THE EFFICACY OF CONTEMPORARY LAW OF THE

SEA IN SUPPRESSING PIRACY AND MARITIME

TERRORISM

BY

KYAW HLA WIN @ MD. HASSAN AHMED

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirement

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Law

Ahmed Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws

International Islamic University Malaysia

MARCH 2014

ii

ABSTRACT

The safety of maritime navigation has always been in the midst of threat of piracy and

maritime terrorism due to the lack of efficient legal regime and cooperative

arrangements among States. This compelling situation forces the international

community to create regulatory frameworks which effectively suppresses such

maritime crimes. The researcher, therefore, aims to carry out the current study in order

to identify, examine, analyse deficiencies and propose viable solutions to those

shortcomings in the contemporary international law of the sea conventions, regional

agreements and regional arrangements pertaining to the suppression of piracy and

maritime terrorism, namely: the High Sea convention, the UNCLOS, the SUA

Convention, the 2005 Protocol, the ReCAAP, the Djibouti Code of Conduct and the

MSP in the Malacca Straits. The research is primarily doctrinal and the researcher

employs multidimensional methods of legal research, predominantly by qualitative

methods. The researcher applies analytical approach in examining the efficacy of

aforesaid contemporary international law of the sea. The comparative approach is also

used to appraise various definitions of piracy, armed robbery against ships and

unlawful acts against the safety of maritime navigation; and provisions relating to

jurisdiction, extradition, prosecution, right of visit, arrest of ships as well as offenders

under these legal regimes. After careful analysis of the contemporary law of the sea, it

is found that the regulatory framework for the effective suppression of such maritime

crimes should be implemented at both international and regional levels. At the

international level, the UNCLOS and the SUA Convention can be maintained as they

are despite some shortcomings. Nevertheless, the 2005 Protocol should be restructured

with regard to the PSI issue, the right of visit as well as boarding procedures for the

purpose of meeting the expectation of the international community and to be an

efficient legal regime which complements to the SUA convention. In addition,

although the suppression of piracy and maritime terrorism is a global menace, States

are reluctant, to some extent, in implementing their obligations for combating such

maritime crimes under the international law of the sea conventions. They are more

participative in carrying out their obligations and measures offered under regional

agreements. Hence, the researcher humbly suggests that it would be more effective to

supplement aforesaid international conventions with regional agreements which can

provide more pragmatic solutions to address issues relating to definitions of maritime

crimes; guidelines for the exercise of jurisdiction, prosecution as well as extradition;

and other cooperative measures among neighbouring States such as information

sharing, patrolling and capacity building. The significance of the current research is

that the study mainly focuses in evaluating and examining the efficacy of the

contemporary law of the sea in suppressing piracy and maritime terrorism at both

international as well as regional levels. It is humbly hoped that this research would

greatly contribute not only in ensuring the safety of maritime navigation all around the

world but also in maintaining international peace and security.

iii

بحث ال

ويرجع ذلك إلى عدم وجود نظام .كانت سلامة الملاحة البحرية في خضم تهديد القرصنة والإرهاب البحريلاطالما رات المنظيعية التي ابر امجتمعع الدوي عى إناا اأطيَ ضو المفر هذا الوضع .قانوني فعال وترتيبات تعاونية بين الدول

الدراسة من أجل تحديد ودراسة وتحىيل أوجه هذه وبالماي يهدف الباحث إلى إجرا . فعاليةب تقعع هذه الجرائم البحريةالترتيبات الإقىيعية و والاتفاقات ,لاتفاقيات البحريهللحل القصور في القانون الدوي المعاصر قابىهالقصور واقتراح حىول

واتفاقية اأمم الممحدة ,اتفاقية أعاي البحار :هييات هذه الاتفاقو .قعع القرصنة و الإرهاب البحريبكبت و الممعىقة واتفاق المعاون الإقىيعي باأن مكافحة ,5002وبروتوكول عام ,غير ماروعةالواتفاقية قعع اأععال ,لقانون البحار

مضيقفي (MSP) ملاكادوريات مضيق وومدونة جيبوتي لقواعد السىوك , (ReCAAP)القرصنة والسطو المسىحمسمخدماً في ,القانونيث البح فيوظف الباحث أساليب ممعددة اأبعاد يالبحث في المقام اأول مذهبي و .كاملا

يطبق الباحث المنهج المحىيىي في دراسة فعالية قانون البحر الدوي المعاصر المذكور .النوعية و الاساليب الغالب الطرقتعريفات مخمىفة لىقرصنة والسطو المسىح ضد السفن واأععال غير تم اسمخدام المنهج المقارن أيضا لمقييم . اعلاه

حق و ,وتسىيم امجترمين ومحاكعمهم ,واأحكام الممعىقة بالولاية القضائية ,الماروعة الموجهة ضد سلامة الملاحة البحريةار المعاصر وجد أن الإطار بعد تحىيل دقيق لقانون البح. حجز السفن و امجترمين في ظل هذه النظم القانونية و ,الزيارة

عى الصعيد الدوي و . المنظيعي لىقعع الفعال لمثل هذه الجرائم البحرية ينبغي تنفيذه عى المسمويين الدوي والإقىيعيالرغم من بعض أوجه عى يمكن الحفاظ عى اتفاقية اأمم الممحدة لقانون البحار واتفاقية قعع اأععال غير الماروعة

البر امج الاخصي مراقب فيعا يمعىق بمسألة 5002ومع ذلك، ينبغي إعادة هيكىة بروتوكول عام . القصور فيهعا(PSI) حق الزيارة وكذلك إجرا ات الصعود عى السفن لغرض تىبية توقعات امجتمعع الدوي ليكون نظام قانوني فعال و

عى الرغم من أن قعع القرصنة والإرهاب و بالإضافة إلى ذلك .غير ماروعةالاتفاقية قعع اأععال يطابق و يكعلدول إلى حد ما في تنفيذ المزاماتها لمكافحة مثل هذه الجرائم البحرية بموجب ال بعض البحري هو خطر عالمي، تتردد

كثر اتتراكاً في تنفيذ الالمزامات والاجرا ات المعروضة في إطار هي الا هذه الدولفان .راتفاقيات البحأالقانون الدوي ات إقىيعيةياتفاقأعلاه بالاتفاقيات الدولية الماار إليها تزويد أن الباحث بمواضع يقترح وبالماي ، . ات الإقىيعيةيالاتفاق

مبادئ و ريف الجرائم البحرية معبعكن أن توفر حىولا أكثر واقعية لمعالجة القضايا الممعىقة من الم و سيكون أكثر فعاليةوكذلك تسىيم امجترمين و تدابير تعاونية أخرى بين الدول امجتاورة مثل تبادل و المقاضاةلقضائية توجيهية لمعارسة الولاية ا

عى تقييم باكل اساسيأن الدراسة تركز يأهمية البحث الحاي هان .المعىومات وتسيير الدوريات وبنا القدراتمل ؤ من الم .ري عى المسمويين الإقىيعي والدوي ودراسة فعالية قانون البحر المعاصر في قعع القرصنة والإرهاب البح

بمواضع أن هذا البحث سوف يساهم إلى حد كبير ليس فقط في ضعان سلامة الملاحة البحرية في جميع أنحا العالم .ولكن أيضا في الحفاظ عى السىم واأمن الدوي

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

The thesis of Kyaw Hla Win @ Md. Hassan Ahmed has been approved by the

following:

_________________________________

Abdul Ghafur Hamid @ Khin Maung Sein

Supervisor

________________________

Mohd. Hisham Mohd. Kamal

Co-supervisor

________________________

Abdul Haseeb Ansari

Internal Examiner

________________________

Sabirin Ja’afar

External Examiner

________________________

Abdi Omar Shuiye

Chairman

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own investigations, except where

otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Kyaw Hla Win @ Md. Hassan Ahmed

Signature …………………………………… Date ……………………..

vi

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION

OF FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

Copyright © 2014 by Kyaw Hla Win @ Md. Hassan Ahmed. All rights reserved.

THE EFFICACY OF CONTEMPORARY LAW OF THE SEA IN

SUPPRESSING PIRACY AND MARITIME TERRORISM

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder except

as provided below.

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research

may only be used by others in their writing with due

acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies

(print or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieval

system and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by

other universities and research libraries.

Affirmed by Kyaw Hla Win @ Md. Hassan Ahmed.

……………………………. ………………..

Signature Date

vii

Dedicated to

My respected parents

Mr. Kabir Ahmed @ Hla Kyaw and Mrs. Bi Bi Khatizar Begum @ Sein Sein,

My beloved wife

Mrs. Ameira A Abdul Malek Al-Mudars,

My lovely and gorgeous daughter

Lamar Al-Mudars

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All praise is due to Allah (s.w.t.), the Creator and Lord of the universe, for giving me

the guidance, knowledge and strength to complete this research.

I would like to express my sincere thanks to Prof. Dato’ Sri Dr. Zaleha

Kamaruddin (Rector, International Islamic University Malaysia) for giving me

opportunity to pursue the Doctor of Philosophy in Law programme at Ahmad Ibrahim

Kulliyyah of Laws. I also have the great pleasure to thank from the bottom of my

heart to Prof. Dr. Hunud Abia Kadouf (Dean, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws) for

his fatherly advices and moral supports.

I wish to express my immense gratitude and special thanks to my beloved

supervisor Prof. Dr. Abdul Ghafur Hamid @ Khin Maung Sein (Deputy Dean,

Research and Postgraduate, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws) for his sincere

guidance, strong encouragement, kind gesture and constructive comments. I am also

very grateful to my respected co-supervisor Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd. Hisham Mohd.

Kamal (Head of Islamic Law Department, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws) for his

kind supports and invaluable feedbacks.

I would like to express further endless appreciation and sincere thanks to my

respected internal examiner Prof. Dr. Abdul Haseeb Ansari (Head of Research

Management Unit, Ahmad Ibrahim Kulliyyah of Laws) and external examiner Prof.

Dr. Sabirin Bin Ja’afar.

Last but not least, my deepest gratitude goes to my respected parents Mr. Kabir

Ahmed @ Hla Kyaw and Mrs. Bi Bi Khatizar Begum @ Sein Sein for the care and

affection which they have nourished me in the whole of my life. I reserve a huge

amount of appreciation for my beloved wife Mrs. Ameira A Abdul Malek Al-Mudars

[LLB (University of Baghdad), MCL (International Islamic University Malaysia)] for

her love, understanding, encouragement and assistance throughout my study. I would

also like to express my admiration to my lovely and gorgeous daughter Lamar Al-

Mudars for being patient while I am absent.

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract .......................................................................................................................... iiAbstract in Arabic ......................................................................................................... iiiApproval Page ............................................................................................................... ivDeclaration Page ............................................................................................................ vCopyright Page .............................................................................................................. viDedication ....................................................................................................................viiAcknowledgements .....................................................................................................viiiList of Figures ............................................................................................................. xivList of Cases ................................................................................................................. xvList of Statutes ............................................................................................................ xviList of Abbreviations ................................................................................................ xviii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 11.1 Background of the Research ......................................................................... 11.2 Statement of Problem .................................................................................. 31.3 Research Questions ....................................................................................... 51.4 Objectives of the Research ........................................................................... 61.5 Hypothesis .................................................................................................... 71.6 Literature Review ......................................................................................... 9

1.6.1 The High Seas Convention and the UNCLOS ................................... 101.6.2 The SUA Convention ......................................................................... 121.6.3 The 2005 Protocol .............................................................................. 151.6.4 The ReCAAP ..................................................................................... 171.6.5 The Djibouti Code of Conduct ........................................................... 201.6.6 The MSP in the Malacca Straits ......................................................... 22

1.7 Scope and Limitation of the Research ........................................................ 241.8 Research Methodology ............................................................................... 251.9 Summary of the Research ........................................................................... 26

CHAPTER 2: THE THREAT OF PIRACY AND MARITIME TERRORISM .. 302.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 302.2 The Origin of Piracy ................................................................................... 302.3 Recurrence of Piracy in the 21st Century .................................................... 34

2.3.1 South Asian Waters ............................................................................ 412.3.2 African Waters ................................................................................... 422.3.3 South and Central American Waters and the Caribbean Sea ............. 432.3.4 Southeast Asian and Far Eastern Waters ........................................... 44

2.4 The Burning Issue of Piracy off Somalia Coast ......................................... 502.5 The Increasing Threat of Maritime Terrorism ............................................ 62

2.5.1 Definition of Maritime Terrorism ...................................................... 632.5.2 Potential Targets and Methods of Attacks ......................................... 70

x

2.5.3 Maritime Terrorism Incidents ............................................................ 722.6 Issues and Challenges ................................................................................. 752.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 79

CHAPTER 3: PIRACY AND LAW OF THE SEA CONVENTIONS ................... 803.1 Introduction ................................................................................................ 803.2 Definition of Piracy .................................................................................... 80

3.2.1 Piracy under Domestic Laws ............................................................ 813.2.1.1 Judicial Definitions ............................................................... 823.2.1.2 Statutory Definitions ............................................................. 85

3.2.2 Piracy under International Law ......................................................... 903.3 Piracy under Law of the Sea Conventions .................................................. 93

3.3.1 Piracy under the High Seas Convention ........................................... 943.3.2 Piracy under the UNCLOS ............................................................... 95

3.4 Elements of Piracy under the UNCLOS ..................................................... 963.4.1 Acts of Piracy .................................................................................... 973.4.2 Private Ends .................................................................................... 1013.4.3 Private Ships ................................................................................... 1043.4.4 Two Ships ........................................................................................ 1053.4.5 The Locality of Piracy ..................................................................... 107

3.5 Jurisdiction to Seize Pirate Ships and Prosecute Pirates .......................... 1123.5.1 Piracy and Universal Jurisdiction ................................................... 1143.5.2 Right of Visit ................................................................................... 1193.5.3 Prosecution of Pirates ..................................................................... 121

3.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 122

CHAPTER 4: UNLAWFUL ACTS AGAINST THE SAFETY OF MARITIME NAVIGATION UNDER THE SUA CONVENTION ................. 126

4.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1264.2 The Emergence of the SUA Convention .................................................. 1264.3 The Scope of Application ......................................................................... 132

4.3.1 Types of Applicable Ships ................................................................ 1324.3.2 The Geographical Application ......................................................... 1334.3.3 The Application on the Basis of Offender’s Presence ..................... 1344.3.4 The Exclusion from the Scope of Application ................................. 135

4.3.4.1 Warships and Government ships ......................................... 1354.3.4.2 Ships Withdrawn from Navigation or Laid Up ................... 138

4.4 Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation ...................... 1394.5 Jurisdiction of State Parties ...................................................................... 144

4.5.1 Obligatory Jurisdiction..................................................................... 1444.5.2 Discretionary Jurisdiction ................................................................ 1454.5.3 Priority of Jurisdiction among State Parties..................................... 147

4.6 Detention and Delivery of Offenders ....................................................... 1514.6.1 Obligation of State Parties to Arrest and Detain Offenders ............. 1514.6.2 Authorization to the Master of a Ship of a State Party to Deliver the Offenders ................................................................................... 152

xi

4.6.3 Obligation of the Receiving State .................................................... 1544.7 Extradition of Offenders ........................................................................... 1554.8 Punishment for Offenders ......................................................................... 1584.9 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 159

CHAPTER 5: THE 2005 PROTOCOL TO THE SUA CONVENTION ............ 1635.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1635.2 The Emergence of the 2005 Protocol ....................................................... 1635.3 New Offences under the 2005 Protocol .................................................... 168

5.3.1 Various Usage of Ship in Terrorist Attacks ..................................... 1705.3.2 Transportation of Explosive Material, Substance or Relate Technology ... 1715.3.3 Transportation of Offenders or Alleged Offenders ......................... 1745.3.4 Attempting, Participating, Organising, Directing or Contributing to the Commission of Offences ....................................................... 175

5.4 Right of Visit and Boarding Procedures ................................................... 1785.4.1 Right of Visit ................................................................................... 1795.4.2 Boarding Procedures ....................................................................... 180

5.4.2.1 Authorisation from the Flag State ....................................... 1815.4.2.2 Ad Hoc Authorisation ......................................................... 1825.4.2.3 Authorisation in General ..................................................... 186

5.4.3 Obligation of the Boarding State Party ........................................... 1885.4.4 Right of the Flag State .................................................................... 1895.4.5 Safeguards ....................................................................................... 189

5.5 Amendments to the Provisions Relating to Extradition ............................ 1925.6 Punishment for Offences .......................................................................... 193

5.6.1 Individual Offenders ....................................................................... 1935.6.2 Legal Entities .................................................................................. 194

5.7 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 194

CHAPTER 6: SUPPRESSION OF PIRACY AND ARMED ROBBERY AGAINST SHIPS UNDER THE REGIONAL AGREEMENTS ...................198

6.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1986.2 The Emergence of the ReCAAP ............................................................... 1986.3 Definitions of Maritime Crimes under the ReCAAP ................................ 2046.4 Elements of Armed Robbery against Ships under the ReCAAP .............. 2066.5 Three Pillars of the ReCAAP .................................................................... 211

6.5.1 Cooperation through the ISC ........................................................... 2126.5.2 Cooperative Arrangements among Contracting Parties .................. 213

6.5.2.1 General Obligations ............................................................. 2146.5.2.2 Request for Cooperation among Contracting Parties .......... 2156.5.2.3 Extradition and Mutual Legal Assistance ............................ 217

6.5.3 Capacity Building among Contracting Parties ................................ 2176.6 Reluctance to Ratify by Two Major Maritime Countries ......................... 2186.7 Shortcomings of the ReCAAP .................................................................. 2206.8 The Emergence of the Djibouti Code of Conduct .................................... 2216.9 Definitions of Maritime Crimes under the Djibouti Code of Conduct ..... 224

xii

6.10 Information Sharing and Coordination among Participants ................... 2266.10.1 Information Sharing ..................................................................... 2266.10.2 Cooperation among Participants .................................................. 228

6.11 Shortcomings of the Djibouti Code of Conduct ..................................... 2316.12 Combating Piracy in the Malacca Straits ............................................... 232

6.12.1 The Trilateral Malacca Straits Coordinated Patrols (MALSINDO) ... 2346.12.2 Eyes in the Sky (EIS)................................................................... 2356.12.3 The Malacca Straits Patrols (MSP) ............................................. 2366.12.4 Ensuring Permanent Maritime Security in the Malacca Straits ... 238

6.13 Conclusion .............................................................................................. 240

CHAPTER 7: SUPPRESSION OF PIRACY AND MARITIME TERRORISM: A MALAYSIAN PERSPECTIVE ................................................ 242

7.1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 2427.2 Piracy and Maritime Terrorism under Malaysian Criminal Law .............. 243

7.2.1 Robbery and Gang-robbery.............................................................. 2447.2.2 Mischief ........................................................................................... 2487.2.3 Theft ................................................................................................. 250

7.3 Bunga Laurel Incident .............................................................................. 2527.4 The Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency ........................................ 254

7.4.1 Functions of the MMEA .................................................................. 2567.4.2 Powers of the MMEA ...................................................................... 259

7.5 Cooperation between the “RMN” and “MISC” ....................................... 2637.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................ 266

CHAPTER 8: CONCLUSION............................................................................... 2688.1 Research Findings ..................................................................................... 268

8.1.1 Definitions of Piracy and Maritime Terrorism ................................ 2698.1.2 Jurisdiction and Extradition ............................................................ 2768.1.3 Right of Visit and Arrest of Ships ................................................... 280

8.2 Recommendations and Suggestions ......................................................... 2868.2.1 International Conventions ............................................................... 2878.2.2 Regional Agreements ...................................................................... 2908.2.3 Information Sharing ........................................................................ 2938.2.4 Patrolling ......................................................................................... 294

8.2.4.1 Surface and Aerial Patrols .................................................. 2948.2.4.2 Joint and Coordinated Patrols ............................................. 2958.2.4.3 International Cooperation for High Risk Areas .................. 295

8.2.5 Capacity Building ........................................................................... 2988.3 Possible Areas for Further Research ......................................................... 298

BIBLIOGRAPHY .................................................................................................... 300

xiii

APPENDIX I: Relevant Provisions of the Convention on the High Seas 1958 .....329APPENDIX II: Relevant Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law

of the Sea 1982 ................................................................................333APPENDIX III: The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against

the Safety of Maritime Navigation 1988 ........................................341APPENDIX IV: The 2005 Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of

Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation 1988 ...353APPENDIX V: The Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and

Armed Robbery against Ships in Asia 2004 ...................................377APPENDIX VI: The Code of Conduct concerning the Repression of Piracy and

Armed Robbery against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden 2009 ....................................................................388

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure No. Page No.

2.1 Total number of pirate attacks occurred worldwide from 1984 to 2012 40

2.2 The two major sea lanes from West to East through African waters 60

xv

LIST OF CASES

A. JUDICIAL DECISIONS

Le Louis [1817] 2 Dods 210, 244, 165 Eng Rep 1464, 1475

Muka Bin Musa v. Public Prosecutor [1964] 30 MLJ 275

Re Piracy Jure Gentium [1934] AC 586

Regina v. M’Gregor and Lambert [1844] 1 Car & K 428 431-432

Rex v. Dawson [1696] 8 William III 5 State Trials 1st Edition 1743

The Magellan Pirates [1853] 1 Sp Ecc & Ad 83

The Telegrafo [1871] 8 Moo PC NS 43 60-61

United States v. Smith [1820] 18 US 5 Wheat 153

B. MARITIME TERRORISM INCIDENTS

Achille Lauro incident (1985)

Al Basrah Oil Terminal ABOT incident (2004)

Ashdod Port incident (2004)

Khawr Al Amaya Oil Terminal KAAOT incident (2004)

M/V Limburg incident (2002)

Our Lady of the Mediatrix incident (2000)

Santa Maria incident (1961)

SuperFerry 14 incident (2004)

USS Cole incident (2000)

xvi

LIST OF STATUTES

A. INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS

Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management

Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, 1995.

Amendments to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 2005.

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime

Navigation, 1988.

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation,

1971.

Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft, 1970.

Convention on International Civil Aviation, 1944.

Convention on the High Seas, 1958.

Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material, 1979.

Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes against Internationally

Protected Persons, including Diplomatic Agents, 1973.

International Convention against the Taking of Hostages, 1979.

International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, 1997.

International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, 1999.”

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of FixedPlatforms

Located on the Continental Shelf, 1988.

Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving

International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the

Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation, 1988.

Protocol Supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of

Aircraft, 2010.

Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety

of Maritime Navigation 1988, 2005.

Protocol to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of

Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf, 2005.

Statute of the International Law Commission, 1948.

United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United

Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the

Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly

Migratory Fish Stocks, 1995.

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1982.

B. REGIONAL AGREEMENTS

Code of Conduct concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed Robbery against

Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden, 2009.

Regional Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against

Ships in Asia, 2004.

xvii

C. NATIONAL LEGISLATIONS

Courts of Judicature Act 1964 (Malaysia)

Criminal Act 1953 (The Republic of Korea)

Criminal Code 1997 (The People’s Republic of China)

Criminal Code Act 1995 (Australia)

Firearms (Increased Penalties) Act 1971 (Malaysia)

Malaysian Maritime Enforcement Agency Act 2004 (Malaysia)

Maritime Offences Act 2003 [Revised 2004] (Singapore)

Mutual Assistance in Criminal Matters Act 2002 (Malaysia)

Penal Code 1860 (India)

Penal Code 1881 (The Netherlands)

Penal Code 1936 [Revised 1997] (Malaysia)

Slave Trade Act 1824 (The United Kingdom)

Suppression of Unlawful Acts against Safety of Maritime Navigation and Fixed

Platforms on Continental Shelf Act 2002 (India)

xviii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

A&NZ Mar L.J Australian & New Zealand Maritime Law

Journal

A.D After the death of Christ

AJIL American Journal of International Law

All ER All England Law Reports

Am. U. Int’L L. Rev American University International Law

Review

Am. U.L. Rev American University Law Review

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

ASIL American Society of International Law

Aust. J. Basic Appl. Sci. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied

Sciences

B.C Before the birth of Christ

B.C. Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. Boston College International and

Comparative Law Review

Barry L. Rev Barry Law Review

Berkeley J. Int’l L Berkeley Journal of International Law

BYIL British Year Book of International Law

C.E Common era, Christian era

Calif. L. Rev. California Law Review

Dalhousie L. J Dalhousie Law Journal

Denv. J. Int’l L. & Pol’y Denver Journal of International Law and

Policy

DIIS Danish Institute for International Studies

ed./eds. edition/editions; editor/editors; edited by

EIS Eyes in the Sky

et al. (et alia): and others

etc (et cetera): and so forth

Ga. J. Int’l & Comp. L. Georgia Journal of International and

Comparative Law

Geo. L.J. Georgetown Law Journal

GYIL German Yearbook of International Law

Harv. Int’l L.J Harvard International Law Journal

Harv. L. Rev Harvard Law Review

i.e. That is to say; in other words

ibid. (ibidem): in the same place

ICC International Chamber of Commerce

id. (idem): the same below

IEG Intelligence Exchange Group

IIAS International Institute for Asian Studies

IIUM International Islamic University Malaysia

IJMC International Journal of Maritime and Coastal

Law

ILC International Law Commission

xix

ILSA International Law Students Association

ILSA J Int’l & Comp L ILSA Journal of International and

Comparative Law

IMB International Maritime Bureau

IMO International Maritime Organization

Int’l & Comp. L. Q. International and Comparative Law Quarterly

Int’l J. Estuarine & Coastal L. International Journal of Estuarine and

Coastal Law

Int’l Legal Persp International Legal Perspectives

ISEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies

Israel Y. B. Hum. Rts Israel Yearbook on Human Rights

J. Mar. L. & Com. Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce

JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society

JEAIL Journal of East Asia and International Law

JWH Journal of World History

Km Kilometer

LNG Liquefied Natural Gas

MALSINDO Malaysia-Singapore-Indonesia

MCP Bulletin Malaysian Court Practice Bulletin

Melbourne U. L. R. Melbourne University Law Review

MLJ Malayan Law Journal

MSP Malacca Straits Patrols

MSP-IS Malacca Straits Patrols Information S

MSSP Malacca Straits Surface Patrols

n. footnote

N.C.J. Int’l L. & Com. Reg North Carolina Journal of International Law

and Commercial Regulation

n.d. no date

n.p. no place: no publisher

N.Y.U. L. REV. New York University Law Review

Naval L. Rev Naval Law Review

no./no.s number/numbers

Ocean & Coastal L.J Ocean and Coastal Law Journal

Ohio N.U.L. Rev Ohio Northern University Law Review

Or. Rev. Int’l L Oregon Review of International Law

Pac. Rim L. & Pol’y J. Pacific Rim Law and Policy Journal

PCASP Privately Contracted Armed Security

Personnel

PSI Proliferation Security Initiative

RAND Research and Development

Rep. Report

S.A.W. salallahu ‘alaihi wa salam, May peace and

blessing of Allah be upon him

S.W.T. subhānahu wa ta‘ālā, Praised be to Allah, the

Most Exalted

San Diego Int’l L.J. San Diego International Law Journal

Sing. J. Int’l & Comp. L Singapore Journal of International and

Comparative Law

Stan. J Int’l L Stanford Journal of International Law

xx

Tenn. L. Rev Tennessee Law Review

Tex. L. Rev Texas Law Review

Transp. L. J Transportation Law Journal

Tul. J. Int’l & Comp. L Tulane Journal of International and

Comparative Law

Tul. Mar. L. J. Tulane Maritime Law Journal

U. Miami Int’l & Comp. L. Rev. University of Miami International and

Comparative Law Review

U. Miami L. Rev University of Miami Law Review

U. Q.L.J. & R. University of Queensland Law Journal

UK United Kingdom

UN United Nations

UNCLOS United Nations Convention on the Law of the

Sea 1982

UNCLOS I First United Nations Conference on the Law

of the Sea 1958

UNCLOS II Second United Nations Conference on the

Law of the Sea 1960

UNCLOS III Third United Nations Conference on the Law

of the Sea 1973-1982

US United States of America

USD United States dollar

v. versus, against

Va. J. Int’l L Virginia Journal of International Law

Vand. J. Transnat’l L Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law

vol./vols. volume/volumes

Wis. Int’l L. J Wisconsin International Law Journal

WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction

Yale J. Int’l L Yale Journal of International Law

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

In this chapter, the researcher generally enunciates an overview introduction which

includes the background of the research, statement of problem, research questions,

objectives of the research, hypotheses, literature review, the scope and limitation of

the research, the research methodology and summary of the research for the purpose

of giving a bird’s-eye view of the entirety of the current research.

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE RESEARCH

Safety of maritime navigation has been one of the major issues in the global arena for

centuries. Nevertheless, up to the present time, contemporary international law of the

sea conventions, regional agreements and regional arrangements, i.e., the Convention

on the High Seas 1958,1 the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982,

2

the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime

Navigation 1988,3 the 2005 Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of

Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation 1988,4 the Regional

Cooperation Agreement on Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in

Asia 2004,5 the Code of Conduct concerning the Repression of Piracy and Armed

Robbery against Ships in the Western Indian Ocean and the Gulf of Aden 2009,6 and

1 Hereinafter referred to as “the High Seas Convention”.

2 Hereinafter referred to as “the UNCLOS”.

3 Hereinafter referred to as “the SUA Convention”.

4 Hereinafter referred to as “the 2005 Protocol”.

5 Hereinafter referred to as “the ReCAAP”.

6 Hereinafter referred to as “the Djibouti Code of Conduct”.

2

the Malacca Straits Patrols;7 are not effective enough in suppressing piracy, armed

robbery against ships and maritime terrorism.

According to International Maritime Organization,8 piracy is still on the rise

and the highest number of attacks occurred as recent as in 2011 ever since it started

preparing annual report from 1984.9 Moreover, in the early 21

st Century, maritime

terrorist attacks were also increased sharply compare to the previous one. It is evident

from the several terrorist attacks such as USS Cole incident in 2000, Our Lady of the

Mediatrix incident in 2000, M/V Limburg incident in 2002, SuperFerry 14 incident in

2004, Khawr Al Amaya Oil Terminal KAAOT incident in 2004, Al Basrah Oil

Terminal ABOT incident in 2004 and Ashdod Port incident in 2004. This state of

affairs alarms the international community to take efficient preventive measures

against these maritime crimes to ensure the safety of maritime navigation. Thus, it

would not be mistaken to assert that international maritime navigation is still in the

midst of threat of piracy, armed robbery against ships and maritime terrorism.

Apparently, it could be observed throughout this research that there are several

loopholes under contemporary international law of the sea conventions and regional

agreements in ensuring safety of maritime navigation. Therefore, the researcher aims

to carry out this research in order identify and analyse shortcomings suffered by

contemporary international legal regimes regulating the suppression of piracy as well

as maritime terrorism and propose feasible solutions for those deficiencies. In

addition, some recommendations and suggestions are also made for the purpose of

creating regulatory frameworks in suppressing such maritime crimes effectively.

7 Hereinafter referred to as “the MSP”.

8 Hereinafter referred to as “the IMO”.

9 See IMO, “Reports on Acts of Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships: Annual report – 2011” (1

March 2012) Annex 4.

3

1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Despite the fact that piracy is the oldest international crime, it recurs and seriously

threatens the safety of international maritime navigation in the present day too.

Modern-day piracy has taken new trends and methods by taking advantage from the

technological advancements. It usually involves not only robbery at seas but also

hijacking the vessels and kidnapping crews for ransom. Nerve-taking piratical attacks

against oil tankers and other ships in the Gulf of Eden and off the Coast of Somalia

demonstrate the seriousness of the danger of modern-day piracy. Piracy definitions

under the primary global anti-piracy instruments, i.e., the High Sea Convention and

the UNCLOS, are too narrow to be effective in suppressing the modern-day piracy.

What makes the matter worst is the rise of the new threat of maritime terrorism - a

more sophisticated form of attacks devised by terrorists with political ends - which

was not contemplated by the drafters of the UNCLOS. Inadequacy of such definition

was evident when the Achille Lauro incident took place in 1985 where the attack was

apparently originated from the target ship itself for political gain within the Egyptian

maritime jurisdiction.

In view of that, the international community adopted the SUA Convention

under the auspices of the IMO in order to address the increasing danger of maritime

terrorism. It focuses on the more serious attacks that can occur at sea and the offences

are defined far more broadly than the UNCLOS piracy definition. Although the SUA

Convention attracts quite a number of States to be parties, it cannot effectively combat

piracy or suppress maritime terrorism due to some deficiencies especially pertaining

to enforcement measures, i.e., jurisdiction, extradition and prosecution. As it is mainly

created for the purpose of suppressing of maritime terrorism, most of its provisions

deal with apprehension, prosecution, extradition and punishment of offenders events

4

which take place only after the commission of offences rather than the issue of

prevention.

In recent years, maritime terrorism has greatly been concerned by the

international community especially after some terrorist incidents took place such as

the attacks on USS Cole in October 2000 and MV Limburg in October 2002. These

incidents demonstrated the vulnerability of maritime transportation infrastructures.

Accordingly, the international community adopted the 2005 Protocol to the SUA

Convention with tremendous change to the scope of maritime offences. Consequently

it has gone beyond the purview of the maritime terrorism itself and deals also with the

issue of non-proliferation. Moreover, it introduces controversial boarding procedures

and some essential improvements with regard to extradition, punishment of individual

perpetrators as well as legal entities. The 2005 Protocol is an ambitious attempt to

address the issue of maritime terrorism. Nonetheless, there are only 28 States Parties

with less significant in preventing and suppressing maritime terrorism worldwide.

Thus, it can be observed that most of the major maritime countries are not in favour of

the 2005 Protocol.

At the regional level, the ReCAAP is the first multilateral government to

government regional agreement which promotes and enhances cooperation in

combating piracy and armed robbery against ships in the Asia-Pacific region. Despite

its significant contribution in combating these maritime crimes, piracy and armed

robbery against ships are still serious problems in the region. It does not fully address

the problem due to the reluctant to ratify by two major maritime countries in the

region, narrow definition of maritime crimes, limitation in information sharing

system, poor capacity building and lack of specific cooperation arrangements among

Contracting Parties.