a d y ( 1 9 9 5 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t o u r g r o w i n g i n t e r e s t i n A b o r i g i n a l
s p i r i t u a l i t y m a y b e ` a m o m e n t o f g r a c e ' b r e a k i n g i n t o o u r W e s t e r n
w a y s o f t h i n k i n g a n d w h i c h m a y p r o v i d e s o m e a s s i s t a n c e i n t h e t a s k .
I n t h i s I w o u l d a g r e e s o l o n g a s w e d o n o t m a k e t h e m i s t a k e o f
l o s i n g t h e r e s p e c t f o r t h e O t h e r - a n d t h i n k i n g o u r p r o b l e m s m a y b e
s o l v e d b y b e c o m i n g A b o r i g i n a l - a n d t h e n d e n y i n g t h e r i c h n e s s o f
o u r o w n S e l v e s . A s B r a d y ( 1 9 9 5 ) s a y s w e a r e n o t A b o r i g i n a l , w e
h a v e a v e r y d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , a v e r y d i f f e r e n t l i f e s t y l e , s o m e v e r y
195
d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s w h i c h c o n t a i n m a n y r i c h e s , a s w e l l a s m a n y
e v i l s . W h a t m a y b e d e m a n d e d i s t h a t w e h a v e t o u n l e a r n s o m e o l d
w a y s o f s e e i n g a n d t o e n d e a v o u r t o l e a r n s o m e n e w o n e s ( s e e M e r t o n
1 9 8 8 ) . W e m a y h a v e t o l e a r n a n A b o r i g i n a l p e r s p e c t i v e , a n
a b o r i g i n a l i t y o f e m b e d d e d n e s s o r e m b o d i n e s s i n t h e w o r l d . T h i s i s
w h a t I b e l i e v e R a n k ( 1 9 8 9 ) w a s s u g g e s t i n g w h e n h e s a i d t h e i m p u l s e
f o r a r t a n d r e l i g i o n w a s a i m i n g a t - a r e c r e a t i o n o f a s e n s e o f
i n t e g r a l u n i t y a n d i n t e g r a t i o n w i t h t h e u n i v e r s e t h a t w e o n c e
e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h i n t h e w o m b . T h e n e c e s s a r y d e p e n d e n c e t h a t w e
h a d a s a n u n b o r n c a n a l s o b e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t o u r
s u r v i v a l i s i n t e g r a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e s u r v i v a l o f o t h e r s a n d t h e o t h e r .
A r t m a k i n g , t o o , m a k e s p l a i n t h a t w e a r e o f t e n d e p e n d e n t u p o n a n
i n t e g r a t i n g f o r c e t h a t i s n o t o f o u r o w n m a k i n g - w e s e t o u t t o p a i n t
a p i c t u r e i n a c e r t a i n w a y o n l y t o f i n d t h a t a ` s u d d e n i n s p i r a t i o n '
m i g h t t u r n t h e p a i n t i n g i n t o s o m e t h i n g c o m p l e t e l y d i f f e r e n t . B u t a r t
p r a c t i c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h o s e ` i n s p i r a t i o n s ' o r ` i n s i g h t s ' c a n n o t b e
p r o g r a m m e d o r c o n t r o l l e d - a l t h o u g h w e c a n c o n t r o l w h a t w e d o w i t h
t h e m w h e n t h e y c o m e . H o w e v e r , a s m a n y a r t i s t s h a v e a t t e s t e d , i f w e
w e r e a b l e t o c o m m a n d t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s a t w i l l w e w o u l d n o t f e e l
t h e d e p t h s o f d e s p a i r a n d h e l p l e s s n e s s t h a t w e d o f e e l w h e n t h e y d o
n o t a r r i v e w h e n w e w o u l d l i k e t h e m t o . I n t h i s s e n s e w e c a n
u n d e r s t a n d t h a t o n e o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f f l o u r i s h i n g i s t o r e l e a r n
a n o b e d i e n t l i s t e n i n g - t o b e p a s s i v e b u t a t t e n t i v e , r e a d y f o r w h e n
t h e m u s e - o r G o d a p p e a r s . T h e a b i l i t y t o l i s t e n r e q u i r e s t h e
c u l t i v a t i o n o f a c o n t e m p l a t i v e a t t i t u d e o f t r u s t a n d p a t i e n c e w h i c h
e n h a n c e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t w h a t w e h a v e t o l i s t e n f o r w i l l n o t b e
d r o w n e d o u t b y a b a r r a g e o f n o i s e a n d c o n s t a n t a c t i v i t y . T h i s
c o n t e m p l a t i v e a t t i t u d e c o u l d b e c a l l e d c r e a t i n g o r e n a b l i n g a d e s e r t
196
t o e x i s t w i t h i n u s - a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e D e s e r t i n b i b l i c a l t e r m s a s
a p l a c e w h e r e w e c o m e t o t h e e n d o f o u r h u m a n l i m i t a t i o n s .
C o n c l u s i o n .
A n d t h i s m i g h t b e a w a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e n o t i o n s o f a r t , t h e
` d e s e r t ' - a n d h e a l i n g . N o t a s a r e f u g e ( w h i c h i t i s ) n o r a s a n e s c a p e
f r o m o r d i n a r y l i f e ( w h i c h i t i s ) b u t a s e n a b l i n g a n d c a l l i n g f o r a
d i f f e r e n t t y p e o f l i s t e n i n g . A d y i n g m a n p a i n t e d t h e b e g i n n i n g s o f
t h i s r e s e a r c h . B e f o r e t h e a r t w o r k t h a t w a s h i m s e l f t h e p r o p e r
a t t i t u d e m i g h t b e o n e o f a w e , g r a t i t u d e , d e l i g h t a n d w o n d e r m e n t .
B a r z u n ( 1 9 7 4 ) h a s s a i d t h e l a s t w o r d o n a r t s h o u l d b e ` m y s t e r y ' - a
m y s t e r y t h a t s e e k s t o m a i n t a i n a n d n o u r i s h t h i s a w e a n d w o n d e r m e n t
- a r e c o g n i z i n g ` k n o w i n g ' a c c e p t a n c e o f i n c o m p r e h e n s i o n .
197
REFERENCES. Abbs , Peter (ed) 1989, The Symbol ic Order: A Contemporary Reader on the Arts Debate , The Fa lmer Press , London. Adams, Doug 1995 , `Transcendence and the Visual : See ing Bib l ica l and Theologica l Dimens ions of Contemporary Ar t ' , in Rel ig ion, Li terature and the Arts Project , eds . M.Gri f f i th & R. Kea t ing ,pp .1-10. Adamson,E . 1984 , Art as Heal ing , Coventure Ltd . ,London. Aldr idge , David 1989 , `A Phenomenologica l Compar i son of the Organiza t ion of Music and the Sel f ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy ,Vol .16 ,pp .91-97 . Aldr idge , David 1993a , `Hope , Meaning and the Creat ive Ar ts Therap ies in the Trea tment of AIDS ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.4 ,pp .285-297 . Aldr idge , David 1993b, `Art i s t s o r Psychoanalys t s? ' The Arts in Psychotherapy ,Vol .20 ,No.3 ,pp .199-200 . Aldr idge , David , Brandt ,Gudrun & Wohler ,Dagmar 1991 , `Working Together : A compara t ive s tudy of music therapy and ar t therapy ' , Journal of Bri t i sh Music Therapy , Vol .5 , No.1 ,pp .14-21 . Al len , Pat r ic ia B. 1992 , `Ar t i s t - in-Residence : An Al terna t ive to "Cl in i f ica t ion" for Ar t Therapis t s ' , Art Therapy. Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , 9 (1) ,pp .22-29 . Apos to los-Cappadona, Diane (ed) 1984 , Art , Creat iv i ty and the Sacred.An anthology in re l ig ion and art ,Cross road ,New York . Ar i s to t le 1976 , The Ethics o f Aris tot le . The Nicomachean Ethics , t rans . J .A.K. Thomson, Penguin Books , Great Br i ta in . Arnheim, Rudol f 1986 , New Essays on the Psychology of Art , Univers i ty of Cal i forn ia Press , Berk ley . Arnheim, Rudol f 1992, `Why Aes thet ics i s Needed ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .19 ,pp .149-151 . Arts Inject ion .Youth Arts in Hospi ta l 1994 , Depar tment of Adolescent Medica l Uni t , The Chi ldren ' s Hospi ta l & Sydney Col lege of the Arts ,Sydney Univers i ty . Barnes , Rache l (ed) 1990 , Cezanne by Cezanne. Art i s t s by Themselves , Bracken Books ,London. Barzun , Jacques 1974 , The Use and Abuse of Art , Pr ince ton Univers i ty Press , Pr ince ton . Becker , Caro l (ed) 1994 The Subvers ive Imaginat ion . Art i s t s ,Society and
198
Socia l Respons ibi l i ty , Rout ledge , New York & London. Ber ry , Scot t 1995 , `How do I l ive wi th th i s? ' Talkabout , People Liv ing With HIV/AIDS Inc . (NSW), February ,pp .20-21. Binns , Viv ienne 1994 , `Get t ing in Touch wi th the Ar t i s t Wi th in ' , in Seeing Austral ia . Views of Art i s ts and Artwri ters , (ed . ) Graeme Sul l ivan . Bi r tchnel l , John 1984 , `Ar t therapy as a fo rm of psychotherapy ' , Art as Therapy. An introduct ion to the use of art as a therapeut ic technique , ed T .Dal ley , Tavis tock Publ ica t ions , London, pp .30-44 . Brady , Veronica 1995, `Abor ig ina l Spi r i tua l i ty ' in Rel ig ion, Li terature and the Arts Project , eds . M.Gri f f i th & R.Keat ing ,pp.11-21 . Brody , Howard 1992, The Healer 's Power , Yale Univers i ty Press , New Haven . Bruner , Jerome 1987, `Li fe as Narra t ive ' , Soc ia l Research , Vol .54 ,No.1 ,pp .11-32 . Bruner , Jerome 1990, Acts of Meaning , Harvard Univers i ty Press , Cambridge Massachuse t t s . Burke LeFevre , Karen 1987 , Invent ion as a Soc ia l Act , Southern I l l ionois Univers i ty Press , Carbondale & Edwardsvi l le . Buzan , Tony wi th Buzan , Bar ry 1993 , The Mind Map Book ,BBC Books ,London. Casse l l , Er ic . J .1991, The Nature of Suffer ing and the Goals o f Medic ine , Oxford Univers i ty Press , New York . Casse l l , Er ic . J .1993, `The Sorcerer ' s Broom. Medic ine ' s Rampant Technology ' , Hast ings Center Report , Volume 23 ,Number 6 , November-December ,pp .32-39 . Casse l l , Er ic . J .1985, `The Place of the Humani t ies in Medic ine ' , in Applying the Humanit ies , eds Danie l Ca l lahan e t a l ,P lenum Press , New York ,pp .167-189 . Chagal l , Marc c .1991 , Message Bib l ique in Pet i t s Guides des Grands Musees , Musee Nat ional , Edi t ions de la Reunion des Musees Nat ionaux ,Par i s . Coles , Pe ter 1983, Art in the NHS , DHSS. Cork , Richard 1979 , The Socia l Role of Art . Essays in Cri t ic i sm for a Newspaper Publ ic , Gordon Fraser , London. Cork , Richard 1984, `Ar t wi th in Reach ' , Art Monthly ,pp .28-29 .
199
Crosby , Gre ta n .p . `When the Bot tom Fal l s Out ' , Tree and Jubi lee ( c i ted in le t te r f rom KAIROS HOUSE, a Resource Center for the Caregivers of HIV Affec ted Persons , San Francisco) . Crowther , Paul 1993 , Art and Embodiment . From Aesthet ics to Sel f -Consc iousness , C larendon Press ,Oxford . Da l ley , Tessa ( ed) 1984 , Art as Therapy. An introduct ion to the use of art as a therapeutic technique , Tavis tock Publ ica t ions ,London. 1984 . Denz in , Norman K. & Lincoln , Yvonna S . (eds) 1994 , Handbook of Qual i tat ive Research , Sage Publ ica t ions , London. De Staeb ler , S tephen & Diane Apos to los-Cappadona 1986 , `Ref lec t ions on Art and the Spi r i t : A Conversa t ion ' in Art , Creat iv i ty and the Sacred. An anthology in re l ig ion and art , ed . Diane Apos to los-Cappadona, Cross road , New York pp .24-33 . Dewey , John 1980 , Art as Experience , A Per igee Book, New York . (1934) Dissanayake , E l len 1988 , What i s art for? , Univers i ty of Washington Press , Sea t t le . Dissanayake , E l len 1992 , Homo Aesthet icus . Where Art Comes From and Why , The Free Press , New York . Dool ing ,D.M.( ed) 1986 , A Way of Working , Parabola Books ,New York . Duncum, Paul 1980-1981 , `Chi ldren 's Spontaneous Image-Making as P lay ' , Off ic ia l Journal of the Inst i tute of Art Educat ion , 4 -5 ,pp .1-18 . Evans , Megan c .1994 , The Art of Nurs ing . An Exhibi t ion of artworks by nurses and artworks about nursing , The Aust ra l ian Nurs ing Federa t ion (Vic tor ian Branch) . F ie ld , Joanna 1957 , On not being able to paint , Jeremy P . Tarcher , Inc . , Los Angeles . F lew, Anthony 1979, Consul t ing Edi tor , A Dict ionary of Phi losophy , Pan Books ,London. For inash , Miche le 1993, `An Explora t ion in to Qual i ta t ive Research in Music Therapy ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 , No.1 ,pp .69-73 . Foucaul t , Michel 1973, The Birth of the Cl inic .An Archaelogy of Medica l Percept ion , Trans la ted f rom the French by A. M. Sher idan , Rout ledge , London. Franck , Freder ick 1973 , The Zen of Seeing/Drawing as Meditat ion , Vin tage Books , New York .
200
Franck , Freder ick 1985 , Echoes from the Bottomless Wel l , Vin tage Books , New York . Fr iedan , Bet ty 1993 , The Founta in of Age , Jonathan Cape, London. Fu l ler , Pe ter 1986 , The Austra l ian Scapegoat . Towards An Antipodean Aesthet ic , Univers i ty of Western Aust ra l ia Press , Nedlands . Gabl ik , Suzi 1991 , The Reenchantment of Art , Thames and Hudson , New York . Gadamer , Hans-Georg 1975, Truth and Method , Crossroad ,New York . Gadamer , Hans-Georg 1991 , in Art and Phi losophy ed . Giancar lo Pol i t i , pp .19-30 . Gerrand , David 1995 , `heal thy deba te ' in Network News , Queens land Communi ty Arts Network , Edi t ion 2 ,pp .12-13 . Gi lkey , Langdon B.1984 , `Can Ar t F i l l the Vacuum? ' in Art Creat iv i ty and the Sacred. An Anthology in Rel ig ion and Art , ed . Diane Aposto los-Cappodona , Cross road ,New York .pp .187-192 . Gi l l igan , Caro l & At tanucc i , Jane 1988, `Two Mora l Or ien ta t ions ' in Mapping the Moral Domain. A Contr ibut ion of Women's Thinking to Psychological Theory and Educat ion , eds . Caro l Gi l l igan e t a l . Harvard Univers i ty Press , Cambr idge , Massachuset t s , pp .73-86 . Goffman, Erv ing 1961 , Asylums. Essays on the Socia l S i tuat ion of Mental Pat ients and Other Inmates ,Pe l ican , Grea t Br i ta in . Gombr ich , E .H. 1985, The Story of Art , Gui ld Publ i sh ing, Phaidon Press Limi ted , London. Govinda , Lama Anagar ika 1970 , The Way of the White Clouds. A Buddhis t Pi lgr im in Tibet , Shambhala ,Berkeley . Gr i f f i th , Michael & Keat ing , Ross (eds) 1995 , Rel ig ion , Li terature and the Arts Project , Conference Proceedings , Aus t ra l ian In ternat ional Conference ,1994 . Gr i f f i th , Michael & McGlade , James A. (eds) 1991, Cap and Bel l s . The Poetry of Francis Webb , Angus & Rober t son , Nor th Ryde. Har t , Kevin (ed) 1994 , The Oxford Book of Austra l ian Rel ig ious Verse , Oxford Univers i ty Press , Melbourne . Hast ings-Smi th , Laura J . 1987 , `The Role of the Ar t i s t in Heal th -Care Set t ings : A Document Des igned for Prac t ica l Appl ica t ion ' , Mental Heal th in
201
Austra l ia . The Journal of the Austra l ian Nat ional Associat ion for Mental Heal th , Vol .1 ,No.18 , June ,pp .14- 22 . Hjer te r , Kath leen 1986 , Doubly Gif ted . The Author as Visual Art i s t , Harry N.Abrams. Inc . , New York . Hoad ,T .F . (ed . )1986 , The Concise Oxford Dict ionary of Engl i sh Etymology , Gui ld Publ i sh ing , London. I saacs , Pe ter 1995, `Ar t , Heal th and the Good ' in The Arts in Heal th , eds . L .Woodhams & M.Bishop , Cunningham Cent re , Cent ra l Sec tor , Dar l ing Downs Regional Heal th Author i ty , Queens land Heal th . I saacs , Pe ter ( for thcoming) , `Disabi l i ty and The Educabi l i ty of Persons ' in Rizv i ,F and Chr i s tensen ,C. (eds) . Disabi l i ty and the Di lemmas of Educat ion and Just ice . Mi l ton Keynes : Open Univers i ty Press . Jennings , Sue (ed) 1992 , Dramatherapy. Theory and Pract ice 2 , Tavis tock/Rout ledge , London. Johnson , Mark 1993 , Moral Imaginat ion.Impl icat ions of Cogni t ive Science for Ethics , The Univers i ty o f Chicago Press , Chicago . Kapi tan , Lynn 1993 , Book rev iew of "Ar t as Medic ine : Creat ing a Therapy of the Imaginat ion" by Shaun McNif f . The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.5 ,pp .435-437 . Kaprow, Al lan 1993, in Essays on the Blurr ing of Art and Li fe , ed . Je f f Kel ly , Univers i ty of Cal i fo rn ia Press ,Berkeley . Kaspar i , Joanne 1995 , `Ar t i s t s Working in Heal th ' , in The Arts in Heal th , eds . L .Woodhams and M.Bishop ,pp .87-88. Kekes , John 1990 , Facing Evi l , Pr ince ton Univers i ty Press ,Pr ince ton ,New Jersey . Laing ,R.D. 1969, The Div ided Sel f . An Exis tent ia l Study in Sani ty and Madness , Penguin Books , London. (1959) . Lakoff , George 1987 , Women, Fire , and Dangerous Things . What Categories Reveal about the Mind , The Univers i ty o f Chicago Press , Chicago . Laur i tzen , Paul c 1991 , ` "Exper ience as Tru th? Feminis t E th ics , Exper ience and Reproduct ive Technology" ' ,Bioethics News , Vol .11 ,No.1 ,pp .8-19 . MacIn ty re , Alasdai r 1966 , A Short History of Ethics , Col l ie r Books , Macmi l lan Publ i sh ing Company , New York . McCahon, Col in 1988, Gates and Journeys , Auckland Ci ty Ar t Gal le ry ,
202
Auckland . McDermot t , John J . (ed) 1973 , The Phi losophy of John Dewey,Volume 1 , The Structure of Experience , Capr icorn Books , G.P. Putnam's Sons , New York . McDonnel l , Thomas P . (ed) 1989, A Thomas Merton Reader , Image Books Doubleday , New York . (1974) . McNiff , Shaun 1986 , Educat ing the Creat ive Arts Therapis t : A Prof i le of the Profess ion , Char les C Thomas Publ i sher ,Spr ingf ie ld , I l l ino is . McNiff , Shaun 1991 , `Eth ics and the Autonomy of Images ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy ,Vol .18 ,pp.227-283 . McNiff , Shaun 1993 , `The Author i ty of Exper ience ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.1 ,pp .3-9 . Marcuse , Herber t 1978 , The Aesthet ic Dimension. Toward a Cri t ique of Marxis t Aesthet ics , Macmi l lan Educa t ion , London. Mar i ta in , Jacques 1943 , Educat ion at the Crossroads , Yale Univers i ty Press , New Haven . Mar i ta in , Jacques 1972 , The Responsibi l i ty of the Art i s t , Gordian Press , New York . May , Wi l l iam F.1994, The Pat ient 's Ordeal , Ind iana Univers i ty Press , Bloomington and Ind ianapol i s . Mer ton , Thomas 1988 , A Vow of Conversat ion. Journals 1964 - 1965 . ed i ted by Naomi Bur ton S tone , Far rar S t raus Gi roux , New York . Michaels , Er ic 1994 , Bad Aborig inal Art . Tradi t ion ,Media , and Technologica l Horizons , Al len & Unwin , S t .Leonards . Mi tchel l , S tephen (ed) 1987 , The Selected Poetry of Rainer Maria Ri lke , P icador Class ics ,London. Modjeska , Drus i l la 1994 , The Orchard , P icador , Pan Macmi l lan ,Sydney . Moore , Thomas 1992 , Care of the Soul . How to Add Depth and Meaning to Your Everyday Li fe , P ia tkus ,London. Moss , L inda 1987 , Art for Heal th 's Sake , Carnegie UK Trus t . Moss , L inda 1988 , Art and Heal thcare , DHSS, London. Murdoch , I r i s 1970, The Sovereignty of Good , Rout ledge ,London.
203
Murdoch , I r i s 1992 , Metaphys ics as a Guide to Morals , Chat to & Windus , London. Nickol l s , Trevor 1994 , `Wres t l ing wi th Spi r i t s o f the Pas t and the Present ' , in Seeing Austra l ia , G. Sul l ivan , pp .75-79. Nie l sen , Joyce McCar l (ed) 1990 , Feminis t Research Methods . Exemplary Readings in the Socia l Sc iences , Wes tv iew Press , Boulder , San Franc isco & London. Night ingale , Benedic t 1995 , `Peter Brook . Voyages to Inner Space ' The New York Times, Sunday , March 5 , Sect ion 2 ,p .1 & 4 . Nussbaum, Mar tha C.1990, Love's Knowledge. Essays on Phi losophy and Literature , Oxford Univers i ty Press , New York . Os ter , Gera ld D. & Gould , Pat r ic ia 1987 , Using Drawings in Assessment and Therapy. A Guide for Mental Heal th Profess ionals , Brunner /Maze l , New York . Po l i t i , Giancar lo ( ed) 1991, Art and Phi losophy , F lash Ar t Books , Mi lan . Rabinow, Paul . (ed) 1984 , The Foucaul t Reader , Penguin , Middlesex . Rakatansky , Mark 1993 , `The Gest ic body of Archi tec ture in the Body ' , Journal of Phi losophy and the Visual Arts , Academy Edi t ions , Erns t & John , London,pp .70-79 . Rank , Ot to 1989 , Art and Art i s t . Creat ive Urge and Personal i ty Deve lopment , wi th a new foreword by Anais Nin , W.W.Nor ton &Company , New York . Rawls , John 1971 , A Theory of Just ice , Oxford Univers i ty Press ,Oxford . Ri lke , Rainer Mar ia 1986 , Rodin and Other Prose Pieces , Quar te t Books ,London. Robinson , Mar t in 1984 , `A Jungian approach to ar t therapy based in a res ident ia l se t t ing ' , in Art as Therapy. An introduct ion to the use of art as a therapeut ic technique , T .Dal ley (ed) pp .82-95 . Rowe, Doro thy 1994 , Time on Our Side . Growing in Wisdom, Not Growing Old , Harper Col l ins , London. Rowe, Noel 1994 , Modern Austra l ian Poets , Sydney Univers i ty Press , Sydney . Sacks , Ol iver 1984 , A Leg to Stand On , P icador , London. Sacks , Ol iver 1985, The Man who Mistook his Wife for a Hat , P icador ,
204
London. Sacks , Ol iver 1995 , An Anthropologist on Mars . Seven Paradoxica l Tales , P icador , New York . Sar i son , Seymour .B.1990 . The Chal lenge of Art to Psychology , Yale Univers i ty Press , New Haven ,London. Seymour , Wendy 1989 , Bodi ly a l terat ions , Al len & Unwin, Nor th Sydney . Shea , John 1978 , Stories of God. An Unauthorized Biography , The Thomas More press , Chicago, I l l ino is . S imsic , Wayne 1988, `The Landscape and Spi r i tua l i ty ' , Spir i tual Li fe , Spr ing . S lo terd i jk , Pe te r 1991 , in Art and Phi losophy , ed . Giancar lo Pol i t i . Smi th , Trevor 1983 , The Homoeopathic Treatment of Emotional I l lness . A Sel f Help Guide to Remedies Which Can Restore Calm and Happiness , Thorsons Publ i shers Limi ted , Wel l ingborough, Nor thampshi re . S tor r , Anthony 1989a , Sol i tude, F lamingo, Harper Col l ins ,London. S tor r , Anthony 1989b, ` Ind iv iduat ion and the Creat ive Process ' , in The Symbol ic Order . A Contemporary Reader on the Arts Debate , ed . Pe ter Abbs .pp .183-197 . S tor r , Anthony 1991 , `Music in Rela t ion to the Se l f ' , Journal of Bri t i sh Music Therapy , Vol .5 ,No.1 ,pp .5-13 . Sul l ivan , Graeme 1994, See ing Austral ia . Views of Art i s t s and Artwri ters , P iper Press ,Annandale . Szasz , Thomas .S .1974 , The Myth of Mental I l lness . Foundat ions of a Theory of Personal Conduct , Harper & Row, New York , N.Y. Szasz , Thomas 1991 , Ideo logy and Insani ty . Essays on the Psychiatr ic Dehumanizat ion of Man , Sy racuse Univers i ty Press . Tay lor , Char les 1989, Sources of the Sel f . The Making of Modern Ident i ty , Cambr idge Univers i ty Press , Cambridge . Tay lor , Char les 1991, The Ethics of Authent ic i ty , Harvard Univers i ty Press , Cambr idge ,Massachuse t t s . Tay lor , Char les 1992, Mult icul tural i sm and `The Pol i t ics of Recogni t ion' , Pr ince ton Univers i ty Press , Pr ince ton , New Jersey . Tay lor , Mark .C.1992, Dis f iguring Art , Architecture ,Rel ig ion , The Univers i ty of Chicago Press ,Chicago .
205
Taylor , Mark .C.1993, Nots , The Univers i ty of Chicago Press ,Chicago . Tay lor , Mark .C. 1995 , Col loquium : Art , Rel ig ion and Archi tecture , Univers i ty of Sydney . Toombs , S .Kay 1988, ` I l lness and the Parad igm of Lived Body ' , Theoret ica l Medic ine 9 ,pp .210-226 . Toulmin , S tephen 1990 , Cosmopol i s . The Hidden Agenda of Moderni ty . The Univers i ty of Chicago Press , Chicago . Van Maanen , John 1988 , Tales of the Fie ld . On Writ ing Ethnography. The Univers i ty of Chicago Press , Chicago . Wal le r , Diane 1984, `A cons idera t ion of the s imi la r i t i es and d i f fe rences be tween ar t teach ing and ar t therapy ' , in Art as Therapy. An introduct ion to the use of art as a therapeut ic technique, T. Dal ley (ed) , Tavis tock Publ ica t ions , London,pp .1-14 . Warner , Richard 1994 , Recovery from schizophrenia . Psychiatry and pol i t ica l economy , Rout ledge .London & New York . Second Edi t ion . Warnock , Mary 1976 , Imaginat ion , Faber & Faber , London. Woodhams, L ibby & Bishop, Michael (eds) 1995 , The Arts in Heal th . `Exploring the Role of the Arts in Heal th ' , Conference Papers , Cunningham Cent re , Cent ra l Sec tor , Dar l ing Downs Regiona l Heal th Author i ty , Queensland Heal th . Yard ley , Ains l ie 1995 , `Ar t i s t s Working in Heal th ' in The Arts in Heal th , eds . L .Woodhams & M.Bishop , Cunningham Cent re , Cent ra l Sec tor , Dar l ing Downs Regional Heal th Author i ty , Queens land Heal th . pp .88-90 .
206
BIBLIOGRAPHY. Abbenante , Jos ie 1994 , Commencement Address a t Vermont Col lege of Norwich Univers i ty , Augus t ,1993, American Journal o f Art Therapy , Vol 32 ,February ,pp .83-84 . Aldr idge , David 1991 , `Creat iv i ty and consciousness : Music therapy in in tens ive care ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .18 , pp .359-362 . Aldr idge , David 1993c, `Music Therapy Research 1 : A Review of the Medica l Research Li te ra ture wi th in a genera l con tex t o f Music Therapy Research ' ,The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.1 ,pp .11-35 . Aldr idge , David & Verney , Rachel 1988 , `Creat ive Music Therapy in a Hospi ta l se t t ing : a Pre l iminary Research Design ' , Journal of Bri t i sh Music Therapy , Vol .2 ,No.2 ,pp .14-17 . Ames , Beat r ice 1980 , `Ar t and a Dying Pa t ien t ' , American Journal of Nurs ing , June ,pp .1094-1096. Anderson Kerr , Susan 1988 , `Thinking About Churches wi th the Right S ide of the Bra in ' , America , June 4 ,pp .580-582 . Apple ton , Valer ie E . 1993 , `An Art Therapy Pro tocol fo r the Medica l Trauma Set t ing ' , Art Therapy:Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , 10(2) ,pp .71-77. Apple ton , Valer ie E .1993 , `An Art Therapy Pro tocol for the Medica l Trauma Set t ing ' , Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , 10(2) ,pp .71-77. Ashton , Dore (ed) 1972 , Picasso on Art . A Select ion of Views , Da Capo,New York . Audet te , Anna Held 1993 , The Blank Canvas . Invi t ing the Muse , Shambhala , Boston . Aus t ra l ia , Par l iament 1994, Creat ive Nat ion , Canberra . Auty , Gi les 1995 , `Disputed Ter r i to ry ' , The Weekend Review , Augus t , 26-27 ,p .12 . Barker , Ph i l ip 1993, Michel Foucaul t Subvers ions of the subject , Al len & Unwin ,Sydney .
207
Barham, Pete r 1992 , Clos ing the Asylum. The Mental Pat ient in Modern Socie ty , Penguin Books ,London. Bar re t , Diane B.1993, `Ar t Programming for Older Adul t s : What ' s Out There? ' , Studies in Art Educat ion , Vol .34 ,No.3 ,Spr ing ,pp .133-140 . Bar ron ,J .H. 1995 , `Art in hosp i ta l s ' , The Fi tzpat r ick Lec ture 1994 , Journal o f the Royal Col lege of Phys ic ians of London , Vol .29 ,No.2 ,March /Apr i l ,pp .131-144 . Bar ter , Lorna 1992 , ` Inv is ib le ar t s ' , Nursing Standard , Ju ly 15 ,Volume 6 ,Number 43 ,pp .18-19 . Bel f io re , Mar ia 1994, `The Group takes care of i t se l f : Ar t Therapy to Prevent Burnout ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .21 ,No2,pp .119-126 . Berg land , Chr is ty & Gonzales , Rosanna Moore 1993, ` Ar t and Madness : Can the in ter face be quant i f ied? The Sheppard Pra t t Ar t Ra t ing Sca le - An ins t rument for Measur ing Ar t In tegra t ion ' , American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .31 , February ,pp .81 -90 . Blandy , Doug 1993, `Communi ty -Based Li fe long Learn ing in Ar ts for Adul t s wi th Menta l Retardat ion : A Rat ionale , Conceptua l Foundat ion , and Suppor t ive Envi ronments ' , S tudies in Art Educat ion , No .34 ,No.3 ,Spr ing ,pp .167 -175 . Borowsky Junge , Maxine , Alvarez , Jan ise F inn , Kel logg ,Ann & Volker , Chr is t ine , 1993 , `The Ar t Therap is t as Socia l Act iv i s t : Reac t ions and Vis ions ' , Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , Vol .10 , No.3 ,pp .148-155 . Borowsky Junge, L inesch ,Maxine & Linesch ,Debra 1993 , ` Our Own Voices : New Parad igms for Ar t Therapy Research ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.1 ,pp .61-67 . Bowers , Jan is J . 1992 , `Therapy through Ar t . Fac i l i t a t ing Trea tment of Sexual Abuse ' , Journal o f Psychosocia l Nurs ing , Vol .30 ,No.6 ,pp .15-23 . Bowers , Len 1992, `E thnomethodology 1 : an approach to nurs ing research ' , Int .J .Nurs .Stud. , Vol .29 ,No.1 ,pp .59-67 . Boyle , Mary 1990 , Schizophrenia . A sc ient i f ic de lus ion? ,Rout ledge , London. Brandon , David 1976, Zen in the Art of Helping , Arkana , London. Brandt , Gudrun , Wohler , Dagmar & Aldr idge , David 1991 , `Working toge ther : A Compara t ive s tudy of music therapy and a r t therapy ' , Journal of Bri t i sh Music Therapy , Vol .5 , No.1 ,pp .14-21 .
208
Breggin , Pe ter 1993 , Toxic Psychiatry , Harper Col l ins ,London. Brewester Smi th ,M. 1978 , in What i t Means to be Human. Essays in Phi losophical Anthropology ,Pol i t ica l Phi losophy and Socia l Psychology , ed Ross F i tzgera ld , Pergamon Press , Ruscu t te rs Bay . Broer , Lawrence 1989 , Sani ty Plea . Schizophrenia in the Novels o f Kurt Vonnegut , UMI, Research Press , Ann Arbor . Bromfie ld , David 1994, `Cr i t ica l Response as a Res is tan t Prac t ice ' , in Seeing Austra l ia , G .Sul l ivan ,pp .134-137 . Byock , I ra Rober t 1991, `F ina l Exi t : A Wake-Up Cal l to Hospice ' , The Hospice Journal ,Vol .7 (4) ,pp .51-66 . Cadzow,Jane 1994 , `AIDS' ,The Sydney Morning Herald Magazine ,22 October ,pp .39-46 . Cal lahan Danie l , Caplan , Ar thur L . & Jennings , Bruce (eds) 1985 , Applying the Humanit ies , P lenum Press ,New York . Car l i se , Daloni 1990 , `The Sooth ing Ar ts ' , Nurs ing Times , Augus t 15 , Vol .86 ,No.33 ,pp .27-30 . Car l i s le , Daloni 1991 , `A Colourfu l , Fresh Sta r t ' , Nursing Times , August 7 ,Vol .87 ,No32,pp .46-47 . Car r igan , Jeanne 1993 , `Eth ica l Cons idera t ions in a Superv isor Rela t ionsh ip : A Synthes i s ' , Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , Vol .10 ,N0.3 ,pp .130-135 . Champernowne,H. I rene 1971 , `Ar t and Therapy : An Uneasy Par tnersh ip ' , American Journal o f Art Therapy , Apr i l , Vol .10 .No.3 ,pp .131-143 . Chatwin , Bruce 1987 , The Songl ines , P icador ,London. Chatwin , Bruce 1989 , What Am I Doing Here , Jonathan Cape, London. Cl i f f , Charmain 1992, Pee l Me A Lotus , Angus & Rober t son ,Pymble . (1959) Cl i f ford , James 1988, The Predicament of Culture . Twent ieth-Century Ethnography, Li terature and Art , Harvard Univers i ty Press , Cambr idge ,Massachuse t t s . Col l i , Luisa Mart ina 1994, `Aims in Therapy and Direc t ives in Soc ie ty : Observat ions on Ind iv iduat ion and Adapta t ion ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .21 ,No.2 ,pp .107-112 .
209
Col l ins , Wi l l iam .E .1989, ` A Sermon f rom Hel l : Toward a Theology of Lonel iness ' , Journal o f Rel ig ion and Heal th , Vol .28 ,No.1 , Spr ing ,pp .70-79. Connel l , He ide 1989 , `Promot ing Creat ive Express ion ' , Nurs ing Times , Apr i l 12 , Vol .85 , No.15 , pp .52 - 54 . Cohn , Al f red .E . 1931 , Science and Art .Studies in interre lat ions , The Univers i ty of Chicago Press , Chicago , I l l ino is . Cooper , David 1992 , The Cherry Farm creat ive arts trust , Queen El izabe th 11 Ar t Counci l o f New Zealand , Wel l ing ton . Darbyshi re , Phi l ip 1994, `Unders tanding the l i fe of i l lness : Learn ing through the ar t o f Fr ida Kahlo ' , Adv Nurs Sc i , 17 (1) ,pp .51-59 . David , I rene , Rosner 1987 , `Psychologica l Aspects o f AIDS as seen in Art Therapy ' , The American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .26 ,Aug,pp .3-10 . Deveson , Anne 1991 , Tel l Me I 'm Here , Penguin . Dreyfus , Huber t L . 1987, `Foucaul t ' s Cr i t ique of Psychia t r ic Medic ine ' , The Journal o f Medic ine and Phi losophy , Vol .12 .pp .311-333 . Duncum, Paul 1982 , `Towards Loca t ing Chi ldren 's Spontaneous Drawings Dur ing Middle Chi ldhood wi th in Art Educa t ion ' , Journal o f the Inst i tute of Art Educat ion , 6 ,pp .67-86. Duncan , David F . 1987 , `Crea t iv i ty and Menta l Wel lness ' , Heal th Values , Vol .11 , No.3 , May /June ,pp .3-7 . Dykes , J im N.c 1988 . `Hospice - The Bas ics ' , Unpubl i shed Paper presen ted a t Sacred Hear t Hospice ,Sydney . Eagle ton , Ter ry 1990 , The Ideology of the Aesthet ic , Bas i l Blackwel l , Oxford . Ef land , Ar thur 1992 , `Ralph Smi th 's Concept of Aes the t ic Exper ience and i t s Curr icu lum Impl ica t ions ' , S tudies in Art Educat ion , Vo.33 , I ssue 4 , Summer ,pp .195-199 . E l io t , T .S . 1983 , Four Quartets , Faber & Faber , London. E ls te r , John 1983 , Sour Grapes . Studies in the subversion of rat ional i ty , Cambr idge Univers i ty Press , Cambridge . Esquivel , Laura 1993 , L ike Water for Chocolate . A Novel in Monthly Insta lments wi th Recipies , Romances and Home Remedies , Black Swan/Doubleday , Great Br i ta in . Foucaul t , Michel 1977 , Disc ipl ine and Punish . The Birth of the Prison ,
210
Transla ted f ron the French by Alan Sher idan , Penguin Books , London. Frampton , David R. 1989, `Arts Act iv i t ies in Uni ted Kingdom Hospices . A Repor t ' , Journal of Pal l ia t ive Care ,5 :4 , pp .25 - 34 . Frankl in , Michae l & Pol i t sky ,Rosa l ie 1992, `The Problem of In te rpre ta t ion : Impl ica t ions and S t ra teg ies for the Fie ld of Ar t Therapy ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .19 ,pp .163-175 . Frankl in , Michael 1993 , `AIDS Iconography and Cul tura l Transformat ion: Visual and Ar t i s t ic Responses to the AIDS Cris i s ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.4 ,pp .299-316 . Fromm, Er ich 1951 , The Forgot ten Langauage . An introduct ion to the understanding of Dreams, Fairy Tales and Myths , Hol t , Rinehar t & Wins ton , New York . Fur th , Gregg .M.1981, `The Use of Drawings made a t S ign i f ican t T imes of One 's L i fe ' , in Living with Death and Dying , E l i sabeth Kubler -Ross , Col l i e r Books , Macmi l lan Publ i sh ing Company , New York . Garner , Helen 1995, the f i rst s tone. some quest ions about sex and power , P icador ,PanMacmi l lan , Sydney . Gaze , Harr ie t 1991, `Lessons in Crea t iv i ty ' , Nursing Times , Aug.21 ,Vol .87 , No.34 ,pp .54-55 . Gla i s ter , Judy A.& McGuinness ,Teena 1992, `The Ar t o f Therapeut ic Drawing . Help ing Chronic Trauma Surv ivors ' , Journal of Psychosocia l Nurs ing , Vol .30 ,No.5 ,pp .9-17 . Gleeson , Gera ld P .1992 , `The Value of Reading Fic t ion ' , L i terature and Aesthet ics . The Journal o f the Sydney Society of Li terature and Aesthet ics , Spr ing ,pp .67-80. Gleeson , Gera ld .P .1993 , `What 's wrong wi th ass i s ted su ic ide? ' Bioethics Outlook ,Vol .4 , No.2 , June ,pp .3-4 . Goffman, Erving 1959 , The Presentat ion of Se l f in Everday Li fe , Penguin ,London. Goffman, Erv ing 1963 , St igma. Notes on the Management of Spoi led Ident i ty , Penguin ,London. Goodal l , Pa t r ick 1990 , `Mongre l o r Hybr id . The Ar t Teacher /Therap is t ' , Inscape ,Summer , pp .16-22 . Gordon , Rosemary 1975 , `The crea t ive process : se l f -express ion and se l f -t ranscendence ' , in Creat ive Therapy ed . Sue Jennings ,P i tman Publ i sh ing ,London.
211
Got t , Ted, Compi ler , 1994 , Don't Leave Me This Way. Art in the Age of AIDS , Nat ional Gal le ry of Aust ra l ia , Thames & Hudson , Melbourne . Gro ts te in , James S .1992, ` The Enigmat ic Rela t ionsh ip of Creat iv i ty to Menta l Heal th and Psychopathology ' , American Journal o f Psychotherapy , Vol .XLV1, No.3 ,Ju ly , pp . Haese ler , Mar tha .P .1992 , `Eth ica l Considera t ions for the Group Therap is t ' , The American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .31 ,Augus t ,pp .2-9 . Ha l l iday , Diana 1988, `My Ar t Healed Me ' , Inscape , Spr ing ,pp .18-22 . Hannah , Connie ,M.1992, `Heal ing Arts : A Mural on Menta l I l lness and Wel lness ' , American Journal o f Art Therapy , Vol .31 ,Nov,pp .34-39 . Har tz , Gary W. & Evere t t , Henry C.1989, `Fundamenta l i s t Rel ig ion and I t s Effec t on Menta l Heal th ' , Journal of Rel ig ion and Heal th , Volume 28 , No.3 , Fal l ,pp .207- 217 . Hast ings Center Report ,1994, `What Do We Owe the Elder ly? Al loca t ing Socia l and Heal th Care Resources ' , Recommendat ions of a Jo in t In ternat ional Research Group of the Ins t i tu te for Bioe th ics , Maas t r ich t , The Nether lands , and the Has t ings Center ,Br iarc l i f fe Manor ,N.Y.Vol .24 ,No.2 ,pp .S1-S12. Hawley , Jane t 1988 , `LLoyd Rees . The F inal In terv iew, The F inal Works ' , Good Weekend ,15 October ,pp .39-48 . Henzel l , John 1988 , `Body and Soul ' , Inscape , Spr ing ,pp .23-25 . Hether ington , Les ley & McLeod,Lyn 1994 , ` Images of Women 's Courage ' , Herald Sun (Melbourne) , 5 December ,p .36 . Hicks , John .M.1993, `Technology and Aes thet ics : A Crucia l Synthes is ' , The Journal of the National Art Educat ion Assoc iat ion , Nov,Vol .46 ,No.6 ,pp .42-47 . Hi l l , Adr ian 1951 , Paint ing out I l lness , Wi l l i ams & Norgate Ltd ,London. Hi l lman, James 1972, The Myth of Analys i s . Three Essays in Archetypal Psychology , Harper Perennia l , New York , NY. Hi l lman, James 1975, Re-Vis ioning Psychology , Harper & Row, New York . Hi l lman, James 1983, Heal ing Fict ion , S ta t ion Hi l l , New York . Hobbs , Jack 1993 , ` In Defense of a Theory of Ar t fo r Ar t Educat ion ' , S tudies in Art Educat ion . A Journal of I ssues and Research , Vol .34 , I ssue 2 , Winter ,pp . 104 -113 .
212
Hoffman, Nigel 1986 , `Creat iv i ty : A Way to the Sel f ' , Transforming Art , Vol .1 ,No.1 ,pp .19-22 . Hol t , Rober t .R .1964 , ` Imagery : The Return of the Ost rac ized ' , American Psychologis t , 19 ,pp .254 -264 . Hol t , Rober t 1992 , `The Contemporary Cr i ses of Psychoanalys i s ' , Psychoanalys i s and Contemporary Thought . A Quarterly of Integrat ive and Interdisc ipl inary Studies , Vol .15 ,pp .375-403 . Hooton , Joy 1993, `Li fe -Lines in S tormy Seas : Some Recent Col lec t ions of Women 's Diar ies and Let te rs ' , Austra l ian Literary Studies ,Vol .16 ,No.1 ,May ,pp .3-11 . I saacs , Pe te r 1994, `Response to Professor Tony Coady ' ,Ethics , Cul ture and Business , Number 4 , Queensland Univers i ty of Technology . Johnson , Galen .A. (ed) 1993 , The Merleau-Ponty Aesthet ics Reader: Phi losophy and Paint ing ,Nor thwes tern Univers i ty Press ,Evans ton , I l l ino is . Joseph ,K.1992, `Eth ics and The New Genet ics ' , New Doctor , Autumn, pp .11-15 . Kant , Immanuel 1986 , The Cri t ique of Judgment , t rans la ted wi th Analy t ica l Indexes by James C.Meredi th , Oxford a t the Clarendon Press ,Oxford . Kasper , Dianne 1991 , `Connect ions th rough Art ' , The Queensland Nurse , Mar /Apr i l ,pp .22-23 . Kerr , Fergus 1986 , Theology after Wittgenste in , Bas i l Blackwel l . Kess le r , Marc 1993, `Conf ident ia l i ty ' , American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .31 ,May ,pp .106- 108 . Ki rby , David 1988 , `Shame and the Use of the Heal th Care Serv ices ' , Inscape , Spr ing ,pp .11-13. Ki tz inger , Cel ia 1989 , `L ibera l Humanism as an Ideo logy of Socia l Cont ro l : The Regula t ion of Lesbian Ident i t i es ' , in Texts of Ident i ty , Shot te r , J & Gergen ,K.J . London:Sage ,pp .82-98 . Kramer , Hi l ton 1993 , `The Impor tance of Pe ter Ful ler ' , Modern Painters , Summer ,pp .48-50 . Lachman-Chapin , Mi ldred 1993. `The Art Therap is t as Exhib i t ing Ar t i s t : Messages f rom Joseph Beuys , Suzi Gabl ik , and Donald Kuspi t ' , Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , 10(3) ,pp .141-147 . Lachman-Chapl in , Mi ldred 1993, `From Cl in ic ian to Ar t i s t :From Art i s t to Cl in ic ian ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy ,Vol .31 .February ,pp .76-80 .
213
Landy , Rober t J .1993 , `The Chi ld , The Dreamer , The Ar t i s t and The Fool : In Search of Unders tanding the Meaning of Express ive Therapy ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.5 ,pp .359-369 . Landy , Rober t , J .1993 , ` In t roduct ion : A Research Agenda for the Creat ive Ar ts Therap ies ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , No .1 ,Vol .20 ,pp .1-2 . Leaska , Mi tchel l A. 1992 , `The Death of A Novel i s t ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .19 ,pp .193-199 . Leigh Neale , E l izabeth 1993, `What Can Art Therap is t s Learn f rom the Research on Pro jec t ive Drawing Techniques for Chi ldren? A Review of the Li te ra ture ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy ,Vol .20 ,No.1 ,pp .37-49 . Lerner , Melv in . J .1980, The Bel ie f in a Just World . A Fundamental Delus ion, Plenum Press , New York . Let t , Warren R. 1993 , `Therap is t Creat iv i ty : The Arts o f Superv is ion ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.5 ,pp .371-386 . London, Peter 1992 , `Art as Transformat ion ' , Art Educat ion , May ,pp .8-15 . Lowe, Nicholas & McLean , Alan 1994 , `Art no t Therapy . Beyond educat ion ' , Artis ts Newslet ter ,August ,pp .30-31 . Ludwig , Arnold M. 1989 , `Ref lec t ions on Creat iv i ty and Madness ' ,American Journal o f Psychotherapy , Vol .XLII I ,No.1 . January ,pp .4-14 . Lumsdon, Kevin 1992 , `Hospi ta l s recognize the l ink between ar t and heal ing ' , Hospita ls , October 5 ,pp .68-70. Lyotard , Jean-Francois 1991 , in Art and Phi losophy , ed .Giancar lo Pol i t i ,pp .65-83 . Mackl in , Ruth 1985, `S tandards in Phi losophy . Pure and Impure? Or Appl ied and Unappl ied? ' , in Applying the Humanit ies eds .Danie l Ca l lahan e t a l , P lenum Press ,New York ,pp .271-287 . McCal lum, John 1995 , `Camp f lesh to excess ' , The Weekend Review , January 28-29 ,p .12 . Maclagan , David 1985 , `Ar t Therapy in a Therapeut ic Communi ty ' , Inscape , No .1 ,pp .7-8 . Maclagan , David 1993 , `A Keen Eye: Outs ider Ar t and Ar t Therapy: Aesthet ics , E th ics and Cruel ty ' , Inscape ,Winte r ,pp .9-14 . McCal l , Ca ther ine 1990 , Concepts of Person. An analys i s o f concepts of person, se l f and human being , Avebury ,Aldershot ,Brookf ie ld USA.
214
McMil lan , Ian 1991, `Art ' s Del ight ' , Nursing Times , Sep tember 4 ,Vol .87 ,No.36 ,pp.52-53 . Mackenzie , Ann E . 1994 , `Evalua t ing e thnography : cons idera t ions for ana lys is ' , Journal of Advanced Nurs ing ,19 ,pp .774-781 . Mackenzie , Ian 1993 , `Ter r ib le Beauty :Paul de Man 's Ret rea t f rom the Aes the t ic ' , The Journal of Aesthet ics and Art Cri t ic i sm, 51 :4 ,Fal l ,pp .551-560 . Malch iodi , Cathy A.1993, ` In t roduc t ion to Specia l I ssue: Ar t and Medic ine ' , Art Therapy:Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion , 10(2) pp .66-69 . Malch iodi , Cathy A.1993, ` In t roduct ion to Specia l Issue on Ar t Therapy and Profess ional i sm : I s there a Cr is i s in Ar t Therapy Educat ion? ' , Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art Therapy Associat ion ,10(3) ,pp .122-127. Marks , Jef f rey 1994 , `The re-emergence of ant ipsychia t ry . Psychia t ry under threa t ' , Hospita l Update , Apr i l ,pp .187-189 . Marks F lemming, Mar i 1993 , `From Cl in ic ian to Ar t i s t : From Ar t i s t to Cl in ic ian .Par t 1 : A Personal Account ' , Americ ian Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .31 ,February ,pp .70-75 . Marsden , Sal ly 1993 , Healthy Arts a guide to the ro le of the arts in heal th care ,Ar t s Access ,Melbourne . Massey , David 1994, `Human Ident i ty and Change:The Educat iona l Chal lenge ' , a paper presented a t the conference Ident i t ies , E thnic i t ies ,Nat iona l i t ies : As ian and Paci f ic Contex ts , La Trobe Univers i ty , Melbourne , July 7-9 . May , Wanda T . 1992 , `Phi losopher as Researcher and/or Begging the Ques t ion(s) ' , S tudies in Art Educat ion . A Journal of I ssues and Research , Vol .33 ,No.4 ,Summer ,pp .226-243 . May , Wanda T . 1993 , `Teachers-as -Researchers" or Act ion Research : What i s i t , and What Good i s i t fo r Ar t Educat ion? ' , S tudies in Art Educat ion. A Journal of Issues and Research , Vol .34 , Issue 2 , Winter ,pp .114-126 . Mazza , Nicholas 1993 , `Poet ry Therapy :Towards a Research Agenda for the 1990s ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.1 ,pp .51-59 . Mendelssohn , Joanna 1994 , `Love,death and the long goodbye ' , The Bul le t in , 13 December ,p .83 . Menninger , Kar l 1959 , `Hope ' , The American Journal o f Psychiatry , 116 ,12 , pp .481-491 .
215
Michaels , Er ic 1990 , Unbecoming. An AIDS Diary , EM Press .Rose Bay ,N.S.W. Mi l ler , John (ed) 1992 , On Suic ide . Great Writers on the Ul t imate Quest ion , Chronic le Books , San Francisco . de Monta igne , Michel 1995 , Four Essays , Penguin Books ,London. Morr i s , David .B. 1991 , The Culture of Pain , Univers i ty of Cal i forn ia Press , Berke ley . Murray , Laura c .1987 , Art and Transformation. A Series of Seven Lectures , Unpubl i shed , Cathol ic Theologica l Col lege , Sydney . Murray , Les 1990, B locks and Tackles , Col l ins ,Angus & Rober t son ,Sydney . Namburg , Margare t 1950 , An Introduct ion to Art Therapy: Studies of the `Free ' Art Express ion of Behavior Problem Chi ldren and Adolescents as a Means of Diagnosis and Therapy , Teachers Col lege Press , Columbia Univers i ty , New York . Namburg , Margare t 1955, `Ar t as Symbol ic Speech ' , The Journal o f Aesthet ics & Art Cri t ic i sm , Vol .13(4)pp .435-450 . Neale , El izabeth ,Le igh , Rosa l ,Maat & Rosal ,Marcia l . 1993 , `What can Art Therap is t s Learn f rom the Research on Pro jec t ive Drawing Techniques for Chi ldren? A Review of the Li te ra ture ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy,Vol .20 ,pp.37-49 . Nelson , Venet ia (ed) 1990 , On Being Human. Meditat ions on Experience , David Lovel l Publ i sh ing , Melbourne . Nie lsen , Kai 1994, `Methods of Eth ics : Wide Ref lec t ive Equi l ibr ium and a Kind of Consequent ia l i sm' , Journal of Socia l Phi losophy , Vol .25 ,No.2 ,Fal l ,pp .57-72 . Norman, Bi l l & Kazar , Andrew 1994, `Ar t f rom the hear t o f d i sease ' , Canberra Times , 11 November ,p .6 . Nouwen, Henr i J .M. 1977 , The Liv ing Reminder. Serv ice and Prayer in the Memory of Jesus Christ , Gi l l and Macmil lan , Dubl in . Nyberg , David 1981 , Power over Power , Corne l Univers i ty Press , I thaca . Nuland , Sherwin .B. 1993, How We Die , Chat to & Windus ,London. O 'Connor , Pe ter (ed) 1994 , Thinking Work Vol .1 . Theoret ica l Perspect ives on Workers ' Li teracies , Albsac , Sydney . O 'Donoghue, Thomas A. & Brooker ,Ross 1993 , `Educat ion Through the
216
Art i s t ' s Eye: A Cr i t ica l In te rpre ta t ion of the Recol lec t ions and Viewpoin ts of Se lec ted Queens land Ar t i s t s ' , Austral ian Art Educat ion . Journal of The Austral ian Inst i tute of Art Educat ion , Vol .16 ,No.2 , Autumn,pp .18-24 . O 'Hear , Anthony 1993 , `Natura l ly Creat ive? ' , Modern Painters ,Spr ing , pp .52-55 . Ogi lvy , James A. (ed) 1973 , Sel f and World. Readings in Phi losophy , Harcour t Brace Jovanovich Inc . , New York . Par ro t t , June 1982 , `Aes thet ics : A Fundamenta l Educat ional Exper ience ' , Journal of the Inst i tute of Art Educat ion ,6 ,pp .45-51 . Pendzik , Susana 1994 , `The Thea t re S tage and Sacred Space : A Compar i son ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .21 , No.1 , pp .25-35 . Pf laum, Maggie Cal lanan 1986, ` Unders tanding the Fina l Messages of the Dying ' , Nurs ing , Volume.16 ,Number 6 , June ,pp .26-29 . Presca , Kevin 1980-1981, `Crea t iv i ty and The Crea t ive Process ' , Off ic ia l Journal o f the Inst i tute of Art Educat ion , 4 -5 ,pp .55-61 . Pr ice , Neal 1990 , `A Crea t ive Arts Network:Towards a Nurs ing S t ra tegy ' , The Queensland Nurse , Jan /Feb ,pp .18-19. Pr ice , Neal 1992 , `Theat re for Heal th ' , The Queensland Nurse ,Sep t /Oct , pp .16-17 . Proc te r , Nicholas 1991, `Using a r t to explore nurs ing s tudent ' s a t t i tudes to psychia t r ic hosp i ta l s and pat ien ts ' , The Austra l ian Nurses Journal ,Volume 20 ,No.9 ,May ,pp .14-17 . Rappapor t , Ju l ian 1993, `Narra t ive S tudies ,Persona l S tor ies , and Ident i ty Transformat ion in the Mutua l Help Contex t ' , The Journal of Appl ied Behavioral Sc ience , Vol .29 ,No.2 , June ,pp .239-256 . Rawl inson , Mary ,C.1986, `The Sense of Suf fer ing ' , The Journal of Medic ine and Phi losophy , Volume.11,No.1 , February ,pp .39-62 . Rawl inson , Mary C. 1987 , `Foucaul t ' s S t ra tegy : Knowledge,Power , and the Spec i f ic i ty of Tru th ' , The Journal o f Medic ine and Phi losophy , Vol .12 ,pp .371-395 . Reid , Ca lvin 1990 , `Beyond Mourn ing ' , Art in America , 78 ,pp .51-57. Richard , Lucien .O.M.I .1992 , What are they saying about the theology of suffer ing? Paul i s t Press , New York . Ricoeur , Paul 1991, Narra t ive Ident i ty , Phi losophy Today , 35 (1) ,pp .73-81.
217
Rilke , Ra iner Mar ia 1985 , Letters on Cezanne , ed Clara Ri lke , t rans . f rom the German by Joel Agee , Vintage ,London. Roach , Tom 1986, `Ar t i s t s and Myst ics : Re la ted Aspects of Seeing and Contempla t ion ' , Spir i tual Li fe , Spr ing , Vol .30 , No.1 ,pp .31-39 . Robbins , Ar thur 1992 , `The P lay of Psychotherapeut ic Ar t i s t ry and Psychoaes the t ics ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .19 ,pp .177-186 . Rol fe , Marlene 1994 , `Ar t a f ter E ighty . Ar t wi th Old People ' , art i s ts newslet ter , Apr i l . Rosenhan ,D.L.1973, `On Being Sane in Insane P laces ' , Sc ience , 179 ,pp. 250-258 . Rosner David , Sageman, I rene & Sageman, Sharon 1987 , `Psychologica l Aspects o f AIDS as Seen in Ar t Therapy ' , The American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .26 ,Aug,pp .3-10 . Rosenwald George C.& Ochberg ,Richard L (eds) ? Storied Lives . The Cultural Pol i t ics of Se l f -Understanding , Yale Univers i ty Press , New Haven. Sacks , Ol iver 1989 , See ing Voices . A Journey into the World of the Deaf , P icador ,London. Sacks , Ol iver 1990 , Awakenings , P icador , Grea t Br i ta in . Sandel , Susan L .& Johnson,David Read 1987 , Wait ing at the Gate . Creat iv i ty and Hope in the Nursing Home, The Hawor th Press , New York . Sacks , Sheldon (ed) 1978 , On Metaphor , The Univers i ty of Chicago Press , Chicago . Sarb in , Theodore R. (ed) 1986 , Narrat ive Psychology . The Stor ied Nature of Human Conduct , Praeger , New York . Scarry , E la ine 1985 , The Body in Pain . The Making and Unmaking of the World , Oxford Univers i ty Press , New York ,Oxford . Schaver ien , Joy 1985, `Crea t iv i ty and the Ins t i tu t ion ' , Inscape , No .1 ,pp .3-6 . Schre iber , Kat r ina 1991 , `Rel ig ion in the Physic ian-Pat ien t Rela t ionsh ip ' , Jama , December 4 , Vol 266 ,No. 21 ,pp .3062-3063. Schutzman, Chana c 1990 , ` Images of Death - The Ful l Rainbow' , Unpubl i shed Lecture g iven a t In ternat ional Conference on Gr ief and Bereavement ,Sydney . Scru ton , Roger 1974 , Art and Imaginat ion . A Study in the Phi losophy of Mind , Rout ledge & Kegan Paul , London.
218
Scru ton , Roger 1989 , `Modern Phi losophy and the Neglec t o f Aesthe t ics ' , in The Symbol ic Order , ed .Peter Abbs ,pp .21-33 . Sedgwick , Sa l ly 1994, `Get t ing i t Made . Disabi l i ty and the Visua l Ar ts ' , art i s ts newslet ter ,August ,pp .32-34 . Sennet t , Richard 1977 , `The Rise of Pr iva te Man ' , New York Review of Books ,Apr i l ,14 ,pp .19-26 . Sh i f f , Richard 1978 ,1979 , `Art and Li fe : A Metaphor ic Rela t ionsh ip ' , in On Metaphor , ed . Sheldon Sacks , The Univers i ty of Chicago Press , Chicago ,pp .105-120 . Sch i f f , Richard 1984 , Cezanne and the End of Impress ionism. A Study of the Theory , Technique, and Cri t ica l Evaluat ion of Modern Art , The Univers i ty of Chicago Press , Chicago . Skol imowski , Henryk 1994, The Part ic ipatory Mind. A new theory of knowledge and of the universe , Arkana , Penguin Books ,London. Smai l , David 1993 , The Orig ins of Unhappiness . A New Understanding of Personal Distress , Harper Col l ins ,London. Smi th , Bernard 1994, `Advocat ing an Independent Trad i t ion ' , in Seeing Austra l ia , G .Sul l ivan ,pp .72-75 . Smi th , Cypr ian 1987 , The Way of Paradox. Spir i tual Li fe as taught by Meister Eckhart , Paul i s t Press , New York .N.Y. Smi th , Ralph A.1992, `Problems for a Phi losophy of Ar t Educat ion ' , S tudies in Art Educat ion ,Vol .33 ,No.4 ,Summer ,pp .253-266 . Sontag , Susan 1977 , I l lness as Metaphor ,Penguin , London. A Susan Sontag Reader , Penguin . Middlesex . 1963 . Sourkes , Barbara M.1991, ` Tru th to Li fe : Ar t Therapy wi th Pedia t r ic Oncology Pat ien ts and Thei r S ib l ings ' , Journal o f Psychosoc ia l Oncology ,Vol .9 (2) ,pp .81-96 . Spanio l , Susan E . 1994, `Conf ident ia l i ty Reexamined: Negot ia t ing Use of Art by Cl ien ts ' , American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .32 ,February ,pp .69-74 . S tan ton , Mar t in 1993 , `Pain t ing the Nightmare ' , Modern Painters ,Winter ,pp .70-73 . S te r r i t t , Pa t r ic ia F . & Pokorny ,Mar ie E .1994, `Ar t Act iv i t ies fo r Pa t ien ts wi th Alzheimer ' s and Rela ted Disorders ' , Geriatr ic Nursing , Vol .15 ,No.3 ,pp .155-159 .
219
Stone , Naomi Bur ton 1988 , A Vow of Conversat ion . Thomas Merton. Journals 1964 - 1965 , Far rar -St raus-Giroux , New York . Su l l ivan , Mark 1988-1989, `Miche l Foucaul t and The Tru th of Madness ' , Review of Existent ia l Psychology and Psychiatry , Vol .xx i , Nos .1 ,2 ,&3,pp .81-96 . Su ter , Ronald 1989 , `The Ear ly Wi t tgenste in on Happiness ' , Internat ional Phi losophical Quarterly , Vol .XXIX,No.3 , I ssue No.115 ,pp .291-299 . Symes, Col in 1985 , `Art and Pol i t i cs ' , Art Monthly , (89) ,pp .3-9 . Szasz , Thomas 1976 , Schizophrenia . The Sacred Symbol o f Psychiatry , Sy racuse Univers i ty Press . Tay lor , Char les 1988 , `The Moral Topography of the Sel f ' , in Hermeneut ics and Psychologica l Theory: Interpret ive Perspect ives on Personal i ty , Psychotherapy, and Psychopathology , S .B.Sass e t a l eds , New Brunswick: Rutgers Univers i ty Press ,pp .298-320 . Tay lor , Char les 1992, Mult icul tra l i sm and `The Pol i t ics of Recogni t ion' , Pr ince ton Univers i ty Press , Pr ince ton , New Jersey . Teasdale , Col in 1993 , `The Role of the Cl in ica l P lacement in Ar t Therapy Tra in ing: Towards consol ida t ing our profess iona l ident i ty ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy ,Vol .20 ,No.3 ,pp .205-212 . Thomas, Danie l 1994 , `Ar t as a Way of Li fe ' , in Seeing Austra l ia , G.Sul l ivan ,pp .64-66 . Toulmin , S tephen 1976 , `On the Nature of the Phys ic ian ' s Unders tanding ' , The Journal o f Medic ine and Phi losophy ,Volume 1 ,March ,Number1 ,pp .32-50 . Turnbul l , David 1989 , Maps are Terri tories . Sc ience i s an At las , Deakin Univers i ty , Geelong , v ic tor ia . Turner , Br ian .S .1987, Medical Power and Socia l Knowledge , Sage Publ ica t ions , London. Ulman, E l inor 1992 , `Therapy i s Not Enough: The Cont r ibu t ion of Ar t to Genera l Hospi ta l Psychia t ry ' , American Journal of Art Therapy , Vol .30 ,February ,pp .89-97 . Vernon , John 1973 , The Garden and the Map. Schizophrenia in Twent ieth- Century Li terature and Culture , Univers i ty of I l l ino is Press ,Urbana , Chicago . Wadeson , Harr ie t 1993, `The Act ive Muse ' , The Arts in Psychotherapy , Vol .20 ,No.2 ,pp .173-184 .
220
Walker , Margare t Urban 1993 , `Keeping Moral Space Open . New Images of Eth ics Consul t ing ' , Hast ings Center Report , Vol .23 ,pp .33-40 . Wal ler , Diane & Gi l roy , Andrea (eds) 1992 , Art Therapy:a handbook , Open Univers i ty Press ,Buckingham,Phi lde lph ia . Ward , Pete r 1994, `Ski l fu l des ign wins the day ' , The Weekend Austra l ian , Augus t 6 -7 ,Proper ty ,p .8 . Wardhaugh, Ju l ia & Wild ing , Paul 1993 , `Towards an explanat ion of the corrup t ion of care ' , Cri t ica l Socia l Pol icy . (A Journal of socia l i s t theory and pract ice in socia l wel fare) , I s sue 37 , Vol .13 ,No.1 , Summer ,pp .4-31. Warren , Alan 1992 , Alan Warren on Art . The Marks we Make , A Ques t ionable Book , Urunga.N.S.W. Wat t s , Pa t 1992, `Therapy in Drama ' , in Dramatherapy. Theory and Pract ice 2 . S . Jennings (ed) Tavis tock /Rout ledge , London,pp .38-50 . Webb, Eugene 1988 , Phi losophers of Consc iousness . Polanyi , Lonergan, Vogel in , Ricoeur, Girard, Kierkegaard , Univers i ty of Washington Press , Sea t t le . West , Phi l ip 1986, `Div ine Crea t ion and Human Crea t iv i ty ' , New Blackfr iars , Nov,pp .478- 484 . Wise , Alan 1992 , Partners in heal th , Queen El izabeth 11 Ar ts Counci l o f New Zealand , Wel l ing ton . Wi t tgens te in , Ludwig 1986, Phi losophical Invest igat ions , Bas i l Blackwel l ,Oxford . (1959) . Wolf , Susan M. 1994 , `Heal th Care Reform and the Future of Physic ian Eth ics , Hast ings Center Report , March-Apri l ,Vol .24 ,No.2 ,pp .28-41 . Wol in , Sheldon 1977 , `The Rise of Pr iva te Man ' a rev iew of `The Fal l o f Publ ic Man ' by Richard Sennet t . New York Review of Books ,Apr i l ,14 .pp .19-26 . Wood, Chr i s t ine 1991 , `A Persona l View of Laing and h i s In f luence on Art Therapy ' , Inscape ,Win te r ,pp .15-18 . Wood, Michele 1990 , `Ar t Therapy in one Sess ion ' , Inscape ,Winter ,pp .27-33 . Yard ley , Ains l ie wi th Langley , Kim 1994, Unfolding . The Story of the Austra l ian and New Zealand AIDS Qui l t Projects , McPhee Gr ibble , Melbourne . Zaner , Richard 1988, Ethics and the Cl inica l Encounter , Prent ice Hal l , Englewood Cl i f f s , New Jersey .