The dermatoglyphics of American Negroes

The Dermatoglyphics of American Negroes

FLORENCE S. STEINBERG,' JAMES J . CEREGHINO? AND CHRIS C . PLAT03 1 National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Program Statistics Branch, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland. 2 National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke, Collaborative and Field Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland. Na- tional Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Gerontology Research Center, National lnstitutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland.

KEY WORDS Dermatoglyphics * Fingerprints . Palmprints Negro dermatoglyphics.

ABSTRACT Digital and palmar dermatoglyphics of 184 male and 224 female normal American Negroes were evaluated for digital patterns, digital ridge counts, palmar patterns, palmar main line terminations, accessory triradii and palmar creases. All subjects were seven year olds examined and found free of chronic or other genetic diseases. The results were presented for the left and right hand separately as well as in terms of bilateral symmetry. The present results were for the most part comparable to those of the African and other American Negro groups reported earlier. The distributions of the various dermatoglyphic features among the Negroes taken as a group were compared to those of the other racial groups and their differences were discussed.

The analysis of finger and palm prints as a means of personal identification has become well established since the initial development by Sir Francis Galton in the 1890's (1891, 1892, 1895). The epidermal ridge patterns on fingers, palm, and soles are permanently formed at a very early period of development and are complete at approximately five months before birth. During the interval of ridge formation the fetus is extremely susceptible to damage from viruses and other disease processes and from environmental teratogens. From birth throughout life there are no developmental changes. The patterns of lines and creases are strongly, but not entirely, in- fluenced by heredity. On the correspond- ing hands of identical twins differences can be attributed to prenatal environmental influences or modifications and are usually less pronounced than between the right and left hands of the same individual. Dermatoglyphic patterns have become in- creasingly important in medicine, particularly in conditions due to chromosomal

AM. J. PHYs. ANTHROP., 42: 183-194.

abnormalities and intrauterine damage to the fetus, since their original use in this area by Harold Cummins in the late 1920's ('26, '39).

Dermatoglyphic abnormality associated with various clinical disorders are numer- ous (Alter, '66; Schauman and Alter, '75). In some cases efforts to correlate pathologi- cal conditions with particular dermatoglyphic traits have led to inconclusive results because of the use of inadequate control groups. While exhaustive medical examination of diseased subjects is usually performed, controls are seldom examined. Since there are known racial and sex vari- ations in dermatoglyphics, it is important to obtain data from homogenous groups of subjects who are examined and found to be normal. Studies in the past have used volunteers who are assumed to be healthy as long as they did not have the disease under investigation. Some investigators have continued to use data collected from Scotland Yard in 1905, on people whose racial, sex, and health status are unknown.

183

184 F. S. STEINBERG, J. J. CEREGHINO AND C. C. PLAT0

Careful documentation of well character- ized samples diagnosed as “normal” are needed.

This study presents the dermatoglyphic features of 408 Negro Americans diagnosed on the basis of continuing system- atic examinations as “normal” until age seven. A parallel study of Caucasian Amer- icans is presented on page 195.

METHODOLOGY

The finger and palm prints of 408 Negro Americans (184 male, 224 female) en- rolled in the Collaborative Perinatal Study of the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke were obtained by the Child Growth and Developmental Center, Johns Hopkins University, during routinely scheduled fourth or seventh year examinations. Only one member from a family was included in this study. The prints of children with diagnosed or suspected chronic or genetic diseases, children scoring below seventy on their fourth year Stanford-Binet or seventh year WISC examination, and premature children or those with a birth weight less than 2,500 grams, were elimi- nated from the study. Prints with unread- able areas were also excluded.

Prints were taken by the inked method and evaluated primarily as described by Cummins and Midlo (’43). Modal types of C lines (Plato, ’70), D lines (Cummins and Midlo, ’43), and the classification of the interdigital areas as described by Plato and Wertelecki (’72) were used.

RESULTS

The results of all the dermatoglyphic features studied are summarized separately for the males and females and are presented in figure 1. The male and female findings were statistically tested and the levels of significance are also indicated on the cyclogram of figure 1.

Digital patterns The proportion of loops and whorls on

the ten fingers, (table 1 and fig. l ) , is similar in both sexes with a significantly higher proportion of arches among females. The bimanual differences (table 2) in males ( P < 0.01) are due to a higher pro-

TABLE 1

Percent distribution of the digital patterns of American Negroes

Male (N = 184) Female (N = 224)

Pattern Left Right Both Left Right Both hand hand hands hand hand hands

Arch 7.2 5.1 6.2 12.5 9.0 10.8 Loops 71.3 66.9 69.1 64.0 68.0 66.0

Radial 2.1 2.3 2.2 2.9 1.1 2.0 Ulnar 69.2 64.6 66.9 61.1 66.9 64.0

Whorl 21.4 27.9 24.7 23.4 22.9 23.2

portion of whorls of the right hand, particularly on digits I and IV, and in females (P < 0.01) to the higher proportion of arches on the left hand, particularly on digit I. Bilateral symmetry, shown between the diagonal lines in table 2, is, for both males and females, highest on digits V and I11 where ulnar loops predominate and lowest on digit I1 where u l n a are sparse. Bilateral symmetry on both hands of males and females is similar. The same pattern on homologous fingers of both hands occurs in 30% of males and 32% of females. The same pattern type - ulnar loops, whorls or arches - are found on all ten fingers in 16% of males and 12% of females. All whorls occur in three males and three females, all arches in one female and all ulnar loops in 27 males and 22 females. The pattern intensity index is 11.9 (5.71, left hands; 6.14, right hands) for males and 11.2 (5.54, left hands; 5.69, right hands) for females. Figure 2 presents the distribution of the bilateral differences of pattern intensity index.

Ridge counts Mean ridge counts are significantly

higher on the right hands of males (P < 0.05) than females. There was no difference for left hand comparisons. The total mean ridge count on both hands is significantly different between males (x= 119 -t 41, SE = 3 ) and females (?= 106 % 47, SE = 3) ( t = 2.9, P < 0.01) (table 3). Ridge counts on individual fingers will be reported in a future communication.

Palmar patterns The type of patterns found in palmar

areas are shown in tables 4 and 5. The

THE DERMATOGLYPHICS OF AMERICAN NEGROES 185

Fig. 1 Dermatoglyphic comparisons between male and female American Negroes. * P < 0.05; * * P < 0.01; # not tested.

Proof change: PALMAR PATTERNS, area 111 - *+; area IV - *,

radial loop in the Hypothenar, I11 and IV interdigital areas is the most frequently found pattern.

The occurrence of patterns on right and left hands of both males and females is statistically significant by x2 procedures in palmar areas 11, I11 and IV. The proportion of patterns is significantly higher on left hands in Thenar/I and interdigital IV and on right hands in interdigital areas I1 and 111. Bilateral symmetry, based on the absence of patterns on both hands or the presence of the same type of pattern on

both hands, is consequently high where the incidence of patterns is low. Differences are significant (P < 0.05) in the I1 interdigital area where females, with fewer patterns than males, exhibit a high degree of symmetry.

Patterns in the palmar areas, when bilaterally present, are found primarily in the IV interdigital area (75% male, 69% female); secondarily in the I11 interdigital area (36% male, 24% female); and rang- ing from 2-15% in the other three areas (table 6 and fig. 1).


TABLE 2

Bilateral percent distribution of digital patterns of American Negroes

Male ( N = 184) Female ( N = 224)

Digit Hand Right Right Right Right and Right radial ulnar Right Left Right radial ulnar Right Left

pattern arch loop loop whorl total arch loop loop whorl total

I Left arch Left radial loop Left ulnar loop Left whorl

Right total

Left radial loop Left ulnar loop Left whorl

Right total


Right total


Right total


Right total

I1 Left arch

111 Left arch

IV Left arch

V Left arch

4 . m O 4.9 0.5 10.3

0.0 0.0

h . 0 3.8 0.0 9.8

0.0 0.0

88.6

0.4 46.7

.1 67.8

1 Total bilateral symmetry (sum of the diagonal).

TABLE 3 Mean, standard deviation, and standard error of the digital ridge counts of American Negroes

Male (N= 181) Female ( N = 219) Difference in means

Mean SD SE Mean SD SE (male-female)

Left Hand 58.4 21.2 1.6 50.8 24.7 1.6 7.8

Total Ridge Count 119.0 40.8 3.1 106.4 47.4 3.2 12.6 Right Hand 60.6 20.5 1.5 55.7 23.5 1.6 4.9

TABLE 4

Percent distribution of patterns in hypothenar and thenar/l areas of American Negroes

Hypothenar Thenar / I --

Type of Male (N= 181) Female ( N = 224) pattern Type of

Male (N= 181) Female (N = 224)

Left Right Left Right pattern Left Right Left Right

Open/Arch 76.6 74.5 79.9 76.3 Open/Arch 78.3 90.8 81.2 92.0 Vestiges 1.1 0.4 0.9 Vestiges 7.1 3.8 7.6 2.2 SingeLoops 22.3 23.3 18.8 21.9 Loop 1.6 1.1 1.3 0.9

Ulnar 2.2 3.8 3.6 5.4 Loop/Vestige 9.2 3.3 8.0 3.6 Radial 18.5 17.9 11.6 13.8 Loop/Loop 3.8 1.1 1.8 1.3 Distal 1.6 1.1 3.6 2.7 Whorl 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Proximal 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0

DoubleLoop 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.0 Whorl 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0


40

35

30

2 5 + z W 2 20 W a

15

10

5

0

MALE FEMALE

-4-3-2-1 0 1 2 3 4 -4-3-2-1 0 1 2 3 4

LE FT RIGHT RIG HT > LEFT LEFT > RIGHT RIGHT > LEFT Fig. 2 Pattern intensity indices of American Negroes. Zero ( 0 ) indicates equal digital

pattern intensity in both hands of the same individual. The frequency of indices higher in the left hand are indicated by negative numbers and those higher in the right hand are indicated by positive numbers. Male N = 184. Female N = 224.

Palmar lines The C line, present on approximately

90% of the palms, is primarily in the ulnar direction on left palms and almost equally divided in the ulnar or radial direction on right palms (table 7) . Males have a significantly higher percentage of C lines in the proximal and radial directions than females (P < 0.01) in both hands. The R/U (Radial/ulnar) ratios for males are 0.43, left hand; 1.04, right hand; and for females 0.34, left hand; 0.85, right hand. Bilateral symmetry of C and D lines are similar - approximately 60%. The D line on right hands of both sexes terminates at 7, 9 and 11 in almost equal frequencies. On the left hand, however, the D line terminates primarily at numbers 7 and 9.

The 11/7 ratios for males are: 0.32, left hand; 0.89, right hand; and for females: 0.35, left hand; 0.92, right hand.

Main line indices for the right hand also indicate that transversality is more pronounced on the right palm (8.22 males and 7.99 females) than on the left (7.34 males and 7.08 females). Figure 3 illus- trates the bimanual difference in main line indices.

Palmar creases Simian and Sydney lines, while not

strictly dermatoglyphic features, were also examined. Table 8 indicates the frequency distribution of complete and aberrant lines. The complete Simian line is represented by the classic single transverse line formed

F. S. STEINBERG, J. J. CEREGHINO AND C. C. PLAT0

9 9 t : T 9 9 ? " ? ? 9 m o - 0 0 0 0 - 0 0 0 Q,

by the complete fusion of the proximal and distal palmar creases. The complete Sydney line is present when the proximal crease extends completely to the' ulnar margin of the palm as a single continuous line. Aber- rant types are incomplete lines. The complete Simian line is found on both hands in 4% of the males and less than 1% of the females. In males the complete Sydney line is found bilaterally less frequently than the complete Simian line. In females the reverse occurs.

Accessory triradii The frequencies of accessory triradii in

the palmar areas are indicated in table 9. The I11 interdigital area has the lowest frequency of accessory triradii, and the IV interdigital area the highest in both sexes. Bimanual differences (table 10) in the IV interdigital area are due to the higher frequencies on the left hand. In the Hypo- thenar and I1 interdigital areas, bimanual differences are due to the lower frequencies on the left hand. The high degree of palmar symmetry in three of the four areas is due to the absence of accessory triradii in these areas.

The atd angles The range of the maximal atd angle is

29"-86" with three percent of the atd angles under 35". Large angles, over 60", are found most frequently on the left hand in both sexes. The mean atd angle on left hands for males is 46.4" 9.8, SE 0.7 and for females 46.1" -+ 8.8, SE 0.6. On the right the mean atd angle is 46.1" 8.8, SE 0.6 for males and 43.8" * 8.0, SE 0.5 for females. The degree of bilateral SW- metry (table 11) is high - approximately 6 5 % .

DISCUSSION

The dermatoglyphics of American Ne- groes presented in this paper are compared in table 12 and figure 4 to the characteristics of Negro populations (African Bush- men, African Pygmies, other African Ne- groes and American Negroes) which were derived from 75 studies of other African Negroes, 4 of African Pygmies, and 9 of African Bushmen. The American Negro group combines the results of this study


TABLE 6 Bilateral percent distribution o f palmar patterns of American Negroes

Imale N = 181, female N = 21 91

Interdigital Interdigital Interdigital Hypothenar Thenar/I I1 111 IV

Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female Male Female

Both Palms Absent 65.2 71.4 77.7 79.0 78.8 90.6 40.2 44.2 5.4 8.5 Present 14.1 15.2 8.6 5.8 8.2 1.8 35.8 23.6 75.0 69.2

Same Pattern 11.4 10.7 4.3 1.8 3.3 0.0 19.0 13.8 35.9 32.6 Different Pattern 2.7 4.5 4.3 4.0 4.9 1.8 16.8 9.8 39.1 36.6

Bilateral Symmetry1 76.6 82.1 82.1 80.8 82.1 90.6 59.2 58.0 41.3 41.1

Pattern present Left palm only 9.3 4.9 13.0 12.9 3.3 0.0 5.4 8.5 15.8 17.0 Right palm only 11.4 8.5 0.5 2.2 9.8 7.6 18.5 23.7 3.8 5.4 1 Frequencies of the same pattern on both palms plus absent from both palms.

TABLE 7 Bilateral percent distributions of the modal types of C and D palmar main lines of American Negroes

Male ( N = 184) C Line Female ( N = 224 Modal type Right Right Right Right Left Modal Right Right Right Right Left

absent proximal ulnar radial total type absent proximal ulnar radial total

Left Absent

Male ( N = 184) D Line Female (N = 223) Mod a1 Modal type Right 7 Right 9 Right 11 Left total type Right 7 Right 9 Right 11 Left total

1 Total bilateral symmetry (sum of the diagonals).

TABLE 8

Bilateral percent distribution of palmar creases o f American Negroes

Male ( N = 184) Simian Female ( N = 224)

Extent of line Right Right Right Left Right Right Right Left absent aberrant complete total Extent of line absent aberrant complete total

Left absent

Left complete 3.3 Right total 88.1 1 Right total 95.9

Male ( N = 184) Sydney

absent aberrant complete total Extent of line Extent of line Right Right Right Left

Left absent 91.3 Left absent

Left complete 2.2

Female ( N = 224)

Right Right Right Left absent aberrant complete total

79.8 8.9 11.2 1 Total bilateral symmetry (sum of the diagonals).

190

3 5

30

25

z' 20 w 0 E

k 15

10

F. S. STEINBERG, J. J. CEREGHINO AND C. C . PLAT0

MALE FEMALE

1 L LEFT >RIGHT RIGHT >LEFT LEFT>RIGHT RIGHT> LEFT

Fig. 3 Bixnanual differences in main line indices in American Negroes. Zero (0) indicates equal main line index in both hands of the same individual. The frequency of indices higher in the left hand are indicated by negative numbers and those higher in the right hand are indicated by positive numbers. Male N = 184. Female N = 223.

TABLE 9

Percent distribution of accessory triradii in palms of American Negroes

Male ( N = 184 ) Female (N = 224)

P almar are a Left Right Both Left Right Both hand hand hands hand hand hands

~

Hypothenar

Interdigital

(Axial) 3.7 8.7 6.2 6.7 7.6 7.2

I1 8.7 15.8 12.2 2.2 7.6 4.9 111 1.1 1.6 1.4 1.8 4.0 2.9 IV 32.6 28.3 30.4 30.4 22.3 26.4

with the work of Wilder ('04) and Daven- port and Steggerda ('29). The shaded areas of the cyclogram (figure 4 ) represent the range of the frequencies of each subgroup. Within the shaded area the upper percentage represents the population with the highest frequency, the lower percentage indicates the lowest encountered frequency

while the dot gives the average frequency of the total subgroup population.

Within the Negro populations there is very little variation in the digital pattern frequencies although the African Bushmen have higher values of arches than the other subgroups. The American Negroes are more similar to the other African Negroes

191

Fig. 4 table 12).

Cyclogram of distribution of dermatoglyphic features of Negroes ( see text and

than to the African Pygmies or African Bushmen.

The averaged frequencies of the modal types of the C line of the American Ne- groes show bilateral asymmetry with the ulnar types being more frequent in the left hands and the radial appearing twice as frequently on the right hand as on the left. The overall, male plus femzle frequencies of ulnar and radial type, 49.8% and 38.1% respectively, of the American Negroes are similar to those of the African Negroes.

The mean frequencies of the modal types of the D line of both hands of both sexes in the American Negroes are 36.3%,

41.8% and 21.8% for types 7, 9, and 11 respectively. Their 7 and 11 frequencies are somewhat higher than those of the Africans and the 9 frequency is lower.

The combined Negro dermatoglyphic characteristics have been compared with other racial groups by Plato ('75). In the distribution of digital patterns, the combined Negroes have the lowest frequency of whorls and the highest frequency of loops and arches when compared to Aus- tralians, Orientals, Amerindians, Cauca- sians, and Asian Indians. The pattern intensity mean index of 11.9 is the lowest of these six groups (Plato, '75).

As for the directions of the C line, fre-


TABLE 10

Bilateral percent distribution o f accessory triradii i n palms of American Negroes [Male N = 184, female N = 2241

Absent on Present on Palmar 1 Present on Present on Palmar area both palms both palms symmetry left palm only right palm only

Hypothenar (Axial)

male 88.0 1.0 89.0 2.7 7.7 female 87.5 3.6 91.1 3.1 4.0

Interdigital I1

male 81.5 6.0 87.5 2.7 9.8 female 92.0 1.8 93.8 0.4 5.8

male 97.3 0.0 97.3 1.1 1.6 female 95.1 0.9 9G.O 0.9 3.1

male 60.3 21.2 81.5 11.4 7.1 female 61.6 14.3 75.9 16.1 8.0

I11

IV

1 Frequencies of the same pattern on both palms plus absent from both palms.

TABLE 11

Bilateral percent distribution o f maximal size o f atd angle o f American Negroes

Male N = 184

Degree Left hand < 40 4 0 4 9 50-59 > 59 total

< 40 14.3 6.0 2.2 0.0 22.5 40-49 7.1 37.9 3.3 1.6 49.9 50-59 1.1 6.6 8.0 1.6 17.5 > 59 1.6 2.7 2.3 3.3 9.9

Right hand total 24.1 53.2 16.0 6.5 63.7

Female N = 224

Degree

< 40 9.8 4.4 0.8 40-49 11.6 44.4 3.6 50-59 0.8 7.6 9.3 > 59 0.4 2.2 2.2

Right hand total 22.6 58.6 15.9

< 40 40-49 50-59 Left hand

> 59 total

0.0 15.0 0.4 60.0 0.4 19.1 1.8 5.6

2.6 65.4'

1 Total bilateral symmetry (sum of the diagonals).

quencies in the ulnar direction are highest on the left hands and in the radial direction on the right hands of the 6 groups (Plato, '75). Compared to Caucasians, Ne- groes have a considerably higher frequency of C lines in the ulnar direction and a lower frequency in the radial direction. Ne- groes as a group have the lowest frequencies of type 11 D line and the lowest 11 1'7 D ratio of the six groups. The main line

index of the Negroes is lower than the combined Caucasians, Australasians, and Asian Indians but higher values than that of the Amerindians and Orientals (Plato, '75).

The palmar pattern frequencies of the American Negroes, in general conform to those of the other Negro subgroups. Com- pared with the other racial groups, the Negroes have the highest frequencies of patterns in the I1 and IV interdigital areas; in the I11 interdigital area (second only to the Asian Indians); and intermediate frequencies of patterns in the Thenar/I and Hypothenar areas (Plato, '75).

The frequencies of accessory triradii in the American Negroes, both sexes combined, are 6 .7%, 8.6%, 2.1% and 28.6% for the Hypothenar and 11, 111, and IV interdigital areas, respectively. There is very little data on the accessory triradii of other Negro populations for meaningful comparisons, nevertheless, when the above values are compared with those of other racial groups, the Negroes have a higher frequency of accessory triradii in the 11, 111, and IV interdigital areas, and an intermediate frequency of accessory axial triradii (Plato, '75 ).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Dermatoglyphics for this study were collected at the Johns Hopkins Collaborative Perinatal Project by Bella Caplan and


Letha A. Montgomery under the direction of Janet B. Hardy, MD, CM, Director of the Project.

TABLE 12 Ranges and means of the percent distribution of

various dermatoglyphic features in Negro populations

Range Mean

Fingerprints Whorl Loop

Ulnar loop Radial loop

Arches Pattern intensitv

index Number of studies

Modal types of C Ulnar Radial Proximal Absent Radial/Ulnar Number of studies

Modal types of D 7 9

11 Main line index 11/7ratio Number of studies

Palmar patterns Hypothenar (Axial) Thenar / I

I1 111 IV

Number of studies

Accessory triradii Hypothenar (Axial)

I1 111 IV

Number of studies

%

15 .O-42 .O 50.0-71.0 53.0-74.0

1.0- 4.0 2.0-18.0

10.2-13.6 88

46.0-63.0 21.0-43.0 6.0-17.0 1.0-12.0 0.4- 0.9 8

30.0-52.0 29.0-52.0 10.0-23.0 6.9- 8.4 0.2- 0.6

22

15.0-32.0 9.0-42.0 4.0-29.0

25.0-58.0 68.0-9 1 .O 32

7.0-15.0 5 .O-12.0 1.0- 3.0

26.0-30.0

%

(27.4) (64.1) (61.4) ( 2.6) ( 8.8)

(11.9)

(52.4) (29.8) (10.2) ( 7.0) ( 0.6)

(41.9) (41.1) (16.9) ( 7.7) ( 0.4)

(24.9) (19.3) (13.8) (39.0) (81.4)

(10.1) ( 8.6) ( 2.2) (28.4)

LITERATURE CITED Alter, M. 1966 Dermatoglyphic analysis as a

diagnostic tool. Medicine (Baltimore), 46: 35- 56.

Cummins, H. 1926 Epidermal-ridge configuration in developmental defects, with particular reference to the ontogenetic factors which con- dition ridge direction. Am. J. Anat., 38: 89- 151.

1939 Dermatoglyphic stigmata in mon- goloid imbeciles. Anat. Rec., 73: 407415.

Cummins, H., and C. Midlo 1943 Fingerprints palms and soles. Blackiston Co., Philadelphia.

Davenport, C. B., and M. Steggerda 1929 Race crossing in Jamaica. Carnegie Institute, Wash- ington, D.C., publ. 395.

Galton, F. 1891 Method of indexing finger- marks. Proc. Roy. SOC., London, 49: 540-548.

1892 Fingerprints. London, Macmillan and Co.

1895 Fingerprint Directories. London, Macmillan and Co.

Plato, C. C. 1970 Polymorphism of the C line: with a new classification of the C line terminations. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 33: 413- 420.

1975 Variation and distribution of the dermatoglyphic features in different populations. Proceedings of Penrose Memorial Col- loquium. 111. International Dermatoglyphic Con- ference. Berlin, Sept. 1973. In press.

Plato, C. C . , D. C. Gajdusek and R. MacLennan 1975 The dermatoglyphics of the peoples of New Guinea: A review. Proceedings of IX In- ternational Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences. Section on Dermato- glyphics. Toronto, August 1973, in press.

Plato, C. C., and W. Wertelecki 1972 A method for subclassifying the interdigital patterns. A comparative study of the palmar configura- tions. Am. J. Phys. Anthrop., 37: 97-110.

Schauman, B., and M. Alter 1975 Dermato- glyphics in Medical Disorders: An Upto-date Review. Proceedings of Penrose Memorial Col- loquim. 111. International Dermatoglyphic Con- ference. Berlin, Sept. 1973, in press.

Wilder, H. 1904 Racial differences in palm and sole configuration. Am. Anthrop., 6: 244-292.

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The dermatoglyphics of American Negroes