The Diversity of Life on Earth from heritage to extinction E-book by sylvain richer de forges. A holistic view of life on Earth and sustainable development

The Diversity of Life on Earth from Heritage to Extinction

e-book version

by Sylvain Richer de Forges

© Sylvain Richer de Forges

2010 © Sylvain Richer de Forges. All rights reserved. Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg

The Diversity Of Life On Earth

2010 © Sylvain Richer de Forges. All rights reserved. 2

This book aims to address the

dramatic issue of extinction of

species on Earth.

In its unique format, it navigates

through key issues surrounding the

concept of biodiversity:

-What do we know

-The diversity of life forms on Earth

-Where most life forms are found

-The human impacts

-The current status of extinction

-The potential of preserving

biodiversity and its implication for

human civilizations

-What should be tried to preserve

the diversity of life on Earth

This book was written in 2010 to

celebrate the international year on

biodiversity and with a purpose of

raising awareness on the issue.


Prologue

Prologue

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg

This e-book is a simplified adaptation

from the book of the same name which

can be purchased through main book

sale channels ISBN 978-981-07-3457-2



Introduction

of knowledge is contained within species whether it is for

engineering applications, agriculture or to develop new

medicines.

We also know that our lives, as the human species, is highly

related to those of other species upon which we depend

should it be for maintaining the stability of Earth ecosystems,

our food supplies or our health.

Every organism has its role to play in the complex Earth

ecosystems which have reached equilibrium over millions of

years. Many of these ecosystems are on the verge of collapse

with often unknown consequences for humans.

We however now know what the pressures are and therefore

could do something to try to preserve the diversity of life on

Earth by limiting or suppressing these pressures.

This book intends to provide an overview of the diversity of

life, what is at stake, the major pressures on life forms and

what could be done to avoid what many experts predict will

be the fifth massive extinction.

We must keep in mind that : “Extinction is forever”

With 2010 being the international year of biodiversity, this

book comes at a good time to make an overview of the state

of our knowledge on biodiversity and what is at stake.

Biodiversity is still, even in the 21st century following the

legacy of the work of great scientists and breakthrough

discoveries, not well understood by the general public and

decision makers. Indeed, we still do not seem to have

understood the incredible heritage that we have as a result

of more than 3.5 billion years of natural history, neither the

very serious threats and devastating changes to biodiversity

that are occurring at present as a consequence of human

activities.

Biodiversity is the most valuable resource of our planet and

we are on the verge of losing most of it. During the 21st

century as a result of a combine impact of pressures from

pollutions, human disturbances and climate change, most

experts have warned that we could lose half of all the

species inhabiting our planet by the end of this century.

Species are disappearing at an alarming rate and much faster

than they are studied. We know that a tremendous amount


Introduction

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Table of Content (1)

Chapter II: The Diversity of Life on Earth

Introduction Chapter II ………………………………………… 34

II.1 Definition of Biodiversity ……………………………… 35

II.2 Levels of Biodiversity …………………………………… 37

II.3 Biodiversity: What Do We Know? ………………… 38

II.4 Taxonomy Vs Molecular phylogeny ……………… 42

II.5 Speciation & Adaptation ……………………………… 44

II.6 The Tree of Life …………………………………………… 47

II.7 Archea …………………………………………………………… 48

II.8 Bacteria ………………………………………………………… 49

II.9 Eucaryotes …………………………………………………… 50

II.10 Plants …………………………………………………………… 52

II.11 Fungus ………………………………………………………… 53

II.12 Animals ………………………………………………………… 55

II.13 Insects ………………………………………………………… 57

II.14 Mammals ……………………………………………………… 61

II.15 Reptiles ……………………………………………………… 63

Conclusion Chapter II ………………………………………… 65

Chapter I: A Brief History of Natural Diversity

Introduction Chapter I ………………………………………… 11

I.1 Succession of Life Forms Overtime ……………… 12

I.2 Ancient Life …………………………………………………… 13

I.3 Fossils: an Historical Record ………………………… 14

I.4 Rise of Natural history: Buffon ……………………… 16

I.5 Nomenclature System: Linneaus …………………… 17

I.6 Naming Species ……………………………………………… 18

I.7 Taxonomy Vs Phylogeny ………………………………… 19

I.8 Natural Selection: Darwin & Wallace …………… 21

I.9 The Rise of the Microscope …………………………… 23

I.10 Micro-organisms: Pasteur …………………………… 24

I.11 Commerce and Biodiversity: Spice Trade …… 25

I.12 The Era of Great Explorers ………………………… 26

I.13 Origin of Genetics: Gregor Mendel ……………… 29

I.14 The Discovery of DNA …………………………………… 30

I.15 The Modern Concept of Biodiversity …………… 31

Conclusion Chapter I …………………………………………… 32


Table of Content

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Chapter III: Main Biodiversity Rich Ecosystems

Introduction Chapter III ……………………………………… 67

III.1 Rainforests ………………………………………………… 68

III.2 Coral Reefs ………………………………………………… 69

III.3 Mangroves …………………………………………………… 71

III.4 Isolated Ecosystems …………………………………… 72

III.5 Abyssal Environments ………………………………… 74

III.6 Sea Grass Beds …………………………………………… 77

Conclusion Chapter III ………………………………………… 78

Chapter IV: Anthropic Impacts and Biodiversity

Introduction Chapter IV ……………………………………… 80

IV.1 Deforestation ……………………………………………… 81

IV.2 Mining ………………………………………………………… 84

IV.3 Over Fishing ……………………………………………… 86

IV.4 Illegal Trading of Species …………………………… 92

IV.5 Agriculture ………………………………………………… 93

IV.6 Bio-engineering ………………………………………… 96

IV.7 Industrialization & Associated Wastes ……… 97

IV.8 Pollution & Biodiversity ……………………………… 98

IV.9 Climate Change & Biodiversity ………………… 101

IV.10 Human Disturbances / Overpopulation …… 107

IV.11 Mass Tourism …………………………………………… 110

IV.12 Forest Fires ……………………………………………… 112

IV.13 Fragmentation of Habitats ……………………… 114

IV.14 Genetic Resources …………………………………… 116

IV.15 Introduction of Species …………………………… 118

Conclusion Chapter IV ……………………………………… 120



Table of Content

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Chapter V: A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity

Degradation

Introduction Chapter V ……………………………………… 122

V.1 Case Study: Oil Spills ………………………………… 123

V.2 Case Study: Mining ……………………………………… 127

V.3 Case Study: Acid Rains ……………………………… 128

V.4 Case Study: Chernobyl ……………………………… 129

V.5 Introduction of Species ……………………………… 130

V.6 Biodiversity & Climate Change …………………… 132

V.7 Global Biodiversity Loss ……………………………… 133

Conclusion Chapter V ………………………………………… 136

Chapter VI: Global State of Biodiversity

Introduction Chapter VI …………………………………… 138

VI.1 The Global Living Planet Index ………………… 139

VI.2 The Terrestrial Living Planet Index …………… 140

VI.3 The Marine Living Planet Index ………………… 141

VI.4 The Freshwater Living Planet Index ………… 142

VI.5 The World Biocapacity ……………………………… 144

VI.6 State of Biodiversity ………………………………… 145

Conclusion Chapter VI ……………………………………… 146



Table of Content

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Chapter VII: Biodiversity Hotspots and

Conservation Priorities

Introduction Chapter VII …………………………………… 148

VII.1 What is a Biodiversity Hotspot? ………………… 149

VII.2 Case Study: Madagascar …………………………… 151

VII.3 Case Study: Philippines …………………………… 152

VII.4 Case Study: Borneo ………………………………… 154

VII.5 Case Study: Barrier reefs ………………………… 155

VII.6 Case Study: The Galapagos ……………………… 157

Conclusion Chapter VII ……………………………………… 158

Chapter VIII: Singapore, an Interesting Case Study

Introduction Chapter VIII …………………………………… 160

VIII.1 The Singapore Context …………………………… 161

VIII.2 Impacts of Urban Development on

Biodiversity ……………………………………………… 163

VIII.3 Vision of a Green City ……………………………… 165

VIII.4 Preserving & Restoring Biodiversity in

Singapore ………………………………………………… 168

VIII.5 Singapore Remaining Bio-Diverse

Locations ………………………………………………… 169

VIII.6 Biodiversity in the City …………………………… 173

VIII.7 Compromises between Development &

Conservation …………………………………………… 177

Conclusion Chapter VIII ……………………………………… 178



Table of Content

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Chapter IX: The Importance of Biodiversity

Preservation for Human Beings

Introduction Chapter IX …………………………………… 180

IX.1 Biodiversity and Pharmacology ………………… 181

IX.2 Biodiversity and Agriculture ……………………… 185

IX.3 Biodiversity and the Arts …………………………… 188

IX.4 Socio Biology ……………………………………………… 190

IX.5 Biomimetics ……………………………………………… 191

IX.6 A Guide to Biomimetics …………………………… 194

IX.7 We Have A Lot to Learn by Studying

Nature ……………………………………………………… 199

Conclusion Chapter IX ……………………………………… 206

Chapter X: What Can be Done to Preserve

Biodiversity?

Introduction Chapter X …………………………………… 208

X.1 What Can Individuals Do? …………………………… 209

X.2 What Can Corporates Do? …………………………… 213

X.3 What Can Governments Do? ……………………… 216

X.4 Education and Biodiversity ………………………… 223

X.5 The Concept of Sustainable Development … 226

X.6 The Concept of Dead Zones ……………………… 227

X.7 Vertical Farms …………………………………………… 228

X.8 City Biodiversity Index ………………………………… 229

X.9 Sustainable Urban Design …………………………… 230

X.10 Greening Cities ………………………………………… 232

X.11 Eco Tourism ……………………………………………… 234

Conclusion Chapter X ………………………………………… 237



Table of Content

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Chapter XI: Common Misunderstandings about

Biodiversity

XI.1 Questions and Answers ……………………………… 239

XI.2 A Common Interest: Biodiversity and

Religions …………………………………………………… 246

General Conclusion ………………………………………… 248

Annex

Bibliography ……………………………………………………… 250

Acknowledgments ……………………………………………… 261

About the Author ……………………………………………… 262



Table of Content

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg

A living fossil: Gymnocrinus richeri

Chapter I

A Brief History of

Natural Diversity

How a few key persons and

discoveries have changed our

vision of life on Earth



Our knowledge of biology and the diversity of life on Earth

has significantly improved over the past century.

This chapter intends to highlight the key elements in the

discovery of species and our understanding of the living

world.

Some key findings such as the process of natural selection;

the discovery of DNA or the Linnaeous nomenclature

system have permitted remarkable breakthrough in our

understanding of the living world.

Today, many key findings have led to entire new disciplines

of biology such as evolutionary biology, molecular biology,

behavioral biology, ecology or zoology.

Introduction Chapter I:

A Brief History of Natural Diversity

In this chapter you will learn about key historical dates and

discoveries which have led to the current understanding of

life forms on Earth.

Biology in general is a complex field. Many breakthrough

discoveries that have occurred in the past where made by

accident while investigating other aspects. It is likely that

further breakthrough will be made in a similar way.

Therefore the importance of persevering in scientific

research efforts.

The problem with scientific research is that it works on

funding basis. However, in any real fundamental research we

do not really know what it is that we are searching for,

despite that there is certainly something to be found.

Because funds are allocated on specific targets basis,

fundamental research is disappearing and at the same time

the chances of making real breakthrough discoveries.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.1 Succession of Life Forms

Over Time

Life forms have evolved over time. Numerous factors have played a role in the history of the successions of life forms on Earth. Major geological eras have been identified. Many of them mark a mass species extinction event or the apparition of new life forms. The succession of life forms in the fossil record have in fact served to define geological eras (“zoic”). From fossil observations made in the geological record we know that life on Earth has existed for at least 3.5 billion years and that many successions of life forms have occurred throughout time.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Life originated on Earth between 3.5 and 4 billion

years ago.

4 billion years ago the Earth was very different than it

is today. The atmosphere contained no oxygen. It was a

mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide with traces of

other gases such as methane and ammonia. Under such

conditions, there were probably no life.

The earliest fossils of living organisms are dated (using

carbon isotopes) at 3.5 billion years old from Western

Australia. They resemble present day cyanobacteria

and were probably photosynthetic.

Very early on (about 3 billion years ago), life

diversified into two major domains, Bacteria and

Archea. A third domain, the Eukarya originated 1.3

billion years later.

Life has evolved overtime through a series of steps.

The steps can be very briefly summarized as follows:

- The apparition of simple cells

- Cells became more complex

- RNA then DNA developed as the support of the

genome

- Complication and differentiation of species

overtime through natural selection

This long natural history which started about 3.5

billion years ago has resulted in the incredible

diversity of life that we observe today.

However, we are only observing today a small

fraction of all the life forms that have existed on

Earth as most species have become extinct over

time through natural events and during critical

periods which have led to mass extinctions.

Many scientists agree that we are now experiencing

a new era of mass species extinction which is for

the first time in history almost entirely the result

of one single species (humans).

I.2 Ancient Life



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of

animals, plants, and other organisms from the

remote past.

Fossils are formed when animal remains are

deposited on sedimentary substrates (e.g. mud).

Fossils range in age from the youngest at the start

of the Holocene Epoch to the oldest from

the Archaean Eon several billion years old.

Fossils vary in size from microscopic, such as single

bacterial cells only one micrometer in diameter, to

gigantic, such as dinosaurs and trees.

Most of the knowledge that we have of ancient life

that has inhabited the planet results from the

study of fossils.

I.3 (a) Fossils: an

Historical Record of

Succession of Life Forms



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.3 (b) The fossil record provides a snapshot of the types

and successions of life forms that inhabited the

planet millions of years ago throughout the

geological eras. The oldest fossils found can be

dated at 3.5 billion years old.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Buffon is considered to be one of the main precursors in

the field of natural history.

Georges- Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (7 September

1707-16 April 1788) was a French naturalist,

mathematician, biologist, cosmologist and a writer. His

theories have influenced two generations of naturalists

among whom Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck and Charles

Darwin.

Buffon is mostly known for his major work which was

published in 36 volumes from 1749 to 1789. He included

all the knowledge of the time in the field of natural

sciences. In this publication, he revealed a resemblance

between man and apes and the possibility of a common

genealogy.

Buffon is also considered to be one of the precursors of

comparative anatomy.

I.4 The Field of Natural

History: George Louis

Leclerc, comte de Buffon


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Carl Linnaeus (23rd May 1707- 10 Jan 1778) was a

Swedish naturalist who has set the basis for the modern

system of binomial nomenclature. He his referred to as

the father of modern Taxonomy

Linnaeus has put into place his system of binomial

nomenclature which allows referring with precision to

all species of animal and vegetal

The system is based on a combination of 2 Latin names

which comprises of:

A name for the Genus

A specific character which often relates to a

characteristic of the species.

This nomenclature system is still widely used and

accepted today by Taxonomists.

I.5 Linnaeus & the Origin

of Species Nomenclature


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.6 Naming Species

Nomenclature is very important. All species

need to have a name in order to be referred to.

The naming of species has become a very useful

and reliable process with the implementation of

the Linnaeous nomenclature.

Each species name is formed out of Latin and

has two parts: the genus name and

the species name.

For example, Homo sapiens is the name of the

human species.

Names are often derived from ancient

Greek word roots, or words from numerous

other languages. Frequently species names are

based on the surname of a person, such as a

well-regarded scientist, or are a Latinized

version of a relevant place name.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Taxonomy: Taxonomy is the science of species

classification within their evolutionary history.

Phylogenetics: Today, the alternative to the

traditional rank-based biological classification

is phylogenetic systematics, which is

postulating phylogenetic trees, rather than

focusing on taxa to delimit.

Taxonomy is based on the principle that we

need to study species in order to understand

how they have evolved overtime and how all

species are connected to one another.

I.7 (a) Taxonomy and

Phylogeny



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.7 (b)

Studying species requires to keep specimens in alcohol

so that their anatomy and key features can be

preserved, looked into and serve as reference over time

for comparison purposes.

Collections of the British Museum preserved rare specimens, some

of them from the private Charles Darwin’s collections. © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Charles Darwin (12 feb 1809-19 april 1882) was an

English naturalist who’s work on the evolution of

living species. He has revolutionized the field of

biology.

Darwin was famous by the scientific community of

his time for his field work and his researches. He

has formulated the hypothesis that all living

species have evolved over time from common

ancestors through a process referred to as natural

selection.

His theory on natural selection had to wait until

the 1930’s for it to become generally accepted as

the driving mechanisms of the evolution process.

Darwin’s scientific discovery remains the

foundation of modern biology as it explains in a

logical and unified way the diversity of life on

Earth.

I.8 (a) Natural Selection:

Charles Darwin


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Alfred Russel Wallace (8 Jan 1823-7 Nov 1913) was a

naturalist, geographer, explorer, anthropologist and

a British biologist. He is the co-discoverer of the

evolution theory by natural selection along with

Charles Darwin.

Wallace is mostly known to have proposed a theory

on natural selection which has pushed Darwin to

publish his own theory. Wallace was also one of the

main evolutionary thinkers of the 19th century which

has contributed to the evolution theory mostly on

the basis of colour displays in animals.

Wallace was also considered as an expert in the field

of geographic repartition of animal species and is

referred to as the father of biogeography.

I.8 (b) Natural Selection:

Alfred Russel Wallace


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The first microscope to be developed was the optical microscope,

although the original inventor is not easy to identify. An early

microscope was made in 1590 in Middelburg, Netherlands.

The greatest contribution which has led to modern day microscopes

came from Antoine van Leeuwenhoek.

Van Leeuwenhoek is mostly known for the ameliorations he made to

the microscope and is one of the precursors of modern cell biology and

microbiology. Throughout his life, he made a number of significant

observations with his home-made microscopes which he reported to the

London Royal Society.

One of his earlier observations was on moulds and bee darts. Among

others he first observed and discovered Bacteria, Spermatozoids, flow

of blood in capillaries and muscle fibres.

Many of his observations and deductions at the time where

controversial as they went against the general belief of “Spontaneous

Generation”.

=> The use of the microscope has been a revolution in significantly

broadening our vision of the natural world and our understanding of

the biodiversity of life on Earth. Species of the macro level could

now be observed.

I.9 The Rise of the Microscope


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.10 Pasteur and

Micro-Organisms

Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822-28 September 1895)

was a French scientist, chemist and physicist by

formation who then became a pioneer of microbiology.

He has achieved remarkable breakthroughs in the causes

and preventions of diseases such as puerperal fever, and

he created the first vaccine for rabies and anthrax. His

experiments supported the germ theory of disease.

He has investigated a method to stop milk and wine from

causing sickness, a process that came to be

called pasteurization. Pasteur also made many

discoveries in the field of chemistry, most notably the

molecular basis for the asymmetry of certain crystals.

=>The discoveries of Pasteur further enhanced our

understanding and discovery of how bio-diverse the micro

world is but also how the observation of nature can lead

to remarkable breakthroughs and applications that can

benefit humans, a field now referred to as biomimetics.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The commercial value of biodiversity came apparent

during the period of great explorations.

The commerce of exotic spices as well as the trade of

exotic animals where major commerce trades at the time

(and still remain).

During that time it became rapidly apparent that trading

species would play a major part of the world economy.

This is still valid today, the trade of species account for

one of the largest economical trades worldwide.

=> At the time, the amount of trade was manageable.

However, as the trade expended (beyond spices) and the

world population grew, the trade of species is today a

major drive of species extinction as these exploitations

go much beyond the populations regeneration rates.

I.11 Spice Trade and the

Commercial Value of

Biodiversity


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



During the 19th century, the quest for

exploration and knowledge of the

natural world through observations

and field studies has led to numerous

breakthroughs in our understanding

of nature.

Field studies remain of crucial

importance and should not be

replaced by other disciplines.

I.12 (a) The Era of

Great Explorers


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The expedition of the Challenger was the first great

oceanographic worldwide mission. It was realized

aboard the HMS Challenger between December 1872

and May 1876.

The ship travelled more than 120 000 km around

the world. The main goal of the mission was to

study marine animals and to understand the

circulation of currents.

The mission resulted in a major report. One of the

outcomes was the discovery of 4000 unknown

species of animals. The challenger expedition was a

remarkable breakthrough in the discovery of

species.

=> Such expedition model demonstrated that a lot

of knowledge can be gained at once if the resources

and efforts are allocated for this purpose.

I.12 (b) The Expedition

of the Challenger


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.12 (c) The great explorations of

the 17th and 18th century

have brought an incredible

amount of knowledge. As a

result of these explorations

we came to realize how

bio-diverse the world is.

As a consequence the world

also came to realize the

commercial benefits of

exploiting biodiversity.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Johann Gregor Mendel (22 July 1822-6 January

1884) was a monk and a Tchek Botanist. He his

renown as the father of modern genetics. Today a

law has been named after him “the Mendel Law’

that defines the way genes are being transmitted

from generation to generation.

Most of the discoveries of Mendel where made on

observations and logical deductions by studying

reproduction patterns in peas.

=> The discovery of genetic principles have led

the path to a greater understanding of evolution

and a mechanism conducting to the diversity of

life on Earth.

However a clearer understanding of genetic

principles really came with the discovery of DNA in

the 20th century.

I.13 Origins of Genetics:

Gregor Mendel


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Desoxyribonucleic acid (or DNA) is a molecule present

in all living cells that contains all information

necessary for the development and function of a

given organism.

It is also the support for heredity as it is transmitted

during reproduction. DNA holds the genetic code and

constitute the genome of living organisms.

DNA was discovered by James D. Watson and Francis

Crick in 1953. By using x-ray diffraction data they

were able to propose the double helix or spiral

staircase structure of the DNA molecule.

=> The discovery of DNA led to remarkable

breakthrough in our understanding of genetics

which also provides a mechanism for the

transmission of genes and therefore the diversity of

life.

I.14 The Discovery of DNA


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The expression “biological diversity” was first

introduced by Thomas Lovejoy in 1980 while the

word “biodiversity” itself was invented by

Walter G.Rosen in 1985 while preparing the

National Forum on Biological Diversity organized

by the National Research Council in 1986; the

word “biodiversity” first appeared in a

publication in 1988 when American Entomologist

E.O Wilson accounted for this forum.

Edward Osborne Wilson is a current entomologist

and biologist renown for his work on evolution

and socio-biology.

Wilson is the world expert on ants and in

particular their utilisation of pheromones as a

mean for communication. He has also studied

the massive extinctions of the 20th century and

their relations with modern society.

Edward.O.Wilson. Photo from Jim Harrison 2003

I.15 The Modern

Concept of Biodiversity


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



As highlighted in this first chapter, a few key

persons and great explorations have led the

way to the modern knowledge and on-going

researches to gain a better understanding of

the natural world that surrounds us.

We have come a long way since these early

days key discoveries. Despite that great

achievements have been realized, the more

we study nature, the more we come to

understand that we have only just started to

learn and exploit the potential that is within

the living environment.

Despite that many have the misconception

that we have already discovered all there is to

know, the amount of useful information still

remaining to be explored is unmatched and

virtually infinite.

Overall, it is very apparent that we still know

very little about the living environment…

Conclusion Chapter I



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter II

The Diversity of Life

on Earth

How incredibly diverse are life

forms on Earth



Introduction Chapter II:

The Diversity of Life on Earth

This chapter aims to expose how bio-diverse is the world

we live in.

We, human beings, have inherited a planet which is

currently inhabited by an incredible array of life forms

resulting from 3.5 billion years of natural history and

adaptations. Life forms inhabiting the planet range from

large species such as mammals to microscopic organisms

such as bacteria.

The more we study species the more we discover that we

have so far only touched the tip of the iceberg in terms

of how complex and bio-diverse is our planet.

We are still making remarkable discoveries, for instance

finding species in places that we never thought species

could survive or discovering links between species which

have led to new paths of understanding of the history of

life on Earth.

The reality is that there is still a lot to be discovered in

biology. However, fields of biology such as taxonomy, the

science of classifying species within their evolutionary

history are disappearing. As species are disappearing at a

much greater rate then they are studied, funding for

research is now prioritized in conservation.

The fact that current species are no longer studied also

means that we are losing a tremendous amount of

knowledge and potential new ground breaking discoveries,

some of which could have direct benefits to humans.

An important fact that we have discovered by studying life

on Earth is that species are remarkably linked to one

another in a complex interaction of food networks and

ecosystems. All species play an important role in making the

stable yet fragile ecosystems that we observe today.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or for the

entire Earth. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems.

The biodiversity found on Earth today consist of many millions of distinct biological

species, which are the product of nearly 3.5 billion years of evolution.

II.1(a): Definition of Biodiversity



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.1 (b) Biodiversity is like a web. Living organisms on the planet are connected and interrelated.

Every organism has a role to play in a complex network of ecosystems.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.2 Levels of

Biodiversity

There are different levels at

which biodiversity can be found:

-At the ecosystem level

-At the species level

-At the genes level

=> Species are interconnected in

space and time

=> The vast majority of all

species that have inhabited our

planet have become extinct

overtime



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.3 (a) Biodiversity:

what do we know? There are relatively only very few people worldwide who are

doing scientific studies on species.

Taxonomy: The science of species classification requires a high

level of expertise which is in decline worldwide (Each group of

species requires experts to study and understand them).

Species are in fact disappearing at a much faster rate then they

are studied.

We are losing hundreds if not hundreds of thousands of species

each year. Species that we never had the chance to study and

understand. Most of these are small or micro organisms.

=>The public knowledge of biodiversity loss is not understood as

most institutions which classify biodiversity loss tend to focus on

the well known mega fauna (tigers, elephants, rhinos…) but

barely mention the much smaller organisms which often have a

much greater role to play in ecosystems equilibrium.

Well known mega fauna

Poorly known or unknown small and

micro fauna




Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.3 (b) Most species on Earth are very small in

size for us humans. One has to look and

search closely to find them.

When comparing ourselves to all living

species on Earth, humans are truly

“giants”.

Despite that most attention is on

emblematic species (tigers,

elephants…) the hidden macro world of

biodiversity has a very important role

to play and remains largely unknown.

=> Biodiversity mostly concerns the

macro level in terms of species

number.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.3 (c) Biodiversity: what

do we know?

Another trend in the study of nature is that there is an

apparent disequilibrium between the knowledge that

we have on different groups of species.

Some species with a broader interest from the general

public have been well studied such as butterflies,

shells, fish, birds, large mammals…

While others, usually smaller species, such as bacteria

remain largely unknown.

Some groups such as insects, fungus or bacteria are also

much broader than other groups.

The more we study species and try to get a broader

view of the diversity of life on Earth, the more we

realize that we know in fact very little about the

variation of life forms on our planet.

Some groups are well studied

Others are not…




Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.3 (d) While most conservationists focus on the preservation of

emblematic species, thousands of unknown species are

disappearing every year without being noticed.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The discovery of DNA and the genetic revolution of the 20th century

has driven a drastic change in how species are studied.

Taxonomy tends to be replaced by so called “bar coding” of particular

genes within species. Each species having its own “Bar code” allows

the buildup of a global database of species on Earth based on their

genetic code.

However, there is a downturn to this process. The “species bar code”

would work well if species were studied and identified at the same

rhythm as they are scanned. However, this is not the case and we are

now building-up large databases of species which we do not know

about for the simple reason that they have not been scientifically

studied to date (the possession of part of a species genome does

not replace studying them).

Even more of concern, species are becoming extinct at a much

greater rate then they are actually studied, which implies that many

of the coded species are likely to be extinct before they have been

studied.

Studying species implies looking into their anatomy, classifying them

within their evolutionary history, studying how they interact with the

environment…there is a lot to learn in doing such studies and

potential applications which could benefit human beings.

II.4 (a) Taxonomy Vs

Molecular Phylogeny



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.4 (b) In fact, one of the few things that we do

know about biodiversity on Earth is that we

still know very little…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.5 (a) Speciation and

Adaptation

Species on the planet have evolved over hundreds of

millions of years in response to environmental pressures

through the process of evolution by natural selection

As such, every species on the planet are marvels of

adaptation to given conditions and surrounding

environments (they have managed to survive over a very

long time due to the fact that adaptations that they

have developed has giving them survival advantages)

Each species is unique with specific adaptation

attributes from which a lot of knowledge and

applications for human civilizations could be gained

As such, any species becoming extinct results in

irreplaceable loss in potential solutions/remedies

Furthermore, biodiversity is an important aspect of the

beauty of this planet. Lets imagine a world with only a

few species left including our own. Such scenario would

be devastating for future generations



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.5 (b) Due to natural pressures species have evolved to be

adapted to their surrounding environment.

In this picture a small species of

crab from Loyalty Islands (New

Caledonia) has camouflaged itself

to match the species of algae on

which it lives on. This common

adaptation gives species the

advantage of not being easily

noticed by predators.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Sylvain Richer de Forges II.5 (c) Pressures for survival drives long term adaptation in species.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.6 The tree of life. All species on Earth are interrelated.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.7 Archaea

The Archaea: are a group of single-celled

micro-organisms. They have no cell nucleus

or any other organelles within their cells.

Three main branches of evolutionary descent

are the Archaea, Eukarya and Bacteria.

Archaea are further divided into four

recognized phyla, but many more phyla may

exist.

Classifying the Archaea is still difficult, since

the vast majority have never been studied in

the laboratory and have only been detected

by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples

from the environment.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The bacteria are a large group of unicellular

microorganisms.

Bacteria are found in every habitat on Earth, growing in

soil, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, water, and

deep in the Earth's crust, as well as in organic matter

and the live bodies of plants and animals.

There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of

soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh

water; in all, there are approximately five nonillion

bacteria on Earth, forming much of the world's biomass.

Bacteria are vital in recycling nutrients, with many steps

in nutrient cycles depending on these organisms, such as

the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere and

putrefaction. However, most bacteria have not been

characterized, and only about half of the phyla of

bacteria have species that can be grown in the

laboratory.

=> We still know very little about bacteria.

II.8 Bacteria



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.9 (a) Eukaryotes

(Plants, Fungi, Animals)

A eukaryote is an organism whose cells contain

complex structures protected by membranes. The

defining membrane-bound structure that sets

eukaryotic cells apart from prokaryotic cells is the

nucleus, or nuclear envelope, within which the

genetic material is carried. Most eukaryotic cells also

contain other membrane-bound organelles such as

mitochondria, chloroplasts and the Golgi apparatus.

Almost all species of large organisms are eukaryotes,

including animals, plants and fungi, although most

species of eukaryotic protists are micro-organisms.

Cell division in eukaryotes is different from that in

organisms without a nucleus (prokaryotes). It

involves separating the duplicated chromosomes.

There are two types of division processes. Mitosis,

one cell divides to produce two genetically identical

cells. And Meiosis, which is required in sexual

reproduction.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.9 (b) Biodiversity is the most valuable

resource on the planet and yet the

least understood…

As species are highly adapted to their

surrounding environments, each

species would require an in depth

study to understand the processes

involved. Even if every person on the

planet was to study one species, we

would still have far from a complete

understanding of how diverse and

complex the living world is. Yet, only a

handful of people are making such

studies

=> There is so much more to discover

and yet so little allocated resources

to do so…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.10 Plants

Belonging to the kingdom Plantae, they include familiar

organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns,

mosses. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has

identified about 350,000 extant species of plants, defined as

seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies. As of 2004,

some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650

are flowering and 18,000 bryophytes.

“Green plants” obtain most of their energy from sunlight

via a process called photosynthesis

Aristotle divided all living things between plants (which

generally do not move), and animals (which often are mobile

to catch their food). In Linnaeus' system, these became the

Kingdoms Vegetabilia (later Metaphyta or Plantae) and

Animalia (also called Metazoa).

Since then, it has become clear that the Plantae as originally

defined included several unrelated groups, and the fungi and

several groups of algae were removed to new kingdoms



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.11 (a) Fungus

A fungus is a member of a large group of

eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms

such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more

familiar mushrooms. The Fungi are classified as a

kingdom that is separate from plants, animals and

bacteria.

One major difference is that fungal cells have cell

walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of

plants, which contain cellulose.

Abundant worldwide, most fungi are inconspicuous

because of the small size of their structures, and

their cryptic lifestyles in soil, on dead matter, and

as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi.

They may become noticeable when fruiting, either

as mushrooms or molds.

Fungi perform an essential role in the

decomposition of organic matter and have

fundamental roles in nutrient cycling and

exchange.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Species are closely interrelated.

For instance certain species of

insects are only found on one

species of plant. If this plant

disappears, so will the insect

species. Such principle applies to

all living organism, the more we

study species the more we learn

that numerous other species live

on or in dependence to one single

species.

=> parasitology is a particular

case of these interactions.

II.11 (b) The disappearance of only one

species can result in the

disappearance of many others

which depend on it to survive…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.12 (a) Animals

Animals are a major group of mostly multicellular,

eukaryotic organisms of the kingdom Animalia or Metazoa.

Their body plan eventually becomes fixed as they develop,

although some undergo a process of metamorphosis later in

their life. Most animals are motile, meaning they can move

spontaneously and independently. All animals are also

heterotrophs, meaning they must ingest other organisms

for sustenance.

Most known animal phyla appeared in the fossil record as

marine species during the Cambrian explosion, about 542

million years ago.

Animals have several characteristics that set them apart

from other living things. Most animals are eukaryotic and

are multicellular, which separates them from bacteria and

most protists. They are heterotrophic. Generally digesting

food in an internal chamber, which separates them from

plants and algae. They are also distinguished from plants,

algae, and fungi by lacking rigid cell walls. All animals are

motile. In most animals, embryos pass through a blastula

stage, which is a characteristic exclusive to animals.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.12 (b) Isolated ecosystems such as caves hold some of the most

remarkably adapted species. There is still a lot to be

discovered in remote ecosystems…

Remote ecosystems can be defined as places which have

become isolated from their surrounding environments and

which possesses unique environments. Even in the 21st

century, many of such ecosystems on Earth, remain

virtually unexplored for their inhabiting biodiversity.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.13 (a) Insects

Insects are a class within the arthropods that

have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body

(head, thorax, and abdomen), three pairs of

jointed legs, compound eyes, and two antennae.

They are among the most diverse group of

animals on the planet, include more than a

million described species and represent more

than half of all known living organisms.

The number of extant species is estimated at

between six and ten million and potentially

represent over 90% of the differing life forms on

Earth. Insects may be found in nearly all

environments, although only a small number of

species occur in the oceans, a habitat dominated

by another arthropod group, the crustaceans.

The life cycles of insects vary but most hatch

from eggs. Insect growth is constrained by the

inelastic exoskeleton and development involves

a series of molts.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.13 (b) Many insects are considered pests by humans. However, we must keep in mind that insects are vital to

maintaining healthy ecosystems necessary for humans well being.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II. 13 (c) Insects

Insects that undergo incomplete

metamorphosis lack a pupal stage and

adults develop through a series of

nymphal stages.

The higher level relationship of the

hexapoda is unclear. Fossilized insects of

enormous size have been found from the

Paleozoic Era, including giant dragonflies

with wingspans of 55 to 70 cm.

The most diverse insect groups have

coevolved with flowering plants.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



I.13 (d) Insects represent the largest and most diverse animal group on the planet.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Mammals (formally Mammalia) are a class of vertebrate, air-

breathing animals whose females are characterized by the

possession of mammary glands while both males and females

are characterized by sweat glands, hair and/or fur, three

middle ear bones used in hearing, and a neocortex region in

the brain.

Mammals are divided into three main infraclass taxa depending

how they are born. These taxa are: monotremes, marsupials

and placentals. Except for the five species of monotremes

(which lay eggs), all mammal species give birth to live young.

Most mammals also possess specialized teeth, and the largest

group of mammals, the placentals, use a placenta during

gestation.

There are approximately 5,400 species of mammals,

distributed in about 1,200 genera, 153 families, and 29 orders.

Mammals range in size from the 30–40 millimeter (1- to 1.5-

inch) Bumblebee Bat to the 33-meter (108-foot) Blue Whale.

II.14 (a) Mammals



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.14 (b) Mammals have developed

some of the most complex

behaviors in the animal

kingdom.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.15 (a) Reptiles

Reptiles, or members of the (Linnaean) class Reptilia,

are air-breathing, generally "cold-blooded".

Their skin is usually covered in scales or scutes. They are

tetrapods (either having four limbs or being descended

from four-limbed ancestors) and lay amniotic eggs, in

which the embryo is surrounded by a membrane called

the amnion. Modern reptiles inhabit every continent

with the exception of Antarctica.

Four living orders are currently recognized: Crocodilia,

Sphenodontia, Squamata and Chelonia.

The majority of reptile species are oviparous (egg-

laying), although certain species of squamates are

capable of giving live birth. This is achieved by either

ovoviviparity (egg retention) or viviparity (birth of

offspring without the development of calcified eggs).

Many of the viviparous species feed their fetuses through

various forms of placenta analogous to those of

mammals, with some providing initial care for their

hatchlings.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



II.15 (b) Reptiles have adapted remarkably to the

most hostile environments.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



As presented in this chapter, species on Earth are

incredibly diverse.

However, despite that main types of life forms

have been identified and can be recognized,

most of the diversity occurs between species.

Despite that individual species within a group

have common features, they also possess very

different traits and adaptations which accounts

for the diversity.

While we are now starting to get a good

understanding of the common traits in groups of

species, adaptations at the species level

remains virtually unknown.

=> Every species is unique.

Conclusion Chapter II



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter III

Main Biodiversity

Rich Ecosystems

How the vast majority of the

diversity of life on Earth is found

in only a few ecosystems



Introduction Chapter III:

Main Biodiversity Rich Ecosystems

This chapter aims to highlight the fact that most

biodiversity on the planet is present within a few

ecosystems.

Despite that diverse forms of life can be found in

almost any environment on the planet, the vast

majority of the species are concentrated within specific

ecosystems and also in specific locations of the planet

which are known to inhabit more species.

Oceans where life originated in the first place remain

one of the most bio-diverse environments on the

planet. However, surprisingly we still know relatively

very little about the life in our oceans, especially at

greater depths as these environments remain almost

unexplored to date.

The second mega bio-diverse environment are tropical

rainforests which inhabit a remarkable diversity of

species, much of which remains totally un-accounted

for.

There is however a concerning aspect relative to the

fact that most of biodiversity on Earth is concentrated

within these two ecosystems: both are in critical state as

a result of anthropic pressures from aspects such as

deforestation, over-exploitation and climate change.

The important point here is that we need to preserve

ecosystems in order to preserve species. If forests and

marine ecosystems collapse, this will result in enormous

losses of biodiversity. At the current rate of

deforestation, there will be little left of natural forests

by as soon as 2030.

We also know that most biodiversity in the oceans is

concentrated within shallow waters. However, as global

warming is taking its toll, we also know that it is likely

that surface temperatures will increase by at least 2

degrees by the end of the century. Under such scenario,

most coral reefs will not survive.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.1 Rainforests

Rainforests are one of the main

biodiversity rich ecosystems of the planet.

Rainforests are mostly found in tropical

and subtropical regions.

The largest rainforests include the Amazon

in South America as well as in the island of

Borneo in South East Asia. Both of these

examples are critically threatened from

massive deforestation which has reached

alarming rates.

At the current rate of deforestation, these

rainforests which hold most of the worlds

biodiversity could be gone as soon as 2030.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.2 (a) Coral Reefs

Reefs are one of the most bio-diverse ecosystems on the

planet.

They are mostly found in tropical and subtropical regions.

Reefs are critical to the equilibrium of oceanic life as they

hold many of the food supplies for other marine life.

Reefs are facing a rising amount of pressures mostly from

anthropic origins as a result of overfishing, global

warming, sea and land based pollution as well as

development.

A collapse of reef ecosystems would have dramatic

consequences on the rest of marine ecosystems which rely

on coral reefs to survive.

Reef remain a primary source of food and an ecosystem

upon many human civilizations rely on for their survival.

The loss of coral reefs will also result in major social

issues.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.2 (b) Under current climate change negotiations, it is very likely that average global temperatures will exceed

2 degrees Celcius by 2100.

Accepting a 2 degree warmer world is accepting that we have already scarified most coral reefs around

the world which will not be able to cope with such a rapid change



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.3 Mangroves

Mangroves are another bio-diverse ecosystem mostly found in tropical and subtropical regions. Mangroves play an important role as a feeding ground for migratory birds. Due to the salty or semi-salty conditions found in mangroves, a very specific flora has adapted to such conditions. To this particular flora and environment, very specific and diverse life forms have also adapted making mangroves an important feeding ground for many species. In addition, mangroves play a critical role in coastal health by providing a filtering and physical barrier to coastal erosion. Mangroves are disappearing around the world as a combination of deforestation, coastal development and global warming. They are also under threat from overfishing.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Because they have become isolated at some point in time

over the last few million years, many ecosystems on the

planet have developed a biodiversity which is unique from

its surounding environment.

Such examples of biodiverse isolated ecosystems include

small island states like the Galapagos or New Caledonia as

well as isolated areas within continents such as an isolated

mountain top, a lake or any other area which for some

reason has become isolated from its surrounding.

Such ecosystems can be different from their surrounding

for reasons such as a micro-climate, a particular soil/flora

or a unique feature.

=>The surrounding environment often shapes the diversity

of the species inhabiting within.

III.4 (a) Isolated Ecosystems



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Isolated ecosystems, case study: seamounts

Seamounts are mountains found under the sea. The study of these mounts shows that they are very rich in biodiversity

especially in tropical and sub-tropical areas. Studies also show that these mounts are often isolated ecosystems as the

fauna found on one seamount can be very different than another seamount even when located nearby one another.

III.4 (b) Seamounts are isolated ecosystems

rich in biodiversity.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.5 (a) The Abyss

The abyss refers to the deep sea at depth

below 2000 m.

We know very little about the abyss for the

reason that it is very difficult to reach due to

physical constraints.

However, some remarkable isolated

ecosystems have been found at great dephts

such as hydrothermal vents around which very

biodiverse and unique life forms have adapted.

The difficullty to reach these depths is an

obstacle to our exploration. The more we will

have access to the abyss, the more we will

discover.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.5 (b) We know more about our solar system then we do about life in

the deep oceans of our own planet!

Our knowledge of life in the deeper

parts of the oceans remains largely

unknown to date. The main reason is the

extreme technological difficulties of

reaching these depths which is

comparable to going into outer space.

The other reason is that many deep sea

species are likely to be very “shy” and

sensitive to light sources. Therefore,

most of the life is likely to be scared

away by the powerful lights of

submersibles. It is likely that we have

yet not seen even the tip of the iceberg

of the diversity of deep sea life.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.5 (c) Deep Water

Thermal Vents

For long it was believed that all life forms on Earth

derived their energy from photosynthesis by utilizing

energy from the Sun.

However, the discovery of deep sea vents and the

understanding of the life forms living around them

shows that organisms in these ecosystems are relying

on Sulphur chemistry and thermal energy from the

core of the earth rather than direct sun energy.

Such discovery also gives hope that life forms on other

planets may exist.

Such life forms are another example of how life can

evolve and adapt to very hostile and particular

conditions.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



III.6 Seagrass Beds

Seagrasses form extensive beds or meadows

and can be either made up of one species or

be multispecific.

In temperate areas, usually one or a few

species dominate, whereas tropical beds

usually are more diverse, with up to thirtheen

species recorded in the Philippines.

Seagrass beds are highly diverse and

productive ecosystems, and can harbor

hundreds of associated species from all phyla.

Seagrass herbivory is a highly important link in

the food chain, with hundreds of species

feeding on seagrasses worldwide, including

green turtles, dugongs, manatees, fish, geese,

swans, sea urchins and crabs.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter III

As presented in this chapter, most of the

diversity of life forms on Earth can be found in

only a few mega diverse locations.

Most of these locations are located in the

tropic and sub-tropic regions. Furthermore,

among all ecosystems on Earth, rainforests and

barrier reefs are by far the most diverse

environments in terms of biodiversity.

Sadly, both of the latest ecosystems are

amongst the most threatened from human

activities. While rainforest are disappearing at

alarming rates through deforestation and

reconversion of lands, climate change is

expected to take an heavy toll on reefs around

the world throughout the century.

However, despite that the vast majority of life

on Earth can be found in these few

ecosystems, species can surprisingly be found

in almost any environments on the planet

ranging from hot springs to the coldest places.

Micro-organisms are especially incredibly

diverse in almost any given environments.

Often species which are found in isolated and

poor ecosystems in terms of biodiversity have

been able to survive through unique

adaptations which have provided these species

highly competitive advantages over other

species which for most have not survived.

If the objective is to save as many species as

possible, then most of conservation efforts

should be focused on tropical and subtropical

regions and in particular rainforests.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter IV

Anthropic Impacts

and Biodiversity

How humans have drastically

changed the balance of life on

Earth



Introduction Chapter IV:

Anthropic Impacts and Biodiversity

This chapter aims to focus on the pressures exerted on

biodiversity as a direct impact of human influences.

Humans have a tremendous impact on other species on the

planet should it be from direct impacts (e.g. Human food

consumption) or indirect impacts as a result of our

activities (e.g. mining, industrialization, pollutions…).

As the human population rapidly grows, the pressures

imposed on natural ecosystems and species are enormous

and resulting in numerous species extinctions. It is

estimated that species are disappearing at least 1000 times

the natural rate.

While some of the impacts are only felt locally where the

disturbance occurs, a more concerning trend now becoming

a reality is that, as a result of intense pollution worldwide,

ecosystems are becoming saturated on a global scale which

could well lead to massive extinctions in a near future.

Pollution of oceans is one example of such large scale

disturbance. Plastic residues for instance are now found in

almost any location on the planet even in the most remote

areas. Such residues are incorporated into food chains and

can even be monitored in species themselves.

The most significant impact that humans are causing to

global biodiversity will be a consequence of global warming

as a result of industrialization and the addition of

greenhouse gases to the atmosphere from the burning of

fossil fuels.

Under current climate negotiations the rise in temperature

alone will with certainty cause a wave of massive

biodiversity loss onto which pollution issues will add on.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.1 (a) Deforestation

Deforestation is one of the major threats to biodiversity. Forests and especially rainforests of equatorial and subtropical regions hold some of the Earth richest ecosystems. Deforestation has however been increasing significantly over the past decades to the point where it has now reached alarming rates and associated species loss. The island of Borneo forests as well as the Amazon are losing tremendous superficies of forest each year due to logging activities mostly for the construction and paper industry. Significant deforestation has also been rising in recent years in relation to agriculture and the plantation of monocultures for biofuels. Deforestation has devastating effects on the rich biodiversity that these ecosystems hold by destroying habitats of numerous species and destabilizing the food chains resulting in the collapse of the ecosystems.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Forests are vanishing around the world at an alarming rate. Forests provide habitats for numerous species.

As forests disappear so is the biodiversity that inhabits within.

IV.1 (b) There are very few primary forests

left in the world and most of them are

critically endangered.

Most of these forests are only present

in national parks and in areas where

human development has not

intensified.

Once destroyed, a forest is either lost

or will take thousands of years to

recover.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Many still have the misconception

that because land is covered by

“green” vegetation such as common

grass species, we are preserving

biodiversity.

This concept is wrong, if one species

disappears so are many other

species which depend on it to

survive.

=> Preserving a diversity of plant

species is crucial for preserving

biodiversity of other life forms.

IV.1 (c) Replacing natural forests with planted monocultures is a major threat to biodiversity…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.2 (a) Mining

Mining activities are rapidly expending around the world

due to the rising demand in metals and other resources.

The sole activity of mining can have devastating effects

on biodiversity, especially in isolated ecosystems and bio-

diverse areas.

Examples of mining activities which are putting severe

pressures on the biodiversity and ecosystems can be

found in areas such as Indonesia, Madagascar or New

Caledonia which are all classified as biodiversity hotspots.

Terrestrial biodiversity is most concentrated in the top

upper layer of the soil. Mining activities which completely

wipe out the top part of the soil destroys whichever life

form and habitats are present. The soil once exposed is

easily eroded and carried out to sea impacting reef

formations and marine life as well.

Mining activities have devastating impacts on the

environment and biodiversity in particular, especially in

bio-diverse locations.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.2 (b) Mining is one of the most environmental destructive and unsustainable practices. Especially in biodiversity

rich areas.

Many mines are located in biodiversity

sensitive areas including biodiversity

hotspots like Madagascar. These mines

have devastating impacts resulting from

the installation of the mine (from large

scale deforestation to the operation and

after life of the mine).

The impacts of these mines often extend

much beyond the mining area as they

require the cutting of roads, heavy

machinery and reject numerous toxic

compounds into the environment affecting

the surrounding environment on a large

scale.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Many nations depend almost entirely on resources from the oceans as a primary food supply. Most of the oceans resources are however harvested extensively by only a few industrialized nations. Fish stocks and other marine resources are harvested far beyond their regeneration ability. At the current rate of fishing, most fish stocks will be extinct by mid-century. Adoption of sustainable fishing practices respectful of species reproductive rate is crucial in order to avoid the collapse of most marine ecosystems. Fish should be harvested from farming rather than the oceans. However the current aquaculture practices are far from sustainable.

IV.3 (a) Over Fishing



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The replacement of traditional local fishing with international industrial fishing has devastating effects on

the worlds marine species. At the current rate It is estimated that most large commercial fish species will

be extinct by 2040.

IV.3 (b) Traditional fishing methods have been replaced by industrialized and more productive fishing practices.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.3 (C) As industrial fishing deplates the worlds ocean resources and marine biodiversity, it also creates social

problems by depleting the stocks which are no longer available for local communities to feed on…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



As the top predator in the oceans, Sharks play a very important

role in maintaining ecosystems stability.

Worldwide, populations of sharks are seriously pressured from

anthropic activities.

Most species of sharks are now at serious risks of extinction as a

result of overfishing.

The process of shark finning is having devastating impacts on shark

populations but also on entire ecosystems.

Shark fins are mostly collected to be sold as shark fin soup which is

considered a delicacy in Asian countries.

Sharks have a very slow reproductive rate and only have a few

young's in their life time.

At the current rate sharks are collected, numerous species of

sharks could become extinct within the next 10-20 years.

The disappearance or drastic diminution of sharks in the oceans

will have devastating effects on the entire marine ecosystem.

IV.3 (d) Case study: Sharks,

a Critical Problem



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



All Shark species must become protected or

they will face extinction within a few

decades only…

Shark finning is a threat to shark

populations worldwide with serious

implications for marine ecosystems stability.

Shark finning is a very unsustainable

practice which should become banned or at

least strictly regulated.

IV.3 (e) Shark Finning



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



We do not know the full extent or consequences that a sharp diminution or even disappearance of sharks will have

on marine ecosystems. We however know that they play a critical role.

IV.3 (f) Sharks have been mediatized

as a “human killing machine”.

It has now been clearly

established that such

statement is false. Sharks as a

top predator play a critical

role in maintaining oceans

ecosystem stability.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.4 Illegal Trading

of Species

Illegal trading of endangered species is a growing

problem.

As species become more and more under threat

and on the verge of extinction, the price of such

species on the black market keeps on rising.

Illegal killing and selling of endangered species

has a serious impact on the stability of these

fragile populations which in many instances

pushes these species to extinction.

Examples of species which are valued include

tigers, parrots and fish mostly originating from

tropical and subtropical regions.

while some endangered species are traded as

living organisms others such as elephants are

killed for the sole purpose of extracting parts of

the animals (e.g. Ivory, tiger powder).



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.5 (a) Agriculture

Over the past century agriculture has increased dramatically in

response to the exponentially growing human population and the

need to feed them.

In addition to its fast expansion, agriculture has drifted away from

traditional practices to highly industrialized and optimized processes.

In order to cope with such demand, agriculture has become

increasingly dependent on fertilizers and pesticides.

The use of genetically engineered plantations is also a rising threat to

biodiversity. Species genetically modified, when introduced into the

environment, compete with natural species.

Agriculture by its nature is also a major threat to biodiversity by

spreading monocultures.

In order to find the ever increasing space required for agriculture,

tremendous spaces of land initially occupied by primary forests and

other ecosystems are destroyed removing in the process the diversity

of species which in many instances were only found in these specific

locations.

A growing problem is also the rise of lands used for monoculture

plantations destined for biofuel production. This new usage has for

consequence to even put more pressure and increase the need for

further agricultural lands.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



In order to preserve

biodiversity we must find

and shift to new food

production methods not

requiring such extensive

land use (e.g. vertical

farms?)

IV.5 (b) Agriculture is one of the main threats to biodiversity. Worldwide, entire ecosystems are wiped out

(such as forests) and reconverted for agricultural purposes which has major implications for

biodiversity and has resulted in the loss of numerous species. Today this trend is even pushed further

with the need for biofuel crops.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.5 (c) Pesticides used in agriculture can affect animal reproduction adding further pressures on biodiversity.

In addition to monocultures

land conversion. A very

significant amount of

pesticides and fertilizers are

added to industrial crops.

These two elements kill

numerous species resulting

in significant biodiversity

loss going much beyond the

crop areas as the substances

are transmitted through food

chains



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.6 Bio-Engineering

Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are a

threat to natural species in the environment.

The genes within GMO enter in competition with

natural genes occurring in the environment.

We are uncertain of the impacts that such GMO

will have on other species.

However, it has been proven that GMO lead to

monocultures and mutations within natural

species.

By introducing GMO into the environment we are

risking the loss of naturally occurring species in

favor of genetically modified ones.

=> GMO are a major threat to global

biodiversity.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.7 Industrialisation and

Associated Waste

Since the industrial revolution, the rise of industries of all forms and sectors have been taking place in most nations. This rapid change of activities has driven the rise of very diverse environmental pressures including the generation of very large amounts of chemical wastes and other disturbances such as noise and atmospheric emissions. Pollution generated by all nations has now far exceeded local impacts and effects on a global scale are starting to arise. For instance trace amounts of certain pollutants such as residues of hydrocarbons (e.g. plastic bags) can now be found in any given place on Earth. Such background pollution is putting further pressure on ecosystems around the world which are struggling to adapt and cope with the change in surrounding environment. Usually under natural conditions such changes in the chemistry of the environment occurs over millions of years which permits adaptive changes, however species are unable to adopt to such a rapid change now occurring over several decades only.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.8 (a) Pollution and

Biodiversity

Pollution is a human created vision of the state of our

environment.

Without a human vision of the world in which we live, the

concept of pollution would simply not exist.

Pollution can be seen as an unusual level of a substance which

disturbs the surrounding environment and especially

biodiversity.

Due to industrialization pollution has become one of the

greatest threat to global biodiversity.

Many species cannot cope with the rapid changes in physical

parameters which are occurring to our environment.

High levels of pollution results in toxicity. All substances are

toxic it all depends on the level of occurrence and to which

capacity organisms can tolerate the substance.

=> We are releasing substances in the environment to such a

level that they are becoming toxic to many organisms.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.8 (b) While some substances require

large amounts to be toxic to

organisms, numerous human

made substances have significant

impacts on organisms even in

very low concentrations.

While some substances only stay in the environment for short periods of times, others stay very long. These are

the most concerning pollutants as they do not deteriorate and end up entering food chains.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Eutrophication (or algal bloom) is an increase in the

concentration of nutrient content to an extent that

it increases the primary productivity of the water

body. In other terms, it is the "bloom“ or great

increase of phytoplankton in a water body.

Negative environmental effects include

particularly anoxia, or loss of oxygen in the water

with severe reductions in fish and other animal

populations. Other species may experience an

increase in population that negatively affects other

species in the local ecosystem.

As pollution (Nitrates & Phosphates) from sources

such as agriculture increases, more and more water

bodies are experiencing eutrophication which is

putting pressure on the biodiversity of these

ecosystems.

IV.8 (c) Case Study:

Eutrophication



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.9 (a) Climate Change

and Biodiversity

Since the industrial revolution, human activities have added tremendous amounts of green house gases into the atmosphere. By doing so we are changing the composition of the atmosphere which results into the Earth becoming warmer through the action of the greenhouse effect being amplified in the process. One of the consequences of global warming will be to affect biodiversity. Numerous species of plants and animals are already responding to warmer temperatures by moving to higher altitudes or latitudes. Many species unable to adapt or migrate fast enough will however become at increased risk of extinction. Scientists estimate that we could lose half of all species present on the planet today through the impacts of climate change alone by the end of the century.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.9 (b) Climate Change and Biodiversity loss:

It is here important to highlight and emphasize on

the link between climate change and biodiversity

loss.

It has taken millions of years for species to adapt to

their given ecosystems. During this time numerous

changes in the climate system have occurred.

However, climate change that we observe today is

occurring very fast (as opposed to most geological

climate shifts) and is the result of mainly anthropic

activities (and therefore could be slowed down)

Most species on Earth happen to have adapted to be

very sensitive to even slight variations in outside

parameters such as air pressure, or ambient

temperature. Most scientists have agreed that

numerous species will simply not be able to cope

with the rise in atmospheric and oceanic

temperatures which are predicted under various

scenarios (including the most optimistic ones).

To further confirm the above, numerous studies on

fossils and geological observations have concluded

that rapid climate shifts have always resulted in

massive species extinction events.

If temperatures were to rise by 2 degrees

centigrade by 2100 (as predicted under most

scenarios) this alone will without doubt result in

the loss of a very significant portion of all species

present on the Earth today (most still unknown).

It makes little sense to act to preserve biodiversity

in given ecosystems today but on the other hand

to ignore the much greater threat that climate

change will have on biodiversity and these

ecosystems in the short to medium term.

Thus acting to limit the worse impacts of climate

change by reducing GHG emissions will also help in

preserving species on Earth..

=> Maintaining the Earth Climate and preserving

biodiversity cannot go without one another.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The impact of global warming on the oceans biodiversity will be disastrous. As sea level rises and oceans become

more acidic due to the absorption of CO2, biodiversity in shallow marine ecosystems will sharply decrease.

IV.9 (c) Most experts agree that coral reefs

around the world will not be able to

survive a 2 degree Celcius rise in

atmospheric temperatures.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.9 (d) Coastal ecosystems and their inhabiting biodiversity will be greatly affected as a result of global sea

level rise.

As sea level rises, large coastal areas will become permanently

flooded. In addition, the salty waters will infiltrate further and

further inland. Many species of plants and animals will not be

able to cope with this change in soil salinity. Sea level rise

alone will result in species extinctions… © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.9 (e) The thought of the scale of species extinctions through climate change alone is disturbing. If predictions by the

scientific community are correct, almost half of all species present on Earth today will become extinct by 2100 as a

sole consequence of increased global temperatures. We must however keep in mind that in addition, there are many

other factors which will drive even further species extinctions such as global pollution, habitat destruction….

We could loose half of the world total biodiversity from the impacts of climate change alone by the end of the century.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.9 (f) Climate Change is the most serious threat to global biodiversity loss.

At the current rate of warming, the loss of biodiversity as a result

of climate change will be disastrous…

Despite that deforestation

and other threats have

already alone very significant

and disastrous consequences

on biodiversity, climate

change will continue to affect

all the planet ecosystems at

increasing pressures

proportional to the rise in

ambient temperatures.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.10 (a) Human

Disturbances /

Population Growth

Human population is a major threat to biodiversity.

With a current population of near 7 billion people,

humans are the main cause of environmental

disturbance on the planet which includes major

impacts on biodiversity.

A control over the growth of the worlds population is

inevitable if we want to preserve the diversity of

species present on Earth today.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.10 (b) World

Population Predictions

World population is expected to exceed 9 billion

by 2050.

In order to feed a rapidly growing population,

agricultural fields are expending exponentially

with major impacts on biodiversity.

In order to keep up with the demand more land

needs to be cultivated, more pollution occurs.

This results in more and more pressures put on

ecosystems.

Humans and human related activities are

already the greatest threat to biodiversity. Source: UNEP


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.10 (c) The environment will always be there, preserving our environment is not about preserving the

Earth but whether we and future generations want to live in an environment that has suffered the

impacts of human activities…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Despite that ecotourism can have beneficial impacts

on biodiversity conservation, if not well managed the

impacts of mass tourisms can be disastrous.

Examples of the impacts of the tourisms industry on

biodiversity ranges from the impacts of constructing

an hotel in a remote location to massive arrival of

tourists from a cruise ship on a beach.

In a rapidly changing world where population

movements are rapidly increasing, bio-diverse areas

must increasingly be protected to preserve this

biodiversity.

The best way to protect biodiversity rich areas is to

limit the number of people at one time in these sites

with access granted on a permit basis.

IV.11 (a) Mass Tourisms



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.11 (b) Mass tourisms can have high impacts

on biodiversity. While a small group

of people may cause little

disturbance, a few hundred or

thousands in one biodiverse

sensitive place at the same time can

be a major disturbance.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.12 (a) Forest Fires

Forest fires are a rising threat to biodiversity.

Despite being a natural cycle in some ecosystems

where wildlife has adapted to cope (e.g. Australian

bush), in many areas fires are occurring in places

where they are not meant to occur frequently (e.g.

Amazon).

Every year large superficies of native forests are

completely destroyed by fires which are of natural or

most often unnatural causes.

When forests are burnt, the diversity of species that

they hold and cannot manage to escape fast enough

also disappears.

Many unknown species become extinct in fire events

every year. The vast majority are small animals and

plants.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Forest fires are part of natural

cycles. They have occurred for a very

long time and are actually necessary

in many cases to regulate population

numbers and even for species to

spread in certain cases (e.g.

Australian bush).

However, the concerning trend is

that most fires occurring today are of

unnatural sources. These fires are

propagated by humans for various

reasons (clearing of forest for farm

use, pest control….). These fires are

destroying forests around the world

including biodiversity sensitive areas

such as the amazon.

IV.12 (b) Each year fires are devastating large forest surfaces. In biodiversity rich areas such as in

South America, such fires are responsible for a large number of species becoming extinct.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.13 (a) Fragmentation

of Habitats

Ecosystems are very fragile in a sense that it does

not take much for these systems to collapse.

Small variations in environmental parameters or

even a fragmentation can trigger such disturbance.

Fragmentation of habitats is a threat to

biodiversity. Such fragmentation usually occurs

when continuous ecosystems are cut into various

sections for instance by a road or a track.

Plants are especially vulnerable to fragmentation.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.13 (b) Fragmentation of habitats is an important threat to Biodiversity.

With the industrial revolution and a

growing population also came roads. Road

infrastructures around the world have the

effect of fragmenting habitats which

isolates certain populations and makes

them more vulnerable to extinction.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.14 (a) Genetic

Resources

Access to genetic resources is a rising threat

to biodiversity.

Many large corporations are in a constant

search of rare active compounds within

species in order to develop new medicines,

perfumes or for other purposes.

Often the discovery of such compounds

leads to an unsustainable harvesting of the

resource.

An ongoing debate is with the ownership of

genetic resources. Often these compounds

are discovered because the plants and

animals they are derived from have been

used by local communities for centuries.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.14 (b) As numbers of individuals within species decrease..

..so is the genetic pool. This makes species

even more vulnerable to extinction. © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IV.15 (a) Alien Species

The transfer of species between countries and

regions is a major threat to biodiversity.

As the world nations became more and more

connected through international and national

import/export trades, species are now been

transferred between locations at alarming rates.

These transfers result in some species ending up

in places they are not meant to be (outside of

their natural habitats).

As a result, more dominant species start

competing for resources with endemic species

often resulting in alien species taking over.

=> The spread of alien species results in the

extinction of local species.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Despite measures taken by custom authorities, species are increasingly being transferred as a result

of rapidly expending human transportation and goods (shipping and air transport).

IV.15 (b) In the 21st Century, transportation has taken such proportion that ecosystems that have long been

isolated from one another are now vulnerable to cross contaminations.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter IV

As highlighted in this chapter, life on Earth is

seriously endangered mostly as a result of the

action of mankind.

Probably the greatest pressure of all relies in human

over-population. As the world population keeps on

increasing at exponential rates, the amount of

pressures put on the worlds ecosystems are simply

much beyond their capacity to recover.

Species on Earth are now struggling to survive

through an unprecedented accumulation of

pressures which most have been enumerated

throughout this chapter.

While global pollution is becoming a major issue, it

usually dilutes overtime into the environment and

species may be able to recover, should we limit our

emissions of pollutants.

However, the main global threat to biodiversity is

climate change. The impacts have started to occur

and will severely intensify throughout the century

leading to the disappearance of an unprecedented

amount of species in recent Earth history.

Unless significant progress in global negotiations to

mitigate greenhouse gas emissions are made, the

rise in global temperatures will indeed result by

itself in a massive species extinction event.

Time for action on climate change to save the

diversity of life on Earth is now and time is running

out very fast for any measures taken to significantly

prevent such species loss.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter V

A Few Case Studies

of Biodiversity

Degradation

How the situation has dramatically

shifted from only isolated events

to a global biodiversity loss



Introduction Chapter V:

A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity Degradation

This chapter presents a few case studies of biodiversity

degradation.

While it is often said that humans learn from past mistakes,

this statement does not seem to apply to the conservation of

biodiversity. There are multitude of specific examples of

anthropic activities which have resulted in severe impacts on

wildlife and biodiversity, yet we have still not understood the

lessons especially when it comes to the extinction of species.

Despite that a few adjustments and precautions have been

taken following punctual events, still major and much more

spread devastation is occurring today on a global scale as a

result of overexploitation of resources and pollution. Climate

change being on the top of the agenda when it comes to

massive extinction of species.

Despite high level negotiations which have been adopted for

more than 3 decades now (e.g. Agenda 21). Biodiversity

conservation policies remain global failures.

Deforestation is still going on at alarming rates and the rate

has actually worsen. Global warming negotiations are

struggling to even tackle basic requirements,

overexploitation of natural resources is at its worse and the

list goes on.

Often the concept of sustainable development first

introduced during the Brundtland Commission and suggesting

that developments must take equally into consideration

environmental, social and economical issues is misused and

environmental irreversible degradations still result as a

consequence of current development models.

If we are to preserve biodiversity, such perception and the

way we deal with our environment must change.


Chapter V: A Few Case Studies of Biodiversity Degradation

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.1 (a) Case Study 1:

Oil Spill, Exxon Valdez

& Deepwater Horizon

The Exxon Valdez oil spill occurred in the Prince William Sound,

Alaska, on March 23, 1989. It is considered one of the most devastating

human-caused environmental disasters ever to occur at sea.

The region was a habitat for salmon, sea otters, seals and seabirds. The

vessel spilled about 40 million litres of crude oil into the sea, and the

oil eventually covered 3,400 km2 of ocean. Thousands of animals died

immediately; the best estimates include 250,000 to as many as 500,000

seabirds, at least 1,000 sea otters, approximately 12 river otters, 300

harbor seals, 250 bald eagles, and 22 orcas, as well as the destruction

of billions of salmon and herring eggs. The effects of the spill continue

to be felt today.

Deepwater horizon: On April 20, 2010, the pressure in a well in the

Gulf of Mexico blew its top. The result was an explosion and the

collapse of the oil rig into the bottom of the ocean. At least 84,000

barrels equivalent of oil were spewing into the water daily.

Despite the previous oil spill of the Exxon Valdez, this event which has

been described as one of the worse environmental disasters in US

history is a reminder of the threat of the oil industry on biodiversity.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.1 (b) With the constantly growing number of large ships and the aging of the worlds

shipping fleets, the threat of oil spills is rapidly growing.

Despite the strengthening of

international shipping regulations

requiring oil tankers to have a

double layer for their oil

containers, many aging ships still

to date do not meet this

preventive requirement.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.1 (c) Oil spills have long term devastating effects on marine life, seabirds and coastal species.

Oil drilling in the sea beds is becoming

a major threat to sea life. As oil

reserves are depleting, oil companies

need to search for oil in areas that

are difficult to access: the deep sea

beds. However, the current

technology to do such drilling remains

inappropriate and very risky for the

surrounding environment. As recent

events demonstrate when a problem

arises at these depths, there is little

control we can have on the

proliferation of the oil in the oceans.

Even in the 21st century, our

knowledge of life in the deep oceans

remains virtually unknown. If we

destroy this life through such

contaminations, we will never know

what was lost…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.1 (d) Coastal ecosystems are very vulnerable to oil spills

and other contaminants.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.2 Case Study: Mining in

New Caledonia

New Caledonia, a French island located in the Southern Pacific, is

classified as one of the worlds 18 biodiversity hotspots. Due to its

isolation and uniqueness of its lateritic soil, New Caledonia has

developed over millions of years of a very unique fauna and flora which

is more than 80% endemic to the island (i.e. these species are found no

where else in the world).

The destruction: Since the past few decades, large mining companies

are exploiting the island for its rich soils in Nickel and other minerals. In

addition to the mining process itself that literally clears all the top part

of the soil (over hundreds of km2), numerous fires are set on regular

basis to prospect for new mining sites.

The impacts: The direct impact is the total destruction of habitats and

the likely disappearance of thousands of unknown species which have

very restricted repartition areas coinciding with the mining sites (these

include plants, reptiles and insects, only found in these specific sites).

In addition to the terrestrial destruction, tremendous quantities of

contaminants and soil are dumped into the world’s largest lagoon

impacting coral reef ecosystems over unprecedented surfaces.

=> Mining in New Caledonia is a good example of un-sustainable

development on a large scale.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.3 Case Study: Acid Rains

Acid rain is rain or any other form of precipitation that is

unusually acidic, i.e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions

(low pH)

It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals,

and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition.

Acid rain is caused by emissions of compounds of

ammonium, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur which react with

the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids

Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to

reduce the production of sulfuric oxides into the Earth's

atmosphere with positive results. However, it can also be

caused naturally by the splitting of nitrogen compounds

by the energy produced by lightning strikes, or the

release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere by volcano

eruptions.

Acid rains have a negative impact on biodiversity over

large surface areas by disturbing the pH of sensitive

environments such as forest soil



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.4 Case Study: Chernobyl

The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear accident that

occurred on 26 April 1986 at the Chernobyl Nuclear

Power Plant in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist

Republic. It is considered to be the worst nuclear

power plant disaster in history.

After the disaster, four square kilometers of pine

forest in the immediate vicinity of the reactor turned

brown and died, earning the name of the "Red

Forest". Some animals in the worst-hit areas also

died or stopped reproducing. Most domestic animals

were evacuated from the exclusion zone, but horses

left on an island in the Pripyat River 6 km from the

power plant died when their thyroid glands were

destroyed by high radiation doses.

Some cattle on the same island died and those that

survived were stunted because of thyroid damage.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Rabbits were first introduced in Australia in 1859.

Their effect on Australian ecology has since been

devastating. Rabbits are one of the most

significant factors in species loss in this country.

Rabbit population spread at alarming rates after

their introduction and became a serious

disturbance to the natural ecology.

Rabbits often kill young trees in the wild by eating

the roots. As such, they are responsible for the

loss of numerous plant species.

They are also responsible for serious erosion

problems as they eat native plants leaving the soil

exposed.

Even to date 100 of millions of dollars are spent

each year to deal with the rabbit problem.

Rabbits around a water hole at Wardang Island Australia in 1938

V.5 (a) Case Study:

Introduction of Rabbits

in Australia


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The red fire ant (Solenopsis Invicta) originates from South

America. It can however now be commonly found in places

such as the United States, Australia, Taiwan and south of

China.

These ants were accidentally introduced in these countries

by plane or shipping.

Red fire ants are excellent natural predators and

responsible for serious damage to cultures such as sugar

canes, various fruits. They feed on small insects and small

mammals, reptiles and birds.

They are known to be highly aggressive and competitive

with other species. These ants cause million of dollars of

damage and are driving many native species to extinction.

V.5 (b) Introduction of

Invasive Species. Case Study:

the Red Fire Ant



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.6 Biodiversity and

Climate Change

There is a close relationship between climate change

and biodiversity.

Case study: due to the rising temperatures and the

prolongation of warmer periods, North American

forests are increasingly affected by a species of Beatle

that destroys the wood and kills the trees.

As the temperatures no longer get cold long enough to

kill the Beatles, these have proliferated in recent

years resulting in very large amounts of trees to be

left to rot.

Such losses also directly translate to significant

economical loss in several regions such as British

Columbia in Canada where the timber industry had

been a major source of revenues for decades.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.7 (a) Global

Biodiversity Loss

We are no longer faced with individual or isolated

cases of species extinction.

What we are facing today is a global biodiversity

loss which is occurring at increasing rate.

The living environment is now reacting not to one

threat but to an accumulation of pressures from

anthropic activities. These pressures are driving

species extinction many thousand of times the

natural rate of extinction.

Species are disappearing every day. Most people

just do not know about it.

The worst part is that we do not even know how

many species are disappearing as we still to date

only know a small portion of all the species on

Earth. Most species have never been studied,

described and for this matter given a name or an

identity. © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.7 (b) Despite punctual degradation of the living environment, we must remember that the main threat to biodiversity

is resulting globally as a combination of all anthropic pressures that we human beings have been and are

continuing to put (at increasing rates) on the world ecosystems.

Biodiversity loss has become critical and the situation

has shifted form isolated and accidental impacts to a

global crisis. Throughout the 21st century every

ecosystem in any location on the planet will be

impacted by human induced environmental pressures

which will inevitably lead to species extinctions. At

the top of the list are climate change. global diluted

pollution and rainforests deforestation.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



V.7 (c) Today we are no longer faced with isolated extinction events but with a global loss of species on Earth as a result

of a combine effect of anthropic pressures…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter V

As highlighted in this chapter, punctual

degradations of our environment are taking

place around the world at increasing rates and

have significant impacts on biodiversity.

However, the real concern is that we have now

clearly shifted from isolated extinction events to

a global loss of species on Earth as a combine

effect of all human related influences.

The most concerning threats to global diversity

are climate change, pollution and deforestation.

At the current rate of warming of the climate

system and deforestation, we will face very

significant species loss throughout the century.

By 2100 half of all the species present on Earth

today could have become extinct.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter VI

Global State of

Biodiversity

How species are rapidly becoming

extinct



Assessing the state of biodiversity on the

planet is a near impossible task. However,

the more we try to assess the diversity of

life on Earth and how it evolves over

time, the more we clarify the already

known fact that species are disappearing

from the planet at alarming rates.

We cannot assess all the biodiversity on

Earth. First, too few people are making

studies on biodiversity and secondly the

diversity of life on Earth is simply

tremendous even without taking into

consideration smaller organisms at the

bacterial level.

However, by making an assessment

based on already known species which

involves evaluating numbers of

individuals within given populations and

repeating this exercise overtime, we can

get a clearer picture of the health of

populations and ecosystems on Earth.

The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)

has been publishing a report on the state

of the environment and the living world

for many years now.

The graphics presented in this section

originate from the latest 2010 report.

Introduction Chapter VI:

The State of Biodiversity on the Planet



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VI.1 The Global Living Planet Index

The Living Planet Index (LPI) reflects changes in the health of the planet’s ecosystems by tracking trends in

nearly 8,000 populations of vertebrate species.

The latest global LPI shows a decline of about 30 percent between 1970 and 2007. This is based on trends in

7,953 populations of 2,544 mammal, bird, reptile, amphibian and fish species, many more than in previous

Living Planet Reports.

Source: WWF,

Living Planet

Report 2010


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VI.2 The Terrestrial Living Planet index

The Terrestrial Living Planet Index includes 3,180 populations from 1,341 species of birds, mammals,

amphibians and reptiles found in a broad range of temperate and tropical habitats, including forests,

grasslands and dry-lands.

Overall the terrestrial LPI has declined by 25 per cent. The tropical terrestrial LPI has declined by almost 50

per cent since 1970, while the temperate terrestrial LPI has increased by about 5 per cent.

Source: WWF,

Living Planet Report 2010


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VI.3 Marine Living Planet Index

The Marine Living Planet Index tracks changes in 2,023 populations of 636 species of fish, seabirds, marine

turtles and marine mammals found in temperate and tropical marine ecosystems.

Approximately half the species in this index are commercially used. Overall the marine LPI has declined by 24

percent. Marine ecosystems show the largest discrepancy between tropical and temperate species: the

tropical marine LPI has declined by around 60 percent while the temperate marine LPI has increased by

around 50 per cent.

Source: WWF,



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VI.4 (a) Freshwater Living Planet Index

The Freshwater Living Planet Index tracks changes in 2,750 populations of 714 species of fish, birds, reptiles,

amphibians and mammals found in temperate and tropical freshwater ecosystems. The global freshwater LPI has

declined by 35 per cent between 1970 and 2007, more than either the global marine or terrestrial LPIs.

The tropical freshwater LPI has declined by almost 70 per cent, the largest fall of any of the biome-based LPIs,

while the temperate freshwater LPI has increased by 36 per cent.

Source: WWF,



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VI.4 (b) The signs are very clear and it has been so for a

long time:

Species are becoming extinct (at increasing rates)

around the world and across ecosystems



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The human demand on the biosphere more than doubled between 1961 and 2007.

VI.5 World Biocapacity

Source: WWF,

Living Planet

Report 2010


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The results provided in the WWF State of the

Planet Report are very clear and concerning:

Species are globally declining at alarming rates

Decline and extinction of species is more marked in

the tropic and subtropics areas (where most of the

world biodiversity is concentrated).

We are exploiting resources at a much greater rate

then the capacity of the planet to regenerate

them.

We must significantly reduce our ecological

footprint.

Failure to do so will result in catastrophic

consequences including massive biodiversity loss

throughout the century.

VI.6 State of Biodiversity



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter VI

As highlighted in this chapter, a few key

indicators have been developed to tract

how species populations and ecosystems

evolve over time.

The results are very concerning and all

point to the same conclusion that overall

species on Earth are diminishing rapidly.

It also appears clearly that most

biodiversity losses occur in areas that

have the most diversity, in the tropical

and sub-tropical areas.

The fact that all sensitive ecosystems

seem to be affected in a similar way,

further confirms the global trend of

species loss rather than isolated events.

Another concerning fact is that the more

species disappear, the more species will

disappear. Indeed, as all species on Earth

are interconnected, the loss of a single

species results in the loss of many others

which depend on it to survive. We can

therefore expect species loss to increase

at an exponential rate as the losses will

intensify throughout the century.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter VII

Biodiversity Hotspots

and Conservation

Priorities

Why conservation efforts should be

prioritized to certain zones



Introduction Chapter VII:

Biodiversity Hotspot and Conservation Priorities

Despite that biodiversity losses are occurring everywhere on

Earth, some areas which are both extraordinarily rich in life

forms and particularly threatened from a number of sources

have been identified.

As a general trend, equatorial and tropical zones have a

particularly rich biodiversity when compared to the rest of

the word. The colder it gets, the less bio-diverse the

ecosystems tend to be.

Examples of biodiversity hotspots include the rainforest of

Borneo and as a matter of fact most of the forests of

Indonesia and Malaysia, Reef environments across tropical

zones and many others.

18 principal biodiversity hotspots where conservation should

be prioritized have been identified.

The principal behind the concept of biodiversity hotspot

comes from the fact that despite that all ecosystems on

Earth should be preserved, only limited funds are available

worldwide to undertake such needed actions.

As such, it is necessary, in order to preserve as much

biodiversity as possible, to focus on areas which are the

most at risk and where the efforts will result in the greatest

number of species saved.

Often, loss of biodiversity arise from rapid deterioration of

the environment in the pursue of the extraction of

resources for immediate profit. One must however

understand that such models are not sustainable.

Once extinct, species have disappeared forever from the

planet.


Chapter VII: Biodiversity Hotspots and Conservation Priorities

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.1 (a) What is a

Biodiversity Hotspot?

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a

significant reservoir of biodiversity that is threatened

with destruction.

The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by

Dr. Norman Myers. The hotspots idea was also

promoted by Russell Mittermeier in the popular book

“Hotspots Revisited” (2004).

To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000

edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet two

strict criteria: it must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500

species of vascular plants as endemics, and it has to

have lost at least 70% of its primary vegetation.

Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this

definition, with nine others possible candidates. These

sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird,

mammal, reptile, and amphibian species, with a very

high share of endemic species.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.1 (b) The above map shows the principal biodiversity hotspots which have been identified around the world. The above map

shows that most biodiversity rich regions are in tropical and subtropical areas. South East Asia has numerous hotspots.

Source: Conservation International


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.2 Case Study:

Madagascar

Madagascar, is the fourth-largest island in the world,

and is home to 5% of the world's plant and animal

species, of which more than 80% are endemic.

Emblematic species includes the lemur, the

carnivorous fossa, three bird families and six baobab

species.

Madagascar's long isolation from the neighboring

continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and

animals, many found nowhere else in the world.

Of the10,000 known plants native to Madagascar, 90%

are found nowhere else in the world.

Madagascar's varied fauna and flora are endangered

by human activity, as a third of its native vegetation

has disappeared since the 1970s, and only 18%

remains intact. Since the arrival of humans 2000

years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90% of its

original forest.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.3 (a) Case Study:

Philippines

The Philippines is one of the ten most biologically mega-

diverse countries and is at or near the top in terms of

biodiversity per unit area. Around 1,100 land vertebrate

species can be found in the Philippines including over 100

mammal species and 170 bird species not thought to exist

elsewhere.

With an estimated 13,500 plant species in the country, 3,200

of which are unique to the islands, Philippine rainforests

boast an array of flora, including many rare types of orchids

and Rafflesia. Philippine territorial waters encompass as

much as 1.67 million square kilometers producing unique and

diverse marine life and is an important part of the Coral

Triangle.

Deforestation, often the result of illegal logging, is an acute

problem in the Philippines. Forest cover declined from 70%

of the country's total land area in 1900 to about 18.3% in

1999. Many species are endangered and scientists say that

South East Asia, which the Philippines is part of, faces a

catastrophic extinction rate. According to Conservation

International, the country is one of the few nations that is,

in its entirety, both a hotspot and a megadiversity

country, placing it among the top priority hotspots for

global conservation.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.3 (b) The Philippines is suffering from severe degradation of its biodiversity. Most of this occurs as a result

of deforestation, trading of animal species and overexploitation of resources



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.4 Case Study:

Borneo

Borneo is very rich in biodiversity compared

to many other areas. There are about

15,000 species of flowering plants with

3,000 species of trees, 221 species of

terrestrial mammals and 420 species of

resident birds in Borneo. It is also the

centre of evolution and radiation of many

endemic species of plants and animals. The

remaining Borneo rainforest is the only

natural habitat for the endangered Bornean

Orang-outang. It is also an important refuge

for many endemic forest species, as the

Asian Elephant, the Sumatran Rhinoceros,

the Bornean Clouded Leopard, and the

Dayak Fruit Bat.

It is one of the most biodiverse places on

earth. The World Wildlife Fund has stated

that 361 animal and plant species have

been discovered in Borneo since 1996,

underscoring its unparalleled biodiversity.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VII.5 (a) Case Study:

Barrier Reefs

The Australian Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest

coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900

islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometres over an area of

approximately 344,400 square kilometres. The reef is located in the

Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland in north-east Australia.

The Great Barrier Reef supports a diversity of life, including

many vulnerable or endangered species, some of which are

endemic to the reef system.

The Great Barrier Reef has been classified as one of the great

wonders of the world and is therefore a focus of attention. However,

most reef ecosystems around the world and especially in the South

Pacific are extremely rich in biodiversity.

Such ecosystems are at risk from overexploitation, pollution and

climate change.

The loss of coral reefs would result in enormous biodiversity loss and

potential destabilization of entire marine ecosystems. The

preservation of coral reefs should be a high priority along with forest

ecosystems to preserve the biodiversity of life on Earth.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Barrier reefs around the world

contain an incredible amount

of biodiversity of which most

remains unknown to date.

As we know that these

ecosystems will be greatly

affected by climate change and

anthropic disturbances across

the century and will suffer

from massive biodiversity

losses, efforts to study their

biodiversity should be

intensified while we still can.

VII 5 (b) Coral reefs are amongst the most biodiverse ecosystems on Earth, yet some of the

most threatened.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The Galapagos islands are an archipelago located on

the equator in the eastern Pacific ocean. They are

composed of about 40 islands of volcanic origin. On

these islands can be found the National Park of the

Galapagos and a marine reserve which has been

classified as a UNESCO world heritage site.

In 1835 Charles Darwin studied its species diversity

which inspire his famous study on evolution and

natural selection in 1859.

The islands are very rich in flora and fauna. The

archipelago inhabits 58 species of birds among 28 are

endemic and unique reptiles such as the iguana and

giant turtles. The marine fauna is also very rich with

over 300 species of fish and small mammals.

The islands hold a variety of plant species which vary

in accordance to different microclimates. Of the 875

known plant species, 228 are endemic.

VII.6 Case Study:

The Galapagos


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter VII

As highlighted in this chapter, because some

areas are much richer in biodiversity than

others; some are more threatened and

resources for conservation efforts are limited,

the concept of biodiversity hotspots has been

introduced.

At least 18 such zones have been classified as

biodiversity hotspots of which most of South

East Asia and would therefore require much

conservation efforts. However, all of these

zones, despite their classification are still

experiencing serious environmental pressures.

If we are to succeed in preserving the

biodiversity of life on Earth, our efforts should

focus on these hotspots as a start.

However, such efforts need to be done in

parallel to global negotiation issues such as

climate change and trade of illegal timber if

significant benefits are to remain in the long

term.

Conservation is both a local and

international issue.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter VIII

Singapore, an

Interesting Case

Study

Singapore, an interesting case

study



Introduction Chapter VIII:

Biodiversity in the Singapore Context

This chapter aims to provide an insight on the state

of biodiversity in Singapore.

Singapore is an interesting case study of biodiversity.

Singapore over the last 30 years has experienced a

major transformation from a third world country to a

highly developed nation. This development has been

at the expense of severe damage to the original

biodiversity.

Much of the species found in Singapore a century ago

are no longer found on the island.

Another particularity of Singapore is that it is an

Island nation of relatively small size. Most of the

islands land has now been sacrified for development

purposes should it be industrial or residential.

However, in its late history, Singapore is trying to

preserve what is left of its original biodiversity by

implementing a number of measures.

About 5% of the land in Singapore has been

dedicated to serve as natural parks. Only a few

parks hold original ecosystems. However the city is

also making efforts to incorporate the natural

environment into the city scape itself. Such

initiative will not bring back the original

biodiversity but at least brings some degree of

biodiversity back to the city.

Such concepts could well be inspirational for cities

of the future around the world. As 80% of the world

population will be living in cities by 2050, it is

important to design cities by integrating natural

features.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The environmental issues that Singapore

faces today are characteristic of highly-

urbanized cities.

These issues pertain to preventing pollution

from industrialization and urbanization,

preventing marine pollution in its highly-

traversed waters and the protection of

nature areas.

VIII.1 (a) The

Singapore Context



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Singapore is a good case study of the fact that maintaining a few localized biodiverse spots within a

city is not sufficient to prevent important species loss.

VIII.1 (b) At the expense of intense development, Singapore has already lost most of its original biodiversity.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Singapore holds many bio-diverse ecosystems due

to its suitable location near the equator.

However, Singapore has already lost most of its

natural environment and biodiversity due to rapid

development in the last 30 years.

A study published in May 2010, “Evaluating the

Relative Environmental Impact of Countries”,

ranks Singapore as the highest in relative

environmental impact. This research was

conducted by the University of Adelaide’s

Environment Institute, National University of

Singapore and Princeton University.

This study shows that relative to its land size,

development in Singapore has significantly

contributed to its forest loss, natural habitat

conversion, marine captures, carbon emissions and

biodiversity.

VIII.2 (a) Impacts of

Urban Development on

Biodiversity



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VIII.2 (b) Impacts of

Urban Development on

Biodiversity

Singapore has lost 90 percent of its forest, 67 per

cent of its birds, about 40 per cent of its mammals

and 5 per cent of its amphibians and reptiles. Of

the original mangroves, less than 5% is left. 39% of

all native coastal plants are extinct.

A large proportion of the remaining species are

endangered and their habitats are threatened by

urban development and land reclamation.

Singapore continues to be challenged with pressures

of modernization, limited land availability and a

mandate to preserve the well-being of its

environment and of its citizens.

In order to overcome these challenges, the

Singapore government and urban planners have

designed and implemented strategies in the last 30

years to make Singapore a city garden. © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VIII.3 (a) Vision for a

Green City

Today Singapore is one of the few cities in the

world which has managed to incorporate green

spaces and parks within its urban environment.

Over 13% of Singapore’s land area is dedicated

to greening the urban landscape and maintaining

a healthy ecosystem; this includes parks, park

connectors, green spaces and nature reserves.

There is a significant percentage of land

allocated for non-residential and non-

commercial use for a country as small as

Singapore.

Furthermore, in the next 10-15 years, the Urban

Redevelopment Authority (URA) plans to add

new parks and park connectors to Singapore’s.

In URA's Concept Plan and Master Plan, URA aims

to eventually link up the whole island in a 150

km round island route.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



To promote green building technologies and designs,

Singapore introduced a Green Mark Scheme for

Buildings. A number of buildings have been Green

Mark certified under this initiative since it was

implemented in 2005.

The National Parks Board has created rooftop

gardens in commercial and residential buildings

which have both aesthetic and environmental

benefits including a positive impact on biodiversity

should green roofs be implemented on large scale.

Green vertical walls have also been built at sites

such as Changi Airport. Such initiatives are only

starting to appear in the city environment in

Singapore and around the world as case studies.

Large scale implementation would however be

required to make a significant difference on

biodiversity in cities.

VIII.3 (b) Vision for a

Green City



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



A key objective to Singapore’s greening initiatives is

to raise awareness and educate its citizens; and to

engender in Singaporeans a sense of love and

respect for nature.

The everyday practices of individuals can pose a

threat to Southeast Asia’s ecosystems.

Urban lifestyle habits such as excessive consumption

and waste, inadequate recycling, and the demand

for exotic animal products are just a few of the

ways that Singaporeans have a negative impact on

the environment.

Changing these harmful lifestyles and habits start

with changing the mindsets of Singaporeans.

VIII.3 (c) Vision for a

Green City



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



One of the biggest criticisms to Singapore's city greening

effort is that it is superficial, too high-maintenance and,

ultimately, not ecologically sustainable.

Priority has been given to man-made greening of highways,

streets and residential areas and not enough effort has been

invested conversing and restoring the little natural areas left

in Singapore.

In recent years to preserve its heritage, Singapore has

retained several restricted nature reserve sites where land

development is inhibited and the inherent ecosystems are

protected.

The reserves are utilized for research in preserving and

revitalizing biodiversity in Singapore and educating the public.

However, more can still be done to implement legal

legislature and define land boundaries to protect Singapore’s

nature reserves.

VIII.4 Preserving and

Restoring Biodiversity in

Singapore



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Pulau Ubin’s vegetation was once cleared for the cultivation

of rubber and crops like coffee, pineapple, coconut and

jasmine.

Today, it is one of the last rural areas in Singapore having

been preserved from urban development, concrete buildings

and tarmac roads. Pulau Ubin contains an abundance of

natural flora and fauna.

Chek Jawa is a 5,000 year old coral reef on Pulau Ubin.

Relatively well preserved ecosystems such as wetlands can

still be found on Chek Jawa.

In 2009, the mouse-deer, which has been thought to be

extinct for over 80 years, was discovered on Pulau Ubin.

Scientists speculate that preservation of nature in Pulau Ubin

has allowed for this creature to spread again.

Recovering species is a positive sign that over long periods of

preservations, wild life and eco-systems can be repopulated

to some extent.

VIII.5 (a) Singapore

Remaining Biodiverse

Locations: Case Study

Pulau Ubin



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Pulau Tekong is known for being exclusively

used for military training. Less known is that

Pulau Tekong has one of the largest remaining

mangrove forests in Singapore.

Coastal erosion is putting this 92 hectares of

mangroves in danger. Erosion is being caused by

the movement of ships and strong sea waves.

In 2010, the National Parks Board is undertaking

a project to restore and stabilize the coast line.

8,000 mangrove saplings will be planted to help

deflect sea waves and increase the biodiversity

on the island.

The work being done by the National Parks

Board is a prime example of how Singapore is

protecting its remaining biodiverse areas.

VIII.5 (b) Case Study:

Pulau Tekong



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Sunggei Buloh holds extensive mangrove

environments with their associated rich

biodiversity.

This site is of global importance as it has a high

variety of bird species which include migratory

birds that stop over from as far as Siberia on their

way to Australia.

Other reserves of interest in Singapore include the

MacRitchie reservoir, Singapore’s oldest reservoir,

as well as Bukit Timah reserve which has a dense

tropical rainforest.

VIII.5 (c) Singapore’s

Remaining Biodiverse

Locations: Case study

Sunggei Buloh




Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VIII.5 (d) A lot can still be done in Singapore in the pursue of becoming one of the worlds first “city in a garden”.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VIII.6 (a) Biodiversity in the City

Singapore is one of the few cities in the world which has managed

to incorporate green spaces and parks within the urban

environment. Examples include the popular Singapore Botanic

Gardens, busy East Coast Park and tranquil Mount Fabor.

There are more opportunities for Singapore to incorporate natural

features within its urban environment. For example, there is

potential in the implementation of large scale vertical green walls

and to expand the connection of parks and waterways.

To this point, in the next 10-15 years, the Urban Redevelopment

Authority (URA) plans to add new parks and park connectors to

Singapore’s North-East, East and North Regions.

In Singapore’s North Region, the URA also plans to enhance

nature-oriented leisure attractions at Mandai and Kranji.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VIII.6 (b) Singapore extensive network of water reservoirs help to maintain some bio-diverse ecosystems.

However, the creation of new reservoirs such as the Marina Bay reservoir are also controversial when it

comes to biodiversity disturbance.

The marina bay reservoir

despite having some

advantages for flood

control and water

management will have

significant negative

impacts on biodiversity.

As the water within the

bay will slowly change

from salty to fresh

water, many species

which inhabited the bay

wont be able to adapt to

the salinity sudden

change.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



VIII.6 (c) Most of the species found in Singapore are not endemic to the

Island but have been introduced from neighboring countries.

Due to its proximity

to Malaysia, most

species found in

Singapore are also

found in Malaysia.

There is therefore

only few real

endemic species in

Singapore itself.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Invasive species is a big problem in Singapore.

VIII.6 (d) As a major transport transit

platform for South East Asia,

numerous indigenous species are

regularly introduced to Singapore.

The pet and trade industry is also

a big contributor as these species

are regularly released into the

environment (reservoirs, parks…).



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Singapore has a few good examples to illustrate that industrial development can be made by not entirely compromising the surrounding

ecosystems.

In Singapore most of the waste is incinerated and the remains from this process are disposed on an artificial landfill. On the other side

of this landfill however lies a nature reserve with extensive sea grass, coral reefs and mangroves. This is a very good (and unique)

example of how a bio-diverse environment can co-exist to some extent with industrial installations.


VIII.7 Compromise between Development & Environment Preservation


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



As highlighted in this chapter, Singapore is a

very good case study to illustrate the

dilemma faced by urban areas and

biodiversity conservation.

Singapore has already sacrified most of its

biodiversity for development purposes. Only

a few isolated parks and natural spaces are

left in the island city.

However, when compared to other cities

around the world, Singapore is actually a

good example of how intense development

and high population densities can be done in

such a way to minimize biodiversity losses

and/or bring biodiversity back to city

environments to some extent.

Conclusion Chapter VIII

Singapore has an ambitious plan to become

the worlds first true city in a garden.

Numerous initiatives such as improving

existing parks, interconnecting these parks

through green pathways and the development

of roof-top gardens and vertical walls are

under development.

Since most of the world population will be

living in cities in a few decades, Singapore is

a good case study of how cities around the

world should develop by incorporating natural

features into their design.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter IX

The Importance of

Biodiversity

Preservation for

Human Beings

How preserving biodiversity is

crucially important for the

sustainability of human

civilizations



Introduction Chapter IX:

The Importance of Biodiversity Preservation for

Human Beings

This chapter aims to highlight the fact that

preserving biodiversity is not just about preserving

species for the beauty of it but also because by

losing species we are also in the process losing

invaluable knowledge and putting the very survival

of our own species at risk.

When we start to analyze how much our civilization

relies on other species for our very basic needs, it

becomes apparent that the disappearance of

biodiversity is a major concern.

Indeed, all our agriculture relies on the interaction

of a multitude of species to be sustained (e.g. bees

for pollination of crops, micro organisms to sustain

the growth and health of crops…).

Furthermore, all our medicines are extracted From

natural compounds found in species. All the new

discoveries in medicine are directly derived from

either the study of species or the study of substances

within species.

We must understand that we will never be able to

discover such properties in the laboratory alone.

Considering the economy and wealth derived from the

health/medicine industry, biodiversity is truly the

greatest resource on Earth, yet we are destroying it!

As life forms on Earth are all remarkably adapted to

almost perfection to their surrounding environment as

a result of millions of years of adaptation and

selection it is only starting to surface that the

solution to our greatest challenges are right before

our eyes. All we need is to study from species

surrounding us. However, we cannot study if species

no longer exist!


Chapter IX: The Importance of Biodiversity Preservation for Human Beings

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Biodiversity has a great value for humans for a range of

reasons.

All species on the planet are interrelated and humans are

no exception. We need other species in order to survive

should it be for the stability of our food supplies or for our

own health.

We also derive all of our medicines from plants or animals.

Losing biodiversity will therefore also mean that we will

lose potential remedies to cure diseases.

Due to the complexity of the compounds used in medicines,

it is highly unlikely that we will ever be able to make such

medicines ourselves without having initial studies and

samples from rare plants and animals. Plants and animals

which have evolved over millions of years are marvels of

adaptation to specific environments and hold the key to

many cures.

Last but not least biodiversity has a lot of value in terms of

trading and play an important role in the world economy.

IX. 1 (a) Biodiversity and

Pharmacology



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.1 (b) All of our medicines are derived from molecules originally found in plants and animals.

Losing biodiversity also means losing these potential molecules forever…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Ironically, the pharmaceutical industry is entirely

dependent on biodiversity, yet this industry has

significant impacts on species loss.

Molecules to make new medicines are often found in

rare plants and animals. When found, these species

are often overexploited from the wild in order to

provide sufficient stocks to make the medicines.

It usually takes many years for natural compounds to

be synthetized in the laboratory. Often, the molecules

are simply too complex to be reproduced artificially

and need to be extracted from nature.

IX.1 (c) Biodiversity and

Pharmacology



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.1 (d) The amount of active compounds contained in plant and animal species is to date virtually un-

exploited. However, as these species disappear, so will these potential substances from which powerful

medicines could have been derived.

We must understand that species

have taken millions of years to

adapt to their current environments

and that as a result, they have

developed mechanisms including

complex chemical processes to deal

with their external conditions.

These adaptations and derived

chemical compounds are invaluable

and irreplaceable.

=> Once a species disappears so is

our chance to get to study and

potentially use this knowledge for

our own human benefits.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.2 (a) Biodiversity and

Agriculture

Agriculture is one of the main threats to biodiversity

by replacing biodiverse areas (such as forests) with

monocultures.

Yet ironically, agriculture needs diverse species to

work.

For instance the quality of soils which affects diseases

control and productivity is dependent on micro-

organisms. Furthermore, all the crops are still today

highly dependent on natural pollination which is done

by insects.

=> As insects and micro-organisms come to decline,

agriculture will be severely affected.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.2 (b) Biodiversity is crucial for a sustainable agriculture.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.2 (C) Insects play a critical role in maintaining a

sustainable agriculture as they are the mean of

pollination. As insects population decrease, so

is the efficiency of crop pollination.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The diversity of life forms and structures

within life forms has always been a great

source of inspiration for many artists.

Many great artists have derived their

inspiration from nature, rare species of

plant and animals.

=> Losing biodiversity will also result in

losing this source of inspiration.

IX.3 (a) The Use of

Biodiversity as an

Inspiration for Arts


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.3 (b) Biodiversity is a source of inspiration for the arts.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.4 Socio-Biology

A lot can also be learnt about our own human

societies by studying animal behaviors.

For instance many social insects such as

certain species of ants have very complex

social structures. Despite that often such

social structure may not be suitable for

human civilizations, ideas can be analyzed.

Most interesting is how species have adapted

to their surrounding environment by

developing remarkable behavioral

adaptations.

While some behaviors are imprinted within

the genetic code, other behaviors are

transmitted from generation to generation

(just like knowledge in humans).

We still have a lot to learn by studying species

behavior.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.5 (a) Biomimetics

Instead of destroying biodiversity through the

development and industrial activities, we

should take a different approach by taking

advantage of nature in order to learn from it.

Biomimetics is the field of studying life forms

and nature to learn from it in order to

optimize designs and processes.

The fact that life forms have evolved over

millions of years to specific conditions, makes

them marvels of adaptations. As such the

optimization process to given conditions can

already be found in nature.

Such examples of biomimicry include side

wings on planes to optimize fuel efficiency

mimicking similar features in birds such as the

eagle.




Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.5 (b) Examples of Nature

Optimal Design

There is a multitude of specific examples of leading technologies

which were inspired from nature.

The more we study natural design, the more we find that there is

an unlimited supply of solutions to technological optimisation

which is at our finger tips.

However, species are disappearing fast. If we do not act to

preserve them, we will not only lose the species but also the

incredible amount of knowledge and solutions which lies within

them.

Only a few companies worldwide have yet understood the potential

of design inspired by nature. As this awareness spreads, so will the

awareness on the need to preserve biodiversity.


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.5 (c) Remarkable solutions and inspiration can be derived from the study of species adaptations to specific

environmental pressures/conditions.

Case Study: Lotus leaves have

developed adaptations which

prevents the accumulation of

water on their surface.

=> Species adaptations can

inspire applications that can

benefit humans. © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.6 A Mini-Guide to Biomimetics



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.6 (a) A Guide to

Biomimetics:

Every engineering problem/challenge that we face can

find its solution through the study of nature. Such

statement relies on simple facts and logical deductions:

There are millions of species on the planet.

Species are found in almost any given type of

environments.

Each environment requires very specific adaptations

for species to have survived over time.

Each species is a marvel of adaptation (“optimal

design”) as a result of millions of years of adaptation

to such environments.

=> Wherever we want to find optimal adaptation,

optimal efficiency in the design, we should search for it

in nature. The odds are that somewhere a/some species

already provide the ultimate solution/adaptation.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.6 (b) A Guide to

Biomimetics:

Whenever looking into applying biomimetic principles to a

problematic, the following simple methodology could be

applied:

1) What is the problematic? (i.e. what problem do we intend to

solve? E.g. maximize the efficiency of flight/ find the best

shape to maximize energy and strength output…

2) Which species in nature have to deal with an environment

which might require similar problem resolution through

adaptation?

3) Study of the selected species and identification of the traits

which provide a solution to the problematic.

4) Selection of the species which provide the most interesting

adaptation/trait that allows to resolve the problematic

practically.

5) Apply the natural trait by artificially mimicking it (e.g.

engineering/pharmacology). © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.6 (c) A Guide to

Biomimetics:

Biomimetic studies in order to work, require

multidisciplinary teams:

Field Biologists (to identify and study species traits

and adaptations).

Engineers (to take the idea inspired from nature

natural design to engineering/chemical applications).

Chemists/pharmacologists…(to analyze and replicate

biological processes).

Planners/managers: to manage communications

between different fields of expertise and coordinate

the work.

To date biomimetic does not work well for the simple

reason that biologists are rarely included and this

type of work is mostly conducted by engineers.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.6 (d) A Guide to

Biomimetics:

Like nanotechnology, biomimetics could lead

to the next industrial revolution.

We are however destroying the “knowledge

bank” necessary for this revolution to happen

at alarming rates.

If only governments and corporations around

the world could realize the potential there is

to gain in preserving biodiversity for

biomimetics, they would certainly act to

preserve the diversity of life on Earth and

treat biodiversity as an asset, an investment

or perhaps a global data bank!

There is still hope that such realization could

happen, time is however running out fast!



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Case Study: Submersibles

Many of the principals of modern submersibles are

derived from the species of nautilus pressure

compartments systems.

Nautilus have developed a system of pressure

compartments which allows them to move between

great depths and shallow waters.

IX.7 (a) We Have A Lot to

Learn by Studying Nature



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.7 (b) Case Study: Robotics and Biodiversity

Many fundamental break through In modern robotics have

been inspired from studying simple life forms such as

insects.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.7 (c) Case Study:

Biomimetics

and Construction

The study of termite has led to remarkable discoveries

on how buildings can be designed to optimize cooling

and energy efficiency.

For instance, the Eastgate center in Zimbabwe was

conceived with the design of a termite mound.

Termite mounds were found to have a remarkably

efficient cooling potential.

The design structured around a central chimney and

vents allows for a constant flow of air naturally cooling

the structure.

This basic concept was applied to the construction of

the Eastgate center. As a result, the building which uses

natural cooling is one of the most energy efficient

buildings in the world! © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The company Festo is experimenting on a number

of biomimetics projects.

One of these initiatives involved the creation of

the first ever flying machine using a type of motion

inspired by a jellyfish.

IX.7 (d) Case Study:

Biomimetics

and Engineering



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.7 (e) Case Study:

Biomimetics and Sports

In Olympic swimming competitions, 1/100th of a

second can make the difference between winning

and losing. Because the resistive drag opposing the

motion of swimmers’ bodies is of great importance,

many swimmers choose newly-designed swimsuits

that reduce the drag.

The suits are designed to mimic the shark, one of

the fastest aquatic creature even more closely.

Scanning electron microscope studies have revealed

that tiny “teeth” cover the surface of a sharks’

skin that produce vertical vortices or spirals of

water, keeping the water closer to the shark’s body

and thus reducing friction. This phenomenon is

known as the Riblet Effect, and research into shark

skin is ongoing at NASA Langley Research Center.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Other Examples of Biomimetism

Inspired Species Derived Application

Seeds of Arctium lapa Velcro attachment system

Hydro dynamism of fish and dolphins Submarine torpedoes

Mucus of fish or penguin fur Amelioration of sliding effect

Cephalopods (e.g. squids) propulsion

principle

Early submersibles propulsion

Shapes of mussels and clams Improvement of roof tiles resistance

Structure of palm trees Improve roofs structures

Silice based micro-organisms Dome structures in architecture

Hexagonal structure of wasp nest

…

Used in aeronautics to maximise

weight/strength ratio

….



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



IX.7 (f) We have only started to touch the tip of the iceberg in what can be achieved

in innovative design through studying nature…

As biodiversity disappears, so is

the potential for innovation…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter IX As highlighted in this chapter, preserving

biodiversity is crucial to maintain our current way

of life and insure a sustainable and secure future

for generations to come.

As all our medicines are derived from compounds

found in species, preserving these species is a

priority.

Furthermore, the study of species holds an

unlimited pool of solutions to problematic that we

face in our continuous development of human

civilizations.

Losing species relates to losing an incredible

amount of knowledge.

As an analogy we are simple burning away the

worlds greatest library while most of it hasn’t

even been read yet…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter X

What Can Be Done to

Preserve

Biodiversity?

How individuals, corporations and

governments can act together to

preserve the diversity of life on

Earth



Introduction Chapter X:

What Can Be Done to Preserve Biodiversity

While biodiversity resources are rapidly deteriorating,

little time is left for any measures to have a

significant impact in slowing down the trend.

If we are to succeed in slowing down the loss of

species, actions must start to occur at three levels:

government, corporate and individual.

There are many meaningful yet small actions that can

be applied by all parties that would result in

significant changes and positive impacts on

biodiversity.

This chapter intends to provide solutions that could

help for conservation purposes and significantly

reduce the loss of species on Earth.


Chapter X: What Can Be Done to Preserve Biodiversity

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.1 (a) What Can

Individuals Do?

Make donations to programmes and organisations

which are acting in biodiversity conservation

(e.g. WWF, Conservation International…).

Respect the environment by not litering

whenever doing outdoor activities.

Learn about biodiversity issues and spread the

message of the importance of conservation to

other individuals and groups of people. The more

people are getting concerned and aware, the

more conservation initiatives will start to

happen…

Vote for political leaders who care for

environmental issues especially biodiversity

conservation.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Purchase products which have lesser impacts on biodiversity

resources (e.g. wood products which originate from sustainable or

recycled source/ low toxicity products…). There are now a number

of reliable eco-labels on the market which help consumers identify

such products.

Consumers have a lot of influence on the market trends. If

consumers ask for products which have limited impacts on

biodiversity resources, manufacturers will have to change their

practices to meet the consumers demand.

Choose to go to places (restaurants, hotels…) which respect the

environment. Eco hotels are a rapidly growing trend worldwide. If

more and more people are asking for these types of services, the

hotel industry in general will develop with a more sustainable

approach in mind.

=> Such principles also apply for all other sectors. Consumers have

an important role to play in driving a change to minimize impacts

on the natural environment.

X.1 (b) What Can Individuals Do?



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Planting own gardens:

Agriculture worldwide has a major impact on the

environment and particularly on biodiversity.

As the world population grows, so will the demand for

food production. Such demand will require to destroy

more natural land for agricultural purposes.

Such a global impact could be significantly reduced if

individuals where producing their own fruits and

vegetables from their own backyards.

Small crops are known to be a lot more productive then

industrial scale ones.

Such crops would be organic and not require the high

amounts of pesticides and fertilizers used broadly in

modern agriculture.

The proliferation of individual gardens on a large scale

will also result in biodiversity going back to the city

areas.

X.1 (c) What Can

Individuals Do?



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.1 (d) If gardens and a variety of plants are

brought back to the cities, animal

species will also come back.

The combined large scale

implementation of roof top gardens,

vertical green walls on buildings as

well as individual house gardens would

certainly have significant benefits in

bringing biodiversity back to city

areas.

Such initiatives could work well should

governments and town councils

support such vision.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.2 (a) What Can

Corporates Do?

Corporations have an important role in

preserving the worlds biodiversity.

Corporations can support and invest in projects

which aim to preserve biodiversity. Many of these

projects are lead by NGO’s such as Conservation

International or WWF.

Corporations can limit as much as possible their

impacts by looking in their supply chain and

choosing products which are from sustainable

sources (e.g. Paper made from recycled content

or sustainable forest rather than from sources

which contribute in deforestation).

Corporations can spread the word and educate

their staff as well as reaching to the community

on the importance of biodiversity conservation.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Corporations can choose to only do business

with organizations which have policies on

limitations of their environmental impacts

including biodiversity.

The more corporations adopt this type of

policies, the more rapid changes in corporate

practices will start to occur.

=> Large corporations with extended supply

chains must take the lead as they are in a

position to drive significant changes.

X.2 (b) What Can

Corporates Do?



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Case study: The Census of Marine life

The Census of Marine Life is a global network of

2700 researchers in more than 80 nations

engaged in a 10-year scientific initiative to assess

and explain the diversity, distribution, and

abundance of life in the oceans.

The largest component of the Census involves

investigating what now lives in the world's oceans

through 14 field projects. Each is sampling

important kinds of biota in one of six realms of

the global oceans using a range of technologies.

This international programme was privately

founded. It is a good case study of how

corporations can significantly contribute to

biodiversity research and conservation.

X.2 (c) Financing

Biodiversity

Research/Expeditions



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.3 (a) What Can

Governments Do?

Governments have a crucial role to play in the

preservation of biodiversity through:

Making development plans which take into

account the preservation of biodiversity.

Developing and supporting conservation efforts.

Implementing laws and regulations to preserve

biodiversity.

Support corporate and community projects

aiming to preserve biodiversity.

Influencing other nations through political

negociations on biodiversity conservation.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.3 (b) Governments have a critical

role to play in preserving

biodiversity. However, they

must make the right move as

species extinctions will not

wait. To date very few

governments have understood

what is at stake…

Governments must take the lead in preserving biodiversity.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Contrary to the fight against climate change

which would require all nations to come to an

agreement, fighting biodiversity loss can be done

effectively at the national level. One nation can

decide to take significant actions to preserve or

not its biodiversity regardless of whether its

neighboring nations are already taking such

measures.

Governments should put funds available to assess

the biodiversity of their country as It is not

possible to preserve what is not known.

Gaining a greater knowledge of the locations

biodiversity will help in planning conservation

efforts. A lot still remains to be discovered when

it comes to species.

X.3 (c) What Can

Governments Do?



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Case Study: the Genetic Arc Project

(Antarctic)

In order to preserve flora biodiversity,

governments around the world have started a

major seed storage programme.

This programme also aims to act as a food

security storage in the event of an extreme

event

X.3 (d) What Can

Governments Do?



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.3 (e) Governments:

Preserving Forests and

Bio-Diverse Sensitive Areas

Governments have a very important role to play in

preserving biodiversity. It is the responsibility of

governments around the world to protect their

countries natural resources and biodiverse locations.

Without governmental support there is little hope that

these areas will be preserved.

In order to identify these locations, government should

undertake biodiversity site assessments by experts.

Governments should then classify these zones as

national parks in order to preserve the biodiversity of

these sensitive areas.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.3 (f) There is still a tremendous amount of

species and ecosystems to assess and

study.

=> Therefore the primordial

importance of governments to invest

in a wide spread biodiversity

assessment exercise.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.3 (g) We cannot protect what

we do not know.

Biodiversity assessment

and study remains a

required exercise.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.4 (a) Education and

Biodiversity

There is a lot of efforts to be put in educating the

young's and the society on biodiversity issues.

Such initiatives should be led by governments with

support from the private sector.

A recent study in Europe reveals the shocking result

that about 70 % of the European population either has

never heard of the concept of biodiversity or have

heard about it but do not know its meaning. In a

location where education is well supported and

compulsory, this clearly highlights that educating the

large public on the biodiversity crisis is primordial and

that a lot remains to be done.

Biodiversity, along side environmental studies should

become part of the mainstream education of nations.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.4 (b)

What Can Governments Do?

Education: Detachment

from Nature

As societies evolve, so is our connection to nature.

In a society which is becoming increasingly dominated by

technology, people (especially children) are becoming

detached from the environment, which is a concerning

trend.

According to recent statistics conducted in Europe, the

majority of children aged 6 to 12 would rather play a video

game then go to an outdoor natural environment.

Governments should be very concerned about this. If

societies become detached from nature, they will no

longer see and understand the need to preserve it.

The consequence will be the destruction of natural habitats

and the extinction of species in total indifference. © Sylvain Richer de Forges


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Biodiversity must become part of mainstream education.

X.4 (c) If significant changes are to be

made in the way that people view

and interact with the natural

environment, it is crucial that

governments impose awareness

programmes on the environment

and biodiversity in particular as

part of the mainstream education

process. If a significant portion of

the population were to know

about the issues facing

biodiversity losses, changes would

start to happen in limiting the

impacts…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.5 The Concept of

Sustainable Development

The concept of sustainable development was first

suggested during the Brundtland Commission.

This concept is largely misunderstood and wrongly

used around the world.

What it states is that any development activity should

take equally into consideration environmental, social

and economic attributes.

It states that present developments should not

deprive future generations from benefiting from the

same type of environment that we observe today.

However, most of the time the environmental aspects

of such development model is neglected.

=> The concept of sustainable development remains

today largely misused and misunderstood.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



As many projects (e.g. mining, farming) fail to protect biodiversity by poorly

adopting the concept of sustainable development it appears more logical to

adopt a new approach that would be to sacrifice restricted zones in order to

better preserve much larger ones.

Such principle would work

on the basis of impact

zones.

An important aspect would

be to surround the “Dead

Zone” by a bumper zone in

order to strictly protect the

protected zone.

Of course such model would

only work if protected

zones are much larger than

impacted zones and if well

controlled.

The protected zone must

also coincide with

ecosystems most at risk.

X.6 Alternative Solution?

The Concept of “Dead Zone”


Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.7 Alternative Solution?

Vertical Farms

Agriculture has destructive impacts on biodiversity by

converting natural lands (forests) to monocultures.

A solution to limit this conversion of land would be to start

producing food in vertical farms in city environments.

As most of the world population will be living in cities in

the decades to come and the world population is

increasing fast, such model for development would be a

good way to prevent existing forests from being

transformed to agricultural fields and therefore preserving

the biodiversity contained in these habitats.

If we take into account predictions of population growth

and the current agricultural practices, most forests will

need to be converted to agricultural fields to feed the

growing population.

=> Maintaining current land use practices for agriculture

would be disastrous.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.8 Case Study:

Singapore City

Biodiversity Index

The purpose of the "The Singapore Index on Citie’s

Biodiversity” (CBI) is to assist in the benchmarking

of cities' biodiversity conservation efforts over

time.

The three components of CBI are a) Biodiversity in

the City; b) Ecosystem Services Provided by the

Native Biodiversity in the City; and c) Governance

and Management of Biodiversity in the City.

In May 2008, Singapore made a commitment to

develop the CBI. To date, Curitiba, Montreal,

Nagoya, Singapore, Edmonton, Joondalup,

Brussels, Paris, have agreed to test-bed the CBI.

At the Nagoya Biodiversity Summit to be held in

October 2010, the global community will discuss

the international adoption of the CBI.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.9 (a) Sustainable

Urban Design

It is estimated that 80% of the world

population will be living in cities by 2050.

Most cities have been unsuccessful at

incorporating natural habitats and preserving

vegetative coverage within the architecture

and design.

Maintaining a vegetative coverage is

important for various reasons. First it reduces

the urban heat island effect which increases

ambient temperatures. But it also provides

shelter and habitat for various species.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.9 (b) Cities must start to incorporate natural features into their design.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.10 (a) Greening Cities

As cities are rapidly expending, the built

environment is taking over natural features.

A way to improve current cities design and to

bring back some of the biodiversity to cities would

be to start implementing on a large scale roof top

gardens and vertical green walls.

There is a lot of research in these fields however

to date only a few landmarks have implemented

these practices.

If implemented on a large scale, bringing greenery

back to the cities along with other features such

as water points and parks would certainly improve

cities biodiversity index.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.10 (b) Development and biodiversity are

not necessarily incompatible.

If natural features are well

incorporated within buildings and

infrastructures, they will in term

attract species by providing

habitats.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.11 (a) Eco Tourism

'Ecotourism' is responsible travel to fragile, pristine,

and usually protected areas that strives to be low

impact and (often) small scale. It purports to educate

the traveler; provide funds for conservation; directly

benefit the economic development and political

empowerment of local communities; and foster

respect for different cultures and for human rights.

There are obvious economic benefits from preserving

healthy environments by developing ecotourism.

In some countries (e.g. Australia, New Zealand)

ecotourism accounts for a very significant part of

national income. People from all over the world are

willing to travel for the sole purpose of experiencing

healthy and well preserved environments.

As the world population is moving to cities, people

will be more and more searching to escape to well

preserved natural environments.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



X.11 (b) Eco tourism is a highly profitable business and a reason for governments and the private sector to preserve

natural ecosystems.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



In order to preserve biodiversity, initiatives must not only come from one source but governments,

the private sector and the community must act together…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Conclusion Chapter X

As highlighted in this chapter, in order for

significant results to take place in biodiversity

conservation, the governments, private sector and

individuals must act together in a common goal of

preserving biodiversity on Earth.

Much of the lack of current actions comes from a

broad misunderstanding and non sufficient

education on the issues surrounding biodiversity

loss. If people, governments and individuals become

more aware of what it really means to preserve

biodiversity and what is at stake, changes to

preserve this precious resource will become more

significant.

As with the issue of climate change, significant

awareness only started to take place following the

creation of an international panel on the issue (IPCC).

Perhaps a similar approach on the issue of biodiversity

should be adopted. The creation of an international

panel composed of experts from various countries will

significantly impact and pressure decision makers and

raise global awareness on biodiversity losses. The

creation of such a panel is currently under

negotiations.

However, when talking about biodiversity issues, time

is running out fast and such measures would need to

be put into place quickly for significant actions to

have time to be effective.

=> We are running out of time if we are to preserve

a significant portion of the species present on Earth

today…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Chapter XI

Common

Misunderstandings

about Biodiversity

Why it is so crucial to preserve

biodiversity



This statement is wrong. Biodiversity could indeed be a

renewable resource should it be exploited with respect of

the renewal rate of species populations and without

destroying the surrounding environments in the process.

However, this is not the practices observed today. Expert

have warned that at the current rate at which we are

exploiting natural resources, most commercial species

populations will collapse within 30 years.

Through all the pressures that human beings are putting on

the environment, experts estimate that we are losing

biodiversity at a rate of a least a thousand time greater

than the natural rate of extinction. One must understand

that when species become extinct they forever disappear

from the surface of the Earth. The disappearance of species

is definitely not sustainable.

“Biodiversity is a renewable resource

therefore we can afford to exploit it at

the current rate as it will come back”


Chapter XI: Common Misunderstandings about Biodiversity

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



The concept of simply preserving very isolated places

on Earth will not work.

Such principles have been well explained in scientific

work done in the area of biogeography. Small island-

like ecosystems are much more vulnerable to threats

and are doomed to extinction in relatively short

timeframes. Furthermore, many species require a

sufficient gene pool to survive. That is the more

individuals in a population, the more the species will be

able to survive. Restricted ecosystems have a too small

gene pooI.

In order to succeed in preserving biodiversity we must

not only put restricted areas under reserve but also

reduce our overall pressures on the surrounding

environment.

“To save biodiversity we can simply

create reserves while continuing

business as usual everywhere else”



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Preserving biodiversity in very restricted ecosystems such as inside a glasshouse or isolated parks will not be

sufficient to save species from extinction.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Many do not understand that every species on the planet has

a role to play in maintaining stable ecosystems upon which

the human species rely on. If species continue to disappear

at the current rate, many of these ecosystems will collapse

with severe consequences for human beings. Our food

supplies and health is directly related to diverse life forms.

“It does not matter to lose biodiversity, we

will be able to see animals in museums”

This is a wrong approach. Such remote ecosystems hold very

specialised species which hold great potential in terms of

new discoveries, potential remedies…. We should preserve

existing remote ecosystems at all cost as their value is un-

priceable.

“Most of the very diverse ecosystems are in

very remote areas that most people would

never go to. So if it gets destroyed it does

not matter because we don’t see it anyway”



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Such strategy will not work. First it is very difficult to

assess when a species is becoming extinct. We know that

many species are becoming extinct because we see a

sharp drop in their population numbers. However, there

are also many species we don’t even know exist for the

reason that they have never been studied to date.

“We can continue business as usual until

species are on the verge of extinction.

When this comes we can simply stop what

we are doing for species to recover”

“We can simply collect DNA samples of

existing species. In the future we will be

able to revive the species through new

DNA technology”

Such statements seem to come out of fiction novels. Most

scientist would agree that it is unlikely that we will one

day be able to re-generate species from their DNA ones

these species are extinct.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Many have tried to put a value on species. Such

concept does not work for the reason that one given

species is invaluable.

“In order to preserve species, we should put a price

on them”

Putting a price on species is a risk. If ecosystems are

valued according to a price fixed on species, large

corporations are in a position to buy the resource in

order to destroy it. The only corporations in a position

to do this are also the most destructive: Mining and oil

companies.



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



We are still living in a relatively bio-

diverse world and there is still time to go

in either directions: continuing on the

path of current destruction or going

towards a more sustainable alternative

focusing on conservation.

However, time is running out, fast…



Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



General Conclusion

This book on biodiversity has provided an insight of the incredible

diversity of life on Earth which is concentrated in a few ecosystems and

locations.

It has also highlighted that despite the fact that we are still enjoying

today a relatively bio-diverse world, the situation is becoming more and

more critical: Species are becoming extinct at alarming rates. By the year

2100, at the current rate, we are most likely to lose more than half of all

the species which inhabit the planet today as a result of the combination

of anthropic pressures of which climate change, overexploitation,

deforestation and pollution are the most of concern.

This book has also highlighted the fact that preserving biodiversity is a

priority. Indeed, our quality of life and human populations stability is

depending on a natural balance of species within ecosystems. If

biodiversity continues to decline at the current rate, this will result in

serious perturbations of ecosystems which will impact our agricultural

and health systems. Furthermore, all our medicines rely on compounds

extracted from species. The discovery of new remedies relies on the

survival of species from which we have so much more to discover and

learn from. Talking about learning, new fields such as biomimetics are

only starting to surface revealing how much we can still achieve by simply

gaining inspiration from nature and the study of species.

However, the key message here is that despite

the tremendous amount of destruction and

species extinctions which is occurring since the

industrial revolution. we are still living in a bio-

diverse environment today.

As such, we can still do something to preserve

the diversity of life on Earth and reverse the

current trend, or to the least limit or slow

down the damages.

As highlighted in this book, meaningful and

realistic actions can be taken at the individual,

corporate and government level to preserve

biodiversity for current and future generations.

Extinction is forever


General Conclusion

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg


Annex



Bibliography (1)

"Biodiversity: Questions and Answers"; Council of Europe Publishing, December 1999

Primack R.B. 1998. Essentials of Conservation Biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland MA: 260

Bonsdorff, E., E. M. Blomqvist, J. Mattila & A. Norkko, 1997: Long-term changes and coastal

eutrophication. Examples from the land Islands and the Archipelago Sea, northern Baltic Sea. -

Oceanol. Acta 20: 319-329.

Norkko A. & E, Bonsdorff, 1996. Population responses of coastal zoobenthos to stress induced by

drifting algal mats. - Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 140: 141-151.

Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing, An Ecological and Economic

Perspective, edited by Shahid Naeem, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector, Michel Loreau and Charles

Perrings. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp.230-247, 2009.

Lewis, David J.; Plantinga, Andrew J.; Nelson, Erik; Polasky, Stephen.

Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin, Department of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 2009.

Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functioning, and Human Wellbeing, An Ecological and Economic

Perspective, edited by Shahid Naeem, Daniel E. Bunker, Andy Hector, Michel Loreau and Charles

Perrings. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2009, pp.248-262, 2009.

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Large-Scale Ecosystem Restoration: Five Case Studies from the United States, edited by Mary Doyle

and Cynthia A. Drew. Washington, DC: Island Press, 2008, pp.279-289. (The science and practice of

ecological restoration) 2008.

Cater, E. and Lowman, G. Ecotourism: A Sustainable Option? West Sussex, England: John Wiley and

Sons; 1994

Filion, F.; Foley, J. P., and Jacquemot, A. The economics of global ecotourism. Munasinghe, M. and

McNeely, J. Protected Area Economics and Policy-Linking Conservation and Sustainable

Development. Washington,DC: The World Bank; 1994.

Goodwin, H. In pursuit of ecotourism. Biodiversity and Conservation. 1996; 5(3):277-292.

Krutilla, J. V. and Fisher, A. C. The Economics of Natural Environments: Studies in Valuation of

Commodity and Amenity Resources. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press for Resources for

the Future; 1975.

Mendelsohn, R. The role of ecotourism in sustainable development. Meffe, G. and Caroll, C.

Principles of Conservation Biology. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates; 1994.

Aitken, S. R. and Leigh, C. H. Vanishing Rain Forests: The Ecological Transition. Oxford: Oxford

University Press; 1992.

Allen, J. C. and Barnes, D. F. The causes of deforestation in developing countries. Annals of the

Association of American Geographers. 1985; 75163-184.

Anderson, A. B. Alternatives to Deforestation. New York: Columbia University Press; 1990.

Bibliography (2)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Barbier, E. B. The economics of forestry and conservation: Economic values and policies.

Commonwealth Forestry Review. 1995; 74(1).

Barbier, E. B. and Rauscher, M. Trade, tropical deforestation, and policy interventions.

Environmental and Resource Economics. 1994; 4(1):75-94.

Aarts, BGW Nienhuis PH. Ecological sustainability and biodiversity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND WORLD ECOLOGY. 1999; 6(2):89-102 / 14; ISSN:

ISI:000081301200003.

Borrvall, C Ebenman B Jonsson T. Biodiversity lessens the risk of cascading extinction in model

food webs. ECOLOGY LETTERS. 2000; 3(2):131-136 / 6; ISSN: ISI:000086021100011.

Chapin, F. III; Schultze, E., and Mooney, H. Biodiversity and ecosystem processes. Trends in

Ecology & Evolution. 1992; 7(4):107-108.

Cronk, Q. C. B. Islands: Stability, diversity, and conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation.

1997; 6(3):477-493.

Ehrlich, P. R. and Mooney, H. A. Extinction, substitution, and ecosystem services. BioScience.

1983; 33248-254.

Grime, J. P. Biodiversity and ecosystem function: The debate deepens. Science. 1997;

277(5330):1260-1261.

Grumbine, R. E. Protecting biological diversity through the greater ecosystem concept. Natural

Areas Journal. 1990; 10114-120.

Bibliography (3)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Aback, P. B. Biodiversity patterns in relation to climate: The coastal temperate rainforests of

North America. Lawford, R. G.; Alaback, P. B., and Fuentes, E. High-latitude Rainforests and

Associated Ecosystems of the West Coast of the Americas. New York: Springer; 1994; pp. 105-133.

Bazzaz, F. A. Tropical forests in a future climate: Changes in biological diversity and impact on

the global carbon cycle. Climatic Change. 1998; 39(2-3):317-336.

Costanza, Robert. The Ecological, Economic, and Social Importance of the Oceans. Ecological

Economics. 1999; 31(2):199-213.

Alpin, P. N. Global climate change and natural-area protection: Management responses and

research directions. Ecological Applications. 1997; 7(3):828-843.

Kappelle, M. Van Vuuren MMIBaas P. Effects of climate change on biodiversity: a review and

identification of key research issues. BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION. 1999; 8(10):1383-1397 /

15; ISSN:ISI:000083412800005.

Maciver, D. C. Atmospheric change and biodiversity. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING &

ASSESSMENT.1998; 49(2-3):177-189 / 13; ISSN: ISI:000072000900006.

Myers, N. Synergisms: Joint effects of climate change and other forms of habitat destruction.

Peters, R. L. and Lovejoy, T. E. Consequences of the Greenhouse Warming to Biodiversity. New

Haven, CT: Yale University Press; 1992; pp. 344-354.

Bibliography (4)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Barbier, E. E. and Burgess, J. C. The economics of tropical forest land use options. Land

Economics. 1997;73174-195.

Bilsbarrow, R. and Okoth-Ogendo, H. W. O. Population-driven changes in land use in developing

countries.Ambio. 1992; 21(1)37-45.

Cameron, J. and Elix, J. Measures for achieving land management and conservation objectives.

Cameron, J. and Elix, J. Recovering Ground: A Case Study Approach to Ecologically Sustainable

Rural Land Management. Melbourne: Australian Conservation Foundation; 1991.

Darwin, R.; Tsigas, M.; Lewandrowski, J., and Raneses, A. Land use and cover in ecological

economics. Ecological Economics. 1996; 17(3):157-182.

Day-Rubenstein, K Stuart M. Agricultural land use in tropical countries: Patterns, determinants,

and implications for biodiversity loss. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS. 1999;

81(5):1327-1327 / 1; ISSN: ISI:000085409000511.

Rier, D. Conserving biodiversity on private land. Harvard Environmental Law Review. 1995;

19(2):304-305.

Houghton, R. A. The worldwide extent of land-use change. BioScience. 1994; 44(5):305-313.

Bibliography (5)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Larson, B. A. The causes of land degradation along 'spontaneously' expanding agricultural frontiers

in the third world:comment. Land Economics. 1991; 67260-266.

Meyer, W. B. and Turner II, B. L. Human population growth and global land use/cover change.

Annual Review of Ecological Systematics. 1992; 2339-61.

Smith, Nigel J. H. Affiliation U Fl and Douglas A. Effects of Land-Use Systems on the Use and

Conservation of Biodiversity in Biodiversity and agricultural intensification: Partners for

development and conservation. 1996.

Walker, Brian. Maximising Net Benefits Through Biodiversity as a Primary Land Use. Environment

and Development Economics. 1999; 4(2):204-14.

Walker, R. T. Land use transition and deforestation in developing countries. Geographical

Analysis. 1987; 198-30.

White, D. W.; Minotti, P. G.; Barczak, M. J.; Sifneos, J. C.; Freemark, K. E.; Santelmann, M. V.;

Steinitz, C. F.; Kiester, A. R., and Preston, E. M. Assessing risks to biodiversity from future

landscape change. Conservation Biology. 1997; 11(2):349-360.

Abramovitz, JN. The living planet in crisis: biodiversity science and policy. INTERNATIONAL

AFFAIRS. 2000; 76(2):376-376 / 1; ISSN: ISI:000086531900050.

Allen, J. M. The Nature of Biological Diversity. New York: McGraw Hill; 1963.

Allen, TM. Biodiversity: Exploring values and priorities in conservation. HARVARD ENVIRONMENTAL

LAW REVIEW. 2000; 24(2):593-601 / 9; ISSN: ISI:000088085000009.

Bibliography (6)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Barbier, Edward B.; Rauscher, Michael Affiliation U, and York U Kiel and Cepr. Policies to Control

Tropical Deforestation: Trade Intervention Versus Transfers. Biodiversity Loss: Economic and

Ecological Issues. 1995.

Barrett, S. On biodiversity conservation. Perrings, C.; Folke, C.; Holling, C. S.; Jansson, B. O., and

Maler, K. G. Biodiversity Loss: Theoretical and Ecological Issues. New York: Cambridge University

Press; 1995; pp. 283-297.

Al, Ahmed Esmat and Springuel Irina. Economic value of plant diversity in arid environments.

Nature & Resources. 1996; 32(1):33-39.

Blockstein, D. E. A strategic approach for biodiversity conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin.

1995; 23(3):365-369.

Broberg, L. E. Will management of vulnerable species protect biodiversity! JOURNAL OF

FORESTRY. 1999; 97(7):12-18 / 7; ISSN: ISI:000081256700004.

Burbidge, A. A. and Wallace, K. J. Practical methods for conserving biodiversity. Bradstock, R. A.;

Auld, T. D.; Keith, D. A.; Kingsford, R. T.; Lunney, D., and Sivertsen, D. P. Conserving

Biodiversity: Threats and Solutions. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and Sons; 1995.

Chadwick, D. The biodiversity challenge. Defenders. 1990; 65(3):19-30.

Christen, K Wilson EO. Biodiversity at the crossroads. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY.

2000; 34(5):122A-128A / 7; ISSN: ISI:000085612900018.

Bibliography (7)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Christensen, E. Genetic ark: a proposal to preserve genetic diversity for future generations.

Stanford Law Review. 1987; 40279-321.

Blockstein, D. E. A strategic approach for biodiversity conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin.

1995; 23(3):365-369.

Connell, J. H. Diversity in tropical rain forests and coral reefs. Science. 1978; 1991302-1310.

Cooperrider, A. Y. Saving nature's legacy. Defenders. 1994; 69(3):17-24.

Daily, G. C. Social constraints on restoration ecology. Saunders, D. A.; Hobbs, R. J., and Ehrlich,

P. R. Nature Conservation III: Reconstruction of Fragmented Ecosystems. Perth: Surrey Beatty and

Sons; 1993; pp.9-16.

Daily, G. C. and Ehrlich, P. R. Population extinction and the biodiversity crisis. Perrings, C.; Mäler,

K. M.; Felke, C.; Holling, C. F., and Jansson, B. O. Biodiversity Conservation: Problems and

Policies. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Press; 1994.

Dasmann, R. F. Environmental Conservation. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons; 1959.

Davey, S. M.; Stockwell, D. R. B., and Peters, D. G. Managing biological diversity with intelligent

systems. AI Applications. 1995; 9(2):69-89.

Bibliography (8)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Debuhr, L. E. Public understanding of biodiversity. BioScience. 1995; s43-s44.

Decker, D. J.; Krasny, M. E.; Goff, G. R.; Smith, C. R., and Gross, D. W. Challenges in the

Conservation of Biological Resources: A Practitioner's Guide. Boulder, CO: Westview Press; 1991.

Desaigues, B Ami D. An estimation of the social benefits of preserving biodiversity.

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENT AND POLLUTION. 1999; 12(4):400-413 / 14; ISSN:

ISI:000085403100003.

Edwards, S. R. Conserving biodiversity: Resources for our future. Bailey, R. The True State of the

Planet. New York: The Free Press; 1995; pp. 211-265.

Ehrlich, P. R. and Wilson, E. O. Biodiversity studies: Science and policy. Science. 1991; 254758-

762.

Eldredge, N. The two faces of biodiversity. NATURAL HISTORY. 1998; 107(5):54-55 / 2; ISSN:

ISI:000073672000011.

Everett, R. L. and Lehmkuhl, J. F. An emphasis approach to conserving biodiversity. Wildlife

Society Bulletin.1996; 24(2):192-199.

Frankel, O. H. Genetic conservation: Our evolutionary responsibility. Genetics. 1974; 78(1):53-65.

Gaynor, M. M. The role of scientists and scientific organizations in the conservation of biodiversity

and the natural environment: An Australian perspective. Saunders, D. A.; Craig, J. L., and

Mattiske, E. M.Nature Conservation 4: The Role of Networks. Chipping Norton: Surrey Beatty and

Sons; 1996; pp 594-600.

Bibliography (9)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Goklany, I. M. Saving habitat and conserving biodiversity on a crowded planet. BioScience. 1998;

48941-953.

Groves, C. R.; Klein, M. L., and Breden, T. F. Natural heritage programs: Public-private

partnerships for biodiversity conservation. Wildlife Society Bulletin. 1995; 23(4):784-790.

Guruswamy, L. D. and McNeely, J. A. Protection of Global Biodiversity:Converging Strategies.

Durham: Duke University Press; 1998.

Hambler, C. Future biodiversity. Nature. 1995; 6525758.

Harkness, James. Recent Trends in Forestry and Conservation of Biodiversity in China. China

Quarterly. 1998; 0(156):911-34.

Heywood, V. H. and Watson, R. T. Global Biodiversity Assessment. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge


Hochberg, M. E.; Clobert, J., and Barbault, R. The Genesis and Maintenance of Biodiversity.

Oxford: Oxford University Press; unknown.

Koshland, D. E. Preserving biodiversity. Science. 1989; 253(5021):717.

Levine, N. D. Preservation versus elimination. BioScience. 1986; 36308-309.

Montgomery, C. A. and Pollack R. A. Economics and biodiversity: Weighing benefits and costs of

conservation. Journal of Forestry. 1996; 94(2):34-38.

Bibliography (10)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Moore, N. The Bird of Time: Science and the Politics of Nature Conservation. New York:

Cambridge University Press; 1987.

Myers, N. Biodiversity and the precautionary principle. Ambio. 1993; 22(2-3):74-79.

Myers, Norman Affiliation Oxford Uk. Tropical Deforestation: Population, Poverty and Biodiversity

in The economics and ecology of biodiversity decline: The forces driving global change. 1995.

Naeem, S. and Li, S. B. Biodiversity enhances ecosystem reliability. Nature. 1997; 390(6659):507-

509.

Norse, E. A. International lending and the loss of biological diversity. Conservation Biology. 1987;

1259-260.

Oksanen, M. The moral value of biodiversity. Ambio. 1997; 26(8):541-545.

Oldfield, M. L. and Alcorn, J. B. Biodiversity: Culture, Conservation and Ecodevelopment. Boulder,

CO: Westview Press; 1991.

Peters, R. L. and Lovejoy, T. E. Global Warming and Biological Diversity. New Haven, CT: Yale


Pimm, S. L. and Sugden, A. M. Tropical diversity and global change. Science. 1994; 263933-934.

Pimm, SL Raven P. Biodiversity - Extinction by numbers. NATURE. 2000; 403(6772):843-845 / 3;

ISSN:ISI:000085559200035.

Bibliography (11)

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



Author: Mr. Sylvain Richer de Forges

Photographs

All Photographs contained in this book are taken by the author in various

locations around the world.

All pictures @ Sylvain Richer de Forges all rights reserved

This e-book is a simplified adaptation from

the book of the same name which can be

purchased through main book sales

channels ISBN 978-981-07-3457-2

Acknowledgements

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg



About the Author:

Sylvain Richer de Forges is a business strategist and a corporate sustainability

specialist. Over the last years he has been mostly working in Asia with public and

private sectors.

He is the writer of numerous articles and the author of two published books on issues

surrounding sustainable development and corporate change strategies.

Sylvain holds a diploma in physics from France, a bachelor’s degree in environmental

sciences from La Trobe University (Australia) and a master’s in management from the

university of Sherbrooke in Canada.

Additionally he is a photographer.

Annex

Visit the program

www.biodiversity.sg

Documents

The Diversity of Life on Earth from heritage to extinction E-book by sylvain richer de forges. A holistic view of life on Earth and sustainable development