TheElementsofStyle WilliamStrunk,Jr. NewlyRevisedandEditedbyChrisHong FormerEditor,HarvardUniversity ©2011 TheElementsofStylePress

TABLEOFCONTENTS

I.INTRODUCTORY

II.ELEMENTARYRULESOFUSAGE1.Formthepossessivesingularofnounswith's.2.Inaseriesofthreeormoretermswithasingle

conjunction,useacommaaftereachtermexceptthelast.3.Encloseparentheticexpressionsbetweencommas.4.Placeacommabeforeandorbutintroducingan

independentclause.5.Donotjoinindependentclausesbyacomma.

6.Donotbreaksentencesintwo.7.Aparticipialphraseatthebeginningofasentencemust

refertothegrammaticalsubject.8.Dividewordsatline-ends,inaccordancewiththeir

formationandpronunciation.

III.ELEMENTARYPRINCIPLESOFCOMPOSITION9.Maketheparagraphtheunitofcomposition:one

paragraphtoeachtopic.10.Asarule,begineachparagraphwithatopicsentence;

enditinconformitywiththebeginning.11.Usetheactivevoice.

12.Putstatementsinpositiveform.13.Omitneedlesswords.

14.Avoidasuccessionofloosesentences.15.Expressco-ordinateideasinsimilarform.

16.Keeprelatedwordstogether.

17.Insummaries,keeptoonetense.18.Placetheemphaticwordsofasentenceattheend.

IV.AFEWMATTERSOFFORM

V.WORDSANDEXPRESSIONSCOMMONLY

MISUSED

VI.WORDSOFTENMISSPELLED

I.INTRODUCTORY

Thisbook is intended foruse inEnglishcourses inwhichthe practice of composition is combined with the study ofliterature. It aims to give in brief space the principalrequirementsofplainEnglishstyle.Itaimstolightenthetaskofinstructorandstudentbyconcentratingattention(inChaptersIIandIII)onafewessentials,therulesofusageandprinciplesofcomposition most commonly violated. The numbers of thesectionsmaybeusedasreferencesincorrectingmanuscript. ThebookcoversonlyasmallportionofthefieldofEnglishstyle,buttheexperienceofitswriterhasbeenthatoncepasttheessentials, studentsprofitmostby individual instructionbasedontheproblemsoftheirownwork,andthateachinstructorhashisownbodyoftheory,whichhepreferstothatofferedbyanytextbook. It is an old observation that the best writers sometimesdisregardtherulesofrhetoric.Whentheydoso,however, thereader will usually find in the sentence some compensatingmerit,attainedatthecostoftheviolation.Unlessheiscertainofdoingaswell,hewillprobablydobesttofollowtherules.Afterhehas learned,by theirguidance, towriteplainEnglishadequate for everyday uses, let him look, for the secrets ofstyle,tothestudyofthemastersofliterature.

II.ELEMENTARYRULESOFUSAGE

1.Formthepossessivesingularofnounswith's.

Followthisrulewhateverthefinalconsonant.Thuswrite, Charles's friend, Burns's poems, the witch's malice, theBeatles’sconcerttour This is theusageof theUnitedStatesGovernmentPrintingOfficeandoftheOxfordUniversityPress. Exceptionsarethepossessivesofancientpropernamesin-es and -is, the possessive Jesus', and such forms as forconscience' sake, for righteousness' sake. But such forms asAchilles' heel, Moses' laws, Isis' temple are commonlyreplacedby theheelofAchillesthelawsofMoses,thetempleofIsis The pronominal possessives hers, its, theirs, yours, andoneselfhavenoapostrophe.

2.Inaseriesofthreeormoretermswithasingleconjunction,useacommaaftereachtermexceptthelast.

Thuswrite, red,white,andblue honest,energetic,butheadstrong He opened the letter, read it, and made a note of itscontents. ThisisalsotheusageoftheGovernmentPrintingOfficeandoftheOxfordUniversityPress. Inthenamesofbusinessfirmsthelastcommaisomitted,as Brown,ShipleyandCompany The abbreviation etc., even if only a single term comesbeforeit,isalwaysprecededbyacomma.

3.Encloseparentheticexpressionsbetweencommas.

Thebestwaytoseeacountry,unlessyouarepressedfortime,istotravelonfoot. Thisruleisdifficulttoapply;itisfrequentlyhardtodecidewhetherasingleword,suchashowever,orabriefphrase,isorisnotparenthetic.Iftheinterruptiontotheflowofthesentenceis but slight, the writer may safely omit the commas. Butwhether the interruption be slight or considerable, he mustneveromitonecommaandleavetheother.Suchpunctuationas Marjorie's husband, Colonel Nelson paid us a visityesterday, or Mybrotheryouwillbepleasedtohear,isnowinperfecthealth, isindefensible. Non-restrictiverelativeclausesare,inaccordancewiththisrule,setoffbycommas. The audience,which had at first been indifferent, becamemoreandmoreinterested. Similarclausesintroducedbywhereandwhenaresimilarlypunctuated.

In 1769, when Napoleon was born, Corsica had butrecentlybeenacquiredbyFrance. Nether Stowey, where Coleridge wrote The Rime of theAncientMariner,isafewmilesfromBridgewater. In these sentences the clauses introducedbywhich, when,andwherearenon-restrictive;theydonotlimittheapplicationof the words on which they depend, but add, parenthetically,statements supplementing those in the principal clauses. Eachsentenceisacombinationof twostatementswhichmighthavebeenmadeindependently. The audience was at first indifferent. Later it becamemoreandmoreinterested. Napoleonwasbornin1769.AtthattimeCorsicahadbutrecentlybeenacquiredbyFrance. Coleridge wrote The Rime of the Ancient Mariner atNether Stowey. Nether Stowey is only a few miles fromBridgewater. Restrictiverelativeclausesarenotsetoffbycommas. The candidate who best meets these requirements willobtaintheplace. Inthissentencetherelativeclauserestricts theapplicationofthewordcandidate toasingleperson.Unlike thoseabove,thesentencecannotbesplitintotwoindependentstatements. The abbreviations etc. and jr. are always preceded by a

comma,andexceptattheendofasentence,followedbyone. Similar in principle to the enclosing of parentheticexpressions between commas is the setting off by commas ofphrasesordependentclausesprecedingor following themainclauseofa sentence.Thesentencesquoted in this sectionandunder Rules 4, 5, 6, 7, 16, and 18 should afford sufficientguidance. If a parenthetic expression is preceded by a conjunction,placethefirstcommabeforetheconjunction,notafterit. He sawus coming, and unaware thatwe had learned ofhistreachery,greeteduswithasmile.

4.Placeacommabeforeandorbutintroducinganindependentclause.

The early records of the city have disappeared, and thestoryofitsfirstyearscannolongerbereconstructed. Thesituation isperilous,but there is stillonechanceofescape. Sentencesofthistype,isolatedfromtheircontext,mayseemtobeinneedofrewriting.Astheymakecompletesensewhenthecommaisreached,thesecondclausehastheappearanceofan after-thought. Further, and, is the least specific ofconnectives. Used between independent clauses, it indicatesonly that a relation exists between themwithout defining thatrelation.Intheexampleabove,therelationisthatofcauseandresult.Thetwosentencesmightberewritten: As the early records of the city have disappeared, thestoryofitsfirstyearscannolongerbereconstructed. Althoughthesituationisperilous,thereisstillonechanceofescape. Orthesubordinateclausesmightbereplacedbyphrases: Owing to the disappearance of the early records of thecity, the story of its first years can no longer bereconstructed.

In this perilous situation, there is still one chance ofescape. Butawritermayerrbymakinghissentencestoouniformlycompact and periodic, and an occasional loose sentenceprevents the style from becoming too formal and gives thereader a certain relief. Consequently, loose sentences of thetypefirstquotedarecommonineasy,unstudiedwriting.Butawriter should be careful not to construct too many of hissentencesafterthispattern(seeRule14). Two-part sentences of which the second member isintroduced by as (in the sense of because), for, or, nor, andwhile(inthesenseofandatthesametime)likewiserequireacommabeforetheconjunction. Ifadependentclause,oranintroductoryphraserequiringtobesetoffbyacomma,precedesthesecondindependentclause,nocommaisneededaftertheconjunction. The situation is perilous, but if we are prepared to actpromptly,thereisstillonechanceofescape. Fortwo-partsentencesconnectedbyanadverb,seethenextsection.

5.Donotjoinindependentclausesbyacomma.

If two or more clauses, grammatically complete and notjoined by a conjunction, are to form a single compoundsentence,thepropermarkofpunctuationisasemicolon. Stevenson's romances are entertaining; they are full ofexcitingadventures. It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town beforedark. It is of course equally correct to write the above as twosentenceseach,replacingthesemicolonsbyperiods. Stevenson's romances are entertaining. They are full ofexcitingadventures. It is nearly half past five.We cannot reach town beforedark. If a conjunction is inserted, the proper mark is a comma(Rule4). Stevenson'sromancesareentertaining,fortheyarefullofexcitingadventures.

It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach townbeforedark. Note that if the second clause is preceded by an adverb,suchasaccordingly,besides,so, then, therefore,or thus,andnotbyaconjunction,thesemicolonisstillrequired. Ihadneverbeenintheplacebefore;soIhaddifficultyinfindingmywayabout. Ingeneral,however,itisbest,inwriting,toavoidusingsointhismanner;thereisdangerthatthewriterwhousesitatallmayuseit toooften.Asimplecorrection,usuallyserviceable,istoomitthewordso,andbeginthefirstclausewithas: AsIhadneverbeenintheplacebefore,Ihaddifficultyinfindingmywayabout., Iftheclausesareveryshort,andarealikeinform,acommaisusuallypermissible: Manproposes,Goddisposes. Thegateswungapart, thebridge fell, theportculliswasdrawnup.

6.Donotbreaksentencesintwo.

Inotherwords,donotuseperiodsforcommas. Imet themona cruise several years ago.CominghomefromLiverpooltoNewYork. Hewasaninterestingtalker.Amanwhohadtraveledallovertheworld,andlivedinhalfadozencountries. Inboththeseexamples,thefirstperiodshouldbereplacedbyacomma,andthefollowingwordbegunwithasmallletter. It is permissible tomake an emphaticwordor expressionservethepurposeofasentenceandtopunctuateitaccordingly: Againandagainhecalledout.Noreply. Thewritermust, however, be certain that the emphasis iswarranted,andthathewillnotbesuspectedofamereblunderinpunctuation. Rules3,4,5,and6coverthemostimportantprinciplesinthe punctuation of ordinary sentences; they should be sothoroughly mastered that their application becomes secondnature.

7.Aparticipialphraseatthebeginningofasentencemust

refertothegrammaticalsubject.

Walking slowly down the road, he saw a womanaccompaniedbytwochildren. Thewordwalkingreferstothesubjectofthesentence,notto the woman. If the writer wishes to make it refer to thewoman,hemustrecastthesentence: Hesawawoman,accompaniedby twochildren,walkingslowlydowntheroad. Participial phrases preceded by a conjunction or by apreposition, adjectives, and adjective phrases comeunder thesameruleiftheybeginthesentence. OnarrivinginChicago,hisfriendsmethimatthestation.>When he arrived (or, On his arrival) in Chicago, hisfriendsmethimatthestation. A soldier of proved valor, they entrusted him with thedefence of the city. > A soldier of proved valor, he wasentrustedwiththedefenceofthecity. Youngand inexperienced, the task seemedeasy tome.>Youngandinexperienced,Ithoughtthetaskeasy. Without a friend to counsel him, the temptation provedirresistible.>Withoutafriendtocounselhim,hefoundthe

temptationirresistible. Sentencesviolatingthisruleareoftenludicrous. Being in a dilapidated condition, I was able to buy thehouseverycheap.

8.Dividewordsatline-ends,inaccordancewiththeirformationandpronunciation.

If there is room at the end of a line for one or moresyllables of a word, but not for the whole word, divide theword, unless this involves cutting off only a single letter, orcuttingoffonlytwolettersofalongword.Nohardandfastruleforallwordscanbelaiddown.Theprinciplesmostfrequentlyapplicableare:A.Dividethewordaccordingtoitsformation: know-ledge(notknowl-edge); Shake-speare(notShakes-peare); de-scribe(notdes-cribe); atmo-sphere(notatmos-phere); B.Divide"onthevowel:" edi-ble(noted-ible); propo-sition; ordi-nary; espe-cial;

reli-gious; oppo-nents; regu-lar; classi-fi-ca-tion(threedivisionspossible); deco-rative; presi-dent; C.Dividebetweendoubleletters,unlesstheycomeattheendofthesimpleformoftheword: Apen-nines; Cincin-nati; refer-ring; buttell-ing. The treatment of consonants in combination is best shownfromexamples: for-tune; pic-ture; presump-tuous; illus-tration;

sub-stan-tial(eitherdivision); indus-try; instruc-tion; sug-ges-tion; incen-diary. Thestudentwilldowelltoexaminethesyllable-divisioninanumberofpagesofanycarefullyprintedbook.

III.ELEMENTARYPRINCIPLESOFCOMPOSITION

9.Maketheparagraphtheunitofcomposition:one

paragraphtoeachtopic.

Ifthesubjectonwhichyouarewritingisofslightextent,orif you intend to treat it very briefly, theremay be no need ofsubdividing it into topics. Thus a brief description, a briefsummaryofaliterarywork,abriefaccountofasingleincident,a narrative merely outlining an action, the setting forth of asingle idea, any one of these is best written in a singleparagraph.After the paragraph has beenwritten, it should beexaminedtoseewhethersubdivisionwillnotimproveit. Ordinarily, however, a subject requires subdivision intotopics, each of which should be made the subject of aparagraph.Theobjectof treatingeachtopicinaparagraphbyitself is, of course, to aid the reader. The beginning of eachparagraphisasignaltohimthatanewstepinthedevelopmentofthesubjecthasbeenreached. The extent of subdivisionwill varywith the length of thecomposition. For example, a short notice of a book or poemmight consist of a singleparagraph.One slightly longermightconsistoftwoparagraphs:

A.Accountofthework.B.Criticaldiscussion.

Areportonapoem,writtenforaclassinliterature,might

consistofsevenparagraphs:C.Factsofcompositionandpublication.D.Kindofpoem;metricalform.E.Subject.F.Treatmentofsubject.G.Forwhatchieflyremarkable.H.Whereincharacteristicofthewriter.I.Relationshiptootherworks. The contents of paragraphsC andDwould varywith thepoem. Usually, paragraph C would indicate the actual orimaginedcircumstancesofthepoem(thesituation),ifthesecallforexplanation,andwouldthenstatethesubjectandoutlineitsdevelopment. If the poem is a narrative in the third personthroughout, paragraphC need contain nomore than a concisesummaryoftheaction.ParagraphDwouldindicatetheleadingideas and show how they are made prominent, or wouldindicatewhatpointsinthenarrativearechieflyemphasized. Anovelmightbediscussedundertheheads:J.Setting.K.Plot.

L.Characters.M.Purpose. Ahistoricaleventmightbediscussedundertheheads:N.Whatleduptotheevent.O.Accountoftheevent.P.Whattheeventledupto. Intreatingeitheroftheselasttwosubjects,thewriterwouldprobably find it necessary to subdivide one or more of thetopicsheregiven. Asarule,singlesentencesshouldnotbewrittenorprintedas paragraphs. An exception may be made of sentences oftransition, indicating the relation between the parts of anexpositionorargument. Indialogue, each speech, even if only a singleword, is aparagraphby itself; that is,anewparagraphbeginswitheachchangeofspeaker.Theapplicationofthisrule,whendialogueandnarrative are combined, is best learned fromexamples inwell-printedworksoffiction.

10.Asarule,begineachparagraphwithatopicsentence;

enditinconformitywiththebeginning.

Again, the object is to aid the reader. The practice hererecommended enables him to discover the purpose of eachparagraphashebegins to read it,and to retain thepurpose inmind as he ends it. For this reason, themost generally usefulkind of paragraph, particularly in exposition and argument, isthatinwhichA.thetopicsentencecomesatornearthebeginning;B. the succeeding sentences explain or establish ordevelopthestatementmadeinthetopicsentence;andC.thefinalsentenceeitheremphasizesthethoughtofthetopicsentenceorstatessomeimportantconsequence. Endingwithadigression,orwithanunimportantdetail, isparticularlytobeavoided. If the paragraph forms part of a larger composition, itsrelationtowhatprecedes,oritsfunctionasapartofthewhole,may need to be expressed. This can sometimes be done by amerewordorphrase(again; therefore; for thesamereason)in the topic sentence. Sometimes, however, it is expedient toprecede the topic sentence by one or more sentences ofintroduction or transition. If more than one such sentence isrequired, it is generally better to set apart the transitional

sentencesasaseparateparagraph. According to the writer's purpose, he may, as indicatedabove,relatethebodyoftheparagraphtothetopicsentenceinone or more of several different ways. He may make themeaning of the topic sentence clearer by restating it in otherforms,bydefiningitsterms,bydenyingtheconverse,bygivingillustrationsorspecificinstances;hemayestablishitbyproofs;or he may develop it by showing its implications andconsequences.Inalongparagraph,hemaycarryoutseveraloftheseprocesses.

1Now, tobeproperly enjoyed,awalking tour shouldbegoneuponalone.(Topicsentence.)

2Ifyougoinacompany,oreveninpairs,itisnolongerawalking tour inanythingbutname; it is somethingelseandmoreinthenatureofapicnic.(Themeaningmadeclearerbydenialofthecontrary.)

3 A walking tour should be gone upon alone, becausefreedomisoftheessence;becauseyoushouldbeabletostopandgoon,andfollowthiswayorthat,asthefreaktakesyou;andbecause youmusthave yourownpace,andneither trotalongsideachampionwalker,normince in timewithagirl.(Thetopicsentencerepeated, inabridgedform,andsupportedbythreereasons;themeaningofthethird("youmusthaveyourownpace")madeclearerbydenyingtheconverse.)

4 And youmust be open to all impressions and let yourthoughts take colour from what you see. (A fourth reason,statedintwoforms.)

5Youshouldbeasapipeforanywindtoplayupon.(The

samereason,statedinstillanotherform.)

6 "I cannot see the wit," says Hazlitt, "of walking andtalking at the same time. (The same reason as stated byHazlitt.)

7 When I am in the country, I wish to vegetate like thecountry,"which is the gist of all that can be said upon thematter.(ThesamereasonasstatedbyHazlitt.)

8Thereshouldbenocackleofvoicesatyourelbow,tojaron the meditative silence of the morning. (Repetition, inparaphrase,ofthequotationfromHazlitt.)

9Andsolongasamanisreasoninghecannotsurrenderhimselftothatfineintoxicationthatcomesofmuchmotionintheopenair,thatbeginsinasortofdazzleandsluggishnessofthebrain,andendsinapeacethatpassescomprehension.—Stevenson, Walking Tours. (Final statement of the fourthreason, in languageamplifiedandheightened to forma strongconclusion.)

1 It was chiefly in the eighteenth century that a verydifferentconceptionofhistorygrewup.(Topicsentence.)

2Historiansthencametobelievethat their taskwasnotsomuchtopaintapictureastosolveaproblem;toexplainorillustrate the successive phases of national growth,prosperity,andadversity. (Themeaning of the topic sentence

madeclearer;thenewconceptionofhistorydefined.)

3 The history of morals, of industry, of intellect, and ofart; the changes that take place in manners or beliefs; thedominantideasthatprevailedinsuccessiveperiods;therise,fall,andmodificationofpoliticalconstitutions;inaword,alltheconditionsofnationalwell-beingbecame thesubjectsoftheirworks.(Thedefinitionexpanded.)

4Theysoughtrathertowriteahistoryofpeoplesthanahistoryofkings.(Thedefinitionexplainedbycontrast.)

5Theylookedespeciallyinhistoryforthechainofcausesand effects. (The definition supplemented: another element inthenewconceptionofhistory.)

6 They undertook to study in the past the physiology ofnations,andhopedbyapplyingtheexperimentalmethodonalarge scale to deduce some lessons of real value about theconditionsonwhich thewelfareof societymainlydepend.—Lecky, The Political Value of History. (Conclusion: animportantconsequenceofthenewconceptionofhistory.) Innarrationanddescriptiontheparagraphsometimesbeginswith a concise, comprehensive statement serving to holdtogetherthedetailsthatfollow. Thebreezeservedusadmirably. Thecampaignopenedwithaseriesofreverses. Thenexttenortwelvepageswerefilledwithacurioussetofentries.

But this device, if too often used, would become amannerism. More commonly the opening sentence simplyindicates by its subject with what the paragraph is to beprincipallyconcerned. AtlengthIthoughtImightreturntowardsthestockade. Hepickeduptheheavylampfromthetableandbegantoexplore. Anotherflightofsteps,andtheyemergedontheroof. The brief paragraphs of animated narrative, however, areoften without even this semblance of a topic sentence. Thebreakbetween them serves the purpose of a rhetorical pause,throwingintoprominencesomedetailoftheaction.

11.Usetheactivevoice.

Theactivevoice is usuallymoredirect andvigorous thanthepassive: IshallalwaysremembermyfirstvisittoBoston. Thisismuchbetterthan MyfirstvisittoBostonwillalwaysberememberedbyme. The latter sentence is less direct, less bold, and lessconcise.Ifthewritertriestomakeitmoreconcisebyomitting"byme," MyfirstvisittoBostonwillalwaysberemembered, it becomes indefinite: is it the writer, or some personundisclosed,or theworldat large, thatwillalwaysrememberthisvisit? This rule does not, of course,mean that thewriter shouldentirely discard the passive voice, which is frequentlyconvenientandsometimesnecessary. ThedramatistsoftheRestorationarelittleesteemedto-

day. Modernreadershavelittleesteemforthedramatistsof

theRestoration. The first would be the right form in a paragraph on thedramatistsoftheRestoration;thesecond,inaparagraphonthetastesofmodernreaders.Theneedofmakingaparticularwordthe subject of the sentence will often, as in these examples,determinewhichvoiceistobeused. The habitual use of the active voice, however, makes forforciblewriting.This is true not only in narrative principallyconcernedwithaction,butinwritingofanykind.Manyatamesentence of description or exposition can bemade lively andemphatic by substituting a transitive in the active voice forsome such perfunctory expression as there is, or could beheard. Therewereagreatnumberofdeadleaveslyingonthe

ground. Deadleavescoveredtheground. Thesoundofthefallscouldstillbeheard. Thesoundofthefallsstillreachedourears. Thereasonthatheleftcollegewasthathishealthbecame

impaired. Failinghealthcompelledhimtoleavecollege. Itwasnotlongbeforehewasverysorrythathehadsaid

whathehad. Hesoonrepentedhiswords.

Asarule,avoidmakingonepassivedependdirectlyuponanother. Goldwasnotallowedtobeexported. Itwasforbiddentoexportgold(Theexportofgoldwas

prohibited). Hehasbeenprovedtohavebeenseenenteringthe

building. Ithasbeenprovedthathewasseentoenterthebuilding. In both the examples above, before correction, the wordproperly related to the second passive ismade the subject ofthefirst. A common fault is to use as the subject of a passiveconstructionanounwhichexpresses theentireaction, leavingtotheverbnofunctionbeyondthatofcompletingthesentence. Asurveyofthisregionwasmadein1900.>Thisregionwassurveyedin1900. Mobilizationof thearmywasrapidlycarriedout.>Thearmywasrapidlymobilized. Confirmation of these reports cannot be obtained. >Thesereportscannotbeconfirmed. Comparethesentence,"Theexportofgoldwasprohibited,"

in which the predicate "was prohibited" expresses somethingnotimpliedin"export."

12.Putstatementsinpositiveform.

Makedefiniteassertions.Avoidtame,colorless,hesitating,non-committallanguage.Usethewordnotasameansofdenialorinantithesis,neverasameansofevasion. Hewasnotveryoftenontime.>Heusuallycamelate. HedidnotthinkthatstudyingLatinwasmuchuse.>HethoughtthestudyofLatinuseless. The Taming of the Shrew is rather weak in spots.ShakespearedoesnotportrayKatharineasaveryadmirablecharacter, nor does Bianca remain long in memory as animportantcharacterinShakespeare'sworks.>ThewomeninThe Taming of the Shrew are unattractive. Katharine isdisagreeable,Biancainsignificant. Thelastexample,beforecorrection,isindefiniteaswellasnegative. The corrected version, consequently, is simply aguessatthewriter'sintention. Allthreeexamplesshowtheweaknessinherentinthewordnot. Consciously or unconsciously, the reader is dissatisfiedwithbeingtoldonlywhatisnot;hewishestobetoldwhatis.Hence, as a rule, it isbetter to express anegative inpositiveform. nothones>dishonest

notimportant>trifling didnotremember>forgot didnotpayanyattentionto>ignored didnothavemuchconfidencein>distrusted Theantithesisofnegativeandpositiveisstrong: Notcharity,butsimplejustice. NotthatIlovedCaesarless,butRomethemore. Negativewordsotherthannotareusuallystrong: ThesunneversetsupontheBritishflag.

13.Omitneedlesswords.

Vigorouswriting is concise.A sentence should containnounnecessarywords,aparagraphnounnecessarysentences, forthe same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessarylinesandamachinenounnecessaryparts.Thisrequiresnotthatthe writer make all his sentences short, or that he avoid alldetailandtreathissubjectsonlyinoutline,butthateverywordtell. Manyexpressionsincommonuseviolatethisprinciple: the question as to whether > whether (the questionwhether) thereisnodoubtbutthat>nodoubt(doubtless) usedforfuelpurposes>usedforfuel heisamanwho>he inahastymanner>hastily thisisasubjectwhich>thissubject Hisstoryisastrangeone.>Hisstoryisstrange. Inespecial theexpression the fact that should be revisedoutofeverysentenceinwhichitoccurs. owingtothefactthat>since(because)

inspiteofthefactthat>though(although) callyourattention to the fact that>remind you (notifyyou) Iwasunawareofthefactthat>Iwasunawarethat(didnotknow) thefactthathehadnotsucceeded>hisfailure thefactthatIhadarrived>myarrival Seealsoundercase,character,nature,system inChapterV. Whois,whichwas,andthelikeareoftensuperfluous. His brother, who is a member of the same firm >Hisbrother,amemberofthesamefirm Trafalgar, which was Nelson's last battle > Trafalgar,Nelson'slastbattle Aspositivestatementismoreconcisethannegative,andtheactive voice more concise than the passive, many of theexamples given under Rules 11 and 12 illustrate this rule aswell. Acommonviolationofconcisenessisthepresentationofasingle complex idea, step by step, in a series of sentenceswhichmighttoadvantagebecombinedintoone. Macbeth was very ambitious. This led him to wish to

becomekingofScotland.Thewitchestoldhimthatthiswishofhiswouldcometrue.ThekingofScotlandatthistimewasDuncan.Encouragedbyhiswife,MacbethmurderedDuncan.HewasthusenabledtosucceedDuncanasking.(55words.)>Encouraged by hiswife,Macbeth achievedhis ambitionand realized the prediction of the witches by murderingDuncan and becoming king of Scotland in his place. (26words.)

14.Avoidasuccessionofloosesentences.

Thisrulerefersespeciallytoloosesentencesofaparticulartype, those consisting of two co-ordinate clauses, the secondintroduced by a conjunction or relative. Although singlesentencesofthistypemaybeunexceptionable(seeunderRule4),aseriessoonbecomesmonotonousandtedious. An unskilled writer will sometimes construct a wholeparagraphof sentencesof thiskind,usingasconnectivesand,but,and less frequently,who,which,when,where,andwhile,theselastinnon-restrictivesenses(seeunderRule3). Thethirdconcertofthesubscriptionserieswasgivenlastevening,andalargeaudiencewasinattendance.Mr.EdwardAppletonwasthesoloist,andtheBostonSymphonyOrchestrafurnishedtheinstrumentalmusic.Theformershowedhimselftobeanartistofthefirstrank,whilethelatterproveditselffullydeservingofitshighreputation.TheinterestarousedbytheserieshasbeenverygratifyingtotheCommittee,anditisplannedtogiveasimilarseriesannuallyhereafter.Thefourthconcertwill be given onTuesday,May10,whenan equallyattractiveprogramwillbepresented. Apartfromitstritenessandemptiness,theparagraphaboveis bad because of the structure of its sentences, with theirmechanical symmetry and sing-song. Contrast with them thesentences in the paragraphs quoted under Rule 10, or in any

pieceofgoodEnglishprose,asthepreface(BeforetheCurtain)toVanityFair. Ifthewriterfindsthathehaswrittenaseriesofsentencesofthetypedescribed,heshouldrecastenoughofthemtoremovethemonotony,replacingthembysimplesentences,bysentencesoftwoclausesjoinedbyasemicolon,byperiodicsentencesoftwoclauses,bysentences,looseorperiodic,ofthreeclauses—whicheverbestrepresenttherealrelationsofthethought.

15.Expressco-ordinateideasinsimilarform.

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires thatexpressionsofsimilarcontentandfunctionshouldbeoutwardlysimilar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognizemore readily the likeness of content and function. Familiarinstances from the Bible are the Ten Commandments, theBeatitudes,andthepetitionsoftheLord'sPrayer. The unskilled writer often violates this principle, from amistaken belief that he should constantly vary the form of hisexpressions. It is true that in repeatinga statement inorder toemphasizeithemayhaveneedtovaryitsform.Forillustration,see the paragraph from Stevenson quoted under Rule 10. Butapart from this, he should follow the principle of parallelconstruction. Formerly, science was taught by the textbook method,while now the laboratorymethod is employed. >Formerly,sciencewastaughtbythetextbookmethod;nowitistaughtbythelaboratorymethod. Theleft-handversiongivestheimpressionthatthewriterisundecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose oneformofexpressionandholdtoit.Theright-handversionshowsthatthewriterhasatleastmadehischoiceandabidedbyit. Bythisprinciple,anarticleoraprepositionapplyingtoallthemembersofaseriesmusteitherbeusedonlybeforethefirst

termorelseberepeatedbeforeeachterm. TheFrench,theItalians,Spanish,andPortuguese>TheFrench,theItalians,theSpanish,andthePortuguese Inspring,summer,orinwinter>Inspring,summer,orwinter(Inspring,insummer,orinwinter) Correlativeexpressions(both,and;not,but;notonly,butalso; either, or; first, second, third; and the like) should befollowed by the same grammatical construction. Manyviolations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging thesentence. It was both a long ceremony and very tedious. > Theceremonywasbothlongandtedious. Atimenotforwords,butaction>Atimenotforwords,butforaction Eitheryoumustgranthisrequestor incurhis illwill.>Youmusteithergranthisrequestorincurhisillwill. My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure;second,thatitisunconstitutional.>Myobjectionsare,first,that the measure is unjust; second, that it isunconstitutional. SeealsothethirdexampleunderRule12andthelastunderRule13. Itmaybe asked,what if awriter needs to express a verylarge number of similar ideas, say twenty? Must he writetwenty consecutive sentences of the same pattern? On closer

examination he will probably find that the difficulty isimaginary,thathistwentyideascanbeclassifiedingroups,andthat he need apply the principle only within each group.Otherwise he had best avoid the difficulty by putting hisstatementsintheformofatable.

16.Keeprelatedwordstogether.

The position of the words in a sentence is the principalmeansofshowingtheirrelationship.Thewritermusttherefore,so far as possible, bring together the words, and groups ofwords, thatare related in thought,andkeepapart thosewhicharenotsorelated. Thesubjectofasentenceandtheprincipalverbshouldnot,as a rule, be separated by a phrase or clause that can betransferredtothebeginning. Wordsworth, in the fifth book of The Excursion, gives aminutedescriptionofthischurch.>InthefifthbookofTheExcursion,Wordsworth gives a minute description of thischurch. Cast iron, when treated in a Bessemer converter, ischangedintosteel.>BytreatmentinaBessemerconverter,castironischangedintosteel. The objection is that the interposed phrase or clauseneedlesslyinterruptsthenaturalorderofthemainclause.Thisobjection, however, does not usually hold when the order isinterrupted only by a relative clause or by an expression inapposition.Nordoesitholdinperiodicsentencesinwhichtheinterruption is a deliberatelyusedmeansof creating suspense(seeexamplesunderRule18).

The relative pronoun should come, as a rule, immediatelyafteritsantecedent. Therewasalookinhiseyethatbodedmischief.>Inhiseyewasalookthatbodedmischief. He wrote three articles about his adventures in Spain,whichwerepublishedinHarper'sMagazine.>HepublishedinHarper'sMagazinethreearticlesabouthisadventuresinSpain. This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson ofWilliamHenry Harrison, who became President in 1889. >This is a portrait of Benjamin Harrison, grandson ofWilliamHenryHarrison.HebecamePresidentin1889. If theantecedentconsistsofagroupofwords, therelativecomes at the end of the group, unless this would causeambiguity. A proposal to amend the Sherman Act, which has beenvariously judged > A proposal, which has been variouslyjudged,toamendtheShermanAct Or >Aproposaltoamendthemuch-debatedShermanAct ThegrandsonofWilliamHenryHarrison,who>WilliamHenryHarrison'sgrandson,BenjaminHarrison,who A noun in apposition may come between antecedent andrelative,because in suchacombinationno realambiguitycanarise.

The Duke of York, his brother, who was regarded withhostilitybytheWhigs Modifiers should come, if possible next to theword theymodify. If several expressions modify the same word, theyshouldbesoarrangedthatnowrongrelationissuggested. Allthememberswerenotpresent.>Notallthememberswerepresent. He only found two mistakes. > He found only twomistakes. MajorR.E.JoycewillgivealectureonTuesdayeveningin Bailey Hall, to which the public is invited, on "MyExperiences inMesopotamia" at eight P.M. >On TuesdayeveningateightP.M.,MajorR.E.JoycewillgiveinBaileyHall a lectureon"MyExperiences inMesopotamia."Thepublicisinvited.

17.Insummaries,keeptoonetense.

In summarizing the action of a drama, the writer shouldalwaysusethepresenttense.Insummarizingapoem,story,ornovel,heshouldpreferablyusethepresent,thoughhemayusethe past if he prefers. If the summary is in the present tense,antecedentactionshouldbeexpressedby theperfect; if in thepast,bythepastperfect. An unforeseen chance prevents Friar John fromdelivering Friar Lawrence's letter to Romeo. Juliet,meanwhile, owing to her father's arbitrary change of theday set for her wedding, has been compelled to drink thepotion on Tuesday night, with the result that Balthasarinforms Romeo of her supposed death before FriarLawrencelearnsofthenondeliveryoftheletter. Butwhichevertensebeusedinthesummary,apasttenseinindirectdiscourseorinindirectquestionremainsunchanged. TheLegateinquireswhostrucktheblow. Apartfromtheexceptionsnoted,whichevertensethewriterchooses, he should use throughout. Shifting from one tense tothe other gives the appearance of uncertainty and irresolution(compareRule15). Inpresentingthestatementsorthethoughtofsomeoneelse,as in summarizing an essay or reporting a speech, the writer

should avoid intercalating such expressions as "he said," "hestated,""thespeakeradded,""thespeakerthenwentontosay,""theauthoralsothinks,"orthelike.Heshouldindicateclearlyat the outset, once for all, thatwhat follows is summary, andthenwastenowordsinrepeatingthenotification. In notebooks, in newspapers, in handbooks of literature,summariesofonekindoranothermaybeindispensable,andforchildren in primary schools it is a useful exercise to retell astoryintheirownwords.Butinthecriticismorinterpretationofliteraturethewritershouldbecarefultoavoiddroppingintosummary. He may find it necessary to devote one or twosentences to indicating thesubject,or theopeningsituation,ofthe work he is discussing; he may cite numerous details toillustrate its qualities. But he should aim to write an orderlydiscussion supported by evidence, not a summary withoccasional comment. Similarly, if the scope of his discussionincludesanumberofworks,hewillasaruledobetternot totakethemupsinglyinchronologicalorder,buttoaimfromthebeginningatestablishinggeneralconclusions.

18.Placetheemphaticwordsofasentenceattheend.

Theproperplace for theword,orgroupofwords,whichthewriterdesirestomakemostprominentisusuallytheendofthesentence. Humanity has hardly advanced in fortitude since thattime, though it has advanced in many other ways. >Humanity, since that time, has advanced in many otherways,butithashardlyadvancedinfortitude. Thissteel isprincipallyusedformakingrazors,becauseof its hardness. > Because of its hardness, this steel isprincipallyusedinmakingrazors. The word or group of words entitled to this position ofprominence is usually the logical predicate, that is, the newelementinthesentence,asitisinthesecondexample. The effectiveness of the periodic sentence arises from theprominencewhichitgivestothemainstatement. Four centuries ago, Christopher Columbus, one of theItalianmarinerswhomthedeclineoftheirownrepublicshadputat theserviceof theworldandofadventure,seekingforSpain awestward passage to the Indies as a set-off againstthe achievements of Portuguese discoverers, lighted onAmerica.

With these hopes and in this belief I would urge you,layingasideallhindrance,thrustingawayallprivateaims,todevote yourselves unswervingly and unflinchingly to thevigorousandsuccessfulprosecutionofthiswar. The other prominent position in the sentence is thebeginning.Anyelement in thesentence,other than thesubject,becomesemphaticwhenplacedfirst. Deceitortreacheryhecouldneverforgive. So vast and rude, fretted by the action of nearly threethousandyears, the fragmentsof thisarchitecturemayoftenseem,atfirstsight,likeworksofnature. Asubjectcomingfirstinitssentencemaybeemphatic,buthardlybyitspositionalone.Inthesentence, Greatkingsworshippedathisshrine, theemphasisuponkingsariseslargelyfromitsmeaningandfromthecontext.Toreceivespecialemphasis,thesubjectofasentencemusttakethepositionofthepredicate. Throughthemiddleofthevalleyflowedawindingstream. Theprinciplethattheproperplaceforwhatistobemademost prominent is the end applies equally to the words of asentence,tothesentencesofaparagraph,andtotheparagraphsofacomposition.

IV.AFEWMATTERSOFFORM

Headings.Leaveablankline,oritsequivalentinspace,

afterthetitleorheadingofamanuscript.Onsucceedingpages,ifusingruledpaper,beginonthefirstline.

Numerals.Donotspelloutdatesorotherserialnumbers.Write them in figures or in Roman notation, as may beappropriate. August9,1918 ChapterXII Rule3 352ndInfantry

Parentheses. A sentence containing an expression inparenthesis ispunctuated,outsideof themarksofparenthesis,exactly as if the expression in parenthesis were absent. Theexpressionwithin ispunctuatedas if it stoodby itself, exceptthat thefinalstopisomittedunlessit isaquestionmarkoranexclamationpoint. I went to his house yesterday (my third attempt to seehim),buthehadlefttown. He declares (and why should we doubt his good faith?)thatheisnowcertainofsuccess. (When a wholly detached expression or sentence is

parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark ofparenthesis.)

Quotations. Formal quotations, cited as documentaryevidence,areintroducedbyacolonandenclosedinquotationmarks. TheprovisionoftheConstitutionis:"Notaxordutyshallbelaidonarticlesexportedfromanystate." Quotationsgrammaticallyinappositionorthedirectobjectsof verbs are preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotationmarks. I recall themaximofLaRochefoucauld, "Gratitude is alivelysenseofbenefitstocome.", Aristotlesays,"Artisanimitationofnature." Quotationsofanentireline,ormore,ofverse,arebegunonafreshlineandcentred,butnotenclosedinquotationmarks. Wordsworth's enthusiasm for the Revolutionwas at firstunbounded: Blisswasitinthatdawntobealive, Buttobeyoungwasveryheaven! Quotations introduced by that are regarded as in indirectdiscourseandnotenclosedinquotationmarks. Keatsdeclaresthatbeautyistruth,truthbeauty. Proverbial expressions and familiar phrases of literary

originrequirenoquotationmarks. Thesearethetimesthattrymen'ssouls. Helivesfarfromthemaddingcrowd. Thesameistrueofcolloquialismsandslang.

References. In scholarly work requiring exactreferences,abbreviatetitlesthatoccurfrequently,givingthefullformsinanalphabetical listat theend.Asageneralpractice,give the references in parenthesis or in footnotes, not in thebody of the sentence. Omit thewords act, scene, line, book,volume, page, except when referring by only one of them.Punctuateasindicatedbelow. Inthesecondsceneofthethirdact In III.ii (still better, simply insert III.ii inparenthesis attheproperplaceinthesentence) After the killing of Polonius, Hamlet is placed underguard(IV.ii.14). 2Samueli:17-27 OthelloII.iii264-267,III.iii.155-161

Titles. For the titles of literary works, scholarly usageprefers italics with capitalized initials. The usage of editorsand publishers varies, some using italics with capitalizedinitials, others usingRomanwith capitalized initials andwithorwithoutquotationmarks.Useitalics(indicatedinmanuscriptbyunderscoring),exceptinwritingforaperiodicalthatfollows

adifferentpractice.OmitinitialAorThefromtitleswhenyouplacethepossessivebeforethem. TheIliad;theOdyssey;AsYouLikeIt;ToaSkylark;TheNewcomes; A Tale of Two Cities; Dickens's Tale of TwoCities.

V.WORDSANDEXPRESSIONSCOMMONLYMISUSED

(Manyof thewordsandexpressionsherelistedarenotsomuchbadEnglishasbad style, the commonplacesof carelesswriting.As illustratedunderFeature, thepropercorrection islikelytobenotthereplacementofonewordorsetofwordsbyanother, but the replacement of vague generality by definitestatement.)

All right. Idiomatic in familiar speech as a detachedphrase in the sense, "Agreed," or "Go ahead." In other usesbetteravoided.Alwayswrittenastwowords.

As good or better than. Expressions of this typeshouldbecorrectedbyrearrangingthesentence. Myopinionisasgoodorbetterthanhis.>Myopinionisasgoodashis,orbetter(ifnotbetter).

Astowhether.Whetherissufficient;seeunderRule13.

Bid.Takestheinfinitivewithoutto.Thepasttenseisbade.

Case. The Concise Oxford Dictionary begins itsdefinitionof thisword: "instance of a thing's occurring; usualstate of affairs." In these two senses, the word is usuallyunnecessary. Inmanycases,theroomswerepoorlyventilated.>Manyoftheroomswerepoorlyventilated.

It has rarely been the case that any mistake has beenmade.>Fewmistakeshavebeenmade.

Certainly.Usedindiscriminatelybysomespeakers,muchas others use very, to intensify any and every statement. Amannerismofthiskind,badinspeech,isevenworseinwriting.

Character. Often simply redundant, used from a merehabitofwordiness. Actsofahostilecharacter>Hostileacts

Claim,vb.Withobject-noun,meanslayclaimto.Maybeusedwithadependentclauseifthissenseisclearlyinvolved:"He claimed that he was the sole surviving heir." (But evenhere, "claimed to be" would be better.) Not to be used as asubstitutefordeclare,maintain,orcharge.

Compare. To compare to is to point out or implyresemblances, between objects regarded as essentially ofdifferent order; to compare with is mainly to point outdifferences, between objects regarded as essentially of thesameorder.Thuslifehasbeencomparedtoapilgrimage,toadrama,toabattle;CongressmaybecomparedwiththeBritishParliament.ParishasbeencomparedtoancientAthens;itmaybecomparedwithmodernLondon.

Clever. This word has been greatly overused; it is bestrestrictedtoingenuitydisplayedinsmallmatters.

Consider.Notfollowedbyaswhenitmeans,"believeto

be." "I consider him thoroughly competent." Compare, "Thelecturer considered Cromwell first as soldier and second asadministrator," where "considered" means "examined" or"discussed."

Dependable. A needless substitute for reliable,trustworthy.

Due to. Incorrectly used for through, because of, orowingto, inadverbialphrases:"Helostthefirstgame,duetocarelessness."Incorrectuserelatedaspredicateorasmodifiertoaparticularnoun:"ThisinventionisduetoEdison;""lossesduetopreventablefires."

Effect. As noun,means result; as verb, means to bringabout, accomplish (not to be confused with affect, whichmeans"toinfluence"). As noun, often loosely used in perfunctory writing aboutfashions,music, painting, and other arts: "anOriental effect;""effectsinpalegreen;""verydelicateeffects;""broadeffects;""subtle effects;" "a charming effect was produced by." Thewriter who has a definite meaning to express will not takerefugeinsuchvagueness.

Etc.Nottobeusedofpersons.Equivalenttoandtherest,andsoforth,andhencenottobeusedifoneofthesewouldbeinsufficient,thatis,ifthereaderwouldbeleftindoubtastoanyimportant particulars. Least open to objection when itrepresents the last terms of a list already given in full, orimmaterialwordsattheendofaquotation.

Attheendofalistintroducedbysuchas,forexample,oranysimilarexpression,etc.isincorrect.

Fact.Use thiswordonlyofmattersofakindcapableofdirectverification,notofmattersofjudgment.Thataparticularevent happened on a given date, that lead melts at a certaintemperature, are facts.But such conclusions as thatNapoleonwas the greatest of modern generals, or that the climate ofCaliforniaisdelightful,howeverincontestabletheymaybe,arenotproperlyfacts. Ontheformulathefactthat,seeunderRule13.

Factor. A hackneyed word; the expressions of which itforms part can usually be replaced by somethingmore directandidiomatic. Hissuperiortrainingwasthegreatfactorinhiswinningthematch.>Hewonthematchbybeingbettertrained. Heavy artillery is becoming an increasingly importantfactor in deciding battles. > Heavy artillery is playing alargerandlargerpartindecidingbattles.

Feature.Anotherhackneyedword; like factor it usuallyaddsnothingtothesentenceinwhichitoccurs. A feature of the entertainment especially worthy ofmentionwas the singing ofMissA.> (Better use the samenumber of words to tell what Miss A. sang, or if theprogram has already been given, to tell something of howshesang.)

As a verb, in the advertising sense of offer as a specialattraction,tobeavoided.

Fix.ColloquialinAmericaforarrange,prepare,mend.Inwriting restrict it to its literary senses, fasten, make firm orimmovable,etc.

He is a man who. A common type of redundantexpression;seeRule13. He is a man who is very ambitious. > He is veryambitious. SpainisacountrywhichIhavealwayswantedtovisit.>IhavealwayswantedtovisitSpain.

However. In themeaningnevertheless, not tocome firstinitssentenceorclause. The roads were almost impassable. However, we at lastsucceeded in reaching camp. > The roads were almostimpassable. At last, however, we succeeded in reachingcamp. Whenhowevercomesfirst,itmeansinwhateverwayortowhateverextent. Howeveryouadvisehim,hewillprobablydoashethinksbest. >However discouraging the prospect, he never lostheart.

Kindof.Nottobeusedasasubstituteforrather (beforeadjectivesandverbs),orexceptinfamiliarstyle,forsomething

like(beforenouns).Restrictittoitsliteralsense:"Amberisakindoffossilresin;""Idislikethatkindofnotoriety."Thesameholdstrueofsortof.

Less.Shouldnotbemisusedforfewer. Hehadlessmenthaninthepreviouscampaign.>Hehadfewermenthaninthepreviouscampaign. Less refers toquantity, fewer tonumber. "His troublesarelessthanmine"means"Histroublesarenotsogreatasmine.""Histroublesarefewerthanmine"means"Histroublesarenotso numerous as mine." It is, however, correct to say, "Thesigners of the petition were less than a hundred, "where theroundnumber, a hundred, is something like a collectivenoun,andlessisthoughtofasmeaningalessquantityoramount.

Line,alongtheselines.Lineinthesenseofcourseofprocedure, conduct, thought, is allowable, but has been somuchoverworked,particularlyinthephrasealongtheselines,that a writer who aims at freshness or originality had betterdiscarditentirely. Mr. B. also spoke along the same lines. >Mr. B. alsospoke,tothesameeffect. HeisstudyingalongthelineofFrenchliterature.>HeisstudyingFrenchliterature.

Literal, literally. Often incorrectly used in support ofexaggerationorviolentmetaphor. Aliteralfloodofabuse>Afloodofabuse

Literally deadwith fatigue>Almost dead with fatigue(deadtired)

Lose out. Meant to be more emphatic than lose, butactually less so, because of its commonness. The same holdstrueoftryout,winout,signup,registerup.Withanumberofverbs,out andup form idiomatic combinations: findout, runout, turn out, cheer up, dry up, make up, and others, eachdistinguishable inmeaning from the simple verb.Lose out isnot.

Most.Nottobeusedforalmost. Mosteverybody>Almosteverybody Mostallthetime>Almostallthetime

Nature.Oftensimplyredundant,usedlikecharacter. Actsofahostilenature>Hostileacts Often vaguely used in such expressions as "a lover ofnature;""poemsaboutnature."Unlessmorespecificstatementsfollow, the reader cannot tell whether the poems have to dowith natural scenery, rural life, the sunset, the untrackedwilderness,orthehabitsofsquirrels.

Nearby.Adverbialphrase,notyetfullyacceptedasgoodEnglish, though theanalogyofcloseby andhardby seems tojustifyit.Near,ornearathand,isasgood,ifnotbetter. Nottobeusedasanadjective;useneighboring.

Oftentimes,Archaic forms, no longer in gooduse.Themodernwordisoften.

One hundred and one. Retain the and in this andsimilarexpressions,inaccordancewiththeunvaryingusageofEnglishprosefromOldEnglishtimes.

Oneofthemost.Avoidbeginningessaysorparagraphswiththisformula,as,"Oneofthemostinterestingdevelopmentsof modern science is, etc.;" "Switzerland is one of the mostinterestingcountriesofEurope."Thereisnothingwronginthis;itissimplythreadbareandforcible-feeble.

People.Thepeopleisapoliticalterm,nottobeconfusedwith the public. From the people comes political support oropposition; from the public comes artistic appreciation orcommercialpatronage. Thewordpeopleisnottobeusedwithwordsofnumber,inplaceofpersons.Ifof"sixpeople"fivewentaway,howmany"people"wouldbeleft?

Phase.Means a stage of transition or development: "thephasesofthemoon;""thelastphase."Nottobeusedforaspectortopic. Another phase of the subject >Another point (anotherquestion)

Possess.Not tobeusedasameresubstitute forhave orown.

He possessed great courage. > He had great courage(wasverybrave). Hewasthefortunatepossessorof>Heowned

Respective,respectively.Thesewordsmayusuallybeomittedwithadvantage. Works of fiction are listed under the names of theirrespective authors.>Works of fiction are listed under thenamesoftheirauthors. The onemile and twomile runswerewon by Jones andCummings respectively.>The onemile and twomile runswerewonbyJonesandbyCummings. Insomekindsofformalwriting,asingeometricalproofs,itmaybenecessarytouserespectively,but it shouldnotappearinwritingonordinarysubjects.

So.Avoid, inwriting, theuseof so as an intensifier: "sogood;""sowarm;""sodelightful." Ontheuseofsotointroduceclauses,seeRule4.

Sortof.SeeunderKindof.

State.Nottobeusedasameresubstituteforsay,remark.Restrict it to the sense of express fully or clearly, as, "Herefusedtostatehisobjections."

Student body. A needless and awkward expression,meaningnomorethanthesimplewordstudents.

Amemberofthestudentbody>Astudent Popularwiththestudentbody Liked by the students > The student body passedresolutions. Or Thestudentspassedresolutions.

System.Frequentlyusedwithoutneed. Dayton has adopted the commission system ofgovernment. > Dayton has adopted government bycommission. Thedormitorysystem>Dormitories

Thanking you in advance. This sounds as if thewritermeant, "Itwill not beworthmywhile towrite to youagain." Simplywrite, "Thanking you," and if the favorwhichyou have requested is granted, write a letter ofacknowledgment.

They. A common inaccuracy is the use of the pluralpronounwhen theantecedent is adistributiveexpression suchaseach,eachone,everybody,everyone,manyaman,which,thoughimplyingmorethanoneperson,requiresthepronountobe in the singular. Similar to this, but with even lessjustification,istheuseofthepluralpronounwiththeantecedentanybody, any one, somebody, some one, the intention beingeithertoavoidtheawkward"heorshe,"ortoavoidcommitting

oneselftoeither.Somebashfulspeakersevensay,"Afriendofminetoldmethatthey,etc." Usehewithalltheabovewords,unlesstheantecedentisormustbefeminine

Very. Use this word sparingly. Where emphasis isnecessary,usewordsstronginthemselves.

Viewpoint.Writepointofview,butdonotmisusethis,asmanydo,forvieworopinion.

While.Avoidtheindiscriminateuseofthiswordforand,but,andalthough.Manywritersuseitfrequentlyasasubstituteforandorbut,eitherfromameredesiretovarytheconnective,or fromuncertaintywhich of the two connectives is themoreappropriate.Inthisuseitisbestreplacedbyasemicolon. Theofficeandsalesroomsareon theground floor,whilethe rest of the building is devoted tomanufacturing.>Theoffice and salesroomsare on the ground floor; the rest ofthebuildingisdevotedtomanufacturing. Itsuseasavirtualequivalentofalthough is allowable insentenceswherethisleadstonoambiguityorabsurdity. While I admire his energy, Iwish itwere employed in abettercause. Thisisentirelycorrect,asshownbytheparaphrase, I admire his energy; at the same time I wish it wereemployedinabettercause.

Compare: While the temperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in thedaytime, the nights are often chilly. > Although thetemperature reaches 90 or 95 degrees in the daytime, thenightsareoftenchilly. Theparaphrase, Thetemperaturereaches90or95degreesinthedaytime;atthesametimethenightsareoftenchilly, showswhytheuseofwhileisincorrect. Ingeneral, thewriterwilldowell tousewhile onlywithstrictliteralness,inthesenseofduringthetimethat.

Whom.Oftenincorrectlyusedforwhobeforehesaidorsimilarexpressions,whenitisreallythesubjectofafollowingverb. His brother,whomhe saidwould send him themoney>Hisbrother,whohesaidwouldsendhimthemoney Themanwhomhethoughtwashisfriend>Themanwho(that) he thought was his friend (whom he thought hisfriend)

Worthwhile. Overworked as a term of vague approvaland (with not) of disapproval. Strictly applicable only toactions:"Isitworthwhiletotelegraph?" Hisbooksarenotworthwhile.>Hisbooksarenotworth

reading (not worth one's while to read; do not repayreading). Theuseofworthwhilebeforeanoun("aworthwhilestory")isindefensible.

Would.Aconditionalstatementinthefirstpersonrequiresshould,notwould. Ishouldnothavesucceededwithouthishelp. Theequivalentofshallinindirectquotationafteraverbinthepasttenseisshould,notwould. He predicted that before long we should have a greatsurprise. To express habitual or repeated action, the past tense,withoutwould, isusuallysufficient,andfromitsbrevity,moreemphatic. Once a year he would visit the old mansion. >Once ayearhevisitedtheoldmansion.

VI.WORDSOFTENMISSPELLED

Accidentally, formerly, privilege, advice, humorous,pursue,affect, hypocrisy, repetition, beginning, immediately,rhyme, believe, incidentally, rhythm, benefit, latter,ridiculous,challenge, led,sacrilegious,criticize, lose,seize,deceive, , marriage, separate, definite, mischief, shepherd,describe,murmur,siege,despise,necessary,similar,develop,occurred, simile, disappoint, parallel, too, duel, Philip,tragedy, ecstasy, playwright, tries, effect, preceding,undoubtedly,existence,prejudice,until,fiery,principal

THEEND